Learning is a process that:

1. is active
2. builds on prior knowledge
3. occurs in a complex social environment
4. is situated in an authentic context
5. requires learners’ motivation and cognitive engagement

Learning Theories
Behaviorism- It is often associated with, among others, the American psychologist B. F. Skinner. The essence of
the behaviorist point of view is that learning cannot be observed directly – instead it must be inferred to have
taken place, from an observed behavioral response to a stimulus.

Information Processing- Theory is a cognitive theory that focuses on how information is encoded into our
memory.

Computer Analogy- developed by American psychologists including George Miller in the 1950s, Information
Processing Theory has in recent years compared the human brain to a computer.

Humanistic Learning Theory- often called Humanism, focuses on the specific human capabilities including
creativity, personal growth, and choice. Humanists believe people are good and noble.

The Role of the Learner- establishes the quantity of learning, as in how much do I need to learn about a specific
subject. But making the correct or incorrect choice in their learning decisions rests with the student and not the
teacher. This reinforces the student as the source of authority.

The Role of the Teacher- role of a coach or facilitator to assist the student in establishing and using their learning
strategy to achieve their goal. Doing this means the teacher must be aware of the student’s unique needs, to be
effective at supporting the student in acquiring the desired knowledge.

How Does Learning Take Place- Bugental (2003) proposed learning occurs through meaningful living and
studied the explicit and visible behaviors resulting from the subjective internal processes occurring in the learner.
A key point is emphasizing the differences between individual learners.

Cognitivism/ Cognitive Constructivism- The cognitivist branch of learning theory was to some degree born of
dissatisfaction with behaviorism’s strict focus on observable behaviors. However, like behaviorism, it focuses on
the individual.

Jerome Bruner explored how mental processes could be linked to teaching (emphasizing, among other things,
learning through discovery). Robert M. Gagné developed a model that highlighted eight different forms of
learning – behaviorists identifying only a fragment of human capabilities.

James Hartley (1998) has usefully drawn out some of the key principles of learning associated with cognitive
psychology. As he puts it: ‘Learning results from inferences, expectations an making connections. Instead of
acquiring habits, learners acquire plans and strategies, and prior knowledge is important’.

The principles he identifies are:

1. Instruction should be well-organized. Well-organized materials are easier to learn and to remember.
2. Instruction should be clearly structured. Subject matters are said to have inherent structures – logical
relationships between key ideas and concepts – which link the parts together.
3. The perceptual features of the task are important.
4. Prior knowledge is important. Things must fit with what is already known if it is to be learnt.
5. Differences between individuals are important as they will affect learning. Differences in ‘cognitive style’ or
methods of approach influence learning.
6. Cognitive feedback gives information to learners about their success or failure concerning the task at hand.
Reinforcement can come through giving information – a ‘knowledge of results’ – rather than simply a reward.
Constructivism and Social Constructivism- is ‘an approach to learning that holds that people actively construct
or make their own knowledge and that reality is determined by the experiences of the learner’ (Elliott et al., 2000,
p. 256).

Principles of Constructivism
1. Knowledge is constructed, rather than innate, or passively absorbed. Constructivism's central idea is that
human learning is constructed, that learners build new knowledge upon the foundation of previous learning.
This prior knowledge influences what new or modified knowledge an individual will construct from new
learning experiences (Phillips, 1995).
2. Learning is an active process. The second notion is that learning is an active rather than a passive process. The
passive view of teaching views the learner as ‘an empty vessel’ to be filled with knowledge, whereas
constructivism states that learners construct meaning only through active engagement with the world (such as
experiments or real-world problem solving).
3. All knowledge is socially constructed. Learning is a social activity - it is something
we do together, in interaction with each other, rather than an abstract concept (Dewey, 1938).
4. All knowledge is personal. Each individual learner has a distinctive point of view, based on existing
knowledge and values. This means that same lesson, teaching or activity may result in different learning by each
pupil, as their subjective interpretations differ.
5. Learning exists in the mind. The constructivist theory posits that knowledge can only exist within the human
mind, and that it does not have to match any real-world reality (Driscoll, 2000).
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COGNITIVE AND METACOGNITIVE FACTORS

1. Nature of the learning process

The learning of complex subject matter is most effective when it is an intentional
process of constructing meaning from information and experience.
There are different types of learning processes, for example, habit formation in
motor learning; and learning that involves the generation of knowledge, or cognitive skills
and learning strategies.

