Logic Circuit and Design (LABORATORY) Prelims

Module 1: Number Systems

Introduction
Computer Engineers must have interest in the fundamentals of digital systems. The Beauty of designing
such a system then creating it is important to allow machines to do intricate computing thing. Digital systems
building blocks are just simple 1’s and 0’s but the challenge is combining the simple blocks to create complicated
digital systems.
Logic and Circuit Design is divided in 3 categories:
1. Number Systems in Digital System (Focuses in Binary)
2. Combinational Logic Circuit Design
3. Sequential Logic Circuit Design

Terms Crucial for this Subject:

Logic Circuits
It is made up of one or more electronics devices that perform logical operation. It controls or
processes functions in digital systems.
Digital Systems
It is made of interrelated components and manipulates discrete (Finite and distinct) elements of
information, represented in 1’s and 0’s. Computer is a Digital System, and also digital clocks.
Abstraction
Abstraction is needed to simplify things, if things are unwanted it is hidden hence abstracting for
avoiding complexity. UI is an example of abstraction because users don't need to see the programming
behind it.

Number Systems
Digital system uses more than one number system. It has the following components:
1. Unit and Number - Unit is single object (i.e., an apple) and number is a symbol that represent a unit or
quantity.
2. Base (Radix) - It is the number of symbols used in number system. Any systems is always expressed in
decimal numbers. Decimal is base (radix) 10 which means it has 10 symbols (0 to 9). The base is
indicated as subscript of the following number example
91212 1234 20𝐴16
Note that the highest value symbol in a number system is always one less than the base of the system. In
digital system the most common number system other than decimal (base-10) are:
● Binary - uses 2 digits (the binary digits or bits)
● Octal - uses 8 digits (0 to 7)
● Hexadecimal - uses 0 to 9 digits and letters A to F, where A is equal to 10 until F which is equal
to 15.

Numbers and their Value

Positional notation is commonly used to write numbers. The Position determines whether the
value of a digit is high or low (1 or 0). Any number in positional notation can be expanded in a power
series:
𝐸𝑞. 1: 𝑁 = (... 𝑎4𝑎3𝑎2𝑎1𝑎0𝑎−1𝑎−2𝑎−3𝑎−4... )𝑅
4 3 1 0 −1 −2 −3 −4
=... 𝑎4𝑅 + 𝑎3𝑅 + 𝑎2𝑅2 + 𝑎1𝑅 + 𝑎0𝑅 + 𝑎−1𝑅 + 𝑎−2𝑅 + 𝑎−3𝑅 + 𝑎−4𝑅 ...
 Where:
N = number written in positional notation
𝑎𝑖= coefficient, i = power raise to R
R = Base
Example 1:
3 2 1 0
1. DECIMAL: 478110 = (4 * 10 ) + (7 * 10 ) + (8 * 10 ) + (1 * 10 )
2 1 0 −1 −2
115. 1210 = (1 * 10 ) + (1 * 10 ) + (5 * 10 ) + (1 * 10 ) + (2 * 10 )
3 2 1 0
2. BINARY: 11012 = (1 * 2 ) + (1 * 2 ) + (0 * 2 ) + (1 * 2 ) = 1310
3 2 1 0 −1
1101. 12 = (1 * 2 ) + (1 * 2 ) + (0 * 2 ) + (1 * 2 ) + (1 * 2 ) = 13. 510
2 1 0
3. OCTAL: 1278 = (1 * 8 ) + (2 * 8 ) + (7 * 8 ) = 8710
3
4. HEXADECIMAL: 𝐵65𝐹16 = 11 * 16 ( ) + (6 * 162) + (5 * 161) + (15 * 160) = 4678710
This is useful for finding the position of digits in any base, and it also useful in finding decimal
equivalents of digits.

Number-Base Conversions
Decimal-Binary
Divide the decimal by 2 to get the binary equivalent. The remainder denoted by 𝑎𝑛, which is
either 0 or 1, will be the coefficient of the binary number. Continue the division process until the integer
quotient becomes 0. Write the coefficients in descending subscript order.
Example: 1110 𝑡𝑜 𝐵𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟𝑦

Decimal-octal
Same as decimal-binary but divide by 8 instead of 2.
Example: 15310 𝑡𝑜 𝑂𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑙

Decimal Fraction to Binary

Decimal fraction is multiplied by 2 to give an integer and a fraction. The integer will be the
coefficient of the binary number. The process continues until the fraction becomes 0, or until the number
of digits has enough accuracy. Each term the fraction is multiplied by 2
Example: 0.6875 to Binary
 Decimal Fraction to Octal
Same as the Decimal Fraction-Binary but multiply by 8 and it stops on n.0000 or if the fractions
are repeating.
Example: 0.45 to Octal

Binary-Octal
First is to part it in groups of 3, starting from 𝑎0 then proceeding to the left 𝑎 , but if fraction
𝑖
proceed to the right and 𝑎 . each group of 3 digits is equivalent to a single octal digit
−𝑖
Example: 10110001101011. 1111000001102 to octal

𝑎𝑖 𝑎4 𝑎3 𝑎2 𝑎1 𝑎0 Radix Point 𝑎−1 𝑎−2 𝑎−3 𝑎−4

Binary 10 110 001 101 011 . 111 100 000 110

Octal 2 6 1 5 3 . 7 4 0 6
Binary-Hexadecimal
Converting from binary to hexadecimal is like the binary-octal conversion, except the number is
partitioned into groups of four. The hexadecimal equivalent of the example below would be 2C6B. 𝐹216

𝑎𝑖 𝑎3 𝑎2 𝑎1 𝑎0 Radix Point 𝑎−1 𝑎−2

Binary 10 1100 0110 1011 . 1111 001

Octal 2 C 6 B . F 2

Octal-Binary/Octal-Hexadecimal
Each octal digit is converted to its three-digit binary equivalent, and each hexadecimal digit is
converted to its four-digit binary equivalent.
Example:
1. 673. 1248 = 1 1011 1011. 0010 1010 02
2. 306. 𝐷16 = 0011 0000 0110. 11012
Binary Addition and Subtraction
Digital Systems are made primarily of electronic components. These components function according to
the presence, or absence, of electrical signals (i.e., Voltage or Current). Electrical Signals in modern signal digital
systems use only 2 discrete values: high (1) and low (0).
Even if other number systems are shorter than binary it is used in digital systems. PC, Phones, and other
electronic gadgets use binary that manipulates discrete elements of information which requires components that
will perform information or data processing, these components examples are processors or microprocessors. Most
Processors have similar components: parts doing computations and logical operations (arithmetic and logic unit,
or ALU), parts that fetch and execute instructions (Control Unit)< and parts that serve as immediate information
storage (Memory Unit).
Understanding these parts is crucial for designing and creating digital systems
Binary Arithmetic
Arithmetic operations in digital systems are usually done in binary because it is easier and faster than
decimals, binary is good because in logic gates we use true or false which can be represented by High,1’s and
Low,0’s.
Binary Arithmetic is carried out in a similar manner as decimal, but easier.

Binary Addition
Like in decimal addition, if the sum of 2 numbers
cannot be expressed as a single digit, carry-ing 1 to the next
column is done.

Example:0111 + 0101

Binary Addition with Overflow

It is overflow if the sum does not fit the available digits. Example if 4-bits is added then the sum
requires 5-bits. The 5th bit is discarded making a wrong sum.

Example: 1101 + 0101

In this case, the most significant (or MSB, the leftmost position; the rightmost bit is the least significant,
or LSB) bit is discarded, making the sum “clipped” which gives incorrect output.
If 5-bits is used all sum would have been accommodated and sum is correct.

Signed Binary Numbers

Subtraction can be expressed in terms of addition (Addition of 2 numbers with different signs)
One important consideration in designing digital systems is cost. Designs are translated into physical
components and manufacturing does not come cheap. Therefore, designs that work well, are simpler, and use
the least amount of resources are favored over those that perform just as well but are more complicated and
costlier.
So, it would be more practical to use one circuit to do addition and subtraction rather than separate ones.
In terms of manufacturing, having two separate circuits to do the arithmetic could mean more components,
larger board size, and bigger manufacturing cost.
 There are many ways to represent signed binary numbers, the two most common are sign/magnitude, and
two’s complement.

Sign/Magnitude Numbers
It is good for human readability because of representation. Negative numbers are written with a minus
sign, followed by magnitude. Positive numbers can either have or not have signs preceding the magnitude.
Signed binary digit uses MSB to signify sign, the rest of the bits are for magnitude. 0 for positive and 1
for negative.

Example: 5 and -5 as 4-bit sign/magnitude numbers

Both has 1012as a magnitude hence,
510 = 01012 & − 510 = 11012
Even though it is useful for readability, it is hard to do addition in this manner. Adding both does not
equal to zero but gives 100102 = 1810. Another barricade is that 0 can be represented by +0 or -0 due to the
nature of sign/magnitude numbers.

Two’s Complement Numbers

0 is written as all zeros and ordinary addition works in 2’s complement. It is positive if MSB is 0
and negative if MSB is 1, but other bits can’t be interpreted as the magnitude. This is because 2’s
complement numbers go through taking the 2’s complement process.
The bits are flipped (0 are turned into 1’s and 1’s to 0’s) to turn into 1’s complement then add 1
to the least significant bit position. This is useful in finding the representation of a negative number or
determining the magnitude of a negative number.

Example: Representation of − 210 as a 4-bit 2’complement number.

Example: Decimal Value of the 2's complement number 10012

Since the sign bit is 1, the number must be negative. Flipping the bits and adding 1 gives the
decimal equivalent or just do the above shortcut.
 The MSB is negative because it is a negative number so if it is 6 bit then the MSB is -16.

Arithmetic with 2’s Complement Numbers

Addition in 2’s complement number is leaving the positive number as it is and if it is negative we
make it 2’s complement first.
Examples: compute a) − 210 + 110 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏) − 710 + 710
a) − 210 + 110, find the 2’s complement of 2 first then proceed to addition.

− 2 + 1 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑜 − 1

b) − 710 + 710,in previous examples − 710𝑖𝑠 10012

The 5th bit is discarded because it is only requiring 4 bits.

Binary Codes
Digital Systems make use of not only binary but also discrete elements of information (which
can be represented with binary code)
Binary Codes is information that is transformed to binary numbers. Instead of 1210 represented
as 11002in can be coded as 0001 00102or 0100 01012, of course in normal binary it is not 12 but due
to its being coded it is 12 for now.
Digital Systems uses Binary Code. It transforms the decimal numbers into binary numbers
without changing their meaning. Example 0001 00102, it is 12 because the first group is 1 and the 2nd
is 2 hence 12.
Coded like this is easier to understand because it is straightforward conversion between decimal
and binary number systems. But it is inefficient because it requires more bits than the standard binary
representation.
Binary Code for decimals require a minimum of 4 bits per digit. Many different codes can be
formulated by arranging four bits into 10 distinct combinations. Example of Codes Commonly used:

The other six unused combinations have no meaning and should be avoided.
Binary Coded Decimal (BCD), 2421, and 8,4-2,1 are examples of weighted code. Weighted
Code has each bit position assigned a weight factor in such a way that each digit can be evaluated by
adding the weights of all the 1’s in the combination.
BCD adders (Hardware) add BCD values directly, digit by digit, without converting the numbers
to binary. However, it is necessary to add 6 to the result if it is greater than 9. BCD adders require
significantly more hardware.
The 2421 and the Excess-3 (also written as XS-3) codes are examples of self-complementing
code. Such codes have the property that the 9’s complement of a decimal number is obtained directly by
changing 1’s to 0’s and 0’s to 1’s.
The 9’s complement is a diminished radix complement which is obtained by subtracting each
decimal digit from 9. For example, the 9’s complement of 12310 is 876. The binary equivalent of a
diminished radix complement is the 1’s complement. It can be obtained by simply flipping all the bits.
For example, the decimal 395 is represented in excess-3 code as 0110 1100 1000. The 9’s
complement of 395 is 604 and is represented in excess-3 code as 1001 0011 0111. Notice that simply
flipping the bits of the excess-3 equivalent of 395 gives us the excess-3 equivalent of 604.
Gray Code
The output data of many physical systems are quantities that are continuous.
These data must be converted to digital form before they can be used in a digital
system. Continuous or analog information is converted to digital form by means of
an analog-to-digital converter. It is sometimes convenient to use the Gray code to
represent digital information that has been converted from analog. The advantage
of Gray code over the ordinary binary sequence is that only one bit in the code
group changes in going from one number to the net. The Gray code is
non-weighted like the XS-3 code.
 Module 2: Binary Logic and Logic Gates
Binary Logic
It deals with variables that take on 2 discrete values and operations that assume logical meaning.
Two values can be represented by bits (1’s and 0’s). It consists of binary variables and some logical
operators/ the Varoan;es are designated by letters of the alphabet, with each variable having 2 and only 2
distinct possible values: 1 and 0. Basic Logical Operations are AND, OR, and NOT which has a result
in one binary value.
The output and input relationship can be represented by a truth table or boolean equation. Truth
Table is a list of possible inputs on the left and corresponding output on the right. A Boolean Equation is
a mathematical expression using binary variables.

AND operator is represented by dot or none at all in boolean equations

(x*y=z or xy=z) it is read as “and” in this equation "𝑥 ⋀ 𝑦 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑜 𝑧". This
operation means that z = 1 if and only if x=1 and y=1 otherwise z=0.

OR is represented by + sign (x+y=z) and reads “𝑥 🇻 𝑦 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙𝑠 𝑧".

NOT or COMPLEMENT represent by a prime or an over bar(ā = 𝑏, ~𝑎 = 𝑏, 𝑜𝑟 𝑎' = 𝑏). it

reads as “not x is equal to z”

Logic Gates
These are electronic circuits that operate on one or more input signals producing one output
signal. Electrical signals like voltages or current as analog signals having values over given continuous
range but in digital systems voltages are interpreted as 0 or 1.
The input terminals of digital circuits accept binary signals within the allowable range and
respond at the output terminals with binary signals that fall within specified range. The intermediate
region between the allowed regions is crossed only during a state transition.

Symbols for Digital Logic Circuits

These symbols are abstractions of the physical components that produce logic-1 or
logic-0 output signals if input logic requirements are satisfied.

4
Other Logic Games
Buffer is a one input logic gate. It copies the input to the output. In Logical POV, it is
similar to the wire but in analog POV it can have desirable characteristics like delivering large
amounts of current to the motor or quickly sending its output to many gates due to this
abstraction is important, because without it it is very hard to show.
The triangle is the buffer and the circle is called “Bubble” and indicates that the output of
the operation is inverted before leaving the logic gate, as seen in the NOT gate symbol.

Special Gates

The Exclusive-OR (XOR) gate is true if x or y, but not both, are TRUE. any gate can be
followed by Bubble to invert its operation.
The NOT-AND (NAND) gate is AND but the output is inverted, its output is TRUE
unless both inputs are TRUE.
The NOT-OR (NOR) gate is AND but the output is inverted, its output is TRUE if
neither x nor y is TRUE.
N-input XOR gate is can be called parity gate and produces a TRUE output if an odd
number of inputs are TRUE
The Exclusive-NOT OR (XNOR) gate is inverse of XOR; its output is TRUE if both
inputs are the same (T-T or F-F). two inputs XNOR gate is called an equality gate because the
outputs are TRUE if both inputs are equal.

Combinational Circuits
It is an application of multiple logic gates. It is used to immediately gain the output
without solving for each gate. To get the output, the inputs of every logic gate are considered and
evaluate individual outputs until the last gate which will determine the final output.

The above examples show the variables and operations involved. The final output is a
Boolean Expression. By tracing the signals from the input to output which can be done through
the truth table.
𝑛
With 3 inputs variables, by using 2 where n is the number of input variables the number
3
of combinations can be determined. With this configuration 𝑛 = 3, hence 2 = 8 possible
combinations.
 The x, y, and z is the input and the f is the output. As the inputs go through logic gates it
will give the f output. Which shows:

The truth table shows that OR gate is the first gate and then proceeding to AND gate.
 Module 3: Boolean Algebra
Boolean Algebra
It is part of mathematics that deals with operations involving logical elements, variables and
operators, and also axioms and postulates. Named after George Boole, English Mathematician, Logical,
and Philosopher.
In digital design, it forms part of the core concepts for simplifying logic circuits.
Basic Theorems and Properties of Boolean Algebra:

Postulate 1: Closure
a. The structure is closed with respect to the operator, +. When Performing OR Operation
on 2 elements from the boolean algebraic structure, the result will also be an element of
the same structure. In simpler terms, if you take any two elements (0 or 1) and apply
the OR operation to them, the result will always be either 0 or 1, which are also
elements of the Boolean algebra.
b. The structure is closed with respect to the operator, ・, *, nothing at all. When
performing AND operation on 2 elements the result will also be an element of the same
Structure. In simpler terms, if you take any two elements (0 or 1) and apply the AND
operation to them, the result will always be either 0 or 1, which are also elements of the
Boolean algebra.

Postulate 2: Identity
a. 𝑥 + 0 = 𝑥
b. 𝑥 * 1 = 𝑥
Postulate 5: Complement
a. 𝑥 + 𝑥' = 1 - This states that when OR operation (+) is performed between “x” and
“~x”, the result is always 1. It is because one of them is always true or 1.
b. 𝑥 * 𝑥' = 0 - This states that when AND operation (* or nothing at all) is performed
between x and and complement of x, ~x or x’, the result is always 0 it is because one of
them is always 0 and x*0 = 0.

Theorem 1: Idempotent Law

a. 𝑥 + 𝑥 = 𝑥. It is called idempotent law which states that when performing OR
operation (+) between “x” variable and itself results in “x”. The presence of "x" in an
OR operation with itself doesn't change the outcome.
b. 𝑥 * 𝑥 = 𝑥. This expression also represents an aspect of the Idempotent Law but for
logical AND operation (*). It states that when you perform a logical AND operation
between a variable "x" and itself, the result is always "x". Again, the presence of "x" in
an AND operation with itself doesn't change the outcome.
c. This is true in the binary system.

Theorem 2: Identity Law

a. 𝑥 + 1 = 1 - This states that when performing OR operation (+) between 1 and x, the
result will always be 1. Any OR operation involving variable and true (1) always
results in true.
b. 𝑥 * 0 = 0
Theorem 3: Involution
● (𝑥')' = 𝑥
 Postulate 3: Commutative
a. 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 𝑦 + 𝑥
b. 𝑥𝑦 = 𝑦𝑥
Theorem 4: Associative
a. 𝑥 = (𝑦 + 𝑧) = (𝑥 + 𝑦) + 𝑧
b. 𝑥(𝑦𝑧) = (𝑥𝑦)𝑧
Postulate 4: Distributive
a. 𝑥(𝑦 + 𝑧) = 𝑥𝑦 + 𝑥𝑧
b. 𝑥 + 𝑦𝑧 = (𝑥 + 𝑦)(𝑥 + 𝑧)
Theorem 5: DeMorgan
a. (𝑥 + 𝑦)' = 𝑥'𝑦'
b. (𝑥𝑦)' = 𝑥' + 𝑦'
Theorem 6: Absorption
● 𝑥 + 𝑥𝑦 = 𝑥
● 𝑥(𝑥 + 𝑦) = 𝑥

Proving the Theorems:

Postulates Need no Proof; It is used to prove Theorems. The Steps for Proving both
theorems below are duals of each other
Theorem 1(a): 𝑥 + 𝑥 = 𝑥

Statement: Justification
𝑥 + 𝑥 = (𝑥 + 𝑥) * 1 Postulate 2(b)
= (𝑥 + 𝑥)(𝑥 + 𝑥') Postulate 5(a)
= 𝑥 + 𝑥𝑥' Postulate 4(b)
=𝑥+0 Postulate 5(b)
𝑥=𝑥 Postulate 2(a)

Theorem 1(b): 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑥

Statement: Justification
𝑥𝑥 = 𝑥𝑥 + 0 Postulate 2(a)
= 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑥𝑥' Postulate 5(b)
= 𝑥(𝑥 + 𝑥') Postulate 4(a)
= 𝑥*1 Postulate 5(a)
=𝑥 Postulate 2(b)

The Duality Principle

Every Algebraic Expression that can logically arrive at from the postulate of Boolean
Algebra are valid even when operators and identity elements interchange. The Steps for proving
theorems also happen to be duals of each other.
Operator Precedence
Used in Evaluating Boolean Expressions
● Parenthesis ● AND
● NOT ● OR
Example:
(𝑥 + 𝑦)' = 𝑥'𝑦'
For the right-hand expression, the variables are complemented 1st then ANDed but on the
left are ORed 1st then complemented.

Boolean Functions
An Algebraic Expression consisting of binary variables, logic operations and the
constants 0 and 1.
Given Binary Variables, each with a specific value, the output of the function is either 1
or 0.
Boolean function can be represented in 3 ways: Truth Table, Algebraic Expression,
Illustrated Logic Circuit Diagram. The Diagram is an example of a combinational Circuit which
is composed of interconnected logic gates which can have Truth Tables and Boolean Expression.
Boolean Function can have 1 truth table but can have more equivalent algebraic expression and
circuit diagram

Example:
Function 𝑓 = 𝑥'𝑦'𝑧 + 𝑥'𝑦𝑧 + 𝑥𝑦' has 3 terms and 8 literals, its diagram
representation is:

Manipulating a Boolean Expression According to the rules of boolean algebra, a simpler

expression can possibly be obtained from the same function reducing the gates needed and
number of inputs to the gate.
𝑓 = 𝑥'𝑦'𝑧 + 𝑥'𝑦𝑧 + 𝑥𝑦' can be reduced by:
𝑓1 = 𝑥'𝑦'𝑧 + 𝑥'𝑦𝑧 + 𝑥𝑦'
● x’ and z is factored because it is the common variable in 𝑥'𝑦'𝑧 + 𝑥'𝑦𝑧
= 𝑥'𝑧(𝑦' + 𝑦) + 𝑥𝑦'
● Complement Law suggest that (𝑦' + 𝑦) = 1 because one of them is always 1.
= 𝑥'𝑧(1) + 𝑥𝑦'
● 1 * 𝑁 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑜 𝑁 ∴
𝑓 = 𝑓1 = 𝑥𝑦' + 𝑥'𝑧
 Boolean Expression is like simplifying Algebraic Expression. It can be proven by another
truth table or diagram

The Diagram has been reduced but still has equal results. This is good for minimizing the
equipment needed when building an Integrated Circuits.

Consensus Theorem
Some Boolean expressions are not so easily simplified. This is redundant and can be
eliminated for simpler expression. Example is 𝑥𝑦 + 𝑥'𝑧 + 𝑦𝑧 The term yz is the consensus
term. AND (𝑥 + 𝑥')to the consensus term to eliminate it. Algebraic manipulation results in the
simplified expression: 𝑥𝑦 + 𝑥'𝑧

Complement of a Function
The function is complemented if 𝑓 = 1 changes to 0 and vice versa. A complemented
function 𝑓 is denoted by 𝑓'. It can be done by putting an inverter as a last gate. Algebraically, it is
not limited to complement the entire expression. Using DeMorgan’s Theorem enables
incorporating simplification with complemented functions.

Example: find the complement of a)𝐹1 = 𝑥'𝑦𝑧' + 𝑥'𝑦'𝑧 and b)𝐹2 = 𝑥(𝑦'𝑧' + 𝑦𝑧)
a. 𝐹1' = (𝑥'𝑦𝑧' + 𝑥'𝑦'𝑧)' b. 𝐹2' = (𝑥(𝑦'𝑧' + 𝑦𝑧))'
= (𝑥'𝑦𝑧')'(𝑥'𝑦'𝑧)' = 𝑥' + (𝑦'𝑧' + 𝑦𝑧)
= (𝑥 + 𝑦' + 𝑧)(𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧') = 𝑥' + [(𝑦'𝑧')'(𝑦𝑧)']'
𝑥' + (𝑦 + 𝑧)(𝑦' + 𝑧')

It is also possible to obtain the complement of a function by taking the duals and simply
complementing each literal which is easier but confusing on where parentheses are concerned.
The trick is to keep track of which variables are grouped together.
 Module 4: Boolean Function and their Forms

Canonical Forms
It is easy to recognize due to the terms having all the variables (complimented or
uncomplemented) present. Example, the Boolean function of 3 variables
𝑦 = 𝑎'𝑏𝑐 + 𝑎𝑏𝑐 + 𝑎'𝑐'𝑏
Is in canonical form. The same can be said for the function of two variables
𝑧 = (𝑎 + 𝑏)(𝑎' + 𝑏')
Minterms and Maxterms
Product or Implicant is a boolean term composed of one or more literals joined by an
AND operation. Minterm is a product term that will produce 1 in all combinations of variables.
If 3 variables 001 then to produce 1 it should be 𝑥'𝑦'𝑧, x and y are complemented to turn 0 into 1.
It is identified by lowercase “m” or 𝑚𝑖 where "𝑖" is the decimal equivalent of a binary number
𝑛
representing minterms. BONUS: to get the possible 𝑖 you need the formula 2 − 1, where 𝑛 is
the number of variables.
Sum of the Products or Sum of the Minterms is the product of the variable
combinations (complemented or non-complemented) then add all of the products.

Sum is a boolean term composed of one or more literals joined by an OR operation.

Maxterms is the sum term that will produce 0 in all combinations of variables. In 3 Variables
001 to produce 0 you complement what is 1 then 001 is xyz’, z is the complemented 1. It is
identified by Uppercase “M” or 𝑀𝑖 where "𝑖" is the decimal equivalent of a binary number
representing maxterms.
Product of Sum or Product of Maxterms is the Sum of the variables combination that
produces 0 then multiplying the Sum all together.

Example: Express the Boolean Function 𝐹 = 𝐴 + 𝐵'𝐶 as sum of the minterms (SOM) or SOP
The Function has 3 variables 𝐴 𝐵 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶. The 1st term is missing 2 variables and the 2nd
is only 1. If it is not in SOM form, terms that are missing can be determined in each term. The
term with the missing variable is ANDed, one at a time, with the sum of the missing variable and
its complement.
In the example in the 1st term, A is missing both B and C hence A is ANDed with
(𝐵 + 𝐵') to get 𝐴𝐵 + 𝐴𝐵',and then AND (𝐴𝐵 + 𝐴𝐵') to (𝐶 + 𝐶') to get the expression
𝐴𝐵𝐶 + 𝐴𝐵𝐶' + 𝐴𝐵'𝐶 + 𝐴𝐵'𝐶'.
In the 2nd term, B’C only missing A, so (𝐵'𝐶) is ANDed to (𝐴 + 𝐴') by doing so it will
result in 𝐴𝐵'𝐶 + 𝐴'𝐵'𝐶.
Now putting all together then removing the duplicates will shows
𝐹 = 𝐴'𝐵'𝐶 + 𝐴𝐵'𝐶' + 𝐴𝐵'𝐶 + 𝐴𝐵𝐶' + 𝐴𝐵𝐶. This is equivalent of 3 variable minterms:
𝑚1 + 𝑚4 + 𝑚5 + 𝑚6 + 𝑚7
 The Function can also be represented in a handier notation. By using the decimal
subscript of each minterm and indicate that it is a sum of minterms with the ∑ symbol.
𝐹(𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶) = ∑(1, 4, 5, 6, 7)
The terms of the boolean function can be taken alternatively by using the truth table of the
function directly. It can be done by constructing the truth table with 3 variable first, and assign 1
to all minterm combination where 𝐴 = 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑/𝑜𝑟 𝐵 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶 = 1. Thus,

Example: Express the Boolean Function 𝐹 = 𝑥𝑦 + 𝑥'𝑧 as product of maxterms

Any missing Variable in each OR term is ORed, one at a time, with the product of the
missing variable. like the previous example but ORed and Product
Before the missing variables, it is needed to transform it first into OR terms using
distributive law:
𝐹 = 𝑥𝑦 + 𝑥'𝑧 = 𝑥(𝑦 + 𝑥'𝑧) Apply distributive law on 1st term
= 𝑥(𝑦 + 𝑥')(𝑦 + 𝑧) 𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑦 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑏𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑙𝑎𝑤 𝑎𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 2𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚
= (𝑥𝑦 + 𝑥')(𝑥𝑦 + 𝑧)These can still be broken down
= (𝑥 + 𝑥')(𝑥' + 𝑦)(𝑥 + 𝑧)(𝑦 + 𝑧)
= (1)(𝑥' + 𝑦)(𝑥 + 𝑧)(𝑦 + 𝑧)
The resulting OR terms are missing one variable. The product of the missing variable
should be ORed with its complement.
𝑥' + 𝑦: 𝑥' + 𝑦 + 𝑧𝑧' = (𝑥' + 𝑦 + 𝑧)(𝑥' + 𝑦 + 𝑧')
𝑥 + 𝑧: 𝑥 + 𝑧 + 𝑦𝑦' = (𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧)(𝑥 + 𝑦' + 𝑧)
𝑦 + 𝑧: 𝑦 + 𝑧 + 𝑥𝑥' = (𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧)(𝑥' + 𝑦 + 𝑧)
Combining all terms then removing the duplicate and arranging the maxterms in
ascending order:
 𝐹 = (𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧)(𝑥 + 𝑦 ′ + 𝑧)(𝑥 ′ + 𝑦 + 𝑧)(𝑥 ′ + 𝑦 + 𝑧 ′) = 𝑀0 * 𝑀2 * 𝑀4 * 𝑀5
For Convenience write in:
𝐹(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = ∏(0, 2, 4, 5)
The Truth table can also obtain the max terms of the function. Done by constructing the
truth table for 3 variable then assign a 0 to all maxterm combinations where x-1 and y=0, or x=0
and 𝑧 = 0, or 𝑦 = 0 and 𝑧 = 0. Thus,

The minterms and maxterms complement each other. 1’s is only needed to get the
minterms and 0’s are the maxterms.

Then, SOM form of the function is 𝐹 = 𝑥 ′𝑦 ′𝑧 + 𝑥 ′𝑦𝑧 + 𝑥𝑦𝑧 ′ + 𝑥𝑦𝑧

The Standard Forms

It is different from canonical forms due to the former being composed of all variables of the
input, and the latter is not. It provides Boolean functions with any number of variables composing the
sum or product terms.

Sum-of-Products (SOP) and Product-of-Sums (POS)

Sum of Products is to standard form as Sum of the Minterms is to canonical form. Same
to the Product of Sums is to SF as Product of Maxterms to CF. Standard Forms Boolean
Expressions:
● 𝑦 ′ + 𝑥𝑦 + 𝑥 ′𝑦 ′𝑧 . has 3 product terms of one, two, three literals each
● 𝑥(𝑦 ′ + 𝑧)(𝑥 ′ + 𝑦 + 𝑧 ′) has 3 sum terms of one, two, and three literals each
However,
● 𝐴𝐵 + 𝐶(𝐷 + 𝐸) 𝑖𝑠 𝑁𝑂𝑇 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚

Logic Diagram Implementation

Implementation of Function in standard form consists of AND and OR gates. The
Configurations will result in 2-level implementations. Inverters are not considered in such
implementation but assumed that complements are readily available.
2 Level Implementation Examples:
 Non-standard forms may result in multiple level implementation

Boolean Function of n Variables

It is helpful to know how many kinds of boolean functions can be made from given Boolean
Variables. It is noticeable that with no variable results in 2 constant Functions:
𝑓 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓 = 1
Boolean Functions of One Variable
With one variable “x” can make four boolean functions. Including the constant 2
functions, added with x and x’. Here is a summary

Boolean Functions of 2 Variables

For 2 Variables “x” or “y” has 16 different kinds of boolean functions. Along with one
variable, Operations between variables can be used. Here is the Summary
Boolean Functions of n Variables
When dealing with 3 variables in a Boolean function, there are 8 distinct Boolean
functions that can be created. This is determined by the following factors:
● 𝑛: The number of variables in the Boolean function.
𝑛
● 2 : This represents the number of possible combinations of values for n variables (each
variable can be either 0 or 1).
𝑛
2
● 2 : This calculates the total number of unique Boolean functions that can be constructed
using those n variables.
3
In the specific case of three variables, there are 2 = 8 possible combinations of values,
and each combination corresponds to a unique Boolean function.