Register online at: 6TH EDITION

Overview www.nelsonnet.com.au
• Full and in-depth coverage of the VCAA VCE to access digital
resources to support improved
Computing Study Design 2016–2019 learning & teaching*
• Experienced authors and trusted resources that have
been part of the market for more than 20 years
• A problem-solving methodology is applied
to create digital solutions in a range of SERIES EDITOR James Lawson
contexts that meet specific need Therese Keane, Mark Kelly,

• Provides full preparation for Colin Potts, Anthony Sullivan

the Outcome assessment
tasks and end-of-
year exam

VCE UNITS 1 & 2

6TH EDITION
Lawson Keane Kelly Potts Sullivan

ISBN: 978-0170364744

*Please note that complimentary access to NelsonNet and

the NelsonNetBook is only available to teachers who use the
accompanying student textbook as a core educational resource
in their classroom. Contact your sales representative for
information about access codes and conditions. 9 780170 364744
For learning solutions, visit cengage.com.au

Computing_SB_64744_2pp.indd All Pages 21/01/2016 3:20 PM

6TH EDITION

SERIES EDITOR James Lawson

Therese Keane, Mark Kelly,
Colin Potts, Anthony Sullivan
Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 © 2016 Cengage Learning Australia Pty Limited
6th Edition
James Lawson Copyright Notice
Therese Keane This Work is copyright. No part of this Work may be reproduced, stored in a
Colin Potts retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means without prior
Anthony Sullivan written permission of the Publisher. Except as permitted under the
Mark Kelly Copyright Act 1968, for example any fair dealing for the purposes of private
study, research, criticism or review, subject to certain limitations. These
limitations include: Restricting the copying to a maximum of one chapter or
Senior Publishing Editor: Eleanor Gregory 10% of this book, whichever is greater; providing an appropriate notice and
Editor: Nadine Anderson-Conklin warning with the copies of the Work disseminated; taking all reasonable
Copyeditors: Gene Anderson-Conklin, Nadine Anderson-Conklin steps to limit access to these copies to people authorised to receive these
and Valina Rainer copies; ensuring you hold the appropriate Licences issued by the
Proofreader: Kate McGregor Copyright Agency Limited (“CAL”), supply a remuneration notice to CAL and
Indexer: Russell Brooks pay any required fees. For details of CAL licences and remuneration notices
Permissions researcher: Debbie Gallagher please contact CAL at Level 15, 233 Castlereagh Street, Sydney NSW 2000,
Cover designer: Chris Starr Tel: (02) 9394 7600, Fax: (02) 9394 7601
Text designer: Kim Ferguson Email: [email protected]
Cover image: Shutterstock.com/melis Website: www.copyright.com.au
Senior Production Controller: Julie McArthur
Typeset by: Q2A Media For product information and technology assistance,
in Australia call 1300 790 853;
Any URLs contained in this publication were checked for currency during the in New Zealand call 0800 449 725
production process. Note, however, that the publisher cannot vouch for the
ongoing currency of URLs. For permission to use material from this text or product, please email
[email protected]

Acknowledgements National Library of Australia Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

VCE Computing Study Design (2016) © The Victorian Curriculum and Lawson, James (James Austin), 1971– author.
Assessment Authority (VCAA). Used with permission. Computing VCE units 1 & 2 / James Lawson, Therese Keane,
VCE ® is a registered trademark of the VCAA. The VCAA does not endorse or Colin Potts, Anthony Sullivan, Mark Kelly.
make any warranties regarding this Cengage product. Current and past VCE
Study Designs, VCE exams and related content can be accessed directly at 6th edition.
www.vcaa.vic.edu.au 9780170364744 (paperback)
Includes index.
For secondary school age.

Information technology--Study and teaching (Secondary)

Computer programming--Study and teaching (Secondary)
Victorian Certificate of Education examination.

Keane, Therese, author.

Potts, Colin, author.
Sullivan, Anthony Bernard, author.
Kelly, Mark John, author.

004

Cengage Learning Australia

Level 7, 80 Dorcas Street
South Melbourne, Victoria Australia 3205

Cengage Learning New Zealand

Unit 4B Rosedale Office Park
331 Rosedale Road, Albany, North Shore 0632, NZ

For learning solutions, visit cengage.com.au

Printed in Australia by Ligare Pty Limited.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 20 19 18 17 16
CONTENTS
Preface v Communications software 96
About the authors vi Internet services 98
How to use this book vii Network communications standards 101
Outcomes viii Mobile devices connected to networks 104
Problem-solving methodology xii
Communications channel 109
Key concepts xiv
National Broadband Network (NBN) 111
Wireless transmission media 112
UNIT 1 1
Introduction Network security 116
Measures to secure networks 118
Network physical designs 121
CHAPTER 1 DATA ANALYSIS 2
Legal and ethical responsibilities 122
Understanding research 3 Preparing for Unit 1, Outcome 2 137
Data and information 4
Gathering data: Primary data and information 5
CHAPTER 4 ISSUES IN INFORMATION
Quality of data and information 9
Referencing primary sources 11 SYSTEMS 139
Seeking permission 15 Information systems 140
Privacy 19 Issues in information systems 140
Physical security controls 20 Expressing opinions 153
Australian Privacy Principles 22 Methods and techniques to acquire data
Ethical dilemmas 24 and information 155
Data integrity 158
CHAPTER 2 APPROACHES TO PROBLEM-SOLVING Storing shared files 159
METHODOLOGY: DATA ANALYSIS 30 Mobile devices and web design 160
Approaches to problem solving 31
Purpose of graphic solutions 42
CHAPTER 5 APPROACHES TO PROBLEM
Design principles for graphic solutions 52
Formats and conventions 56
SOLVING 167
Design tools 66 Creating team solutions 168
Types of tests 68 Project management techniques 168
Validation 70 Designing websites 171
Processing data to create solutions 70 Information architecture 177
Preparing for Unit 1, Outcome 1 78 Design principles 181
Specific design considerations 194
CHAPTER 3 NETWORKS 80 Design tools 195
Networks 81 Developing websites 205
Types of networks 82 Preparing for Unit 1, Outcome 3 214
Network architecture 84
iv Contents

UNIT 2 217 Formats and conventions 281

Introduction Software tools and functions 282
File formats 288
CHAPTER 6 PROGRAMMING 218 Evaluating data visualisations 289
Preparing for Unit 2, Outcome 2 299
Information systems in software 219
Hardware 219
Software 222 CHAPTER 8 DATA MANAGEMENT 300
The operating system (OS) 222
Applications of database systems 301
Programming and scripting languages 222
Database management systems (DBMS) 302
Software development tools 223
Database structure 303
Storage structures 225
Developing software 228 Characteristics of data types 307
Creating effective user interfaces 235 Data sources and methods of data acquisition 308
Fundamental programming concepts 240 Collection tools and user interfaces for data entry 309
Preparing for Unit 2, Outcome 1 261 Database design tools 312
Development of the DBMS 320
CHAPTER 7 DATA ANALYSIS AND Roles, functions and characteristics of hardware
VISUALISATION 268 components 329
Information needs and data visualisations 263 Communication devices 331
Sources of authentic data 264 Accidental and deliberate security threats 332
Data types and data structures 269 Physical and software controls for protecting security 333
Types and purposes of data visualisation 271 Preparing for Unit 2, Outcome 3 343
PSM: Analysis 277
Design tools 279 Index 345
9780170364744 v

PREFACE
This sixth edition of Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 incorporates the changes to the VCAA VCE
Computing Study Design that took effect from 2016.
This book looks at how individuals and organisations use, and can be affected by,
information systems in their daily lives.
We believe that teachers and students require a text that focuses on the Areas of Study
specified in the Study Design, and that presents information in a sequence that allows easy
transition from theory into practical assessment tasks. We have therefore written this book
so that a class can begin at Chapter 1 and work their way systematically through to the end.
Students will encounter material relating to the key knowledge dot points for each Outcome
before they reach the special section that describes the outcome. The Study Design outlines
key skills that indicate how the knowledge can be applied to produce a solution to an
information problem. These Preparing for Outcomes sections occur regularly throughout the
book, and flag an appropriate point in the student’s development for each outcome to be
completed. The authors have covered all key knowledge dot points for the outcomes from
the Units 1 & 2 course.
Our approach has been to focus on the key knowledge required for each school-
assessed outcome, and to ensure that students are well prepared for these; however, there is
considerable duplication in the Study Design relating to the knowledge required for many of
the outcomes. We have found that, with an outcomes approach, sometimes we are covering
material several times. For example, knowledge of a problem-solving methodology is listed
as key knowledge for five different outcomes. In these cases, we have tried to cover the
concept generally in the first instance, and specifically apply it to a situation relevant to the
related outcome on subsequent encounters.
The authors assume teachers will help students to develop the required key skills within
the context of the key knowledge addressed in this book and the resources available to them.
We have incorporated a margin column in the text that provides additional information,
clarification of terms and reinforcement of key concepts. The margin column also includes
activities related to the topics covered in the text, and a consideration of issues relevant to
the use of information systems.
Outcome features are included at several points in the book, indicating the nature of
the tasks that students are to undertake to complete the school-assessed Outcomes. The
steps required to complete the Outcomes are listed, together with advice and suggestions
for approaching the task. The output and support material needed for submission are
described. Sample tasks and further advice relating to the outcomes are available at
http://computing1and2.nelsonnet.com.au.
The chapters are organised to present the optimum amount of information in the most
effective manner. The text is presented in concise, clearly identified sections to guide students
through the text. Each chapter is organised into the sections described on pages viii–xi.
vi 9780170364744

ABOUT THE AUTHORS

James Lawson is Head of Computing at Trinity Grammar School, and has taught VCE
Computing since 1995. He has been an exam assessor for Computing, and has on a number
of occasions presented at both the Victorian Information Technology Teachers’ Association
(VITTA, now known as Digital Learning and Teaching Victoria or DLTV) and the History
Teachers’ Association of Victoria (HTAV).

Dr Therese Keane is a senior lecturer at Swinburne University. Therese has worked in a

variety of school settings where she taught IT and was the Director of ICT. She holds a
Doctorate in Education focusing on ICT leadership in schools. Therese is a member of the
ACS ICT Educators Board and a Committee Member on the DLTV and a former office holder
in VITTA and the ICTEV. She has presented numerous seminars and workshops for teachers
involved in teaching IT. Therese has written several textbooks in all units of VCE Information
Technology since 1996. Therese’s current work involves providing professional development
to IT teachers, delivering workshops and presentations to secondary students and researching
the use of technology and computers in schools for teaching and learning purposes.

Mark Kelly learned to program in FORTRAN in 1975, bought his first computer – a Tandy
TRS-80 with 4KB of RAM – in 1978 and has been programming and researching IT ever
since. He taught VCE IT for 20 years after 10 years teaching English and Psychology. At
McKinnon Secondary College he was Systems Manager and author of Rupert, the college’s
student reporting database.

Colin Potts is Assistant Headmaster (Academic Programs) at Trinity Grammar School, and
has taught computing classes for a number of years. He is also a former president of VITTA.

Anthony Sullivan has been teaching Commerce and Computing for more than 20 years. He
has taught in both government and non-government settings in Australia and has also taught
courses in international schools and schools in the United Kingdom. Anthony has presented
at a range of conferences and events on VCE Information Technology and Computing and
was a member of the VCE Information Technology Study Design Review Panel.
 9780170364744 vii

HOW TO USE THIS BOOK

Key knowledge Essential terms are the glossary terms that have been
highlighted throughout the chapter.
The key knowledge that is covered in each chapter is listed
Important facts are a list of summaries, ideas, processes
on the first page. The list includes key knowledge specified
and statements relevant to the chapter, in the order in which
in the outcome related to the chapter.
they occur in the chapter.
For the student Test your knowledge
The first page of each chapter includes an overview of the
Short-answer questions are provided to help students when
chapter’s contents so that students are aware of the material
reviewing the chapter material. The questions are grouped and
they will encounter.
identified with a section of the text to allow the teacher to direct
For the teacher appropriate questions based on material covered in class.
Teachers will be able to access answers to these questions at
This section outlines how the chapter fits into the overall http://computing1and2.nelsonnet.com.au.
study of VCE Computing, and indicates how the material
relates to the completion of outcomes. Apply your knowledge
Chapters Each chapter concludes with a set of questions requiring
students to demonstrate that they can apply the theory from
The major learning material in the chapter is presented as the chapter to more complex questions. Teachers will be
text, photographs and illustrations. The text describes in able to access suggested responses to these applications at
detail the theory associated with the stated outcomes of the http://computing1and2.nelsonnet.com.au.
Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 course in language that is clear
and appropriate for students at this level. The photographs Preparing for the outcomes
show actual hardware, software and other objects described
This section appears at points in the course where it is
in the text. Illustrations are used to demonstrate concepts
appropriate for students to complete an outcome task. The
that are more easily explained in this manner.
information provided describes what the students need
Throughout the chapter, glossary terms are highlighted in
to do in the outcome, the suggested steps to be followed
bold, blue text. They are defined at the end of the chapter, in
when completing the task, and the material that needs to be
Essential terms.
submitted for assessment.
Margin column NelsonNet
The margin column contains further explanations that
The NelsonNet student website contains:
support the main text, weblink icons, additional material
• multiple-choice quizzes for each chapter
outside the Study Design, and cross-references to material
The NelsonNet teacher website also contains:
covered elsewhere in the textbook. Issues relevant to
• answers for the Test your knowledge and Apply your
information systems and computing in general that will
knowledge questions in the book
promote classroom discussion are also included in the form
• Sample SACs
of ‘Think about Computing’ boxes.
• chapter tests
• practice exams for each unit.
THINK ABOUT Please note that complimentary access to NelsonNet
COMPUTING 1.1 and the NelsonNetBook is only available to teachers
What are some advantages who use the accompanying student textbook as a core
and disadvantages of educational resource in their classroom. Contact your sales
printed newspapers and representative for information about access codes and
online newspapers? conditions.
An open-access weblink page is also provided, for all
Chapter summary weblinks that appear in the margins throughout the textbook.
This is accessible at http://computing1and2.nelsonnet.com.au.
The chapter summary at the end of each chapter is divided
into two main parts to help you review each chapter.
viii Outcomes 9780170364744

OUTCOMES
OUTCOME KEY KNOWLEDGE REFERENCE
Unit 1 Data and graphic solutions
Chapter 1 and
Area of Study 1 On completion of this unit the student should be able to acquire, secure and interpret data, and design and develop a
Chapter 2
Outcome 1 graphic solution that communicates the findings of an investigation.
• types and purposes of qualitative and quantitative data pp. 3–4

• sources of, and methods and techniques for, acquiring and referencing primary data and information pp. 5–9, 12–14
Data and
• factors affecting the quality of data and information such as relevance, accuracy, bias and reliability pp. 9–11
information
• techniques for authorising the collection and use of data and information such as using consent forms pp. 15–18

• techniques for protecting the privacy of the providers of data and information such as de-identifying personal data p. 19
• physical and software controls used to protect the security of stored data such as backing up, usernames and
Digital systems pp. 20–2
passwords, systems protection software and encryption
• Australian Privacy Principles relating to the acquisition, management and communication of data and information,
Interactions and pp. 22–4
including non-identification of individuals (principle 2), information only being held for its primary purpose (principle 6)
impact
• ethical dilemmas arising from data acquisition strategies pp. 24–5

• types of graphic solutions suitable for educating, persuading and informing audiences pp. 43–51
• design tools for representing the functionality and appearance of graphic solutions such as input–process–output
pp. 66–8
charts (functionality) and annotated diagrams/mock ups (appearance)
Approaches to • formats and conventions suitable for graphic solutions such as titles, text styles, shapes, lines and arrows,
pp. 56–66
problem solving sources of data and legend, colours and contrasts
• software functions and techniques for efficiently and effectively manipulating data to develop graphic solutions, pp. 31–42,
and for validating data 68–73
• techniques for testing graphic solutions pp. 68–73
• frame an investigation inquiry pp. 32–42

• identify, legally and ethically acquire, and reference data and information from primary sources pp. 78–9

• devise and implement controls and techniques to minimise risks to the security and privacy of data and information pp. 20–2

Key skills • interpret selected data, identifying relationships and patterns pp. 29, 78
• select and apply appropriate design tools to represent the functionality and appearance of graphic solutions for
p. 67
particular purposes
• use software, and select and apply functions, formats, conventions, data validation and testing techniques to
p. 69
efficiently manipulate data and create graphic solutions
Unit 1 Networks
Area of Study 2 On completion of this unit the student should be able to design a network with wireless capability that meets an Chapter 3
Outcome 2 identified need or opportunity, explain its configuration and predict risks and benefits for intended users.
• applications and capabilities of Local Area Networks (LANs) and Wide Area Networks (WANs) pp. 82–4
• functions and characteristics of key hardware and software components of networks required for communicating
pp. 90–100
and storing data and information
• purposes of network protocols pp. 101–4

Digital systems • strengths and limitations of wireless communications technology, measured in terms of data transfer rate, data
pp. 112–16
storage options, cost, security and reliability
• types, capabilities and limitations of mobile devices connected to networks pp. 104–9

• security threats to data and information communicated and stored within networks pp. 116–18, 126

• technical underpinnings of malware that intentionally threaten the security of networks pp. 117–18
9780170364744 Outcomes ix

OUTCOME KEY KNOWLEDGE REFERENCE

• ways in which people, processes, digital systems and data combine to form networked information systems pp. 84–90
Interactions and • legal requirements and ethical responsibilities of network professionals and users of networks with respect to
pp. 122–4
impact social protocols and the ownership of data and information
• risks and benefits of using networks in a global environment pp. 124–6

• describe the capabilities of different networks and wireless communications technology pp. 132–3
• compare the capabilities of a range of network components to support the communication and storage of data
pp. 132–8
and information
Key skills • apply design thinking skills when configuring a network solution with wireless capability, taking into account how
pp. 132–8
data and information are transmitted and secured
• apply systems thinking skills to predict risks and benefits of the implementation of a new or modified network
pp. 132–8
solution with wireless capability for the users
Unit 1 Collaboration and communication
Chapter 4 and
Area of Study 3 On completion of this unit the student should be able to apply the problem-solving methodology to create a solution
Chapter 5
Outcome 3 using database management software, and explain the personal benefits and risks of interacting with a database.
• applications of information systems in a range of settings pp. 140–52
• a detailed study in a particular field such as entertainment, agriculture, finance, sport, health, that focuses on:
– the nature of a contemporary issue associated with the use of information systems
– legal, social, environmental or ethical reasons for a contentious issue
Interactions and pp. 140–52
– types and capabilities of digital systems associated with the field and issue
impact
– key stakeholders such as individuals, organisations and governments, and their responsibilities
– positive and negative opinions of each stakeholder about the issue
• ways in which end-users can express opinions on websites about how information systems are used for
pp. 153–4
particular purposes such as writing a review in a text box and a rating system
• sources of, and methods and techniques for, acquiring and referencing primary data and secondary data and
Data and pp. 155–8
information
information
• factors affecting the integrity of data, such as correctness, reasonableness and accuracy pp. 158–9
• advantages and disadvantages of using cloud solutions, and using cloud computing for storing, communicating
pp. 159–60
Digital systems and disposing of data and information
• impact of growth of mobile devices on website design pp. 160–1
• visualising thinking tools and techniques for supporting reasoning and decision making when analysing issues
pp. 142–4
and ethical dilemmas
• key principles of information architecture pp. 177–80
• characteristics of effective user interfaces for mobile devices, for example useability, accessibility, tolerance,
pp. 171–6
visibility, legibility, consistency, affordance
Approaches to
problem solving • design principles that influence the appearance of websites pp. 181–94

• design tools and techniques for representing websites pp. 195–204

• formats and conventions suitable for websites pp. 201–3

• software functions and techniques for manipulating and validating data, and testing websites pp. 205–8

• tools and techniques for coordinating the tasks, people, digital systems resources and time required to create solutions pp. 168–71

• select and apply appropriate methods and techniques to acquire and reference data and information pp. 155–8
pp. 168–71,
• use digital systems to document and monitor project plans when creating team solutions
213–15
Key skills • analyse the causes and effects of issues using visualising thinking tools pp. 142–4

• synthesise viewpoints to formulate a team’s point of view p. 183

• evaluate cloud computing as a data storage solution p. 165

x Outcomes 9780170364744

OUTCOME KEY KNOWLEDGE REFERENCE

• select and use digital system components appropriate to a team’s needs pp. 211–15
• select appropriate design tools and represent the appearance and functionality of solutions, taking into account
pp. 213–15
user interactions
• recommend online techniques for encouraging end-users’ support of published viewpoints pp. 211–15

• use web authoring software and select and apply functions and techniques to manipulate data and create solutions pp. 213–15
Unit 2 Programming
Area of Study 1 On completion of this unit the student should be able to design working modules in response to solution Chapter 6
Outcome 1 requirements, and use a programming or scripting language to develop the modules.
Data and
• characteristics of data types and methods of representing and storing text, sound and images pp. 225–8
information
• functions and capabilities of key hardware and software components of digital systems required for processing,
Digital systems pp. 219–24
storing and communicating data and information
• functional requirements of solutions pp. 228–9
• methods for creating algorithms such as identifying the required output, the input needed to produce the output, pp. 228–35,
and the processing steps necessary to achieve the transformation from a design to a solution 240–4
• suitable methods of representing solution designs such as data dictionaries, data structure diagrams, object
pp. 229–35
descriptions and pseudocode
Approaches to
problem solving • characteristics of effective user interfaces, for example useability, accessibility, structure, visibility, legibility,
pp. 235–9
consistency, tolerance, affordance
• techniques for manipulating data and information pp. 250–5

• naming conventions for files and objects pp. 230–1

• testing and debugging techniques, including construction of test data. pp. 244–9

• interpret solution requirements p. 260

• select and use appropriate methods for expressing solution designs, including user interfaces p. 260

Key skills • apply techniques for manipulating data and information using a programming or scripting language p. 260

• devise meaningful naming conventions for files and objects pp. 230–1

• apply testing techniques using appropriate test data p. 260

Unit 2 Data analysis and visualisation
Area of Study 2 On completion of this unit the student should be able to apply the problem-solving methodology and use appropriate Chapter 7
Outcome 2 software tools to extract relevant data and create a data visualisation that meets a specified user’s needs.
• sources of authentic data in large repositories pp. 264–7
Data and
• factors influencing the integrity of data, for example accuracy, timeliness, authenticity, relevance pp. 267–9
information
• characteristics of data types and data structures relevant to selected software tools pp. 269–71

• types and purposes of data visualisations pp. 271–7

• problem-solving activities related to analysing needs: functional and non-functional requirements and constraints pp. 277–9

• characteristics of file formats and their suitability to be converted to other formats pp. 288–9
Approaches to
problem solving • design tools for representing data visualisations pp. 279–81

• formats and conventions applied to visualisations to improve their effectiveness for intended users pp. 281–2
• functions of appropriate software tools to extract targeted data and to manipulate data when developing visualisations pp. 282–7
• criteria and techniques for evaluating visualisations pp. 289–92
9780170364744 Outcomes xi

OUTCOME KEY KNOWLEDGE REFERENCE

• analyse needs to define specific requirements pp. 295–9

• identify and extract, using software functions, relevant data from appropriate data sources pp. 295–9

• prepare data structures relevant to the software tools pp. 295–9

• interpret selected data, identifying relationships and patterns pp. 295–9

Key skills
• select and apply appropriate tools to represent the design of selected visualisations pp. 295–9
• use appropriate software and select and apply functions, formats and conventions to manipulate the extracted
pp. 295–9
data to create data visualisations
• select appropriate techniques and apply criteria to determine the extent to which data visualisations meet
pp. 295–9
users’ needs
Unit 2 Data management
Area of Study 3 On completion of this unit the student should be able to apply the problem-solving methodology to create a solution Chapter 8
Outcome 3 using database management software, and explain the personal benefits and risks of interacting with a database.
• data sources and methods of data acquisition pp. 308–10
Data and
• characteristics of effective data collection tools and user interfaces for the purposes of entering data efficiently pp. 310–12
information
• characteristics of data types pp. 307–8

• capabilities and limitations of database management software to manipulate data p. 302

• roles, functions and characteristics of hardware components used to input, store, communicate and output data
pp. 329–31
Digital systems and information
• accidental and deliberate security threats to data and information stored within databases p. 332

• physical and software controls suitable for protecting the security of stored and transmitted data pp. 333–5

• the structure of a database, including fields, records and tables pp. 303–6
pp. 315–16,
• design tools for representing input forms to capture data and reports to meet specific needs
318–19
Approaches to
problem solving • design tools for representing the structure of databases pp. 312–14

• techniques for manipulating and validating data pp. 316–18, 319

• formats and conventions applied to create effective solutions pp. 311–35

Interactions and • applications of database systems in a range of settings pp. 311–35

impact • personal benefits and risks arising from the use of databases p. 303

• analyse needs or opportunities for database management solutions pp. 311–35

• use appropriate techniques to describe data types and database structures pp. 311–35

• identify and collect data from appropriate sources, using data collection tools that facilitate efficient data entry pp. 343–4

Key skills • apply suitable functions to validate and manipulate data efficiently p. 340

• construct queries to locate data that matches specific criteria p. 340

• apply formats and conventions to create effective forms and reports pp. 343–4

• evaluate the value of using a database system in fulfilling a personal need p. 340
VCE Computing 2016–2019 © The Victorian Curriculum and Assessment Authority (VCAA). Used with permission. The VCAA does not endorse or make any
warranties regarding this [Cengage/Nelson] publication. VCE is a registered trademark of theVCAA. Current and past VCE Study Designs, VCE exams and related
content can be accessed directly at www.vcaa.vic.edu.au
xii 9780170364744

PROBLEM-SOLVING
METHODOLOGY
When an information problem exists, a structured problem-solving methodology is followed to ensure
that the most appropriate solution is found and implemented. For the purpose of this course, the
problem-solving methodology has four key stages: Analysis, design, development and evaluation.
Each of these stages can be further broken down into a common set of activities as shown in Figure 1.
Each unit may require you to examine a different set of problem-solving stages. It is critical that students
understand the problem-solving methodology, because it underpins the entire VCE Computing course.

Stages of the problem-solving methodology

Analysis Design Development Evaluation

Activities Activities Activities Activities

Solution Solution Manipulation
Strategy
requirements design (coding)

Solution Evaluation
Validation Report
constraints criteria

Scope of
Testing
solution

Documentation

FIGURE 1 The four stages of the problem-solving methodology and their key activities.

Analyse the problem

The purpose of analysis is to establish the root cause of the problem, the specific information
needs of the organisation involved, limitations on the problem and exactly what a possible solution
would be expected to do (the scope). The three key activities are:
1 identifying solution requirements – features and functionality that the solution needs to
include, information it must produce and data needed to produce this information
2 establishing solution constraints – the limitations on solution development that need to be
considered. Constraints are classified as economic, technical, social, legal and related to
useability
3 defining the scope of the solution – what the solution will and will not be able to do, as well as
how the user will benefit.

Design the solution

During the design stage, generate an appropriate design idea. Criteria are also created to evaluate
the solution’s success once it has been implemented. The two key design activities are:
1 creating the solution design – it must clearly show a developer what the solution should
look like and how its data elements should be structured, validated and manipulated. Tools
typically used to represent data elements could include data dictionaries, data structure
diagrams, input–process–output (IPO) charts, flowcharts, pseudocode (or structured English)
and object descriptions. The following tools are also used to show the relationship between
various components of the solution: storyboards, site maps, entity–relationship diagrams,
9780170364744 Problem-solving methodology xiii

data flow diagrams, structure charts, hierarchy charts and context diagrams. Furthermore, the
appearance of the solution needs to be planned so that overall layout, fonts and their colours,
for example, can be represented. Layout diagrams and annotated diagrams (or mock-ups)
usually fulfil this requirement. A combination of tools from each of these categories will be
selected to represent the overall solution design
2 specifying evaluation criteria – during the evaluation stage, the solution is assessed to
establish how well it has met its intended objectives. The criteria for evaluation must be
created during the design stage so that all personnel involved in the task are aware of the
level of performance that ultimately will determine the success or otherwise of the solution.
The criteria are based on the solution requirements identified in the analysis stage.

Develop the solution

During this stage, the solution is created by the developers from the designs supplied to them. The
‘coding’ takes place, while the input data is checked (validation), the solution is tested and any
user documentation is created. The four activities involved with development are:
1 manipulating or coding the solution – the designs are used to build the electronic solution.
The coding will occur here and internal documentation will be included where necessary
2 checking the accuracy of input data by way of validation – manual and electronic methods
are used; for example, proofreading is a manual validation technique. Electronic validation
involves using the solution itself to ensure that data is reasonable. Electronic validation, along
with any other formulas, always needs to be tested to ensure that it works properly
3 ensuring that a solution works through testing – each formula and function, not to mention
validation and even the layout of elements on the screen, need to be tested. Standard testing
procedures involve stating what tests will be conducted, identifying test data, stating the
expected result, running the tests, stating the actual result and correcting any errors
4 documentation allowing users to interact with (or use) the solution – while it can be printed, in
many cases it is now designed to be viewed on screen. User documentation normally outlines
procedures for operating the solution, as well as generates output (like reports) and basic
troubleshooting.

Evaluate the solution

Sometime after a solution has been in use by the end user or client, it needs to be assessed or
evaluated to ensure that it has been successful and actually meets the user’s requirements. The
two activities involved in evaluating a solution are:
1 working out an evaluation strategy – creating a timeline for when various elements of the
evaluation will occur and how and what data will be collected (because it must match the
criteria created in the design stage)
2 reporting on the success of the solution – providing feedback to the user about how well the
solution meets their requirements. This is based on the findings of the data gathered at the
beginning of the evaluation stage when compared with the evaluation criteria created during
the design stage.
xiv 9780170364744

KEY CONCEPTS
Each VCE Computing subject contains four key concepts whose purpose is to organise course
content into themes. These themes are intended to make it easier to teach and make connections
between related concepts and to think about information problems. Key knowledge for each Area
of Study is categorised into these key concepts, but not all concepts are covered by each Area of
Study. The four key concepts are:
1 data and information
2 digital systems
3 approaches to problem solving
4 interactions and impact.
Data and information focuses on the acquisition, structure, representation and interpretation
of data and information in order to elicit meaning or make deductions. This step needs to be
completed in order to create solutions.
Digital systems focus on how hardware and software operate in a technical sense. This also
includes networks, applications, the internet and communication protocols. Information systems
have digital systems as one of their parts. The other components of an information system are
people, data and processes.
Approaches to problem solving focuses on thinking about problems and ways of creating
solutions. Computational, design and systems thinking are the three key problem solving
approaches.
Interactions and impact focuses on relationships that exist between different information
systems and how these relationships affect the achievement of economic and social goals. Three
types of relationships are considered: people interacting with other people when collaborating or
communicating with digital systems, how people interact with digital systems and how information
systems interact with other information systems. This theme also looks at the impact of these
relationships on information needs, privacy and personal safety.
 UNIT
INTRODUCTION
VCE Unit 1 of Computing looks at how individuals and organisations use, and can be
affected by, information and networked digital systems in their daily lives.
Throughout the unit, students will apply the design and development stages of the
problem-solving methodology. They will acquire and apply the knowledge and skills to
work with different data types to create solutions that can be used to persuade, educate,
inform and entertain.
This unit also examines the role of networked information systems in the
communication of data within a global environment and an exploration of mobile devices.
Several issues relating to the effect of information systems on students themselves are
also examined and students are required to work collaboratively to examine these issues.
There are three outcomes to be completed in Unit 1.

AREA OF STUDY 1: DATA AND GRAPHIC SOLUTIONS

Outcome 1
You will collect your own data and information, and design and develop solutions that
meet specific purposes using software to create a graphic solution. The information
you produce should be in graphic form. You are only required to apply the design and
development stages of the problem-solving methodology, but you should undertake your
own investigation.

AREA OF STUDY 2: NETWORKS

Outcome 2
You must propose a networked information system with wireless capability for a specific
purpose, and explain the security threats that exist within the networked information
system. You must also explain the configuration of the network and suggest the risks and
benefits of its use for intended users, including potential legal requirements and ethical
responsibilities. Throughout this Outcome, you will explore the exchange of data and
information within a networked information system. You will also learn the use of mobile
devices within networks, and how the security of data and information exchanged within
a network can be threatened.

AREA OF STUDY 3: COLLABORATION AND COMMUNICATION

Outcome 3
You will work in teams to design and develop a website that analyses a chosen
contemporary issue and supports your team’s point of view. In analysing an information
systems issue, you will consider the tensions and conflicts between different stakeholders
and then, using visualising thinking tools, explore your own opinions. You will manipulate
acquired primary and secondary data and, optionally, develop graphical representations
that form part of your website. You will also engage in project management and use digital
systems to form and monitor plans.

Getty Images/Rafe Swan

2 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

CHAPTER
DATA ANALYSIS
Key knowledge
After completing this chapter, you will be able to demonstrate knowledge of:
Data and information
• types and purposes of qualitative and quantitative data
• sources of, and methods and techniques for, acquiring and referencing primary data
and information
• factors affecting the quality of data and information such as relevance, accuracy, bias
and reliability
• techniques for authorising the collection and use of data and information such as
using consent forms
• techniques for protecting the privacy of the providers of data and information such
as de-identifying personal data

© (2016). The Victorian Curriculum and Assessment Authority (VCAA). Used with permission.
Digital systems
• physical and software controls used to protect the security of stored data such as
backing up, usernames and passwords, systems protection software and encryption
Interactions and impact
• Australian Privacy Principles relating to the acquisition, management and
communication of data and information, including non-identification of individuals
(Principle 2), information only being held for its primary purpose (Principle 6)
• ethical dilemmas arising from data acquisition strategies.

For the student

Students will conduct an investigation into an issue, practice or event and collect primary
data, interpret and manipulate this data into a graphical solution to represent their
findings.

For the teacher

This chapter is based on Unit 1, Area of Study 1 and, together with Chapter 2, provides the
key knowledge required to complete Unit 1, Outcome 1. At the end of Chapters 1 and 2,
students should be able to acquire, secure and interpret data and design and develop a
graphical solution that communicates their findings of an investigation.

Shutterstock.com/Rawpixel
9780170364744 Chapter 1 Data analysis 3

Understanding research
Some people consume research, and others produce research. Consumers of research spend
a lot of time reading other people’s research rather than conducting their own. On the other
hand, producers of research investigate or explore an area that has relevance to them, interpret
their data and then communicate their findings.
Producers of research often start with a theory or a research question, from which they generate
a hypothesis, test the hypothesis and then interpret the results, as can be seen in Figure 1.1.

Theory/research
question

Interpret Generate
results a hypothesis

Test FIGURE 1.1 Producers of

your hypothesis research often start with a theory
or a research question; then they
generate a hypothesis, test the
hypothesis and interpret the results

Theories are usually general statements that describe something, provide an explanation of
why something happens and can be applied to predict what will happen in the future. Theories
are in principle falsifiable or disprovable; that is, they contain information about the sorts of
events that, if they were to happen, would show the theory to be false. Some research questions
are tied closely with theories. Research questions assist researchers to narrow the focus of the
A scientific theory
topic of investigation. For example, ‘Do science and innovation boost our standard of living and
summarises a hypothesis
contribute to economic growth?’ that has been supported
Hypotheses, on the other hand, are based on probabilities about what will happen according with repeated testing.
A theory is valid as long
to the applied theory. Theories are tested by using data collection tools such as questionnaires as there is no evidence
and/or interviews, and then the results of the study will either confirm or disprove the hypothesis. to dispute it.

Types of research
An approach to investigate the topic of interest is through quantitative or qualitative research.
Quantitative data is measurable and specific and therefore easier to chart or graph. At a
simplistic level, quantitative data gathering is based on verifying theory through the use
of statistics and largely numerical data, while qualitative data provides a more in-depth
understanding. An example of quantitative data is:

Of the teachers who teach mathematics to secondary school students

(Years 7 to 10), 61 per cent have studied mathematics at university to at
least second-year level.
Benchmarking Australian Science, Technology, Engineering and
Mathematics, Office of the Chief Scientist, November 2014, p.98
4 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

SPSS and MiniTab are

When data has been gathered using surveys, focus groups, observation or other methods,
statistical software quantitative data can be analysed by using software such as Excel, the Statistical Package for
packages used to analyse the Social Sciences (SPSS) and Minitab. This takes time and often involves hours of data entry,
quantitative data.
depending on the complexity of the data gathering instrument. For simple data gathering, online
surveys such as SurveyMonkey allow users to create surveys and manage the collection and analysis
of quantitative data. Most online survey software also permits qualitative data to be entered.
Qualitative data is harder to measure than quantitative data. You can gather qualitative data
using instruments such as interviews, focus groups, video footage and observation. Generally,
qualitative data needs to be recorded accurately and transcribed at a later stage. The analysis of
the qualitative data is also quite different from that of quantitative data. With quantitative data,
NVivo is a qualitative
data analysis computer the researcher looks for themes or patterns through the use of numbers, while with qualitative
software package. It data, the researcher establishes rich descriptions and finds themes through reading the text
has been designed for and classifying these themes. An example of qualitative data gathering is more descriptive:
qualitative researchers
working with very rich
text-based and/or From 2003 to 2012, the mean PISA scores in mathematics declined,
multimedia information, while the number of countries performing better than Australia
where deep levels increased. PISA also shows that Australian students’ proficiency in
of analysis of data mathematics is declining, with the proportion of low performers rising
are required. and the proportion of top performers falling.
Benchmarking Australian Science, Technology, Engineering and
Mathematics, Office of the Chief Scientist, November 2014, p.100

Advantages and disadvantages of quantitative

and qualitative data
Participants are more willing to be part of a quantitative study as it is less demanding of them.
Often, quantitative studies use questionnaires, which can capture a large sample size. Having a
large sample size provides statistical validity, and helps to accurately reflect the population. Data
is then interpreted, relationships identified and findings are then communicated. Conversely,
because questionnaires do not have the provision to probe the participants further, the answers
provided do not have as much depth and are at times superficial. If too much information were
provided, researchers would be overwhelmed by the amount of data collected and would not
be in a position to analyse it.
Qualitative research provides for rich, in-depth study of participants. Researchers can ask
further questions, especially if something of interest arises. Generally, qualitative studies are
small, and provide a narrative description of a sample group. Data gathering tools can include
interviews and focus groups. However, because the sample size is small and the sample is not
very random, conclusions may not generalise to a larger sample size; therefore, findings may be
peculiar to a particular sample.

Data and information

Information systems focus on both the transformation of data into information and the
Technically speaking, a
datum is a single item of management of that information. Critical to using digital systems to solve information
data; however, the term problems is an understanding of how data can be input to a computer and then manipulated
‘data’ is commonly used
and accepted as both the to create meaningful information. The term ‘data’ refers to the raw, unorganised facts, figures
singular and plural forms of and symbols fed to a computer during the input process. Data can also mean ideas or concepts
the word.
before they have been refined. In addition to text and numbers, data also includes sounds, and
images (still and moving).
9780170364744 Chapter 1 Data analysis 5

Information is produced when data is manipulated by the computer’s processor into a

meaningful and useful form, thus becoming information. This can be achieved by organising the
data and presenting it in a way that suits the needs of the intended audience. The information
produced can be used to inform, entertain or persuade an audience.

Gathering data: Primary data

and information
Sources
Primary sources are usually the stakeholders in a particular issue – the topic that you are
investigating as part of your hypothesis. To question them or survey their opinions can provide
different insights and often more in-depth data than information from secondary sources. The
data will often be more up-to-date and can provide more unusual and important insights into
issues, especially at the immediate local level, than secondary sources can, which often present
overall conclusions and general summaries. When data is collected, often by non-stakeholders,
they frequently use observation and measurement.

Techniques and methods

Collecting data from the stakeholders directly is usually conducted through methods such as
surveys using questionnaires, and interviews. While the results of questionnaires are easy to
present graphically, interview results often can only be presented as written summaries and
conclusions. However, both require analytical discussions to interpret their meaning.
A questionnaire is usually a set of questions that ask for a response to be selected from
a list of alternatives, such as A, B, C, D; or a range, either 1–5 or very low to very high. Such
questionnaires can easily be given to many people, and are easily processed and analysed using
computer-based methods since the answers are able to be recorded as numbers.
Another type of questionnaire provides space for short, focused free-form answers similar
to those obtained from an interview about particular aspects of an issue; for example, ‘Describe
the feelings you have when you are playing your favourite computer game’ (in an interview, this
question would be followed up with ‘Why?’ or ‘What part of the game causes these feelings?’).
However, because of their free form, which does not lend itself to being recorded numerically,
these answers tend to be more difficult to analyse.
Interviews are usually conducted face to face (technique), sometimes in groups, and can
take a substantial amount of time. A major feature of an interview is the opportunity for in-
depth follow-up and clarification questions that cannot be done with questionnaires, which
are often answered in private. Interviews are very useful for eliciting the feelings, attitudes and
opinions of people that are too complex to easily record in a questionnaire.
Other ways to collect data electronically include sensors such as traffic cameras, satellites
and online sources, such as websites or data logs. The data collected can also be used for a
variety of purposes, including describing, predicting and improving processes within an
organisation, or for research.
6 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