2. Goals of the learning process

The successful learner, over time and with support and instructional guidance, can
create meaningful, coherent representations of knowledge.
The strategic nature of learning requires students to be goal directed.

3. Construction of knowledge

The successful learner can link new information with existing knowledge in
meaningful ways.

Knowledge widens and deepens as students continue to build links between

new information and experiences and their existing knowledge base.

4. Strategic thinking

The successful learner can create and use a repertoire of thinking and reasoning strategies to achieve complex
learning goals.

Successful learners use strategic thinking in their approach to learning, reasoning, problem solving, and concept
learning.

5. Thinking about thinking

Higher order strategies for selecting and monitoring mental operations facilitate creative and critical thinking.
Successful learners can reflect on how they think and learn, set reasonable learning or performance goals, select
potentially appropriate learning strategies or methods, and monitor their progress toward these goals.

6. Context of learning

Learning is influenced by environmental factors, including culture, technology, and instructional practices.

Learning does not occur in a vacuum. Teachers play a major interactive role with both the learner and the
learning environment.

MOTIVATIONAL AND AFFECTIVE FACTORS

7. Motivational and emotional influences on learning

What and how much is learned is influenced by the motivation. Motivation to learn, in turn, is influenced by the
individual's emotional states, beliefs, interests and goals, and habits of thinking.

Message for Teachers: Teachers can lower the negative emotions and increase motivation by creating multiple
opportunities in every lesson for students to engage in activities they have already mastered.

8. Intrinsic motivation to learn

The learner's creativity, higher order thinking, and natural curiosity all contribute to motivation to learn. Intrinsic
motivation is stimulated by tasks of optimal novelty and difficulty, relevant to personal interests, and providing
for personal choice and control.

Message for Teachers: Encourage and support learners’ natural curiosity and motivation to learn by attending to
individual differences in learners’ perceptions of optimal novelty and difficulty, relevance, and personal choice
and control.

9. Effects of motivation on effort

Acquisition of complex knowledge and skills requires extended learner effort and guided practice. Without
learners' motivation to learn, the willingness to exert this effort is unlikely without coercion.
Message for Teachers: Engage students with new learning and to progress through achievable challenges, with
feedback on their progress toward their chosen goals.

DEVELOPMENT AND SOCIAL FACTORS

10. Developmental influences on learning

As individuals develop, there are different opportunities and constraints for learning. Learning is most effective
when differential development within and across physical, intellectual, emotional, and social domains is taken
into account.

Message for Teachers: Be aware of and understand developmental differences among students with and without
emotional, physical, or intellectual disabilities, to facilitate the creation of optimal learning contexts.

11. Social influences on learning

Learning is influenced by social interactions, interpersonal relations, and communication with others.

Learning can be enhanced when the learner has an opportunity to interact and to collaborate with others on
instructional tasks.
Message for Teachers: See file (5 Strategies to Deepen Student Collaboration) for some strategies on collaboration.
 INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES FACTORS
12. Individual differences in learning
Learners have different strategies, approaches, and capabilities for learning that are a function of prior
experience and heredity. Individuals are born with and develop their own capabilities and talents.

Message for Teachers: See file, Effective Teaching Strategies That Mind Individual Differences, for suggested
strategies.

13. Learning and diversity

Learning is most effective when differences in learners' linguistic, cultural, and social backgrounds are taken into
account. The same basic principles of learning, motivation, and effective instruction apply to all learners.
Message for Teachers: Read the article, Cultural Diversity in the Classroom, attached in the cell.

