Republic of the Philippines

NORTHERN ILOILO STATE UNIVERSITY

Estancia, Iloilo
Reg. No. 97Q19783

BASIC ELECTRONICS
EE 221: Basic Electronics Eng’r. John Paul G. Arceo
NISU-BSME 2 Instructor 1
2 MODULE 5/ BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR

5-1 TRANSISTOR CONSTRUCTION

When a third doped element is added to a crystal diode in such a way that
two pn junctions are formed, the resulting device is known as a transistor. The
transistor—an entirely new type of electronic device—is capable of achieving
amplification of weak signals in a fashion comparable and often superior to that
realised by vacuum tubes. Transistors are far smaller than vacuum tubes, have no
filament and hence need no heating power and may be operated in any position.
They are mechanically strong, have practically unlimited life and can do some jobs
better than vacuum tubes.

The bipolar junction transistor (BJT) is constructed with three doped

semiconductor regions separated by two pn junctions, as shown in the epitaxial
planar structure in Figure 1(a). The three regions are called emitter, base, and
collector. Representations of the two types of bipolar transistors are shown in
Figure 1(b) and (c). One type consists of two n regions separated by a p region (npn),
and the other consists of two p regions separated by an n region (pnp).

The pn junction joining the base region and the emitter region is called the
base-emitter junction. The junction joining the base region and the collector region
is called the base-collector junction, as indicated in Figure 1(b). A wire lead
connects to each of the three regions, as shown. These leads are labeled E, B, and
C for emitter, base, and collector, respectively. The base material is lightly doped
and very narrow compared to the heavily doped emitter and collector materials.
 LESSON 5-1: TRANSISTOR CONSTRUCTION 3

Notice that for both types, the base is a narrow region sandwiched between
the larger collector and emitter regions. The emitter region of a transistor is heavily
doped. Its job is to emit or inject current carriers into the base. The base region is
very thin and lightly doped. Most of the current carriers injected into the base from
the emitter do not flow out the base lead. Instead, most of the current carriers
injected into the base pass on to the collector. The collector region is moderately
doped and is the largest of all three regions. The collector region attracts the
current carriers that are injected into the thin and lightly doped base region.
Incidentally, the collector region is the largest of all the three regions because it
must dissipate more heat than the emitter or base regions. In npn transistors, the
majority current carriers are free electrons in the emitter and collector, whereas
the majority current carriers are holes in the base. The opposite is true in a pnp
transistor where the majority current carriers are holes in the emitter and collector,
and the majority current carriers are free electrons in the base.

Figure 28–2 shows

the depletion layers in an
unbiased npn transistor.
The diffusion of electrons
from both n regions into
the p-type base causes a
barrier potential, VB, for both p-n junctions. The p-n junction at the left is the
emitter-base junction; the p-n junction at the right is the collector-base junction.
For silicon, the barrier potential for both the emitter-base (EB) and collector-base
(CB) junctions equals approximately 0.7 V.

Figure 2 shows the

schematic symbols for the
npn and pnp bipolar
transistors. Notice that the
emitter terminal has an
arrow. The term bipolar
refers to the use of both holes and electrons as charge carriers in the transistor
structure.
4 MODULE 5/ BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR

5-1.1 NAMING TRANSISTOR TERMINALS

A transistor (pnp or npn) has three sections of doped semiconductors. The

section on one side is the emitter and the section on the opposite side is the
collector. The middle section is called the base and forms two junctions between
the emitter and collector.

(i) Emitter. The section on one side that supplies charge carriers (electrons
or holes) is called the emitter. The emitter is always forward biased w.r.t.
base so that it can supply a large number of majority carriers (Holes if emitter
is p-type and electrons if the emitter is n-type.) . In Fig. 8.2 (i), the emitter (p-
type) of pnp transistor is forward biased and supplies hole charges to its
junction with the base. Similarly, in Fig. 8.2 (ii), the emitter (n-type) of npn
transistor has a forward bias and supplies free electrons to its junction with
the base.

(ii) Collector. The section on the other side that collects the charges is called
the collector. The collector is always reverse biased. Its function is to remove
charges from its junction with the base. In Fig. 8.2 (i), the collector (p-type)
of pnp transistor has a reverse bias and receives hole charges that flow in the
output circuit. Similarly, in Fig. 8.2 (ii), the collector (n-type) of npn transistor
has reverse bias and receives electrons.

(iii) Base. The middle section which forms two pn-junctions between the
emitter and collector is called the base. The base-emitter junction is forward
biased, allowing low resistance for the emitter circuit. The base-collector
junction is reverse biased and provides high resistance in the collector circuit.
 LESSON 5-2: TRANSISTOR BIASING 5
5-2 TRANSISTOR BIASING

In order for a transistor to operate properly as an amplifier, the two pn

junctions must be correctly biased with external dc voltages. Figure 3 shows the
proper bias arrangement for both npn and pnp transistors. Notice that in both cases
the base-emitter (BE) junction is forward-biased and the base-collector (BC)
junction is reverse-biased. This is called forward-reverse bias.

5-2.1 TRANSISTOR CURRENTS

The directions of current in an npn and a pnp transistor are as shown in

Figure 4(a) and 4(b), respectively. An examination of these diagrams shows that the
emitter current is the sum of the collector and base currents, expressed as follows:
6 MODULE 5/ BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR

As mentioned before, IB is very small compared to IE or IC. The capital-letter

subscripts indicate dc values. These direct currents (emitter, base, and collector)
are also related by two parameters: the dc alpha (𝜶DC) or current amplification
factor, which is the ratio IC/IE and the dc beta (𝜷DC) or base current amplification
factor, which is the ratio IC/IB. The collector current is equal to 𝜶DC times the emitter
current.

where 𝜶DC typically has a value between 0.950 and 0.995. Generally 𝜶DC can be
considered to be approximately 1 and therefore IC ≅ IE.

The collector current is equal to the base current multiplied by 𝜷DC.

where 𝜷DC, also known as the current gain, typically has a value between 20 and
300, depending on the type of transistor. Some specialized transistors can have
much higher values. If 𝜷DC is known, 𝜶DC can be found by using:

Likewise, if 𝜶DC is known, 𝜷DC can be found by using:

 LESSON 5-2: TRANSISTOR BIASING 7

5-2.2 TRANSISTOR VOLTAGES

The three dc voltages for the biased transistor in Figure 5 are the emitter
voltage (VE), the collector voltage (VC), and the base voltage (VB). These voltages
are with respect to ground. The collector voltage is equal to the dc supply voltage,
VCC, less the drop across RC.

The base voltage is equal to the emitter voltage plus the base-emitter
junction barrier potential (VBE), which is about 0.7 V for a silicon transistor.

In the configuration of Figure 5, the emitter is the common (grounded)

terminal, so VE = 0 V and VB = 0.7 V.

5-2.3 VOLTAGE-DIVIDER BIAS

The two dc bias sources can be replaced by a

single dc source and a resistive voltage divider.
Although there are other bias methods, this one is the
most widely used. The voltage-divider bias
configuration uses a single dc source to provide
forward-reverse bias to the transistor, as shown in
Figure 6. Resistors R1 and R2 form a voltage divider that
provides the base bias voltage. Resistor RE allows the
emitter to rise above ground potential. The voltage
divider bias provides a very small base current to the
transistor compared to the bias current.
8 MODULE 5/ BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR

For a properly designed circuit, the loading effect is negligible and can be
ignored. The input resistance at the transistor base depends on 𝛽 DC and is
approximately:

5-2.4 BASE VOLTAGE

Using the voltage-divider formula, you get the following equation for the
approximate base voltage for the circuit in Figure 6:

Once you have determined the base voltage, you can determine the emitter
voltage VE (for an npn transistor).
 LESSON 5-3: TRANSISTOR CONNECTIONS 9

