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1.PHYSICAL QUANTITIES

Physics: Study of matter in relation to energy.

Physical Quantity: A property of matter than can be quantified with measurement and can also
be expressed as a number.

There are two types of physical quantities. These are

1. Basic Physical quantities
2. Derived Physical quantities

Basic Physical Quantities.

These are the fundamental physical quantities.
Quantity Symbol SI Units Symbol of SI Units.
Length s, l metre m
Mass m kilogram kg
Time t seconds s
absolute temperature T Kelvin K
electric current I Amperes A

Derived Physical Quantities

These are derived from one or more basic quantities.
Quantity Symbol SI Units Symbol of SI Units.
Area A metres squared m2
Volume V Cubic metres m3
Velocity u,v metres per second m/s or ms-1
Acceleration A metres per second squared m/s2 or ms-2
Pressure P Pascals Pa
Energy E, U, Q, W Joules J
Density  kilograms per cubic metre kg/m3 or kgm-3
Frequency F Hertz Hz
Voltage V Volts V
Charge Q Coulombs C
Force F Newtons N
Resistance R Ohms 
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Multiples And Submultiples Of SI Units

Power Prefix Abbreviation

10-9 nano- n
10-6 micro- 
10-3 milli- m
10-2 centi- c
10-1 deci- d
101 deka- da
102 hecto- h
103 kilo- k
106 Mega- M
109 Giga- G
1012 Tera- T

Unit Conversions
Sometimes it may be necessary to convert from one multiple to another for the same physical
quantity.

 To convert from a base unit to a multiple/submultiple, divide by the power of ten for the
prefix.

E.g. Change 200 metres to millimetres.

200
10−3 = 200 x 103 millimetres.

 To convert from a multiple/submultiple to a base unit, multiply by the power of ten for
the prefix.

E.g. Change 300 Megavolts to volts.

300 x 106 volts.

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STANDARD FORM
Standard form is written in the form a x 10 n, where a is number bigger than or equal to 1 but
less than 10, n can be any positive(moving to the left) or negative (moving to the right) whole
number and it is the number of steps moved.
1< a > 10
Example
2 x 104
Converting ordinary numbers to standard form
e.g 35 = 3.5 x 101
Converting standard form to ordinary numbers
2.34 x 102 = 234
SIGNIFICANT FIGURES AND DECIMAL PLACE
Rules for significant figures
1.Non zero digits are always significant
e.g 112 - 3 significant figures
2.Zero’s between non zero digits are always significant
e.g 1004 - 4 significant figures
3.Leading zeros are never significant
e.g 0.0013 - 2 significant figures
4.Trailing zeros are only significant if the number contains a decimal point
e.g *1.0 – 2 significant figures
* 100 – 1 significant figures
DECIMAL PLACES
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MEASUREMENTS
Some physical quantities can be measured with a measuring instrument.
Each measuring instrument has accuracy.
The accuracy of any measuring instrument is the smallest measurement that can be made with
the instrument, or the smallest division in the instrument.

Sources of error when making measurements include

*Parallax Error.
*Zero error
*Human reaction time error
Measurement of Length
Length is a measurement of how long something is. SI units are metres (m). Instruments used to
measure length include;
- ruler
- measuring tape
- clickwheel
- vernier calipers
- micrometer screwgauge

Measurement of length using a ruler or tape.

Small lengths of up to a metre can be measured with a ruler. Longer lengths can be measured
with a measuring tape.
SI unit : metre (m)
Accuracy : 0.1 cm
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TYPES OF ERROR ENCOUNTERED WHEN USING A RULER

1.TYPE:PARALLAX ERROR
SOURCE OF ERROR: Incorrect positioning of an eye when taking the measurements.
HOW TO MINIMISE /IMPROVE THE ERROR: , readings should be taken such that the
line of sight is perpendicular to the measuring scale at point of measurement.

2.TYPE:Zero error
SOURCE OF ERROR: Before any measurement is made the reading should be zero or the
scale should start at zero. If it is not zero, then the reading should be noted. This reading is called
zero error.

HOW TO IMPROVE /MINIMISE THE ERROR: subtract the zero error from the final
reading to get the actual length.
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How to take a final reading

Zero error reading = 1.0 cm
Final reading = 4.3 cm
Actual reading = final reading – zero error reading
= 4.3 – 1.0
= 3.3 cm

Measurement of length using a Vernier Calipers.

A vernier callipers is used to measure internal and external diameters, thickness of metal sheets,
small depths, etc. The vernier callipers has two scales; the main scale and the vernier scales. The
vernier scale slides over the main scale.

The final reading from the instrument is the sum of the Main Scale Reading and the Vernier
Scale Reading.

The main scale reading is the mark on the main scale which is to the left of the zero of the
vernier scale.
The vernier scale reading is any mark on the vernier scale which coincides with any other mark
on the main scale. The smallest division on the vernier scale is 0.01 cm.
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TYPES OF ERROR ENCOUNTERD WHEN USING A VERNIER CALIPER

1.TYPE OF ERROR :PARALLAX ERROR

SOURCE OF ERROR: Incorrect positioning of an eye when taking the measurements.
HOW TO IMPROVE THE ERROR: readings should be taken such that the line of sight is
perpendicular to the measuring scale at point of measurement.

Accuracy of the vernier callipers is 0.01 cm.

2.TYPE OF ERROR: ZERO ERROR

SOURCE OF ERROR: Due to mechanical errors, sometimes the zero mark of the vernier scale
does not coincide with the zero mark of the main scale, the vernier callipers is said to have zero
error
HOW TO IMPROVE THE ERROR: you add or subtract the zero error from the measured
length to get the actual length.
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Measurement of length using a Micrometer Screwgauge.

A micrometer screwgauge is used to measure small lengths accurately. It is able to give more
accurate readings of length up to 25 mm.

The micrometer screwgauge has two scales; the main scale and the drum scales. The drum scale
rotates over the main scale.
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The final reading from the instrument is the sum of the Main Scale Reading and the Drum Scale
Reading.

The Main Scale Reading is the last mark on the main scale which is on the edge of the
drum/thimble. The main scale is calibrated/graduated in millimetres.

The Drum Scale Reading is any mark on the drum scale which coincides with the horizontal line
passing through the main scale. The smallest division on the drum scale is 0.01 mm.

Errors associated with the use of a micrometer screw gauge include parallax error and zero error.
There are two types of zero errors associated with the screw gauge. This are negative
zero error and positive error.

Diagram (b) shows a positive zero error of 0.02 mm.

Diagram (c) shows a negative zero error of -0.04 mm

TYPES OF ERROR ENCOUNTERED WHEN USING A MICROMETER SCREW GAUGE

1.TYPE:PARALLAX ERROR
SOURCE OF ERROR: Incorrect positioning of an eye when taking the measurements.
HOW TO IMPROVE THE ERROR: readings should be taken such that the line of sight is
perpendicular to the measuring scale at point of measurement.
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2.TYPE:ZERO ERROR
SOURCE OF ERROR: Before placing an object, turn the thimble until the spindle and anvil
meet. If the reading on the thimble is not alligned with the zero mark on the datum line, a zero
error is present.
HOW TO IMPROVE THE ERROR: you add or subtract the zero error from the measured
length to get the actual length.
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Accuracy of the micrometer screw gauge is 0.01 mm.

SUMMARY
INSTRUMENT ACCURACY IN ACCURACY IN CM
MM
Ruler 1 0.1
Vernier caliper 0.1 0.01
Micrometer screw gauge 0.01 0.001

Measurement of Time
Time: - Period between events
- Duration of an event.
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Instruments used to measure time include watch/clock, pendulum, sundial, hourglass.

Time measuring instruments depend on events which can repeat themselves regularly.
Examples include
-vibration of quartz crystals
-appearance of the moon/stars/sun in the sky.
-croacking of the cock.

SI units of time are seconds (s).

Other units include Minutes, Hours, Days, Week, Fortnight, Months, Years, Decades, Centuries
& Millennium.

Using a stopwatch to measure time.

A stopwatch is used in labs to measure the duration of an event and in some cases the period
between events.

Start/stop button: Used to initiate and end the timing process

Lap/reset button: Used to reset the watch and also to momentarily stop the watch to take
a reading.

How to record time from a stopwatch

Seconds.milliseconds

Example 1
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Time = 3.76 seconds

Example 2

Time = (3minutes – seconds = 180 seconds)

= 180 seconds + 59 seconds
= 239.45 seconds
Accuracy of the stopwatch
The accuracy of the stopwatch is 0.01 seconds.

Errors associated with the use of a stopwatch

TYPE: Human reaction time
SOURCE OF ERROR: It is the delay to start or stop the stopwatch when recording time.
HOW TO IMPROVE/MINIMISE THE ERROR: Repeat the experiment several times and
take the average
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Period of a Simple Pendulum

This consists of a mass attached to a string which is then allowed to swing freely. is called the
Period (T) of the pendulum: The time taken to make one complete swing
Units:seconds
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Experiment to find period of a pendulum.

Apparatus: Pendulum bob + string
Metre ruler
Stopwatch
Retort stand + clamp.
Procedure:
1. Setup the apparatus as shown below.

2. Measure and record l, the length of the pendulum.

3. Using the stopwatch, measure and record the time taken to make 20 complete
oscillations. A complete oscillation is movement from Q to R and back to Q.
4. Calculate the period, T.
5. Repeat steps 2 and 4 for two more values of l.
6. Record your results in the table below.

Length (cm) Time for 20 oscillations (s) Period, T (s)

*Plot a graph of length against T2

Factors affecting the period of a pendulum.
i) Length
ii) Acceleration due to gravity

2.MOTION
Definition of Terms
1.Distance (s) The length of the pathway followed by an object between two points.
SI units: metres.
2.Displacement (s) Distance in a specified direction.
SI units: metres.
3.Average Speed: The total distance travelled in a given period of time.
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total distance travelled

Average speed = time taken
SI units:m/s
4.Speed : distance travelled per unit time
S=Distance / time
SI unit: m/s
5.Velocity (u-initial velocity and v-final velocity): Speed in a stated direction or the rate at
which displacement changes with time.
The SI units are metres per second(m/s)
6.Acceleration (a): The rate at which velocity changes.
change in velocity
acceleration = time taken
v - u
a =
t
If the acceleration is negative it is called deceleration or retardation.
SI unit: m/s2
How to calculate deceleration
Deceleration = - (acceleration)
v - u
=-( )
t
=+
Note:
Distance is a scalar quantity while displacement is a vector quantity.

Scalar quantity = Is a quantity that has magnitude without direction.

E.g. mass, speed, distance and temperature

Vector quantity = Is a quantity that has magnitude and direction.

E.g. - Force
- Displacement
Magnitude = size
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Motion Graphs(Uniform)
Distance-Time Graphs
 Slope or gradient of a distance-time graph gives velocity.

Y 2 - Y1 8m - 2m 6m
m = = =
X 2 - X1 4s - 1s 3s = 2 m/s

 If the distance-time graph is a diagonal line then the velocity is constant.

 If the distance-time graph is a horizontal line then the object is at rest.
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Velocity-Time Graphs

 Velocity-time graph for uniform velocity is a horizontal line.

 Velocity-time graph for uniform acceleration and uniform deceleration is a diagonal

line
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 Slope/gradient of a velocity-time graph gives acceleration.

Y 2 - Y1 8 m/s - 2 m/s 6 m/s

m = = =
X 2 - X1 4s - 1s 3s = 2 m/s2

NON UNIFORM MOTION

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*non uniform increasing acceleration

Area under a velocity-time graph gives distance covered.

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1 1
Distance travelled = /2 x b x h = /2 x 5s x 10m/s = 25 m/s

Distance travelled = area of a triangle + area of rectangle + area of a triangle

Distance travelled =( ½ x b x h) +(l x w)+( ½ x b x h)

Distance travelled = area of trapezium + area of rectangle

Distance travelled = ½ (a+b) h + l x w
NB: a and b are the parallel sides

Equations of Motion

v = u + at eqn 1
s = 12 ( u + v )t eqn 2
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s = ut + 12 at 2 eqn 3
v 2= u 2 +2 as eqn 4

It is important to note that

 Eqn 1 does not have s
 Eqn 2 does not have a
 Eqn 3 does not have v
 Eqn 4 does not have t
 All the equations have u.

NB: This equations only apply to objects travelling with uniform motion.
Example :A bus starts off from rest and reaches a velocity of 25 m/s in 10 seconds. Calculate
(i) acceleration of the bus
Initial velocity (u) = 0 m/s (starting from rest) Final velocity (v) = 25 m/s Time (t) = 10 seconds

We'll first calculate the acceleration using the equation:

a=(v−u)/t)

Where: a = acceleration v = final velocity u = initial velocity t = time

Given: v=25 m/s u=0 m/s t=10 s

a=(v−u)/t)

=(25- 0)/10
a =2.5 m/s2

(ii) the distance travelled in the first 10 seconds.

Where: s = distance u = initial velocity t = time a = acceleration

Given: u=0 m/s t=10 s a=2.5 m/s2

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s = ut + 12 at 2

= (0 x10) + (½ x 2.5 x 102)

= 125m

Vertical Motion without Air Resistance

(Acceleration due to gravity, g)
Assuming that there is no air resistance, all bodies undergoing vertical motion accelerate
uniformly at g or –g depending on whether they are ascending or descending.

Descending objects
u = 0 m/s
a = g = 10 m/s2

Ascending objects
v = 0 m/s
a = -g = -10 m/s2.
v = u + gt
s = 12 ( u + v )t

1 2
s = ut + g t
2
2 2
v = u +2 gs
(On answering these questions assume that there is no air resistance)
Example:A cannon ball is shot vertically upwards with an initial velocity of 40 m/s.
Calculate
(i) the maximum height reached by the cannon ball
g= - 10 m/s2 u = 40 m/s s= ? v= 0 m/s
2 2
v = u +2 gs
02= 40 2+ 2 x (-10) x s
0 = 1600 + -20 s
20s/20 = 1600 /20
S= 80 m
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Vertical Motion with Air Resistance

(Terminal Velocity)

(Terminal Velocity)
When a body falls through a fluid, its acceleration decreases until it becomes zero.

The diagram below shows the movement of a ball as it falls through air, from the moment it
is released.
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Stage 1
-Resultant force on ball is its weight.
-The ball accelerates uniformly at g=10 m/s2

Stage 2
-Fluid friction starts acting on the ball and increases as velocity increases.
-Weight is greater than the fluid friction.
-Resultant force decreases
-Acceleration of the ball decreases but it is still greater than zero.

Stage 3
-Fluid friction becomes equal to the weight.
-Resultant force is zero
-Acceleration is zero.
-The velocity stops increasing and remains constant for the remainder of the flight of the ball.
This constant velocity is called terminal velocity.

The diagram below shows the velocity-time graph for an object falling through a fluid until it
reaches terminal velocity.
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3.Mass, Inertia, Weight & Centre Of Gravity

Mass: Amount or quantity of matter in an object. Mass is a constant for every object and
never changes.
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Inertia: It is the tendency of an object to resist changes to its state of motion. Objects with
large mass have large inertia and those with small mass have a small inertia. As such
inertia can be seen as an indirect measurement of mass.

Weight: This is the gravitational pull on an object. Weight of an object depends on the
acceleration due to gravity and as such can change depending on the force of gravity.

weight = mass x acceleration due to gravity.

W = mg
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INSTRUMENTS USED TO MEASURE MASS

Mass= 60 + 200+ 5.0 = 265.0 g

NB: Accuracy of a truple beam balance is 0.1 g
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INSTRUMENT USED TO MEASURE WEIGHT

Centre of Gravity (Centre of Mass)

This refers to a point within an object where its entire mass or weight seems to be concentrated
such that if the object is supported at this point it should balance.
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Centre of Gravity of Regular Objects.

The centre of gravity of regular objects is found at their geometric centre.

Centre of Gravity of Irregular Objects.

Apparatus
 Irregular lamina
 Retort stand & clamp
 Plumb line(a mass bob and a string)
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Procedure
1 Make 3 holes on the edge of the lamina and label them A, B & C.
2 Suspend the lamina on the retort stand through hole A
3 Suspend the plumb line in front of the lamina
4 Allow both the lamina and the plumb line to come to rest.
5 Trace the plumb line along the lamina
6 Repeat steps 2 to 5 for holes B and C.
7 The centre of gravity of the lamina is at the intersection of the lines.
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Toppling
The position of the centre of gravity within a body determines if it topples over easily. A body
topples if the vertical line through its centre of gravity falls outside its base.

In figure (a) the vertical line through the centre of gravity falls within its base and as such will
not topple.

In figure (b) the vertical line through the centre of gravity falls on the edge of the base and as
such will balance on the edge.

In figure (c) the vertical line through the centre of gravity falls outside the base and as such will
topple, i.e. fall over.

Stability
A body that topples easily is not stable while one which does not topple easily is stable.
Factors affecting stability
Stability of any object depends on
 Wideness of the base. If the base is wide then the object becomes more stable while
bases which are not wide make objects less stable.
 Position of the centre of gravity. If the centre of gravity is positioned at a high position
then the object is less stable. If the position of the centre of gravity is low then the object
becomes more stable.

Three terms are used to describe stability of objects. These are

(i) Stable Equilibrium
A body is in stable equilibrium if it goes to its original position after being
slightly displaced and released. The Bunsen burner below is in stable equilibrium

Its centere of gravity rises and then falls when it is displaced and then released.
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(ii) Unstable Equilibrium

A body is in unstable equilibrium if it does not retain its original position after
being slightly displaced and released. The Bunsen burner below is in unstable
equilibrium

Its centre of gravity falls.

(iii) Neutral equilibrium
A body is in neutral equilibrium if it retains its new position after being slightly
displaced and released. The position of its centre of gravity remains the same. The
Bunsen burner below is in neutral equilibrium.

4. MOMENT OF FORCE (turning effects of a force).

A moment of force is its turning effect about a point called the pivot (fulcrum).
Moment of force is the product of the force and its perpendicular distance from pivot.

Moment = force x distance

M = Fd
Where F= applied force
d = perpendicular distance from
pivot.
Moment of force is measured in Newton-metres (Nm).

APPLICATIONS OF MOMENTS
*It is easier to untie a nut using a long spanner than a short spanner
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*It is easier to open a gate at its edge than through its centre
Example
Find the moment of the 150 N force about the pivot.

Moment of force = Fxd

= 150 N x 20 cm
= 3 000 Ncm
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Principle of moments
For a system to be in equilibrium, the sum of the clockwise moments should be equal to the sum
of the anticlockwise moments.

Anticlockwise moments = clockwise moments

F1d1 + F2d2 = F3d3 + F4d4

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FORCES
Force: A force is a push, pull or twist.
SI UNIT: Newton (N)

Effects of forces in an object

1.Effects on shape and size of an object.
2.Effects on motion of motion of an object/body.
3.Turning effect of force (Moment of a force)

1.EFFECTS OF FORCE ON MOTION

A force can cause changes in the state of motion of a body. In other words a force can cause
acceleration and deceleration.
*Force can stop a moving object
*Force can make a stationary object to move.
*Force can change direction of a moving object
*Force can change the speed of a moving object.

Newton’s Laws of Motion

Newton’s 1st Law of Motion
A body at rest or already moving with a steady velocity, stays in that state of motion unless an
unbalanced force acts on it.
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Newton’s 2nd Law of Motion

For a body to accelerate there must be an unbalanced force acting on it. This unbalanced force is
called the resultant force FR.

The resultant force on a body is directly proportional to the acceleration it causes such that
FR = ma
Where FR = resultant force in Newtons(N)
m = mass in kilograms(kg)
a = acceleration.

CASE 1: When there is no friction force

Applied force(F)

Acceleration(a)

If there is only one force F acting on an object, then

Then the applied force=resultant force

F = FR

and as such

F = ma
Where F = applied force in Newton(N)
Example
A force F is applied to a box with a mass of 3 kg.If the box accelerates at 4 m/s2 ,calculate the
applied force.

SOLUTION
F=? m= 3 kg a= 4 m/s2
F=ma
=3x4
F = 12 N
CASE 2: WHEN THERE IS FRICTION FORCE

Applied force(F)
Friction Acceleration(a)
Force(Fr)

Then;
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Resultant force = applied force – friction force

FR = F - Fr

NB: * If the resultant force is negative then the object will accelerate to the left.(When the
friction force is more than the applied force)
*If the resultant force is positive then the object will accelerate to the right. (When the applied
force is more than the friction force).
*If the resultant force is zero then the object will not accelerate(When the applied force
FRICTION FORCE
It is the opposing force that is created between two surfaces that try to move in opposite direction
EXAMPLES
*Rubbing hands
*Climbing a rock
*Walking
*Dragging a chair
ADVANTAGES OF FRICTION FORCE
1.It helps us to walk
2.It helps in the generation of heat when we rub our hands.
3.Brakes in a car make use of friction to stop the car.
DISADVANTAGES OF FRICTION FORCE
1.Produces unnecessary heat which lead to wastage of energy
2.Forest fires are caused due to friction between tree branches.
METHODS OF REDUCING FRICTION
1.Lubrication or oil the object or surface
2.Streamlined body
3.Use of rollers
4.Use of bearings
5.Polishing the surface.

EXAMPLE
If a man pushes a box of mass 5 kg with a force of 50 N. If the force of 10 N opposes this
motion, calculate the acceleration of the box
SOLUTION

FR=? F= 50 N Fr = 10 N m=5 kg a=?

FR =F – Fr
= 50 – 10
FR = 40 N

FR = m x a
40 = 5 x a
40/5 =5a/5
8 =a
a = 8 m /s2
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CASE 3:WHEN AN OBJECT IS MOVING AT A CONSTANT / UNIFROM SPEED

THEN;
(a)Acceleration (a = 0 N/kg)
(b)The resultant force (FR =0 N)
(c) The applied force(F) is equal to friction force (Fr) (F=Fr)

NB:For falling bodies through air the object with lighter weight will fall slower because the
friction between the lighter object and the air would be greater.
*For objects with different weight to fall at the same time, air should be removed/ they should
fall in a vacuum

2.EFFECTS OF FORCE ON SHAPE AND SIZE.

* A force can change shape and size of an object
*Springs are used to show this effect
*When a force is hang into a spring it stretches and this stretching force is called LOAD.
*Amount of stretching to the spring is called EXTENSION (e)
*Extension is the difference between the new length of a spring and its original length.
Extension = new length – original length
e= l - lo
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EXPERIMENT TO STUDY THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN LOAD AND

EXTENSION
The experiment is set up as shown below

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
1.Measure and record the original length of the spring
2.Hang 1 N load on a spring
3.Measure and record the length of the spring
4.Calculate the extension produced by the 1N load using the equation
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Extension = new length – original length

e= l - lo
5.Repeat step 2-4 above for loads of 2N, 3N,4N, and 5N
6.Tabulate the results in a table.

TABLE OF RESULTS
load / original length / new length / Extension /
0
1
2
3
4
5

Plot a graph of extension against load

1.Calculate the gradient of the graph

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2.Calculate the force constant

3.State the precaution to be taken when performing this experiment
4.Why does the graph pass through the origin (0,0)
Hooke’s Law
The force applied on an elastic material is directly proportional to the extension it causes
provided the elastic limit or limit of proportionality is not exceeded.

F = ke
Where e = extension
where F = applied force
where k = force or spring constant
 The force constant is the amount of force that is required to cause a unit extension in an
elastic material. Each elastic material has its own spring constant.
 If the elastic limit of the material is exceeded the object gets a permanent extension or
breaks/snaps/gets damaged.
 The extension vs load graph for a material that obeys Hooke’s Law is always a diagonal
line.

 The elastic limit of the spring will be the point where the graph stops being a straight line.

Calculating the force

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SOLUTION
Original length = 15 cm
F:e
20 : (25-15)
W : (35-15)
20 : 10
W : 20
W=400/10
W= 40N
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5.ENERGY, WORK & POWER

ENERGY
Energy is the ability or capacity to do work.
The SI unit of energy is the Joule (J).

Energy exists in various forms. These include;

(a) Kinetic energy
Energy found in moving objects.

Examples of sources of kinetic energy

*A moving car
*A ball rolling on the ground
*A person walking or running
(b) Heat Energy

Internal energy of a substance due to the motion of its particles. Hot means fast moving
particles.
Examples of sources of heat energy
*Firewood
*Sun

(c) Potential energy

The energy an object has because of the vertical distance it has been moved, its chemical
composition or because of its shape/size. Forms of potential energy include.
(i) Gravitational Potential energy: The energy possessed by objects that are above
the ground.
Examples of sources of Gravitational Potential energy
*A fruit on a tree

(ii) Chemical Potential energy: The energy an object has because of its chemical
composition.
Examples of sources of chemical potential energy
*Battery
*Fuel
*Food

(iii) Elastic Potential energy: is a form of potential energy that is stored in objects
when they are stretched or compressed.

(iv) Examples of sources of elastic potential energy

*Stretched spring
*Stretched rubber band
(d) Light energy : The energy given off by luminous and non-luminous objects

Examples of sources of light energy

*Sun
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*Lighted candle

(e) Electrical energy: Energy obtained from movement of charges (electrons)

Example of sources of electrical energy
*Connecting wires

(f) Sound energy: Energy found in vibrating objects.

Examples of sources of sound energy
*Vibrating drum
Other forms of energy

(i) Chemical/Fuel Energy:

 In the case of chemical energy or fuel energy, the energy is stored in the chemical bonds
of molecules. When a chemical reaction occurs, these bonds are broken and reformed in a
new arrangement, resulting in the release of energy. This process involves the
rearrangement of atoms in the reactants to form new products, releasing energy in the
form of heat, light, or kinetic energy. For example, in combustion, such as burning
gasoline in an engine, the carbon and hydrogen atoms in the fuel combine with oxygen
from the air to form water and carbon dioxide, releasing energy in the process.