14. Standards and assessment

Setting appropriately high and challenging standards and assessing the learner as well as learning progress –
including diagnostic, process, and outcome assessment – are integral parts of the learning process.

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Cultural Diversity in the Classroom

What kinds of cultural diversity are common in classrooms?
No two students are the same, even if they share a lot in common. To foster cultural
awareness, you need to consider all the different aspects of culture that can influence your
students’ perceptions, attitudes, and behaviors. Common cultural differences include:
Race. It’s important to recognize the impact skin color has had on the broader American
culture and how it can affect students’ perceptions of each other and themselves.
Ethnicity. While ethnicity is sometimes used as a synonym for race, it is more accurately
defined as the culture we derive from our nationality. Ethnic differences appear in all immigrant
groups and can persist for generations. Understanding these differences can help you be
attuned to your students’ interests and outlooks.
Religion. While you know that not everyone worships in the same way—and that some don’t
worship at all—it’s good to familiarize yourself with the ways religious traditions and
requirements can impact your students’ behaviors and free time.
Language. Language barriers should not be educational barriers. While you can’t be expected
to speak every language, you can be expected to make accommodations for those who speak
English as a second language.
Economic. The economic situation of a student’s family can greatly impact his or her learning.
You should be aware of how economic pressures can lead to classroom stress as well as to
issues with finding time and a place to study.
LGBTQ. A student’s sexual orientation and/or gender identity can become a point of conflict in
their lives. It shouldn’t also be a point of conflict in the classroom.

Types of Motivation

Intrinsic Motivation- when the source of motivation is from within the person himself/herself or the activity
itself. It is motivation to engage in an activity for its own sake (Schunk, et al, 2008).

Extrinsic Motivation- when that which motivates a person is someone or something outside him/her. In our
examples, the student studies to please her/his teacher, parents or to get a good grade. He does not study for the
joy of studying. extrinsic motivation is necessary to develop the love for learning among poorly motivated
students.
Attribution Theory- This theory explains that we attribute our success or failures or other events to several
factors. For instance, you attribute your popularity to your popular parents or to your own sterling academic
performance.
1. Locus (place): Internal versus external.
2. Stability: Stable versus unstable.
3. Controllability: Controllable versus uncontrollable.

Choice Theory- Bob Sullo (2007) writes, “The choice theory is a biological theory that suggests that we are born
with specific needs that we are genetically instructed to satisfy.’

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory- is based on a simple premise: human beings have needs that are
hierarchically ranked.

Goal Theory- A learning goal is a “desire to acquire additional knowledge or master new skills” while a
performance goal is a “desire to look good and receive favorable judgments from others or else look bad and
receive unfavorable judgments” (Ormrod, 2004).

Self-determined goals
Goal Setting

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Diversity- does not just refer to cultural diversity but also refers to diversity in skills, knowledge, and needs.
Learners have different strategies, approaches, and capabilities for learning that are a function of prior
experience and heredity.

THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE
a. Howard Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences- It suggests that the traditional notion of
intelligence, based on I.Q. testing, is far too limited. Instead, Dr. Gardner proposes eight different
intelligences to account for a broader range of human potential in children and adults.
1. Verbal-Linguistic Intelligence (“word smart” or “book smart”)
2. Mathematical-Logical Intelligence (“math smart” or “logic smart”)
3. Visual-Spatial Intelligence (“art smart” or “picture smart”)
4. Intrapersonal Intelligence (“self - smart” or “introspection smart”)
5. Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence ("body smart" or "movement smart")
6. Interpersonal (“people smart” or “group smart”)
7. Naturalist Intelligence (“nature smart” or “environment smart”)
8. Musical-Rhythmic Intelligence (“music smart” or “sound smart”)
B. The Five Components of Emotional Intelligence by Daniel Goleman
1. Self-awareness- ability to recognize and understand personal moods and emotions and drives, as well
as their effect on others.
2. Self-regulation- ability to control or redirect disruptive impulses and moods, and the propensity to
suspend judgment and to think before acting.
3. Internal motivation- a passion to work for internal reasons that go beyond money and status - which are
external rewards, - such as an inner vision of what is important in life, a joy in doing something,
curiosity in learning, a flow that comes with being immersed in an activity.
4. Empathy- the ability to understand the emotional makeup of other people. A skill in treating people
according to their emotional reactions.
5. Social Skill- it refers to the proficiency in managing relationships and building networks, and an ability
to find common ground and build rapport.

