UNIT-I

DC CIRCUITS

1.1.Basic Circuit Elements:

The network elements are the mathematical models of two terminal electric devices which
can be characterized by their voltage and current relationship at the terminals. These network
elements are interconnected to form a network and can be divided into two major groups as
Active elements and Passive elements.
Active elements: Active elements are those elements which are capable of delivering
energy to the networks or devices which are connected across them. There are essentially two
kinds of active elements in a network called Voltage source and Current source.
Passive elements: The passive elements are those elements which are capable of only
receiving power. They cannot deliver power. However, there are some passive elements which
can store finite energy and then return this energy to external elements. Since, these elements
cannot deliver unlimited energy over an infinite time interval, they are treated as passive
elements only. There are essentially three kinds of passive elements called the resistor, the
inductor, and the capacitor.
1.2.Resistance:

The opposition offered by a substance to the flow of electric current is called its resistance.
Since current is the flow of free electrons, resistance is the opposition offered by the
substance to the flow of free electrons. This opposition occurs because atoms and molecules of
the substance obstruct the flow of these electrons. Certain substances (e.g. metals such as silver,
copper, aluminium etc.) offer very little opposition to the flow of electric current and are called
conductors. On the other hand, those substances which offer high opposition to the flow of
electric current (i.e. flow of free electrons) are called insulators e.g. glass, rubber, mica, dry
wood etc.
It may be noted here that resistance is the electric friction offered by the substance and
causes production of heat with the flow of electric current. The moving electrons collide with
atoms or molecules of the substance; each collision resulting in the liberation of minute
quantity of heat.
The v-i relation of a resistance is
𝑣 = 𝑖𝑅 ---------- (1.1)
Where R= Resistance in ohms, Ω

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Unit of resistance:
The practical unit of resistance is ohm and is represented by the symbol Ω.
It is defined as under:
A wire is said to have a resistance of 1 ohm if a p.d. of 1 volt across its ends causes 1 ampere
to flow through it. (See Fig.1.1)

Fig.1.1

Factors Upon Which Resistance Depends

The resistance R of a conductor
(i) is directly proportional to its length i.e.
R∝l
(ii) is inversely proportional to its area of X-section i.e.
1
R∝𝑎

(iii) depends upon the nature of material.

(iv) depends upon temperature.
From the first three points (leaving temperature for the time being), we have,
𝑙 𝑙
R ∝ 𝑎 or 𝑅 = 𝜌 𝑎 ---------- (1.2)

where ρ (Greek letter ‘Rho’) is a constant and is known as resistivity or specific resistance of
the material. Its value depends upon the nature of the material.
1.3. Conductance:
The reciprocal of resistance of a conductor is called its conductance (G). If a conductor
has resistance R, then its conductance G is given by;
G = 1/R ---------- (1.3)
Whereas resistance of a conductor is the opposition to current flow, the conductance of a
conductor is the inducement to current flow.
The SI unit of conductance is mho (i.e., ohm spelt backward). These days, it is a usual practice
to use siemen as the unit of conductance. It is denoted by the symbol S.

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Conductivity. The reciprocal of resistivity of a conductor is called its conductivity. It is

denoted by the symbol σ. If a conductor has resistivity ρ, then its conductivity is given by;
1
Conductivity, σ = 𝜌
1 𝑎 𝑎
We know that G =𝐺 = 𝑅 = 𝜌𝑙 = 𝜎 𝑙

Clearly, the SI unit of conductivity is Siemen metre−1 (S m−1).

1.4.Inductance:
It is a two-terminal storage element in which energy is stored in the magnetic field. The
schematic representation of the inductance is shown in Fig. 1.2. The changing magnetic fi eld
set up by the time varying current through the inductance reacts to induce voltage in it to oppose
the change of current (see polarity shown in Fig. l.2). The voltage as in the case of previous
two elements is shown to drop in the direction of current.

Fig.1.2. Schematic representation of Inductance

The v-i relation of an inductance is
𝑑𝑖
𝑣 = 𝐿 𝑑𝑡 ---------- (1.4)

Where L= inductance in Henries, H

Integrating Eqn.1.4,
1 𝑡
𝑖 = 𝐿 ∫0 𝑣𝑑𝑡 + 𝑖(0) ---------- (1.5)

Where i(0) = inductance current at t = 0

According to Eq. (1.5), current through an inductance cannot change instantly as it would
require infinite voltage.
Energy Stored in an Inductance:
The power fed to inductance is
𝑑𝑖
𝑝 = 𝑣𝑖 = 𝐿𝑖 𝑑𝑡

Assuming i(t = 0) = 0, the stored energy is found by integrating power (p) as

𝑡 𝑡
𝑑𝑖
𝑤𝐿 = ∫ 𝑝𝑑𝑡 = ∫ 𝐿𝑖 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡
0 0

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𝑡 1
𝑤𝐿 = 𝐿 ∫0 𝑖𝑑𝑖 = 𝐿𝑖 2 Joules ---------- (1.5)
2

The energy stored in the inductance depends upon the instantaneous current and is
independent of the history of the current. As the current reduces to zero, the energy stored in
the inductance is returned to the circuit in which it is connected.
1.5.Capacitance:
It is a two-terminal element that has the capability of energy storage in an electric field.
The stored energy can be fully retrieved. Figure 1.3 is the schematic representation of a
capacitance. There is a voltage drop in the direction of current with the terminal where the
current flows in acquiring positive polarity with respect to the terminal at which the current
leaves the element.

Fig.1.3. Schematic representation of Capacitance

The law governing the v-i relationship of a capacitor is
𝑑𝑣
𝑖 = 𝐶 𝑑𝑡 A ---------- (1.6)

where C has the units of farads, F; the practical unit being a microfarad or μF.
Integrating Eqn.1.6,
1 𝑡
𝑣 = 𝐶 ∫0 𝑖𝑑𝑡 + 𝑣𝑐 (0) ---------- (1.7)

Where 𝑣𝑐 (0) = capacitance voltage at t = 0

For an initially uncharged capacitor, 𝑣𝑐 (0) = 0, so that
𝑞 𝑡
𝑐 = 𝑣 as 𝑞 = ∫0 𝑖𝑑𝑡 ---------- (1.8)

As per Eq. (1.7), the voltage (or charge) of a capacitance cannot change instantly as it would
require infinite current.
Energy Stored in a Capacitance:
The power fed to capacitance is
𝑑𝑣
𝑝 = 𝑣𝑖 = 𝐶𝑣 𝑑𝑡 ---------- (1.9)

Integrating eqn.1.9, and assuming initially uncharged capacitance (v = 0 at t = 0), the stored
energy is found to be

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𝑡 𝑡
𝑑𝑣
𝑤𝑐 = ∫ 𝑝𝑑𝑡 = 𝐶 ∫ 𝑣 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡
0 0
𝑡 1
𝑤𝑐 = 𝐶 ∫0 𝑣𝑑𝑣 = 2 𝐶𝑣 2 Joules ---------- (1.10)

Observe that the energy stored in a capacitance is a function of its (instantaneous) voltage
magnitude and is independent of the history of how this voltage is reached.
As the voltage is reduced to zero, all the energy stored in the capacitor is returned to the circuit
in which the capacitor is connected.
A practical element possessing the property of capacitance is known as a capacitor. It is
constructed of two parallel plates (in various forms) with an intervening dielectric.
The capacitance of a parallel-plate capacitor is given by
𝐴
𝐶 = Ɛ0 Ɛ𝑟 (𝑑), with units of farads (F) ---------- (1.11)

Where Ɛ0 = permittivity of free space = 8.85 x 10-12

Ɛ𝑟 = relative permittivity of medium.
A = Area of each plate (m2) and
d = distance between plates (m)
1.6. Series circuits:
The d.c. circuit in which resistances are connected end to end so that there is only one path
for current to flow is called a d.c. series circuit.

Fig.1.4
Consider three resistances R1, R2 and R3 ohms connected in series across a battery of
V volts as shown in Fig. 1.4 (i). Obviously, there is only one path for current I i.e. current is
same throughout the circuit. By Ohm’s law, voltage across the various resistances is
V1 = IR1 ; V2 = IR2 ; V3 = IR3
Now V = V1 + V2+ V3

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= IR1 + IR2 + IR3

= I (R1 + R2 + R3)
or V/I= R1 + R2 + R3
But V/I is the total resistance RS between points A and B. Note that RS is called the
total or equivalent resistance of the three resistances.
 RS = R1 + R2 + R3
Hence, when a number of resistances are connected in series, the total resistance is equal to the
sum of the individual resistances.
The main characteristics of a series circuit are:
(i) The current in each resistor is the same.
(ii) The total resistance in the circuit is equal to the sum of individual resistances.
(iii) different resistors have their individual voltage drops
(iv) The total power dissipated in the circuit is equal to the sum of powers dissipated in
individual resistances.
Voltage Divider Rule:
Since in a series circuit, same current flows through each of the given resistors, voltage drop
varies directly with its resistance. In Fig. 1.4(i) is shown a battery connected across a series
combination of three resistors.
Total Resistance RS = R1 + R2 + R3
V = IRS ⇒ I=V/RS
V1 = IR1 ; V2 = IR2 ; V3 = IR3
𝑅1
V1 = IR1 ⇒ V1 = (V/RS)R1 = Vx𝑅
1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3
𝑅2
V2 = IR2 ⇒ V2 = (V/RS)R2 = Vx𝑅
1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3
𝑅3
V3 = IR3 ⇒ V3 = (V/RS)R3 = Vx𝑅
1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3

1.7.Parallel Circuits:
When one end of each resistance is joined to a common point and the other end of each
resistance is joined to another common point so that there are as many paths for current flow
as the number of resistances, it is called a parallel circuit.

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Fig.1.5
Consider three resistances R1, R2 and R3 ohms connected in parallel across a battery of V volts
as shown in Fig. 1.5 (i). The total current I divide into three parts: I1 flowing through R1, I2
flowing through R2 and I3 flowing through R3. Obviously, the voltage across each resistance is
the same (i.e., V volts in this case) and there are as many current paths as the number of
resistances. By Ohm’s law, current through each resistance is
I1 = V/R1 ; I2 = V/R2 ; I3 = V/R3
Now, I = I1 + I2 + I3
= V/R1 + V/R2 + V/R3
= V(1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3)
Or I/V = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3
But V/I is equivalent resistance RP of the parallel resistances [Fig. 1.5 (ii)] so that I/V = 1/RP.
1/RP =1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3
Hence when a number of resistances are connected in parallel, the reciprocal of total
resistance is equal to the sum of the reciprocals of the individual resistances.
Main Features of Parallel Circuits
The following are the characteristics of a parallel circuit:
(i) The voltage across each resistor is the same.
(ii) The current through any resistor is inversely proportional to its resistance.
(iii) The total current in the circuit is equal to the sum of currents in its parallel branches.
(iv) The reciprocal of the total resistance is equal to the sum of the reciprocals of the individual
resistances.
(v) The total power dissipated in the circuit is equal to the sum of powers dissipated in the
individual resistances.

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Division of Current in Parallel Circuits

Fig.1.6.
In Fig. 1.6, two resistances are joined in parallel across a voltage V. The current in each branch,
as given in Ohm’s law, is
I1 = V/R1 and I2 = V/R2
𝑅 𝑅
Equivalent resistance RP = 𝑅 1+𝑅2
1 2

Let the total current delivered by the source is I amperes then, 𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅𝑃
𝐼𝑅𝑃 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅2
 I1 = V/R1 = = 𝐼 (𝑅 = 𝐼 (𝑅
𝑅1 1 +𝑅2 )𝑅1 1 +𝑅2 )

𝐼𝑅𝑃 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅1
I2 = V/R2 = = 𝐼 (𝑅 = 𝐼 (𝑅
𝑅2 1 +𝑅2 )𝑅2 1 +𝑅2 )

1.8. Kirchhoff’s Laws:

These laws are more comprehensive than Ohm’s law and are used for solving electrical
networks which may not be readily solved by the latter. Kirchhoff’s laws, two in number, are
particularly useful (a) in determining the equivalent resistance of a complicated network of
conductors and (b) for calculating the currents flowing in the
various conductors. The two-laws are:
➢ Kirchoof’s Current Law
➢ Kirchoff’s Voltage Law
1.8.1. Kirchhoff’s Current Law:
It states as follows:
In any electrical network, the algebraic sum of the currents meeting at a point (or
junction) is zero.
In other words, it simply means that the total current leaving a junction is equal to the total
current entering that junction. It is obviously true because there is no accumulation of charge
at the junction of the network.

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Fig.1.7.
Consider the case of a few conductors meeting at a point A as in Fig. 1.7 (a). Some
conductors have currents leading to point A, whereas some have currents leading away from
point A. Assuming the incoming currents to be positive and the outgoing currents negative, we
have
I1 + (−I2) + (−I3) + (+ I4) + (−I5) = 0
or I1 + I4 −I2 −I3 −I5 = 0 or I1 + I4 = I2 + I3 + I5
or incoming currents = outgoing currents
Similarly, in Fig. 1.7. (b) for node A
+ I + (−I1) + (−I2) + (−I3) + (−I4) = 0 or I= I1 + I2 + I3 + I4
We can express the above conclusion thus: Σ I = 0 ....at a junction

1.8.2. Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law:

It states as follows:
The algebraic sum of the products of currents and resistances in each of the
conductors in any closed path (or mesh) in a network plus the algebraic sum of the e.m.fs.
in that path is zero.
In other words, 𝛴 IR + 𝛴 e.m.f. = 0 ...round a mesh
It should be noted that algebraic sum is the sum which takes into account the polarities of the
voltage drops.
The basis of this law is this: If we start from a particular junction and go round the mesh
till we come back to the starting point, then we must be at the same potential with which we
started. Hence, it means that all the sources of e.m.f. met on the way must necessarily be equal
to the voltage drops in the resistances, every voltage being given its proper sign, plus or minus.

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Fig.1.8.
Determination of Voltage Sign
In applying Kirchhoff’s laws to specific problems, particular attention should be paid
to the algebraic signs of voltage drops and e.m.fs., otherwise results will come out to be wrong.
Following sign conventions is suggested:
(a) Sign of Battery E.M.F.
A rise in voltage should be given a + ve sign and a fall in voltage a − ve sign. Keeping
this in mind, it is clear that as we go from the −ve terminal of a battery to its +ve terminal (Fig.
1.9), there is a rise in potential, hence this voltage should be given a + ve sign. If, on the other
hand, we go from +ve terminal to −ve terminal, then there is a fall in potential, hence this
voltage should be preceded by a −ve sign. It is important to note that the sign of the battery
e.m.f. is independent of the direction of the current through that branch.

Fig.1.9 Fig.1.10
(b) Sign of IR Drop
Now, take the case of a resistor (Fig. 1.10). If we go through a resistor in the same direction as
the current, then there is a fall in potential because current flows from a higher to a lower
potential. Hence, this voltage fall should be taken −ve. However, if we go in a direction
opposite to that of the current, then there is a rise in voltage. Hence, this voltage rise should be
given a positive sign.

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It is clear that the sign of voltage drop across a resistor depends on the direction of
current through that resistor but is independent of the polarity of any other source of e.m.f.
in the circuit under consideration.
Consider the closed path ABCDA in Fig. 1.11. As we travel around the mesh in the
clockwise direction, different voltage drops will have the following signs:
I1R2 is − ve (fall in potential)
I2R2 is − ve (fall in potential)
I3R3 is + ve (rise in potential)
I4R4 is − ve (fall in potential)
E2 is − ve (fall in potential)
E1 is + ve (rise in potential)
Using Kirchhoff’s voltage law, we get
−I1R1 −I2R2 −I3R3 −I4R4 −E2 + E1 = 0 Fi.g. 1.11
or I1R1 + I2R2 −I3R3 + I4R4 = E1 −E2

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