(ii) Hydroelectric Generation:

 Hydroelectric generation involves converting gravitational potential energy into electrical

energy. Water at a higher elevation, such as in a dam or reservoir, has gravitational
potential energy. When this water is allowed to flow downhill, it gains kinetic energy,
which can be used to turn a turbine. The turbine's mechanical energy is then converted
into electrical energy by a generator.
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(iii) Solar Energy:

 Solar energy originates from nuclear fusion reactions in the Sun's core. In the Sun,
hydrogen nuclei (protons) fuse together to form helium nuclei, releasing an enormous
amount of energy in the process. This energy is emitted in the form of electromagnetic
radiation, including visible light and heat. Solar panels on Earth capture this radiant
energy and convert it into electricity through the photoelectric effect.

(iv) Nuclear Energy:

 Nuclear energy involves the processes of nuclear fission or fusion. In nuclear fission, the
nucleus of an atom (typically uranium or plutonium) splits into two smaller nuclei,
releasing a significant amount of energy. In nuclear fusion, two light atomic nuclei
combine to form a heavier nucleus, releasing even more energy. This energy is harnessed
and converted into electricity in nuclear power plants.

(v) Geothermal Energy:

 Geothermal energy is derived from the heat generated within the Earth's core. The Earth's
core contains radioactive materials that decay and release heat. This heat is conducted to
the Earth's surface, where it can be tapped for energy. Geothermal power plants use this
heat to produce steam, which drives turbines to generate electricity.

(vi) Wind Energy:

 Wind energy is generated by harnessing the kinetic energy of moving air. Wind turbines
are designed with blades that capture the energy from the wind's motion. As the wind
blows, it transfers some of its kinetic energy to the blades, causing them to rotate. This
mechanical energy is then converted into electrical energy by a generator.
 48

Principle of Energy Conservation

It states that energy can neither be created nor destroyed but can only change from one form to
another during an energy conversion.

ENERGY CHANGE STATEMENTS

*A battery is used to operate a bulb
We use; to show change in energy.
; + to show more than one form of energy
Example
State energy conversions for the following

1.Water falling over a waterfall and turning a waterwheel.

Explanation: The gravitational potential energy of the falling water is converted into kinetic
energy and then mechanical energy, which powers the waterwheel.
Gravitational potential energy Kinetic energy

EXERCISE 1
1.Burning wood in a fireplace.

2.A bicycle generator powering a light bulb.

3.A ball rolling down a hill.
4.Nuclear power plant generating electricity.
5. Wind turbines generating electricity.

Kinetic Energy
The kinetic energy of a body of mass m, travelling with a velocity v, is given by
Ke = 1/2mv2
where *Ke is the kinetic energy in Joule (J)
*m is the mass of the body in kilogram (kg)
*v is the velocity of the body in metre per second(m/s)

Gravitational Potential Energy

The gravitational potential energy of a body of mass m, which is moved through a height h, is
given by
Gpe = mgh

Where *gpe is the gravitational potential energy in Joule (J)

 49

* m is the mass of the object in kilogram(kg)

*g is the gravitational field strength in Newton per kilogram (10 N/kg)
* h is the height of the object from the ground in metre (m)

GRAVIATIONAL POTENTIAL ENERGY – KINETIC ENERGY

TRANSFORMATIONS

Gain in GPe = Loss in Ke (as the object is projected upwards)

Loss in GPe = Gain in Ke (as the object falls to the ground)
∆ GPe = ∆ Ke
mgh = 1/2mv2

Assumption: Energy is conserved /No energy is lost/ energy gained is equal to energy lost
 50

WORK

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN WORK AND ENERGY

Work is the transfer of energy.

WORK: Work done is when a force makes an object to move in the direction of the force.

SI UNIT: Joule

Work done = applied force x distance moved

W = Fs

Where W is the work done in Joule (J)

F is the force in Newton(N)
s is the displacement of the object in metre (m)

POWER
This is the rate at which work is done or the rate at which energy is transferred.

Work done/ Energy transfer

Power =
time

W/E
P=
t
Where P is the power in watt (W)
W is the work done in Joule(J)
E is the energy in Joule (J)
t is the time in seconds (s)
 51

WAYS IN WHICH ENERGY IS LOST

1.energy can be lost to friction between moving parts.

2. some energy is lost as waste heat
3. energy is lost as sound and vibration.

Sources Of Energy
Sources of energy can be divided into two groups.

Renewable Sources of Energy are those sources which can be replaced once used and are
generally non- polluting.

Non-Renewable Sources of Energy are those sources that cannot be replaced once used and are
generally polluting.

Major sources of energy in Botswana

1.Solar energy
2.Coal
3.Biomass
4.Wind

SOURCES OF ENERGY IN OTHER COUNTRIES(LOCALLY)

Energy Source Use Socio- economic Environmental impact

impact
1) 1.Solar *Solar water heaters are  *Abundant  *No pollution to the
Energy used in some households.  * Expensive environment (No solid
(Renewable) equipment waste is produced)



2) 2.Coal *Used for generating  *Abundant *Coal mining scars the

(non renewable) electricity as well as  *Cheap landscape
heating and cooking  *(Releases CO2 which
causes global warming)
3.Biomass *Lighting  *Abundant  *Collection of firewood
(Firewood, cow *Heating.  *Cheap leads to deforestation.
dung, charcoal,  *Release carbon
food)
 52

(Renewable) dioxide leading to

global warming.
4.Wind *Windmills are used to  *Cheap  *No dangerous green
(Renewable) pump water out of house gases and toxics
boreholes emitted to the
environment

SOURCES OF ENERGY IN OTHER COUNTRIES(GLOBALLY)

Energy Use SOCIO-ECONOMIC ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT

Source IMPACT
1.Nuclear *Used for generating  *Little fuel is *Puts living things at risk of radioactive
power electricity needed to produce emissions due to the possibility of
(non a lot of electricity. nuclear meltdown.
renewable)  *High building *Waste products pose storage problems
costs and can be used to make atomic
weapons.
2.Hydro- * Generating electricity.  *Limited number  *Does not emit carbon dioxide
electric power of suitable sites to (CO2) during electricity
(renewable) build the dam. generation.
 *High building  *The creation of dams and
costs reservoirs can lead to habitat
 disruption
  *Dams can impede the natural
migration of fish, leading to
reduced populations of certain
species and changes in aquatic
ecosystems.
 *Deforestation
 .

3.Crude oil & *Generating electricity  *Abundant  *Their combustion releases
natural gas *Fuel for motor  *Cheap greenhouse gases into the
(non vehicles and industrial atmosphere which leads to
renewable) machines. global warming.
*Heating and lighting 
4.Geothermal *Used for generating  *High cost of  *Habitat Disruption
energy electricity and heating drilling deep into
( renewable) homes. the earth.

5.Biofuels *They are used for  *Abundant *Habitat Destruction

(renewable) generating electricity *Can lead to deforestation
 53

and fuel for motor

vehicles.

THERMAL PHYSICS

6.THERMAL EXPANSION OF MATTER

*Matter (liquid, gas and solid) expands when heated.
-This happens because particles gain kinetic energy , weakening the intermolecular forces of
attractions
-Particles/ molecules move further away from each other resulting in an increase in the space
between them.
-Volume of the matter increases

*Matter (liquid, gas and solid) contract when cooled

- This happens because particles lose kinetic energy, the intermolecular forces of attractions
becomes strong.
-Particles/ molecules moves closer to each other resulting in decrease in the space between
them.
-Volume of the matter decreases

Gases expand the most and solids expand the least (Gases contract the most and solids contract
the least).
NB:Particles /molecules don’t expand or contract or decrease in size

Experiment to Demonstrate Expansion in Solids

There are various experiments to show expansion in solids. These include Ball and ring
apparatus, bimetallic strip etc.

Ball and ring apparatus.

Before the ball is heated, it easily passes through the ring. But if the ball is heated it does not
pass through the ring. This is because the ball has expanded. If the ball is allowed to cool, then it
will contract. This will allow it to pass through the ring again.

Bimetallic strips
 54

A bimetallic strip is made of two different metals which are riveted together.

The two metals expand at different rates and as such when the strip is heated, it bends with the
metal that expands the most being on the outside.

Metal A

Metal B

Before heating after heating

When heated the strip bends in a way depending on the expansion rates of the metals e.g. the
diagram above shows metal A and B after and before heating. After being heated metal A is on the
outside which shows that metal A expands more than metal B

Metal B

Metal A
If the strip is cooled to a lower temperature than normal, the strip bends in the other direction
also showing that metal A contracts more than metal B.
Experiment to Demonstrate Expansion in liquids
A coloured liquid is poured into a test tube which is fitted with a glass tube as shown below.
 55

Before heating, the level of the liquid is at level A. After heating the liquid level goes up to level
B. This indicates that the liquid has expanded and increased in volume.

Experiment to Demonstrate Expansion in Gases

When the flask is heated bubbles are observed in the water as shown above. This indicates that
the air inside has expanded and some of it is escaping through the glass tube to the outside. As
the air passes through the water it causes the observed bubbles.
 56

Applications of Expansion
1. Thermostat
FUNCTION:These are devices that maintain a steady (constant) temperature in an appliance.

HOW BIMETALLIC STRIP OPERATE

* The bimetallic strip in the thermostat bends to switch off the circuit if the temperature rises
above the set temperature
*It straightens to switch on the circuit if the temperature falls below the set temperature.
*The diagram above shows the thermostat as used in an electric iron. Other appliances that use a
thermostat include air conditioners, electric oven, electric fridge, e.t.c.

2. Fire alarm
It uses bimetallic strip as a switch.

When there is a fire in the house, the bimetallic strip bends to close the contacts thereby
switching on the circuit. This causes the siren to ring.

3. Shrink fitting:
The axle is cooled with liquid nitrogen (-198 °C) so that it fits into the gap after contracting. It
makes a tight fit after returning to normal temperature.
4. Hot riveting: A rivet is hammered in while hot and it makes a tight fit on contracting
 57

5. Measurement of Temperature.
Materials whose expansion is directly proportional to change in temperature can be used in
thermometers for temperature measurement. E.g. mercury and alcohol are used in a liquid in
glass thermometers.

Consequences of Expansion
1. Buckling of railway lines
The ends of the rails are tapered and made to overlap to avoid buckling during a hot day. The gap
between the rails allow room for expansion and as such it is called an expansion gap.
2. Snapping of overhead cables
Overhead cables are allowed to sag a bit so that in winter they do not become tight after
contracting.

3. Bridges
One end is fixed and the other end rests on rollers. An expansion gap is created to give room for
expansion.

7.MEASUREMENT OF TEMPERATURE
Temperature is an indirect measurement of the average kinetic energy of particles in matter or
the degree of coldness or hotness of matter.

Thermometers are used to measure temperature. Measurement of temperature depends on

physical properties of matter which change with a change in temperature. This include
 Thermal expansion (e.g liquid -in-glass thermometer)
 Voltage/emf (Thermocuple)
Types of thermometers
 liquid-in-glass
 58

 thermocouple

Units of temperature include degrees Celsius (oC) and Kelvin (K).

Liquid in Glass thermometer

A liquid-in-glass thermometer makes use of the thermal expansion of liquids to measure
temperature.

It is made of a capillary tube which is sealed at one end and has a liquid filled bulb at the other
end.

When the bulb is placed at a higher temperature, the liquid expands along the bore. If the bulb is
placed at a lower temperature the liquid contracts back into the bulb.

The liquid used in the thermometer should have a low melting point and a high boiling point.
The liquid should also be clearly visible and should not stick to the sides of the bore.

Commonly used liquids include mercury and ethanol.

Mercury has a melting point of -39 oC and a boiling point of 357 oC.
Ethanol has a melting point of -115 oC and a boiling point of 78 oC.

Mercury is the least used because it is very toxic. A dye is added to ethanol to make it visible.

Examples of liquid-in-glass thermometers include

* laboratory thermometer
*clinical thermometer.

Their design features are described below.

Laboratory Thermometer
 59

Design feature Purpose or working principle

The liquid is contained in a thin The thin wall allows quick conduction of heat through
walled glass bulb. the glass (a poor conductor of heat) to the liquid
Narrow bulb(small bulb) Narrow bulb allows uniform heating of liquid which
will makes thermometer more responsive.
Narrow uniform bore The narrow bore allows a noticeable movement of the
liquid column for a small change in temperature (i.e
good sensitivity).

The uniform bore ensures even expansion of the liquid.

Thick capillary tube walls Acts as a magnifying glass for easy reading of the liquid
thread in the stem
Uniform bore The uniform bore ensures even expansion of the liquid.

Clinical Thermometer

Design feature Purpose or working principle

The liquid is contained in a thin- The thin wall allows quick conduction of heat
walled glass bulb. quickly through the glass (a poor conductor of heat)
to the liquid
Small bulb Small bulb contains a small amount of liquid which
will be more responsive to heat.
Narrow bore The narrow bore allows a large change in length of
the mercury thread for a small change in
temperature (i.e good sensitivity).
Slightly triangular capillary tube wall Edge acts as a magnifier for easy reading of the
with a rounded edges. mercury thread in the stem
o o
Small range (35 C to 42 C) Normal human body temperature is around 36.9 oC,
so the small range allows for greater accuracy and
the stem can be made reasonably shorter.
Constriction just above the bulb. Prevents the backflow of mercury into the bulb
before a reading is taken.
Uniform bore The uniform bore ensures even expansion of the
liquid.
 60

Calibrating a liquid-in-glass thermometer

Fixed point: A fixed point is a reproducible temperature at which some easily identifiable
change occurs.

Two points are marked first. These are the upper fixed point and the lower fixed point.

Lower Fixed Point (0oC)

The lower fixed point is the 0oC mark on a thermometer. The thermometer is placed in pure
melting ice.
Explain why the ice has to be pure.
*pure water does not contain impurities which may alter the boiling and the melting point

When all the liquid has stopped contracting, a mark is placed on the thermometer to indicate
the lower fixed point.
Upper Fixed Point (100oC)
The upper fixed point is the 100oC mark on a thermometer. The thermometer is placed in the
steam above pure boiling water.
Explain why the water has to be pure.
*pure water does not contain impurities which may alter the boiling and the melting point

When all the liquid in the thermometer has stopped expanding, a mark is placed on the
thermometer to indicate the upper fixed point.
 61

Calibrating the rest of the scale

The rest of the scale is calibrated by measuring the length between the lower fixed point and
the upper fixed point. This length is then divided by 100oC.

Sensitivity of a thermometer
It is the ability of a thermometer to give large response to a small temperature change

Design features for more sensitive thermometer

 larger bulb: A larger volume of liquid means that a smaller change in temperature can
cause a more significant expansion .
 Decreasing the diameter of the bore:Small change in volume result in the liquid
moving a larger distance along the tube
 Thin walled bulb: Thin walls facilitate more efficient heat transfer between the
surrounding temperature and the liquid inside the bulb.
 Use of alcohol in liquid in glass thermometer as it expands more
Range of a thermometer
The range of a thermometer is the difference between the minimum and maximum.
temperatures that can be measured with the thermometer.
Range of a liquid-in-glass thermometer can be increased by(wider range)

* Increasing the diameter of the bore/tube

* smaller bulb.(less sensitive thermometer)
*Use of a mercury

Linearity of a thermometer
A thermometer is said to be linear if the liquid expands by the same amount for every degree
Celsius rise in temperature.
Mercury expands at a steady rate as it is heated.

8.MELTING AND BOILING

MELTING POINT:A fixed temperature at which a pure substance changes from solid to liquid
FREEZING POINT:A fixed temperature at which a pure substance changes from liquid to solid
BOILING POINT:A fixed temperature at which a pure substance changes from liquid to gas.
CONDENSATION POINT:A fixed temperature at which a pure substance changes from gas to
liquid.
MELTING:A process whereby a pure substance changes from solid to liquid at a constant
temperature
 62

*Heat energy is absorbed by a substance

* Particles moves away from each other
FREEZING/SOLIDIFICATION:A process whereby a pure substance changes from liquid to
solid at a constant temperature
* Heat energy is lost by a substance
* Particles moves closer to each other

BOILING: A process whereby a pure substance changes from liquid to gas at a constant
temperature
* Heat energy is absorbed by a substance
* Particles moves away from each other

CONDENSATION: A process whereby a pure substance changes from gas to liquid at a

constant temperature.
* Heat energy is lost by a substance.
*Particles moves closer to each other
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN BOILING AND EVAPORATION
BOILING EVAPORATION
Occurs at a fixed temperature Occurs at any temperature
Bubbles are formed No bubbles formed
Takes place throughout the liquid Takes place at the surface of the liquid

COOLING CURVES
 63

9.METHODS OF HEAT TRANSFER

1.CONDUCTION
2.CONVECTION
3.RADIATION

*SIMPLE MOLECULAR ACCOUNT OF HEAT TRANSFER IN SOLIDS(HOW SOLIDS

CONDUCT HEAT)
Conduction is the transfer of energy from one atom or molecule to another atom or molecule.
*The atoms in a substance are always vibrating.
* When heat is applied to a substance the heat energy is given to the atoms and they vibrate and
move faster and so their kinetic energy increases.
* The vibrating atoms bump into neighboring atoms and pass on their kinetic energy and so on.
In this way the heat energy moves through the substance.

* perform and describe experiments to demonstrate good and bad conductors of heat

GOOD CONDUCTORS OF HEAT;

Metals are extremely good at conducting heat
Non-metals are poor at conducting heat whilst liquids and gases are extremely poor
Demonstrating Different Rates of Thermal Conduction in Metals

 A simple to demonstrate the relative conducting properties of different materials can be

carried out using apparatus similar to that shown in the diagram below

Experiment

The above apparatus consists of 4 different metal strips of equal width and
length arrange around an insulated circle

Control variables: length of metal rod, diameter of rods, position in the Bunsen flame.
*The drawing pin falls off the copper rod first followed by the aluminium.
 64

*From this we can conclude that copper conducts better than aluminium, while aluminium
conducts better than iron and brass.

 Metals are the best thermal conductors

o This is because they have a high number of free electrons

Conduction: the atoms in a solid vibrate and bump into each other

BAD CONDUCTORS OF HEAT

*Poor conductors are called insulators

Water is a poor conductor of heat

*RELATE CONVECTION IN FLUIDS TO DENSITY CHANGES

 65

Convection

 Convection is the main way that heat travels through liquids and gases
o Convection cannot occur in solids
 When a fluid (a liquid or a gas) is heated:
o The molecules push each other apart, making the fluid expand
o This makes the hot fluid less dense
o The hot fluid rises, and the cooler fluid moves in to take its place
o Eventually, the hot fluid cools, contracts and sinks back down again
o The resulting motion is called a convection current

*Perform and describe experiments to illustrate convection

(a) Demonstrating Convection Currents in liquids
 A simple demonstration of convection in liquids involves taking a beaker of water and
placing a few crystals of potassium permanganate in it, to one side, as shown in the
diagram above
 When the water is heated at that side, the potassium permanganate will dissolve in the
heated water and rise along with the warmed water, revealing the convection current

(b)Demonstrating Convection Currents in a gases

 66

EXAMPLE 1

* The air around the candle flame is heated and expands. It becomes less dense, rises and escapes
through chimney B.
Colder air enters the chamber through chimney A due to convection currents.
*The convection currents carry with them some of the smoke particles and as such smoke enters
through chimney A and escapes through chimney B.
*The arrows on the diagram indicate the direction followed by the smoke from the cloth.

*show understanding of the term radiation (infrared)

Thermal Radiation
 All objects give off thermal radiation
o The hotter an object is, the more thermal radiation it emits
o Thermal radiation is the part of the electromagnetic spectrum called infrared
 Thermal radiation is the only way in which heat can travel through a vacuum
o It is the way in which heat reaches us from the Sun through the vacuum of space
 The color of an object affects how good it is at emitting and absorbing thermal radiation:
 67

Absorbing and Emitting of Difference Colors

NB:If a question refers to the color of something (black, white or shiny) then the answer will
probably have something to do with thermal radiation! If the question involves a vacuum (empty
space) then mention radiation as it is the only way in which heat can travel through a vacuum as
conduction and convection require particles to transfer heat
Investigating Good & Bad absorbers of radiant heat.
The diagram below shows two cardboards placed at an equal distance from a heater. One
cardboard is painted white while the other one is painted black. Metals pins are pasted to each
cardboard with wax.

Which of the two pins falls first? Explain why.

 68

Investigating Good & Bad emitters of radiant heat.

Two test tubes, one painted black and the other painted white are filled with boiling water as
shown in the diagram below. The two test tubes are then allowed to cool while the temperature
of the water is measured over a period of time

Which of the two thermometers will show a quick fall in temperature? Explain why.

EVERYDAY APPLICATIONS OF CONDUCTION, CONVECTION AND RADIATION

Vacuum Flask
 69

1.Reduces heat transfer in or out through conduction, convection and radiation.

2.Can store and maintain temperature (either hot or cold) of the contents in the flask.

Type of heat How heat transfer is reduced

transfer
Convection Vacuum between the double glass walls.
*Vacuum between the double glass
walls.(vacuum is a bad conductor of
heat)
* The double walls of the flask are made
Conduction
of glass which is a poor conductor of
heat

*Insulated cover and stopper.

*Shiny silvered inner surface of the glass
Radiation
walls.Heat is reflected back
2.CAR COOLING SYSTEM
 70

*Water heated by the engine rises to the top of the engine

*This water is pumped into the top of the radiator
*The fan cools the water in the radiator
*Cooled water falls from the radiator into the engine
3.WATER HEATING SYSTEM

*The process begins with radiation, where the sun's rays, which are electromagnetic waves, reach
the solar collector of the heater.
*This collector is typically a flat panel or a set of tubes coated with a dark, heat-absorbing
material.
*The absorbed solar radiation is then converted into heat, which is transferred to the water in the
collector through conduction. Conduction is the process of heat transfer through a solid material,
in this case, the walls of the collector and the water pipes.

*The heated water then rises to the top of the tank due to convection, a process where heat is
transferred through a fluid (in this case, water) due to the movement of molecules.
* As the hot water rises, it is replaced by cooler water from the bottom of the tank, which is then
heated by the collector. This cycle continues, maintaining a supply of hot water.
 71

*A glass is used to trap heat

*Copper is used because it is a good conductor of heat
*Insulated material, for poor conduction of heat
*Black surface because it is a good absorber of hear

4.SCHOOL UNIFORM
A white shirt is usually recommended to be worn during summer to absorb less heat.
5.HOW JACKETS KEEPS US WARM
Our body supplies the heat, and the material helps to trap body heat and keeps the heat from
escaping into the air.
 72

CONSEQUENCES OF METHODS OF HEAT TRANSFER

Land and sea breeze

SEA BREEZE

*During a daytime the land gets hotter than the sea.

*The warm air rises upwards and is replaced by cool air that blows from the sea towards the
land.

*This sets up some convection currents known as Sea Breezes

LAND BREEZE

*At night the land loses heat faster than sea.

 73

*Now the warmer air over the sea rises and then is replaced by cool air that blows from the land
to the sea and sets up convection currents that will be called Land Breezes
Tropical Cyclones

-Air over warm parts of the sea become warm.

-The warm air rises carrying moisture high into the atmosphere.
-The movement of the earth causes the airflow to spin
-This huge spinning mass of moist air is called a tropical cyclone.
-It causes wet cloudy weather with strong winds.
-If the winds become very strong (120-350 km/h) the storm is called a hurricane or
typhoon.
 Days & nights in deserts
Nights are very cold, and the days are very hot.
*During the day sand absorbs a lot of heat and as such days are hotter in the desert
(Sand is a good absorber.). It has a very low specific heat capacity.

*At night the sand emits most of its heat and as such nights can be very cold in the
desert.
 74

*GLOBAL WARMING AND GREEN HOUSE EFFECT

*Shorter wavelength radiation from sun easily penetrates the glass walls and roof and is absorbed
by the plants.
*It is reradiated /emitted as longer wavelength radiation which cannot pass through the glass wall
therefore heat is trapped inside.
 75

*This is known as the Greenhouse effect.

*The Greenhouse Effect gives rise to Global warming which in turn leads to
 climate change which could lead to extinction of some animal & plant
species,
 melting of polar ice caps which results in flooding of coastal areas,
 Increase in violent storms (especially tropical cyclones) due to the
increased energy in the atmosphere.
 Desertification in some areas.

10.GENERAL WAVE PROPERTIES

WAVE: A wave is a disturbance in a medium which carries energy.

WAVE MOTION: Wave motion is the movement and progress of Waves which is the change
in state from rest to equilibrium.
DEFINITION OF TERMS
1.Wavefront

It is an imaginary line on a wave that connects all adjacent points in phase .

2.Wave Speed(ν)

It is the displacement of a wave per unit time.

It is measured in metres per second (m/s).

It can be calculated using:

wave speed = frequency × wavelength

3.Frequency((f)

It is the number of complete waves made in a given period of time

Frequency =
 76

*It is measured in Hertz (Hz)

4.Amplitude(a)

*It is the maximum displacement of a vibrating particle from the undisturbed or rest position.OR
height of the crest OR depth of a trough.

*It is measured in metres (m)

5.Wavelength( λ)

*It is the distance between two (2) similar but successive points on a wave.
*It is denoted by the Greek letter lambda (λ) and it is measured in metres (m)

6.A crest, or a peak

*The highest point on a wave above the rest position

7.A trough

*The lowest point on a wave below the rest position

8.PERIOD (T).

*It is the time taken to make a complete wave.

SI UNIT:Seconds(s)

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN FREQUENCY AND PERIOD

T= and =

The Wave Equation

The relationship between the speed, wavelength and the frequency of a wave is given by the
equation

Wave speed = wavelength x frequency

v= λ f
 77

DISPLACEMENT -DISTANCE GRAPH

DISPLACEMENT-TIME GRAPH
 78

RIPPLE TANK
a ripple tank is a shallow glass tank of water used to demonstrate the basic properties of
waves.(wavefronts, wavelength).

WAVEFORNTS
There are two types of wavefronts
1.PLANE WAVEFRONT
 79

2.CIRCULAR WAVEFRONT
 80

TYPES OF WAVES
1.Transverse Waves
These are the waves produced when particle displacement is perpendicular to the direction of the
wave
 81

They are characterized by crests and troughs.

WAVELENGTH is from crest to another crest or from trough to another trough.
Examples include Water waves, EM waves

2.Longitudinal waves
These are the waves produced when particle displacement is parallel to the direction of the wave

They are characterized by compressions and rarefactions as shown below

 82

WAVELENGTH is from a compression to another compression or from rarefaction to another

rarefaction

Examples include: Sound waves,

11.LIGHT WAVES

REFRACTION OF LIGHT
Refraction is the bending of light as it passes from one medium to another of different density
e.g. from air to water or from air to glass.
Angle of refraction(r):The angle between the refracted ray and the normal line at the point of
incidence.
Angle of incidence(i):The angle between the incident ray and the normal line
Experiment to demonstrate the bending of light
 83

Title: refraction of light

Aim: to demonstrate refraction of light
Apparatus:
- parallel sided block
- Protractor
- Soft drawing board
- Sharp pencil
- Sheet of paper
- Optical pins
Procedure
- Place the parallel sided glass block on a sheet of paper pinned on the soft drawing board
and outline the sides
- Label two of the sides boundary 1 and 2
- Make a normal line and an incident ray such that they make an angle of 20o
- Place 2 pins on the incident ray then place the glass block on its boundaries, label pin 1
and pin 2
- Look through the glass block with one eye open such that the two pins are in a straight
line. Then place two more pins (3 & 4) then connect them and label as emergent ray
- Connect emergent ray to the normal line with a dotted line. Extend the normal line
through the glass block then measure the refracted angle
- Measure the incident and refracted angles on boundary 2
- Repeat this with two more angles
Conclusion
i. The ray bends towards the normal when entering the glass block, the angle of
incidence is greater than the angle of refraction
ii. The emergent ray and the incident ray are parallel.

FACTS OF REFRACTION
Boundary 1
When light ray moves from a less denser medium to a more denser medium e.g. air to glass; it
bends towards the normal line i.e. angle of incidence is larger than the angle of refraction
The reason is that the speed of light ray decreases as it moves from a less dense medium to a
denser medium.
Boundary 2
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When a light ray moves from a denser medium (glass) to a less dense medium (air) the light ray
bends away from the normal i.e. angle of incidence is smaller than the angle of refraction

air
Boundary1(from air)
glass

Boundary 2(to the glass)

A ray that is incident on the boundary along the normal i.e. at 90 o to the boundary moves straight
without being bent.

Incident ray

Refracted ray

When a light ray moves from air (medium 1) to any material of a higher density (medium 2) the
speed of light ray changes (decreases)

REFRACTIVE INDEX(n)

the ratio of the speed of light in air to speed of light in a second medium of different density .
(only if the first medium is air).
 85

speed of light ∈medium1(air)

refractive index=
speed of light ∈medium 2
EXAMPLE
Calculate the refractive index of glass if the speed of light in glass is 2 × 108 m/s
Knowing; speed of light in air is 3 × 108 m/s
speed of light ∈air
n=
speed of light ∈ glass
8
3 × 10 m/ s
n= 8
2 ×10 m/ s
n=1.5

Snell’s law
When a light ray moves from a less dense medium to a denser medium the light ray bends
towards the normal i.e. i>r then, the ratio of the sine of the angles is a constant known as the
refractive index, n.
sin i
n=
sin r

CONSEQUENCES OF REFRACTION
Ratio of the real depth to apparent depth is a constant known as refractive index, n.

i. Real depth and Apparent depth

NB:
- As an observer the light rays have to be reflected from the object to the eyes of the
observer, if there is an obstacle to the path of light, the observer cannot see the object.
- If the light rays move through one medium of the same optical density, the original object
is observed
- If the light rays from an object move through media of different densities then an image
is observed
 86

Ratio of the real depth to apparent depth is a constant known as refractive index, n.
real depth
n=
apparent depth

ii. Critical angle:It is when the angle of incidence for which the angle of refraction is
900

From refraction, a light ray moving from a denser medium to a less dense medium bends away
from the normal i.e. the speed of the ray increases (i<r )

Conclusion
If θ 1<θc there is refraction

If θ 1=θ c , the refracted ray moves along the boundary or 90o with the normal

If θ 1>θc , there is Total Internal Reflection

Total Internal Reflection(TIR):It is when the light is moving from a denser medium to a less
dense medium instead of being refractd.All of the light is reflected.
CONDITIONS FOR TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION
 87

1.The light must be travelling from a more dense medium to a less dense medium(glass to
air)
2.The angle of incidence must be greater than the critical angle.
Remembering that this is for light leaving a slower material it can be shown that...
sin 90
n=
sin θc

1
So, n=
sin θ c

CONSEQUENCES OF TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION

Mirages; they are reflections of images of distant objects observed as patches of water above a
hot surface.
- The hot surface supplies the surrounding air molecules with heat energy. The air
molecules will acquire different amount of heat because of their distances from the hot
surface.
- Hotter molecules closer to the surface will be less denser compared to the colder
molecules above them
- Light rays from the object will pass through the layers of air with different densities
therefore refraction occurs
- When the angle of incidence of the light ray has increased to be more than the critical
angle, the light ray will now be total internally reflected.
- The reflected ray will reach a distant eye and the image of the object is observed as
“patches of water”.

Applications of Total internal reflection

 88

- Optical fibers
- Light pipe

Optical fibers are being used to replace copper wires in telephones systems.(in communication)
-Periscopes use totally reflecting prisms that turn the light ray by 900
 89

LENSES
Lenses refract light and form images. There are two main types of lenses: The Convex
(converging) lens and Concave (diverging) lens.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN CONVERGING AND DIVERGING LENSES

Action of a thin converging lens on parallel light beams

Definition of Terms
 90

Principal Axis: A path followed by a light ray as it passes through the centre of the lens and is
perpendicular to the lens.
Principal focus (F): A point on the principal axis at which all the rays seem to converge after
passing through the lens.
Optical Centre(c): The geometric centre of a lens.
Focal length (f): Length between the optical centre and the principal focus. This is a constant for
any given lens.

Characteristics Of Images Formed By Convex Lenses

This can be shown with the help of ray diagrams. Ray diagrams are used to locate the image
formed by drawing any two of the following standard rays.
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NB: All rays begin from the top of the object and the bending takes place at the line passing
through the middle of the lens.
WHAT IS A REAL IMAGE
A real image is an image that can be projected onto a screen. A virtual image cannot be projected
onto a screen

WHAT IS A VIRTUAL IMAGE

A virtual image cannot be projected onto a screen

RAY DIAGRAMS TO ILLUSTRATE THE FORMATION OF REAL AND VIRTUAL

IMAGES OF AN OBJECT BY A THIN CONVERGING LENS

Object beyond 2F

The image is
 Inverted
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 Real
 Smaller than the object
 Formed between F and 2F.

The lens is used in this manner in a camera.

Object Between F and 2F

The image is
 Real
 Bigger than the object (magnified)
 Inverted
 formed beyond 2F.

When used in a slide projector or a photographic enlarger.

Object at 2F

The image is
 Inverted
 Real
 Same size as the object
 Formed at 2F.

The lens is used in this way in various optical instruments to provide an upright image.
 93

Object Between F and C

The image is
 Virtual
 Upright
 Bigger than the object (Magnified)
 formed behind the object

A lens can be used in this manner in a magnifying glass.

Object at F
The image will be formed at infinity, similarly, when the object is at infinity, the image will be
formed at F.

Uses of Lenses in Optical Instruments

The camera uses a convex lens to form an image that is real, small, inverted on a piece of film at
the back. The image is formed between F and 2F of the lens. The image is formed on the film.
 94

A slide projector forms a real image on a screen of a slide or a film in a cine-projector. The
image is usually smaller than the real object (slide or frame of film), and is further away from the
lens.

Good illumination of the slide is needed in order for the image to be bright. This is achieved by
focusing the light beam by a concave mirror and two condenser lenses as shown in the diagram
below.

A Photographic Enlarger uses a magnified image of the negative to produce a well magnified
print of a photograph. It works the same way as a slide projector.

Simple microscope (magnifying glass)

A convex lens forms an enlarged, upright virtual image of an object placed between F and the
lens. It acts as a magnifying glass as shown below.

12.Electromagnetic Waves
These are waves which make up the electromagnetic spectrum. The waves in the spectrum are
continuous.

Components Of The Electromagnetic Spectrum

The electromagnetic spectrum has seven components

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Fig. 1.0 The electromagnetic spectrum

The components of the spectrum arranged in order of increasing wavelength are

1. Gamma rays
2. X-rays
3. Ultra-violet
4. Light
5. Infra-red
6. Microwaves
7. Radio waves
Wave Sources Detection Uses
Gamma Rays  Cosmic rays 96
 Photographic  Radiotherapy to treat cancer.
 Nuclear film  Chemotherapy to treat cancer
reactions  Geiger-Muller  Sterilizing food and medical equipment.
tube.  Checking for flaws in metal castings.
 Gamma photography
 As a tracer in plants to study the intake of
minerals.

X-Rays  X-ray tubes  Photographic  Radiography including X-ray

 Cosmic rays film photography
 Geiger-Muller  Radiotherapy to kill cancer tissues.
tube.  Used in security check points at airports
and mines.
 Detection of cracks in metal welds
 Astronomy
 Diffraction to find crystal structure
UltraViolet  Cosmic rays,  Photographi  Used to check for counterfeit money as
(UV)  UV lamps c film well detect forged art.
 Electric arc  Fluorescent  Used to get a sun – tan.
used in materials  Fluorescent dyes are added to
welding (they glow toothpaste and detergents. When
when exposed to UV radiation from the sun
exposed to or disco lights our teeth and clothes
UV glow brightly.
radiation).  Leads to production of vitamins when
absorbed by the skin in small quantities.
 Used to sterilize food, clothes, medical
equipment, etc.
 Automatic counting in industry.

Visible Light  Luminous and  Eye  Used in optical instruments.

non-luminous  Photographic  In photography.
objects. film  Sight
 Light Dependant  Photosynthesis
Resistor  Spectral analysis
 Chloroplasts  Information transmission
 Solar cells  To make LASERs

InfraRed (IR)  All matter  Photographic  Used in IR heaters/cookers/grills

film  Infrared photography.
 Thermometer  In remote control units for TVs, home
with blackened theatre systems, Air-Cons,
bulb.  Burglar alarms use sensors which detect IR
 Thermistor radiation emitted by an intruder. This
 Skin principle is used in motion sensors to
automatically switch on security lamps.
 IR imagers are used to locate people and
animals at night or in thick smoke or if
covered with rubble.
 Drying paint on new cars.

Microwaves  Microwaves  Photographic  Mobile telephone communications

ovens film  Digital Television broadcasts
 Microwave  Microwave  RADAR to locate position of ships and
transmitters receivers airplanes as well as determine the speed of
 97

Properties of Electromagnetic Waves

 They carry energy from one place to another and can be absorbed by matter to cause
heating and other effects.
 Waves with shorter wavelength have high frequency and carry the greatest energy.
 They are transverse in nature
 They can travel in a vacuum.
 They travel at a speed of 3.0 x 108 m/s in vacuum. This is usually called the speed of light
although it is the speed of all EM waves.
 The waves are a combination of travelling electric and magnetic fields which are
perpendicular to one another.
 They obey the wave equation [v = λf] such that C = λf where C is the speed of EM waves
and is a constant (3.0 x 108 m/s).
 They can be reflected, refracted and diffracted.

Sources, Methods of detection and Uses of EM waves.

Side Effects of Electromagnetic Waves
Gamma Rays
 Can cause gene mutation
 Can cause cancer
 Can cause cataracts
 Can cause sterility
 Can cause severe radiation burns
 Can cause miscarriage or damage to the foetus
X-Rays
 Can cause cancer
 Can cause miscarriage or damage to the foetus
 Can cause radiation burns
 Can cause sterility
 Can cause cataracts
Ultra-Violet Radiation
 Can cause skin cancer
 Can kill retinal cells resulting in blindness.
 premature ageing
 causes cataracts
 suppresses the immune system
Visible light
 Over exposure can cause fatigue of the cilliary muscles.
 Can cause photodegradation of pigments and colourants
Infra-Red Radiation
 Can burn the skin or matter
 Can cause sunburn.
 98

 Unbalanced absorption and emission of IR by the body can cause Hypothermia or

Hyperthermia
Microwaves
 Have a heating effect which can cause burns.

13.SOUND WAVES
Sound waves are produced by vibrating sources.
They are longitudinal waves in nature.

*Compression occurs when particles move close together creating regions of high pressure
* Rarefactions occur in low-pressure areas when particles are spread apart from each other.

For example, a vibrating tuning fork creates compressions and rarefactions as the tines move
back and forth.

Audible Frequency
Audible frequency refers to the range of frequencies which can be heard by an organism.

Animal Audible Frequency

Human Beings 20 Hz – 20 kHz
Dogs 20 kHz – 100 kHz
Bats 20 Hz – 200 kHz

NB:Sound wave require a medium in order to be transmitted from one place to another.

Bell-jar experiment
The bell-jar experiment can be used to show if this is possible. The rubber bands reduce sound
transmission by the wires so that sound is only transmitted through the glass.
 99

1.When the circuit is complete the bell rings.

2.A vacuum pump is then used to remove the air from the bell jar.
3.The sound heard decreases as the air is pumped from the bell-jar even though the hammer is
still seen striking the gong.
4.Eventually no sound is heard even though the hammer is still striking the gong.

*This happens when all the air has been removed from the bell jar which shows that sound
needs a medium for its propagation.

Relative order of the speed of sound in gases, liquids and solids.

Sound travels fastest in solids and travels the least in gases.

*This is because the particles of matter are far apart in gases but closely packed in solids.

Reflection of Sound
ECHO:It is the reflected sound.
REVERBERATION: It is the multiple reflection of sound .It occurs when too many echoes mix
up to produce a dull unclear sound.

Ultrasonic Sound (Ultrasound or sonar)

This refers to sound which has a frequency above 20 kHz.
 100

This means that we can not hear sound which is above 20 kHz even though it can be heard by
other animals or detected electronically.

Uses of ultrasound
1. To study the development of a foetus inside its mother or determining the sex of an
unborn baby without operation.

2.To clean jewellery and equipment.

3.By dentist to clean tartar coating from your teeth, helping you prevent gum disease.
 101

4.By ships to measure the depth of the sea

5.Used for navigation by submarines to locate other submarines.

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6.To locate shoal of fish as shown below in the diagram.

EXPERIMENT TO DETERMINE THE SPEED OF SOUND IN AIR

1.SMOKE GUN METHOD

*Person A fires a gun (smoke and sound will be produced

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*Person B standing a distance ‘d’ away sees the smoke from the gun and press start button on the
stopwatch.As soon as she hears the sound she presses the stop button.
* ‘t’ is the time interval between seeing the smoke and hearing the sound from the gun.

METHOD 2 :ECHO METHOD

*A boy stand a distance ‘d’ away from a big wall

*He clap his hands and record the time ‘t’ taken to hear the reflected sound

.
Where s = speed of sound waves
d = depth of ocean
t = time taken by wave to travel distance 2d.
2d = distance travelled by wave

Noise Pollution
Unpleasant sounds are called noise.
Noise can damage ears, cause tiredness and make someone lose concentration.

There are ways in which unwanted noise can be reduced.

*By building quieter engines or building airports far away from the residential area.
*In cars exhaust systems can be fitted with silencers.
*At home sound absorbing materials such as curtains, carpets, windows can be used.
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The further the noise is, the weaker it is. People who are exposed to high level of noise can wear
ear protectors.

Characteristics of Sound
The notes from a musical instrument can vary in three ways:
 Pitch
 Loudness
 Quality

Frequency and Pitch

Pitch of a sound note depends on its frequency.
The higher the frequency, the higher the pitch and the lower the frequency, the lower the pitch.
A high-pitched note has a high frequency but a short wavelength.

Loudness and Amplitude

Loudness of a sound depends on the amplitude of the wave. The larger the amplitude the louder
the sound note.

FREQUENCY AND WAVELENGTH

The higher the frequency the shorter the wavelength
 105

Quality of a sound note.

The same note on different instrument sounds different even if the frequency is the same.
We say they differ in quality (Timbre).
This difference is brought by the fact that no instrument other than a tuning fork or a signal
generator can produce a note of one frequency (a pure note).

Notes of the same frequency (pitch) but different quality.

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FACTORS AFFECTING QUALITY OF SOUND

i. Reverberation
Multiple reflection of sound (echoes). The reflections tend to combine or interfere with the
original sound wave and have a prolonged effect known as reverberation.
In AV (audio visual) rooms the walls and chairs are made in order to absorb the original
sound therefore reverberation is avoided.
ii. Number of overtones
There are certain instruments that produce high quality sound e.g. tuning fork produce sound
of one frequency known as the Fundamental Frequency. Tuning fork produces sound wave of
middle “c” (250 cycles/sec) this means the instrument has a fundamental frequency of 250
Hz (the prongs of the instrument makes 250 cycles moving in or out per second).
Some instruments with low quality sound wave have other exact multiples of fundamental
frequency. The exact multiples are known as overtones. If the number of overtones increases
it will affect the fundamental frequency hence the quality of sound

Acoustics
*When a band is playing in a hall, the sound the audience hears depends partly on how the hall
itself affects the sound waves. That is the acoustics of the hall.
*A large empty hall, with hard walls, floors, and ceiling usually sounds ‘echoey’.
*Sound waves are reflected from the surfaces and mixes with the original sound making the
sound to be unheard and dull.
*This may take several seconds before the sound can die away. This effect is called
reverberation.

*In a hall, some materials such as carpets, curtains and even the audience reduce reverberation
by absorbing the sound. Some halls have specially designed sound absorbers suspended in
ceilings.

14.MAGNETISM
Properties of Magnets
i. A freely suspended magnet always positions itself such that one end faces the North
and the other end faces the South. The end facing the North is North- seeking pole
and the end facing the South is the South-seeking pole
ii. A magnet attracts magnetic materials only. These materials are called ferromagnetics
and include iron, cobalt, steel, nickel etc. Non – magnetic materials are not attracted
by magnets. These include metals such as copper, aluminum, zinc, brass and non-
metals.
iii. Magnetic strength is concentrated at the ends (poles) of the magnet
 107

A bar magnet dipped in iron fillings (iron powder) attracts more iron fillings at the
end.
iv. Like poles repel and unlike poles (N and S) attract
Induced Magnetism
When a permanent magnet is brought nearer a magnetic material, magnetic material gains
magnetism. The magnetized material then behaves like a magnet. This means it will have two
poles and it too can attract another magnetic material. This is magnetic induction.

If you hold a bar magnet near or in contact with a soft iron nail as shown in the figure above, the
nail becomes a magnet by induction.The nail retains its magnetism only as long as the magnet is
held near it or in contact with it. It will even pick up several other nails. But is loses its
magnetism as soon as the magnet is removed.
Magnetic Field
A region around a magnet in which magnetism is detected. Magnetic force (repulsive or
attractive) is experienced in this region. Magnetic field pattern around a magnet is shown by
drawing lines called magnetic field lines or flux lines. Field lines have the following rules;
i. They are directed away from the North Pole towards the South pole
ii. They never touch or cross
iii. The field lines repel each other sideways at the free ends of the magnet
iv. The field lines are closest together where the magnetic field is strongest and are much
spaced for a weaker field.
Strong field
Weak field
 108

NB: Field lines do not really exist but they help us visualize the main features of a magnetic
field.
Two methods are used to determine the magnetic field pattern.
a. Iron Fillings Method
A bar magnet is placed beneath a sheet of paper. Iron fillings are then sprinkled lightly on top of
the paper. The paper is tapped gently. Iron fillings arrange in a particular pattern.

b. Use of Plotting Compass

A bar magnet is placed on top of a plain sheet of paper and its edges traced out. A plotting
compass is placed at some point around the magnet. Two dots are made, one at the end of the
pointer and the other dot at the tail of the pointer. The compass is then moved from one point to
another around the magnet. Joining the dots gives a pattern. This method is advantageous as it
gives the field direction.
 109

Magnetic Field Patterns

A single magnet In series-like poles

Magnetic Properties of Soft Iron and Steel

Iron Steel
 easily magnetized and easily  harder to magnetize and demagnetize
demagnetized than iron
 can be magnetized by weak  requires strong magnetic field to
magnetic field magnetize
 when mixed with other metals (e.g.  very good for making permanent
Ni, Cu, Mn, Si) powerful magnets magnets
can be made
 used in electromagnets, transformer  used in bar magnets
cores and magnetic shields

Permanent Magnets and Electromagnets

Steel makes permanent magnets and iron makes temporary magnets
USES OF PERMANENT MAGNETS
They are used in:
 Loudspeakers
 Electric motors
 Dynamos
 Voltmeters
 Ammeters
 Telephone earpiece
 Generators
Electromagnets
 110

Temporary magnets made using magnetic effect of electricity. A simple electromagnet is made by
using direct current (dc) through a long insulated copper wire (solenoid) having soft iron as its
core.

When current is switched off, soft iron loses its magnetism.

Uses of Electromagnets
Large electromagnets are used for:
1. Picking large scrap magnetic materials containing iron or steel. When the load has been
moved to another place, the current is switched off and the load falls.
2. In circuit breakers
3. In magnetic separators
4. Electric bell

- When current is switched ON, the soft iron core (electromagnet)becomes magnetized
- The magnetized core attracts the soft iron armature
- The hammer hits the gong (bell rings) and the electrical circuit is broken at the
contacts
 111

- The soft iron core gets demagnetized and the armature is pulled back to its original
position
- The electrical contact is remade and the bell rings again.
This cycle will continue until the bell switch is open

5. Magnetic relay

When current flows through the coils, the soft inner core becomes magnetized and
attracts the L- shaped iron armature. The armature then completes the circuit by closing
the electrical contacts (2nd switch). Electrical current is then passed to the output circuit
(2nd circuit). Car ignition circuits make use of a magnetic relay.

Magnetization
Methods;
 112

1. Using Direct Current; the magnetic effect of an electric current is used to make
magnets. A coil of insulated copper wire is connected to a direct current (dc). A steel
bar is placed inside the coil and the current switched on and off repeatedly.

Magnetic strength is increased by:

- Increasing the current
- Increasing the number of turns (windings/coils)
The polarity of the solenoid can be determined by using the Fleming’s Right Hand
Rule which states that the fingers on the right hand curl in the direction of the current
and the thumb points to the North Pole.

2. Stroking method

a. Single touch

A steel bar is stroked from end to end several times in the same direction with a
known pole of a permanent magnet. The end of the steel bar where stroking ends will
have the opposite pole of the stroking pole.

b. Double touch
A bar is stroked from the center outwards with the unlike poles of two magnets.
 113

Demagnetization
1. Using alternating current (ac); a magnet is withdrawn (to a distance of 1m or more)

(1m or more)

2. Heating a magnet
3. Hammering
4. Dropping a magnet several times
Magnetic Saturation
In an unmagnetized material, the magnetic domains (group of atomic magnets) point in all
directions and will not show any polarity. When a bar is magnetized, the domains are made to
point in one particular direction. When all the domains are aligned, a maximum level of
magnetization is reached. This is magnetic saturation.
Unmagnetized material magnetized material

Domains randomly directed domains regularly directed

Magnetic Shielding/Screening
Soft iron has a high magnetic permeability i.e. concentrates magnetic field lines. A soft iron ring
is used to shield (protect) an area from external magnetic field. The magnetic field is more
concentrated within the ring, but the region inside the ring is protected from excess field. Soft
iron boxes can also be used for protecting sensitive measuring instruments.

19.ELECTRICITY
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ELECTROSTATICS
[Static Electricity].

Static electricity refers to charge that is not moving i.e. stationary charge.
An insulator can be charged electrically by rubbing it while a conductor cannot.

Types of Charge

 There are two types of charge. These are Positive [+] and Negative [-].
 The SI unit of charge is the Coulomb (C)
 Negative charge is acquired if excess electrons are gained and positive charge is gained if
electrons are lost.
NB: Positive charge arises as a result of a deficiency of electrons.
 All charges obey The Law Of Electric Charges which states that “like charges repel and
unlike charges attract”
 Electric charges can exist independent of each other.

Electrostatic Charging
Methods of electrostatic charging include
(i) Charging through contact/friction or rubbing
(ii) Charging through induction

Charging Through Contact

When a polythene rod is rubbed with a cloth it becomes negatively charged. Electrons flow from
the piece of cloth onto the polythene rod. As a result the cloth attains a positive charge.
On the other hand an acetate rod becomes positively charged when rubbed with a piece of cloth.
Electrons flow out
of the acetate rod into the cloth which then becomes negatively charged

The rods and cloths described above become charged through contact (rubbing).

Charging through induction

Charging through induction can be achieved in two ways- by earthing as well as through
separation of charges.
This can be illustrated by:
 115

Separation of charges;

Place two metal spheres A and B next to each other so that they are in contact.

A charged strip is then brought close to the metal spheres, but not touching them.

This causes a separation of charges in the two spheres. All negative charges are attracted (to
+vely charged strip) from sphere A to B (and –vely charged are repelled by strip).

On being separated, the two spheres are found to be;

A- Positively charged
B- Negatively charged

Earthing

A charged strip is brought close to a neutrally charged metal sphere. See (a) below.
This causes a separation of charge within the sphere itself. See (b) below.
 116

Earthing the sphere causes the negative charge to be repelled by the strip to the ground. See (c)
above.
This leaves the sphere with a net positive charge. See (d ) above.

Detecting Charge

Charge can be detected through the use of a Gold Leaf Electroscope.

When a charged object is brought close to the metal cap, the gold leaf deflects upwards. This
happens because both the stem and the leaf have the same charge and as such repel each other.

To find out the nature of the charge on the object; the electroscope has to be charged first i.e.
only a charged electroscope can be used to detect the type of charge in an object.

Discharging
Discharging refers to the loss of excess charge.
It takes place through contact or ionization. Dangers of ionization are minimized by earthing.
 117

Lightning Conductor

As clouds move overhead they gain a negative charge. When excess charge has been
accumulated in the cloud it is discharged to the ground through ionization. This is called
lightning. Lightning is dangerous and its effects can be minimized through the use of a
Lightning Conductor. A lightning conductor discharges a cloud before it discharges on its own.

The lightning conductor should be made from a good conductor of electricity and it should be
taller than the structure it is protecting. When clouds move through the sky they acquire a
negative charge. As they pass above the lightning conductor they induce a positive charge in the
spikes at the tip of the lightning conductor.
Since charge accumulates at sharp points, the positive charge at the tip of the spikes is large
enough to ionize the air molecules around them by attracting electrons from them. These
electrons are repelled down the lightning conductor to the ground.. The resulting positive ions
are attracted by the negatively charged cloud.
 118

Thus an electric wind of positively charged particles moves from the spikes to the cloud where
they neutralize its negative charged.

Electric Fields

The electric field is a region in which a charged particle exerts its electric force. Electric fields
are illustrated with the help of electric field lines which begin at the positive charge and end at
the negative charge.

Field around single charges.

Field between simmilar charges.

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Electric Current, I
Current is the rate of flow of electric charge. Conventional current flows from positive to
negative but the flow of electric charges is from negative to positive.

Q
current =
charge I=
time t

where I = current in
ampere(A)
Q = charge in coulomb(C)
t = time in seconds(s)

The SI units of current are Amperes(A) or Coulomb per second (C/s).

Current is measured with an ammeter. The circuit symbol for an ammeter is .

An ammeter is always connected in series with other circuit components.

1 coulomb (1 C) is the charge passing trough any point when a steady current of 1 A flows per
second

EXAMPLE
1.Calculate the charge that flows through a resistor when a current of 2A flows through it in 5
seconds.
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SOLUTION
t=5 seconds I=2A Q=?
I=Q/t
2=Q/5
Q = 2*5
Q=10C

Uses of ammeter with different ranges

Potential Difference (pd) or Voltage,V

This refers to the electrical energy needed to drive a charge between two points in a circuit.

E
voltage =
electrical energy V=
charge Q

Where V = voltage
E = electrical energy
Q = charge

The SI units of voltage are Volts(V) or Joules per Coulomb (J/C).

NB: One volt is the energy needed to drive a coulomb of charge around a circuit.

Voltage is measured with a voltmeter. The circuit symbol for a voltmeter is .

A voltmeter is always connected in parallel with other circuit components.
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Electromotive force(emf)
This is the electrical energy required to drive a charge round a circuit by a power supply. A
voltmeter is connected across the power supply to measure the emf.

SI UNIT: Volts(V)
electrical energy
electromotive force=
charge

USES OF A VOLTMETER WITH DIFFERENT RANGES

Resistance, R
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Resistance is the opposition to flow of current.

SI units of resistance are Ohms (Ω). An ohmmeter can be used to measure resistance.
V
R =
I
Instrument used to measure resistance :Ohmeter

*The greater the resistance, the harder it is for current to flow through the component.

Ohm’s Law
The current (I) through a conductor is directly proportional to the voltage (V) across the
conductor, provided temperature and other conditions remain constant.

V = IR
Where V = voltage
I = current
R = resistance.
Factors affecting resistance of a conductor
1.Length
*Increasing the length of a conductor increases the resistance of a conductor and vice versa
2.Cross sectional area
*The smaller the cross sectional are of the conductor, the higher the resistance
3.Temperature
*For a conductor, increase in temperature result in increase in resistance

*In an ohmic conductor (such as a resistor at a constant temperature), the current is directly
proportional to the voltage (i.e. it has constant resistance).
* In a non-ohmic conductor (such as a filament lamp), the resistance changes as the voltage and
current changes.

V/I Characteristic Graphs

Ohmic Conductor Filament bulb Thermistor

In a filament lamp, this is because as the current increases through the filament, so does the
temperature, which means electrons and ions vibrate more and collide more, increasing
resistance.
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A thermistor is a resistor whose resistance decreases as the temperature increases.

A light dependent resistor is a resistor whose resistance decreases as light intensity increases.

Limitations of ohm’s law

*When current flows there is heating of cables, but ohm’s law state that temperature should be
kept constant
How to minimize overheating of cables
*During experimentation a circuit is switched on for a short period of time and then switched off
to take readings.

EXPERIMENT TO VERIFY OHM’S LAW

Objective: To verify Ohm's law, which states that the current flowing through a conductor
between two points is directly proportional to the voltage across the two points, provided the
temperature remains constant.

Materials:

Power supply (e.g., a variable voltage power supply)

Ammeter (measures current)

Voltmeter (measures voltage)
Resistor
Connecting wires
Crocodile clips
Rheostat
Procedure:

Set up the circuit as shown in the diagram below:

1. Set up the circuit as illustrated above to verify Ohm's law experimentally.

2. Connect the resistance in parallel with the voltmeter (an instrument to measure potential
in a circuit) and connect the ammeter (an instrument to measure current in a circuit) in
series in the circuit.
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3. Initially, the switch is closed, and the rheostat (a device used to control current by
varying resistance) is adjusted to get the minimum reading in ammeter A and voltmeter
V.
4. The current in the circuit is increased gradually by moving the sliding terminal of the
rheostat. During the process, the current flowing in the circuit and the corresponding
value of potential difference across the resistance wire R are recorded.
5. Similarly, different values of current and voltage are obtained.
6. Plot a graph between the values of current and voltage. The graph obtained will be a
straight line.
7. This shows that current and potential are directly proportional to each other. Thus, it
verifies Ohm's law.

Tabulate your results.

Plot a graph of voltage (V) against current (I). Ensure that the current is plotted on the y-axis and
voltage on the x-axis.

Analyze your graph. If the resistor obeys Ohm's law, the graph should be a straight line passing
through the origin (0,0). The gradient of the line should represent the resistance of the resistor.

Conditions for Ohm's law:

1. Ohm's law is followed only if the temperature remains constant.

2. When the temperature increases, Ohm's law is violated. For example, the temperature of
the light bulb filament increases due to current, so Ohm's law is not followed in this case.
3. Thus, for Ohm's law to be followed, temperature and other physical conditions must
remain constant
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Safety Precautions:

Ensure that the voltage used is within a safe range.

Handle the equipment carefully to avoid electrical shocks.
Do not short-circuit the power supply.
Conclusion:
Based on the experiment and the graph obtained, you can conclude whether the resistor obeys
Ohm's law. If the graph is a straight line passing through the origin, it confirms that the resistor
obeys Ohm's law. If not, it suggests that the resistor might be non-ohmic or that the temperature
might have varied during the experiment
Alternating current and direct current
In a direct current, the current only flows in one direction whereas in an alternating current, the
current continuously changes direction.

Mains electricity is an alternating current (a.c.) whereas the current supplied by a cell or battery
is direct current (d.c.)
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Series Circuits
In a series circuit there is only one pathway for current.

Current in Series circuits

The current is the same at all points in a series circuit

A1 = A2 = A3 and therefore I1 = I2 = I3

Voltage in a Series Circuit.

In a series circuit there is a potential drop across the circuit components. Thus the sum of the
voltages across the circuit components should give the emf.
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VT = V 1 + V 2 + …
Resistance in a series circuit.

The total resistance, RT for resistors R1, R2, R3,etc which are in series is given by

RT = R 1 + R 2 + R 3 + …

Parallel Circuits
This is a circuit in which there is more than one pathway for current.

Current in parallel circuits

Current divides among the several pathways in a parallel circuit.

AT = A1 + A2

IT = I1 + I2 + …

Voltage in parallel circuits

The voltages across parallel circuit components are equal.

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VT = V 1 = V 2

Resistance in parallel circuits

The total resistance, RT for resistors R1, R2, R3, etc which are parallel is given by

1 1 1 1
= + + +. ..
R T R 1 R2 R3
● Connecting lamps in parallel is advantageous because if one breaks, current can still pass
through the rest.

16.PRACTICAL ELECTRIC CIRCUITRY

ELECTRIC POWER
Power is the rate of doing work or is the rate at which energy is changed.
SI UNIT:Watts (W)

Power=Voltage x Current
P =VxI
P = E/t
E = Pxt
E =VxIxt

EXAMPLE
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1.A lamp rated 100 W was used for 60 s.What is the amount of electrical energy converted to
light and heat energy?

E=Pxt
= 100 x 60
E = 6000 J

USES OF ELECTRICITY

Electricity is used in
 Lighting
 Machines
 Security
 Communication
 Heating

COST OF ELECTRICITY

Cost of electricity = cost per unit X no of units

No of units = time in hours X power in kilowatts. [1 unit is equal to 1 kilowatt-hour.(kWh)]

Example.
If BPC sells electricity at P0.55 per unit, calculate the cost of using two 100 W bulbs for ten
hours.

No of units = 2 x 100W x 10 hrs

= 2 x 0.1 kW x 10 hrs
= 2 kWh

Cost = 20 kWh x P0.55

= P1.10

DANGERS OF ELECTRICITY HAZARD PREVENTION

1 Damaged Insulation *An electric shock *Switch off the power
which may lead to death. supply and ask an expert
to replace damaged
*Fires from short circuit insulation.
2 Overheating Of Cables * Electrical fires *Never cover appliances
when they are being
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charged
* If the appliance has an
internal fan system (i.e.
laptops) make sure there
is good ventilation so they
can cool themselves down

3. Damp Conditions *Electric shock which When handling electrical

may lead to death equipment, it is crucial to
ensure that your hands or
body are dry to prevent
electric shock.
Moisture can conduct
electricity and increase the
risk of electric shock
4. Overloading A Socket *Explosion or fire. Do not overload a socket .

SAFE USE OF ELECTRICITY

Fuses
This is a safety device made from tin coated-copper wire. It has a low melting point such that it
melts and breaks the circuit when current through it exceeds a certain value called the fuse
rating. This could be due to short circuits or overheating of cables. A fuse ensures that the
current carrying capacity of the wire is not exceeded.

To calculate the fuse rating one has to know the power rating of the device. For example, a 3kW
240V electric fire needs a current of about

Power 3000 W
Current = P= =12.5 A
Voltage 240V

Therefore a 13A fuse is recommended.

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Fuses and switches(circuit breaker) are always connected to the live wire so as to isolate the
appliance from the current source when the appliance is not in use or in case of a short circuit.
Earthing
Appliances that are made of metal on the outer case must be earthed as a safety precaution. This
connects the body of the appliance to the ground. When the device is faulty or the ‘live’ wire
breaks and touches the metal case, the earth wire will channel the charge to the ground to prevent
any electric shocks.

Double Insulation
Appliances that are made from non-metal outer case are usually double-insulated using a tough,
stiff non-conducting material. This prevents electric current to flow to the user in case there is a
fault. Devices that are double insulated carry the sign below.
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3 Pin Mains Plug

Earth wire (green or/and yellow). This is connected to the earth pin. provides a path for current
to flow from the case of the device to the ground if there is a fault.

Live wire (brown). This is connected to the live pin. It carries live current to the circuit.

Neutral wire (blue). This is connected to the neutral pin. Returns current from the appliance to
the power supply.

FUNCTION OF A CABLE GRIP

Cable grip This holds the cable tightly in place so that wires do not become loose.

2.Demonstrate understanding of the use of circuit-breakers.

A circuit breaker is a safety device that forces a circuit to open (switch off) when an extremely
high level of current flows through the circuit.

 Electricity flows in the circuit breaker through the metal contacts.

 If an extremely high current flows through the circuit breaker, the electromagnet gets
stronger and pulls the iron catch towards it.
 This causes spring to pull the metal contacts apart, causing the circuit to open/break.

SIMPLE LIGHTING
Lights are always connected in parallel
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Because
1. the bulbs in the parallel circuit will be brighter than those in the series circuit as they
receive the full amount of battery voltage.
2. If one bulb is not working , then the other remains powered.

RING MAIN CIRCUIT

The power sockets in a house are connected by means of a ring circuit. In a ring circuit the live,
neutral and earth wires form a loop of cable going from the consumer unit to all of the sockets in
turn and then back to the consumer unit. The live wire carries current to the house/appliance at a
high voltage
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NECCESARY DIAGNOSTIC STEPS TO BE FOLLOWED WHEN THERE IS AN

ELECTRICAL FAULT IN AN APPLIANCE

Safety Precautions: Before starting any diagnostic procedures, ensure that the appliance is
disconnected from the power supply. This may involve unplugging it from the outlet or
switching off the circuit breaker.

Visual Inspection: Conduct a visual inspection of the appliance's exterior for any signs of
damage, such as frayed wires, burns, or melted components. Check the power cord, plugs,
switches, and any visible wiring.

Check for Loose Connections: Tighten any loose connections within the appliance, such as
terminal screws or wire nuts. Loose connections can cause electrical faults and pose safety
hazards.

Fuse and Circuit Breaker Inspection: Check the appliance's fuses or circuit breakers for any
signs of damage or tripping. Replace blown fuses or reset tripped circuit breakers if necessary.

Testing Components: Test individual components within the appliance, such as heating
elements, motors, switches, and control boards, to identify any faulty parts. Use the appropriate
testing procedures and reference the appliance's wiring diagram if available.
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Professional Assistance: If unable to diagnose or repair the electrical fault safely and
effectively, seek assistance from a qualified electrician or appliance repair technician. Some
electrical faults may require specialized knowledge and tools to rectify safely

17.ELECTROMAGNETIC EFFECTS

ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
A magnetic field can be used to produce current.
When the wire is moved across the magnetic field, a small EMF (voltage) is created. This is
called electromagnetic induction.

NB * When a wire of conductor cut magnetic field lines, current or EMF is induced on the wire
because cutting of magnetic field lines creates a change in magnetic field.
*Current or EMF is only induced when the wire is moved vertically upwards and downwards
across magnetic field lines.
*No current is induced if the conductor is moved along the magnetic field lines or if the
conductor is not moving (stationary)
because no magnetic field lines are cut, ( no change in magnetic field )

In the diagram below a conductor is being moved in a magnetic field.

DIRECTION OF INDUCED CURRENT IS FOUND BY USING

Fleming’s right hand rule. The thumb represents the motion of wire, the first finger represents
the direction of the magnetic field and second finger represents the direction of the induced
current.
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NB. All three fingers should be perpendicular to each other.

If the conductor is coiled, then the direction of the induced emf is given by
Lenz’s law which states that the direction of induced current is such that it opposes the change
causing it.

1.MAGNET MOVED AWAY FROM THE COIL

In the diagram above the north pole of the magnet is being moved away from end Q of the
solenoid. According to Lenz’s law this will induce a south pole on end Q of the solenoid. The
outward motion of the magnet will then be opposed since unlike poles attract
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2.MAGNET MOVED TOWARDS THE COIL

In the diagram above the north pole of the magnet is being moved into end Q of the solenoid.
According to Lenz’s law this will induce a north pole on end Q of the solenoid. The inward
motion of the magnet will then be opposed since like poles repel.
 138

The direction of current in the coil can then be determined using the Right Hand Grip Rule.
 139

Factors that affect the size of the induced current are,

1. Speed of movement of the wire.

2. Strength of the magnet.
3.Number of times the conductor has been wound.

FARADAY’S LAW: The amount of induced current is directly proportional to the rate at which
the conductor cuts the magnetic field.

Simple Alternating Current Generator

A simple a.c. generator comprises a rectangular coil, slip rings, carbon brushes and a permanent
magnet.
 140

HOW A SIMPLE A.C GENERATOR OPERATES

*The coil is rotated within the magnetic field

* An emf is induced as the coil cuts the magnetic field lines.
*Current flows to the slip rings and carbon brushes brush off current from the rings to the
external circuit.

FUNCTION OF
SLIP RINGS:Allows current to pass through while rotating
CARBON BRUSHES: Brush off current from the slip rings to the external circuit

WAYS OF INCREASING THE STRENGTHT OF INDUCED CURRENT

*Increasing the number of turns in the coil
*Using a stronger magnet
*rotate the coil faster

The output voltage is illustrated below

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INTERPRETATION OF THE GRAPH

*maximum emf is induced when the coil is parallel to the field

*zero emf is induced when the coil is perpendicular to the magnetic field.
* The induced current reverses direction after every half cycle to create an alternating current.

Transformers
A transformer is used to step down or step up voltage.
It operates on the principle of mutual induction which states that a change in the magnetic field
of a coil induces an emf in a neighbouring coil.
Transformers work on alternating current(a.c) not on Direct current(d.c) because a.c produces
changing magnetic field.

The diagram below shows two coils A and B which are placed next to each other. Coil A is
connected to a d.c. power supply while Coil B is connected to a centre zero galvanometer.
 142

When switch S is closed the pointer deflects in one direction and goes back to rest position.
When the switch is opened the pointer is deflected in the opposite direction and goes back to rest
position. When the switch is left closed or opened there is no deflection of the pointer.

Coil A is the primary coil and Coil B is the secondary coil. The voltage in the primary coil is the
primary voltage (Vp) and the voltage in the secondary coil is called the secondary voltage (Vs).

SUITABLE METAL USED AS A CORE IN A TRANSFORMER

Iron:because it is easily magnetised and demagnetised

WHY IS THE CORE LAMINATED

*To prevent the formation of eddy currents across the core

A METAL USED FOR THE COILS OF A TRANSFORMER

*Copper: because it is a good conductor of electricity

HOW A TRANSFORMER OPERATES/ HOW A VOLTAGE IS INDUCED IN A

SECONDARY COIL/HOW A BULB CONNECTED TO SECONDARY COIL WILL
LIGHT
*current(a.c) flows through the primary coil
*magnetic field lines are produced /iron core is magnetised
*There is a change in magnetic field which links to the secondary coil
*Induced emf or current is produced in the secondary coil

TYPES OF TRANSFORMERS

Step-down Transformer (Vp > Vs)

A step down transformer has more turns in the primary coil than in the secondary coil. (Np > Ns).

Step-up Transformer (Vs > Vp)

 143

A step up transformer has more turns in the secondary coil than in the primary coil. (Np < Ns).

Transformer equation
The voltages in the secondary and primary coils of a transformer are related through the
expression

secondary voltage primary voltage

=
secondary turns primary turns

Vs Vp
=
Ns Np
Energy loss in a transformer
According to the principle of energy conservation the energy input into a transformer should be
equal to the energy output from the transformer.

Thus the power in the primary coil should be equal to the power in the secondary coil, i.e.

IpVp = IsVs

However transformers are not 100 % efficient

Transmission of electrical power

Power stations generate electricity at more than 10 000V. This is then stepped up to more than
200 000V before it can be transmitted over long distances. When it gets to a town or village, the
voltage is stepped down to a suitable voltage at a substation. This is done to reduce the amount
 144

of energy lost due to the length of the transmission lines.

How energy is lost in a transformer How to minimise the power energy loss
1.linkage of magnetic field between the *Primary coil is built on top of the secondary
primary and secondary coil coil to ensure maximum linkage of magnetic
field lines
2.change in magnetic field induces eddy *Laminate soft iron core
current in the soft iron core
3.Overheating of coils *use thick copper wires of lower resistance

ADVANTAGE OF USING HIGH VOLTAGE TRANSMISSION OF ELECTRICITY

INSTEAD OF LOW VOLTAGE/WHY IS ELECTRICITY TRANSMITTED AT HIGH
VOLTAGE/WHY IS IT SUITABLE TO USE 230 KV DURING TRANSMISSION OF
ELECTRICITY INSTEAD OF 230 V
*There will be low current and it will reduce heating losses in the cables/reduces costs /less
energy loss/less power loss.

WHY THE VOLTAGE FOR USE BY A HOME CONSUMER IS 240 V?

*240 v is safer for use by consumers

18. RADIOACTIVITY

It is the spontaneous emission of radiation by radioactive materials. The nucleus of an atom is

usually very stable. Atoms may lose or gain electrons during a chemical reaction but the nucleus
does not change during such process. However there are some atoms which have unstable nuclei
which throw out particles or energy to make the nucleus more stable. Therefore atoms of a
1radioactive isotope each have an unstable nucleus.

Examples of radioactive materials

 145

 Radon-222
 Cobalt-60
 Strontium-90
 Iodine-131

Alpha (α), beta (β) and gamma (ɣ) emissions can be emitted during the process of radioactivity.

Radioactive emissions occur randomly over space and time

Radioactivity is not affected by chemical reactions or any change in physical conditions, such as
temperature, pressure, electric fields or magnetic fields and etc.
ALL the nuclei of a radioactive substance have the same probability of undergoing radioactive
decay (by emitting alpha, beta or gamma particles). It is IMPOSSIBLE to tell which nuclei will
be the next in line to decay or how long it will take to decay.

Since it is independent of external conditions and the breakdown within the nucleus is
completely random, i.e., occurrence of radioactive emission is random over space and time

CHARACTERISTICS OF RADIOACTIVE EMISSIONS

Type of Nature charge Penetrative Ionizing effect

radiation power
Alpha(α) Helium nucleus +2 low high
Beta(β) electron -1 medium medium
Gamma(ɣ) Electromagnetic none high low
wave

ILLUSTRATION OF PENETRATIVE POWER OF RADIOACTIVE EMISSIONS

 146

Diagram showing the penetrative abilities of alpha (α) particles, beta (β−) particles, and
gamma (γ) rays.

Deflection of α-particles, β-particles and γ-rays in electric fields

DEFLECTION OF RADIOACTIVE EMISSIONS

*When alpha particles are released into an electrical field, it will deflect towards the negative
plate since they’re positive (opposite charges attract).

*Beta particles deflect towards the positive plate since they are negative.

*Gamma rays will not deflect to either side as they’re uncharged.

NB: Beta particles have a greater deflection because they are lighter than the alpha particles

Relative ionizing effect of radioactive emissions.

Radiation from radioactive substances knocks electrons out of atoms. The atoms become charged
(positively, since there will be more protons than electrons) and thus becomes ‘ionized’. This
process is called ionization. Ionization in a living cell can damage or kill the cell, hence
radiation is considered very dangerous
 147

Alpha particles have a huge mass and so travel slowly. This means that it has more effect on the
atoms it encounters and causes a lot of ionization.

Beta particles are lighter than alpha particles and moves faster and so have lesser ionizing effect.

Gamma rays have very less ionizing effect because they are uncharged and are very fast.

Methods of detection of radioactive emissions by Geiger-Muller tubes

1. Ionization by Radiation: When ionizing radiation enters the GM tube, it collides with the gas
atoms inside the tube, ionizing them. This process creates pairs of positive ions and electrons in
the gas.

2. Electric Field: A high voltage is applied between the anode wire and the cathode tube.
This creates a strong electric field inside the tube.

3. Electron Avalanche: When an ionizing event occurs due to radiation, the freed electrons
are accelerated towards the anode wire by the electric field. As they move, they gain
enough energy to ionize more gas atoms along their path.

4. Current Pulse: The electrons reaching the anode wire create a sudden surge of current,
which is detected by external circuitry connected to the GM tube. This current pulse is
amplified and can be measured using suitable electronic equipment.

5. Counting and Measurement: The frequency of these current pulses is directly

proportional to the intensity of the radiation. By counting the number of pulses per unit
time (count rate), one can estimate the radiation level in the environment.
 148

BACKGROUND RADIATION

Background Radiation: It is low level radiation that is always present around, mainly because
of radioactive materials in the ground and air. Every person on Earth is exposed to this form of
radiation.

Major sources of background radiation are;

*rocks

*soils and underground water

*cosmic and solar rays

*food and drinks

*buildings

DANGERS OF EXPOSURE TO RADIOACTIVE EMISSIONS

*Exposure to these types of emissions may burn the skin or cause skin disorder

*People exposed to low level of radiation may develop leukemia (disease of blood cells)

*If radioactive material is swallowed, they may irradiate the body organs near them and increase
the risk of cancer.

*Low level of radiation can damage human genes which may lead to the birth of deformed
babies.
 149

*Massive doses of gamma radiation can cause sterility, bleeding and even cataracts.

PRECAUTIONS TO BE OBSERVED IN A LABORATOTY WHEN HANDLING

RADIOACTIVE SOURCES

* During the experiments, the sources must be handled with forceps and should always be held
away from the body.

*Sources must never be brought close to the eye for inspection

* No eating, drinking or smoking must take place in a laboratory where radioactive sources are
kept and used.

*After every experiment with radioactive materials, hands must be thoroughly washed

STORAGE OF RADIOACTIVE MATERIAL IN LABORATORY

*All sources must be kept in a special cupboard in a less frequented section of the laboratory.

*They must be kept in thick lead containers.

*Radioactive materials must be clearly labelled.

USES OF RADIOACTIVE MATERIALS

1. IN INDUSTRY

 To measure fluid flow in pipes. Leaks from a pipe carrying oil, or gas can be traced by
injecting a radioisotopes into it.

 Beta particles can be used to measure the thickness of thin materials such as paper,
cardboard or aluminum foil
 150

2. IN PRODUCTION OF ELECTRICITY

They can also be used to generate electrical power for consumer use, as is done in a nuclear
reactor.

3. IN MEDICINE

 Cobalt-60 which is a gamma emitter can be used in treatment of cancer.

 Gallium-68, technicium-99 and mercury-203 can be used in detection of brain tumors.
 Boron-10 can be used to trace regions of abnormal blood circulation.
 Iron-59 can be used to detect anemia.
4. IN AGRICULTURE

 Phosphorus-32 can be used to determine the uptake of phosphorus by plants.

 Radiation method can be used to find the origin of certain plants.
DANGERS OF WASTE PRODUCTS OF RADIOACTIVE MATERIALS

Although most of the time the waste is well sealed inside huge drums of steel and concrete,
sometimes accidents can happen and leaks can occur. Nuclear waste can have drastically bad
effects on life, causing cancerous growths, for instance, or causing genetic problems for many
generations of animal and plants.

Exposure to large amounts of radioactivity can cause nausea, vomiting, hair loss, and
diarrhea, and hemorrhage, destruction of the intestinal lining, central nervous system damage,
and death. It also causes DNA damage and raises the risk of cancer, particularly in young
children and fetuses.

SAFE DISPOSAL OF RADIOACTIVE WASTE MATERIALS

1. Radioactive wastes materials come from uranium mines, nuclear power stations, hospitals
and research laboratories. The waste must be disposed of in some place where it is not a
hazardous to health.
2. Low level waste materials such as cooling water can be discharged at the sea.
 151

3. Intermediate level waste materials should be stored in concrete drums and buried
underground.
4. High level waste materials should be placed in concrete blocks and buried deep
underground or packed in old mines.

SYMBOL TO WARN OF RADIACTIVE HAZARD