C. David Perkin’s Theory of Intelligence- Perkins presents detailed arguments that IQ has three major
components or dimensions.
1. Neutral Intelligence- this refers to the efficiency and precision of one’s neurological system.
2. Experiential intelligence- this refers to one’s accumulated knowledge and experience in different areas.
3. Reflective intelligence- this refers to one’s broad – based strategies for attacking problems, for learning,
and for approaching intellectually challenging tasks. It includes attitudes that support persistence,
systematization, and imagination.

LEARNING STYLES

a. Cognitive Style
● Field Independent- easily separate important details
● Field dependent- difficult

● Scanning
● Leveling versus sharpening
● Reflection versus impulsivity
● Conceptual differentiation

b. Thinking Style- the characteristic way of processing I formation. It is the way one acquires knowledge,
acquires thoughts, forms views and opinions, applies one’s value, solves problems, makes plans,
decisions, and expresses oneself to others.
1. Concrete Sequential Thinkers- based on reality. Ordered, sequential, linear way…
2. Concrete Random Thinkers- experimenters. Willing to take more of a trial and error.
3. Abstract Random Thinkers- organize information through reflection…
4. Abstract Sequential Thinkers- they like to think in concepts and analyze information.

C. Kolb’s Theory of Learning Styles

1. Diverging(feeling and watching)- interested in people. Prefer to work in groups.
2. Assimilating (watching and thinking)- Ideas and concepts are more important than people.
3. Converging (doing and thinking)- more attracted to technical tasks.
4. Accommodating (doing and feeling)- hands on

UNIT II

Attitude is defined as a settled way of thinking or feeling about someone or something, typically one that is
reflected in a person's behavior (Merriam-Webster, 2019).

Classifications of Teacher Attitude

1. Attitude toward oneself.
 2. Attitude toward Learners
3. Attitude toward Subject Matter
4. Attitude toward Peers and Learners’ Parents

“The great accomplishment of man have resulted from the transmission of ideas and enthusiasm” - Thomas J
Watson Jr.

Teacher Education Program as having three distinct

components namely: (1) Pedagogical and Subject Matter Knowledge, (2) Teacher Skills, and
(3) Attitude and Disposition.

A. General Dimensions of Teacher Knowledge

- Teacher Knowledge is as necessary as gaining the skills in teaching. When teachers understand that
facilitating learning is not isolated but is closely linked to other factors, principles and views, then they
are aware of its importance.

B. Content-Specific Dimensions of Teacher Knowledge

- This is another dimension of teacher knowledge. Content-specific teacher knowledge is the teacher’s
knowledge of his discipline or specialization (Schulman, 1986).

a. Curriculum Knowledge- every teacher should understand the curriculum. This refers to the school’s
program of study for each level.

b. Content Knowledge and Knowledge on Pedagogy- content knowledge refers to the in-depth
understanding of structures of knowledge that may include but not limited to theories, concepts or
principles of a specific discipline.
- Schulman’s (1986) idea of the interconnectedness of content knowledge and pedagogical
knowledge is an addition to his description of a teacher quality.

c. Technology Knowledge- in the article Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge: A Framework for
Teacher Knowledge written by Mishra and Khoeler (2006), the additional element of teacher knowledge
is highlighted.

TPACK- Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge