Forging

Forging
• Forging is a process in which the work piece is shaped by
compressive forces applied through various dies and tools.

• Most forging, however, require a set of dies and an equipment

such as a press, or a forging hammer.
• Typical forged products are bolts and rivets ,connecting rods,
shaft for turbine ,hand tools, structural components, etc.
• Metal flow and grain structure can be controlled, so forged part
have a good strength and toughness.
Forging
• Forging may be done at room temperature or at elevated
temperatures.
• Cold forged parts have a good surface finish and dimensional
accuracy.
• Hot forging require smaller force, but it produces less dimensional
accuracy and its surface finish are not as good
• Forging generally require additional finishing operations, such as heat
treating to modify properties and then machining to obtain accurate
finished the dimension. These operations can be minimized by
precision forging.
• Advantages of Forging
 Mechanical properties and reliability of the materials increase due to
the improvement in the crystal structure
 Forging reduces the grain size of the metal, which increases strength
and toughness
 Fatigue and creep strength increases
 Improved physical property
 Machining time after forging is reduced considerably
 Internal defects like segregation, cracks, and porosity are eliminated
• Disadvantages of Forging
 Tooling cost in forging is more
 Poor dimensional accuracy and surface finish
 Forging operations are limited to simple shapes and have
limitations for parts having undercuts, re‐entrant surfaces, etc
Forgeability

• Forgeability is generally defined as the capability of a

material to undergo deformation without cracking.
• A commonly used test is to upset a solid cylindrical
specimen and observe any cracking on the barrelled
surface and greater the deformation prior to cracking
greater the forgeability.
Forging operation
• Upsetting Operation
• This operation applied to increase the cross-sectional area of ​the
stock over the length extension. The offsetting force is used in a
direction parallel to the long axis to achieve the length, for example,
the development of the bolt head.
Forging operation
• Cutting:
• Cutting is a forging operation is carried out when metal is needed to
be cut apart. The operation is done when the metal is in red hot
condition using a chisel and hammer.
• Drawing:
• These types of forging operations are carried out to make the metal
longer by pulling and stretching in the cross-sectional area. The force
is applied in a perpendicular direction to the length axis
Forging operation
• Bending:
• Bending operation is the most common and easiest forging. It is done
to give a turn a shape to a metal rod or plate.
Forging operation
• Fullering:
• fullering are forging operations done by keeping the bottom fuller in
an angle hole with the heated metal placed on it, the top fuller is then
placed above the metal, force is applied through the top fuller using a
sledge hammer.
• The material cross-section is decreased and length increased
Forging operation
• Edging:
• This forging operation is carried out by striking or forcing the metal
plate into the desired shape. The workpiece is forced between two
die edges.
•
Forging operation
• Swaging:
• This forging operation is done to reduce the finished work into
desired size and shape, usually either round or hexagon. Bottom
swage is used for small jobs while large jobs are performed by swage
block.
 Forging Types
• Smith Forging:
 The process involves heating the stock in the blacksmith’s
hearth and then beating it over the anvil.
To get the desired shape, the operator has to manipulate
the component in between the blows.
 No die is used to get the desired shape.
Forging Types
 The types of operations available are fullering, flattening,
bending, upsetting, and swaging.
Applications of Smith Forging


o It is used to fabricate components like bolts, nuts, keys,

tongs, springs, etc.
o The agricultural tool and links are fabricated by the
smithy forging mechanisms.
Forging Types
• Drop Forging:
 This method of forging uses a closed impression die to obtain
the desired shape of the component.
• The shaping is done by the repeated hammering given to the
material in the die cavity with drop hammers
Forging Types
• The drop forging die consists of two halves.
• The lower half of the die is fixed to the anvil of the machine, while the
upper half is fixed to ram.
• The heated stock is kept in the lower die while the ram delivers force
to the mental so that the metal spread and completely filled the die
cavity.
• When two halves closes the complete cavity is filled with metal.
Forging Types
• Die material should have good hardness, toughness and ductility at a
low and elevated temperature, it should have adequate fatigue
resistance and sufficient hardenability.
• It must have a low thermal conductivity and good machinability
examples cobalt, molybdenum ,vanadium, alloy steel.
Forging Types
• Open die forging.
• The open die forging can be depicted by a solid workpiece placed
between two flat die and reduce its height by compressing it.
• This process is also called upsetting or flat die forging.
• The die surface in open die forging may have simple cavities to
produce relatively simple forging.
Forging Types
Forging Types
• Cogging
• Cogging, also called drawing out, is basically a open die forging operation
in which the thickness of a bar is reduced by successive forging steps at a
specific interval.
• Because of the contact area per stroke is small, a long section of bar can
be reduced in thickness without requiring large force or machinery.
• Blacksmith's perform such operations with a hammer and anvil using hot
piece of metal.
Forging Types
Forging Types
• Press forging:

• Press forging, which is mostly used for forging of large sections

of metal, uses a hydraulic press to obtain slow and
squeezing action instead of a series of blows as in drop
forging.
• The continuous action of the hydraulic press helps to obtain
uniform deformation throughout the entire depth of the
workpiece. Therefore, the impressions obtained in press forging
are cleaner.
Forging Types
Forging Types
• In press forging operation, metal is kept between top and bottom dies.
• in this hot metal completely converted into desired shape by filling the hot
metal within the wall of the cavity between two dies
• forces is continuous squeezing type applied by hydraulic press.
• Advantages of press forging over drop forging are
• press forging is faster than drop forging
• Structural quality of the product is superior to drop forging
• With ejectors in the top of the bottom dies, It is possible to handle reduced
die draft.
• Draft
• the draft provided on the sides for withdrawal of forging.
• Adequate draft should be provided at least 30 for aluminium
and 5-70 for steel.
• Internal surface requires more draft than external surface.
• Flash.
• Excess metal added to stock to ensure complete feeling of die cavity
in the finishing impression is called Flash.
• The amount of flash it depends on forging size and may vary from 10
to 50 percentage.
• The forging load can be decreased by increasing the flash thickness.
• A flash act as a caution for impact forging from the finishing
impression and also help to restrict the outward flow thus helping in
filling of ribs and bosses in the upper die
• Gutter
• In addition to flash, provision should be made in the die for
additional space so that any excess metal can flow and help in the
complete closing of die. This is called gutter.
• Without a gutter, a flash may have excessively thick, not allowing the
die to close completely.
• Gutter depth and width should be sufficient to accommodate the
extra material.
Forging defects
• Cracks
• Internal as well as external crack appears due to excessive cold
forging.
• Fold
• It is discontinuity produced when two surface of metal fold against
each other without fusing properly.
Forging defects
• Barreling
• When hot work come in contact with dies, there will be a decrease in
temperature of the surface coming in contact with dies
• Upon applying the forging load since central portion will have lower flow
stress, it will move faster than material near the edgees This result in
cylindrical large component called Barreling
Extrusion
Extrusion
• Extrusion is defined as the process of pushing the heated billet of
metal through orifice provider in a die.
• Thus, forming an elongated part of uniform cross section
corresponding to the shape of the die orifice.
• The pressure applied maybe hydraulically or mechanically.
• Intricate shape in long length can be produced by hot extrusion.
• Depending upon the ductility of the material, extrusion can be
carried out at room temperature.
Extrusion
Extrusion
• Extrusion is often combined with forging operation, and it is generally
known as cold extrusion.
• Typical product made by extrusion are tubes having various cross
sections, structural and architectural shapes etc
• Commonly extruded materials are aluminium, copper, steel,
magnesium and lead.
• Other materials and alloys can be extruded with various level of
difficulty.
Types of Extrusion
• Forward or direct extrusion.
• The raw material used is a billet.
• Billet is heated to its forging temperature and fed into the machine
chamber.
• In this forward extrusion piston and outgoing material move in the same
direction.
• Pressure is applied to billet, forcing the material through the die.
• in forward direction since billet move inside the drum, so pressure
required to overcome the friction will be more.
Types of Extrusion
Types of Extrusion
• Backward extrusion or indirect extrusion
• in backward extrusion die is placed in the piston, so outgoing material will
come out in opposite direction that of piston.
• In this process, billet doesn't move inside the Chamber, so there is no
friction between billet and drum.
• So less force is required in this method in comparison to direct extrusion.
• A more complicated type of equipment is required because the plunger
becomes weak due to reduction in the effective area of cross section.
Types of Extrusion
Types of Extrusion
• Sequence of operation.
• The die is inserted into the press
• billet is loaded into the chamber
• billet is extruded, leaving a butt
• The die and billet are separated from the section.
Types of Extrusion
• Force recruitment comparison of forward and backward extrusion.
Types of Extrusion
• Hydrostatic extrusion.
• In hydrostatic extrusion, the Billet is smaller in diameter than
chamber which is filled with a fluid and pressure is transmitted to the
billet by ram.
• Billet doesn't come in contact with piston and the materials be
formed due to development of hydrostatic pressure with fluid.
• Hydrostatic pressure increases ductility, very good quality product can
be extruded by this process.
Types of Extrusion
Types of Extrusion
• Hydrostatic extrusion.
• There is no friction to overcome along the container walls
• In hydrostatic extrusion the billet in the container is extruded
through the die by the action of liquid pressure medium rather than
by direct application of load with a ram,
• it is completely surrounded by fluid which is sealed off and
pressurised sufficiently to extrude the billet through the die
Types of Extrusion
Advantages of Hydrostatic extrusion over conventional extrusion.
• There is no friction between the billet and container. Therefore pressure
at the beginning of extrusion is much lower and billets of any length can
be sufficiently reduced by a film of pressure lubricant between the
deforming metal and the die surface.
• Uniform hydrostatic pressure in the container means the billet don’t
have to be straight wire can also be excluded.
Types of Extrusion
Limitations
• containment of fluid under high pressure requires reliable
seals between the container surface , Ram and die.
Types of Extrusion
Types of Extrusion

• Impact extrusion
• In impact extrusion, a heavy Punch is allowed to fall over the material
and material take the shape of the die by flowing in the clearance
between punch and die.
• This mostly come under cold extrusion process.
• Collapsible tube can be made by this process. Example toothpaste.
Types of Extrusion
• This process is limited to soft and ductile material.
• Impact extrusion is similar to indirect extrusion, . Punch descend
rapidly on the blank, which is extruded backward because of volume
constancy the thickness of the tubular extruded section is a function
of clearance between punch and die cavity.
Types of Extrusion
Analysis of Extrusion and Wire drawing
Extrusion defects
• Surface cracking
• If extrusion temperature, friction or speed is too high, surface
temperature rise significantly and this condition may cause surface
cracking and tearing.
• These defects occurs especially in aluminium, magnesium and zinc
alloys.
• This situation can be avoided by lowering the billet temperature and
extrusion speed.
Extrusion defects
• Surface cracking may also occur at lower temperature where it has
been attributed to periodic sticking of extruded product along the die
land.
• Because of this, extrusion pressure increaeses and cause cracking.
• Because of the similarity in appearance to surface of a bamboo stem,
it is also called bamboo defect.
Extrusion defects
• Pipe defective
• The unusual type of metal flow pattern tends to draw surface
impurities towards the centre of the billet.
• This defect is called pipe defect, also called tailpipe or fishtailing.
• Pipe defect can be minimised by modifying the flow pattern in to a
more uniform, for example by controlling friction and minimising
temperature gradient.
Extrusion defects
• Another method is to machine the billet surface prior to extrusion so
that scales and surface impurities are removed.
• These impurities can also be removed by chemical etching of the
surface oxide prior to extrusion.
Extrusion defects
• Internal cracking
• Extruded product center can develop various cracks called Centre
cracking ,centre burst, Arrowhead fracture or Chevron cracking.
• center cracking increases with increasing die angle ,increase in
amount of impurities and increasing extrusion ratio and friction.
• These cracks have also been observed in tube extrusion and in tube
spinning.
Wire Drawing
• A circular cross section Billet is reduced in diameter and increased in
length by pulling through a conical die of semi angle is called wire
drawing.
• Before, why are enters into the die it should be given a twist or
bending to remove oxide layer over it.
• The wire is then dipped into the lubricant.
Wire Drawing
• As the wire is entering into the bell section of the dye, It will be
coated with a layer of lubricant.
• By increasing the semi angle ,the contact length between material
and die decreases.
• This decreases the friction and hence dieing force decreases.
• When the semi angle increases beyond a certain limit, the dead
metal zone start forming within the metal flow region
Wire Drawing
Wire Drawing
• Defects in wire drawing.
• If removal of oxide from the wire is not proper, these impurities will
locate down and settled at the center which produce center line
cracks.
• Another type of defect is called seams, which are longitudinal
scratches or fold in the material. Seams may open up during the
operation and they can cause serious quality control problems in the
production.
• In cold drawn products there will be residual stresses. These residual
stresses can be significant in causing stress corrosion cracking of the
part over a period of time.