5-3 TRANSISTOR CONNECTIONS

There are three leads in a transistor viz., emitter, base and collector
terminals. However, when a transistor is to be connected in a circuit, we require
four terminals; two for the input and two for the output. This difficulty is overcome
by making one terminal of the transistor common to both input and output
terminals. The input is fed between this common terminal and one of the other two
terminals. The output is obtained between the common terminal and the
remaining terminal. Accordingly; a transistor can be connected in a circuit in the
following three ways :

1.) common base connection 2.) common emitter connection

3.) common collector connection

Each circuit connection has specific advantages and disadvantages. It may be

noted here that regardless of circuit connection, the emitter is always biased in the
forward direction, while the collector always has a reverse bias.

5-3.1 COMMON BASE CONNECTION

In this circuit arrangement, input is applied between emitter and base and
output is taken from collector and base. Here, base of the transistor is common to
10 MODULE 5/ BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR

both input and output circuits and hence the name common base connection. In
Fig. 8.9 (i), a common base npn transistor circuit is shown whereas Fig. 8.9 (ii) shows
the common base pnp transistor circuit.
 LESSON 5-3: TRANSISTOR CONNECTIONS 11

5-3.2 COMMON EMITTER CONNECTION

In this circuit arrangement, input is applied between base and emitter and
output is taken from the collector and emitter. Here, emitter of the transistor is
common to both input and output circuits and hence the name common emitter
connection. Fig. 8.16 (i) shows common emitter npn transistor circuit whereas Fig.
8.16 (ii) shows common emitter pnp transistor circuit.
12 MODULE 5/ BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR

5-3.3 COMMON COLLECTOR CONNECTION

In this circuit arrangement, input is applied between base and collector while
output is taken between the emitter and collector. Here, collector of the transistor
is common to both input and output circuits and hence the name common collector
connection. Fig. 8.32 (i) shows common collector npn transistor circuit whereas Fig.
8.32 (ii) shows common collector pnp circuit.
 LESSON 5-4: REGIONS OF OPERATIONS 13

5-4 REGIONS OF OPERATIONS

The curve of Fig.

6-9b has different
regions where the
action of a transistor
changes. First, there is
the region in the
middle where VCE is
between 1 and 40 V.
This represents the
normal operation of a
transistor. In this
region, the emitter
diode is forward
biased, and the
collector diode is
reverse biased.
Furthermore, the collector is gathering almost all the electrons that the emitter has
sent into the base. This is why changes in collector voltage have no effect on the
collector current. This region is called the active region. Graphically, the active
region is the horizontal part of the curve. In other words, the collector current is
constant in this region.
14 MODULE 5/ BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR

Another region of operation is the breakdown region. The transistor should

never operate in this region because it will be destroyed. Unlike the Zener diode,
which is optimized for breakdown operation, a transistor is not intended for
operation in the breakdown region.

Third, there is the early rising part of the curve, where VCE is between 0 V and
a few tenths of a volt. This sloping part of the curve is called the saturation region.
In this region, the collector diode has insufficient positive voltage to collect all the
free electrons injected into the base. In this region, the base current IB is larger than
normal and the current gain 𝛽 dc is smaller than normal.

Figure 6-10 has an

unexpected curve, the one
on the bottom. This
represents a fourth possible
region of operation. Notice
that the base current is zero,
but there still is a small
collector current. On a curve
tracer, this current is usually
so small that you cannot see
it. We have exaggerated the
bottom curve by drawing it
larger than usual. This bottom curve is called the cutoff region of the transistor,
and the small collector current is called the collector cutoff current.

In short, a transistor
has four distinct operating
regions: active, cutoff,
saturation, and breakdown.
Transistors operate in the
active region when they are used to amplify weak signals. Sometimes, the active
region is called the linear region because changes in the input signal produce
proportional changes in the output signal. The saturation and cutoff regions are
useful in digital and computer circuits, referred to as switching circuits.