ISSUE MH370 search: How new satellite data confirmed Malaysia

Airlines plane was lost

[25 March 2014, Nick Miller, Europe correspondent] Sydney Morning Herald
British satellite company Inmarsat analyses seven, hourly pings sent by the missing Malaysian Airlines
flight to determine its final resting place.
London: A new satellite tracking technique is what gave Malaysian Prime Minister Najib Razak
enough confidence to announce that Malaysia Airlines flight MH370 went down in the remote south of
the Indian Ocean.
British firm Inmarsat was behind an earlier analysis that indicated the plane had been flying in one
of two big ‘corridors’, one in the northern hemisphere and one in the southern.
However last week it went back to its data and tried a new mathematical analysis, which concluded
on Sunday.
The new analysis allowed them to discard the northern corridor, and focus more precisely on the
southern route.
Based on this new information, Mr Najib announced on Monday that MH370’s last known position
was in the middle of the Indian Ocean, west of Perth.
UK firm Inmarsat was behind an earlier analysis of the path of missing flight MH370.
The nature of the pings indicated that the plane was still moving during that time.
‘This is a remote location far from any possible landing sites,’ he said. ‘It is therefore with deep
sadness and regret that I must inform you that … flight MH370 ended in the southern Indian Ocean.’
The aeroplane had Inmarsat’s ‘Classic Aero’ satellite system, which collects information such as
location, altitude, body heading and speed, and sends it through Inmarsat’s satellites into their network.
This ‘ACARS’ (aircraft communications addressing and reporting system) was switched off or
interrupted early in the flight, meaning no such information was available to track the plane.
However the Classic Aero system still sent hourly ‘pings’ back to Inmarsat’s satellite for at least five
hours after the aircraft left Malaysian airspace, the company discovered.
These pings contained no data – they were just a simple ‘hello’ to keep the link open – however,
their timing and frequency contained hidden mathematical clues.
The company looked at the ‘Doppler effect’ – tiny changes in the frequency of the ping signal,
caused by the relative movement of the satellite and the plane (the Doppler effect is the reason why,
for example, police sirens are a different pitch or frequency depending on whether they are travelling
toward you or away from you).
This analysis allowed Inmarsat to map two huge ‘corridors’ for the plane’s possible location, in big
arcs stretching thousands of kilometres north and south of the point where the last radar contact with
MH370 was made.
THINK ABOUT Australian and US experts took this information, added some assumptions about the plane’s
COMPUTING 1.1 speed, and narrowed the southern option into an area of ocean that could be realistically searched.
1 List the various data Meanwhile, Inmarsat went back to its satellite data. Its new analysis found that the northern route
sources used to search did not quite correlate with the frequency of the pings from the plane – meaning the plane must have
for the missing plane.
been heading south.
2 Why is there a need to It also suggested that the plane had been travelling at a steady cruising altitude above 30,000 feet.
use a variety of data They compared satellite data from MH370 with that from previous Malaysian Airlines Boeing 777
sources to assist with flights, going back a few weeks, in order to better model the movement of the plane.
locating the missing ‘This really was a shot in the dark,’ Chris McLaughlin, senior vice president of external affairs at
plane? Inmarsat told the BBC. ‘It’s a credit to the scientific team that they managed to model this.
3 How has the data ‘Just a single “ping” can be used to say the plane was both powered up and travelling. And then
assisted with estimating by a process of elimination comparing it to other known flights and established that it went south.’
the location of the plane? The UK’s Air Accidents Investigation Branch also contributed to the analysis.
9780170364744 Chapter 1 Data analysis 7

Data collection methods

Before we can produce information, we first must start with data. Data collection methods
such as surveys/questionnaires, interviews or observation provide a means of capturing data.

Surveys and questionnaires

Surveys and questionnaires are common methods used to collect data. They can provide data
about what the respondents think is true, or their preferences for consumer goods and political
parties. A questionnaire can be a quick way of gathering large amounts of data. Questionnaires
and surveys need to be carefully designed, otherwise the participants’ responses may not
provide suitable data to analyse, rendering them useless. Questions used in a survey must be
carefully worded so that the response will provide meaningful and useful data without the need
for further clarification.

Focus groups
A focus group is the meeting of a small group of individuals who are guided through a discussion
by a researcher. The focus group is carefully selected, so it fits a particular demographic and
the researcher can obtain the necessary data through a guided discussion that probes the
participant’s attitudes about the topic. Focus groups often comprise five to 12 people and the
discussion is loosely structured to encourage ideas to flow.

Interviews
Interviews are used to elicit the opinions and beliefs of people. They can be used to gather
data for research projects. Interviews are usually conducted one-to-one in a quiet, relaxed
atmosphere. They should be recorded, with permission of the interviewee, with easily used and
unobtrusive audio equipment or video. Writing down the responses during the interview is
not helpful to the interviewer or the interviewee. Collating and analysing information can be
difficult and time-consuming, and may require the use of someone with expertise.

Open-ended and closed questions

Questions used on a survey and during an interview can be open-ended or closed. Closed
questions limit the responses available to the respondent (Figure 1.2). They include ‘Yes/No’
boxes, multiple-choice questions, and scales on which the attitudes and beliefs are measured,
such as ‘strongly agree’, ‘agree’, ‘disagree’ or ‘strongly disagree’.
Closed (or closed-ended) questions are generally considered to be quantitative in nature.
They are called ‘closed’ because the range of answers the participant can choose is limited.
Closed questions are also known as quantitative, as the response options can be converted to
numbers. For example:

How often do you feel that you are overworked with homework?
5 I always feel overworked
4 I sometimes feel overworked
3 I occasionally feel overworked
2 I feel overworked once in a while
1 I never feel overworked

Each of these options can have a value placed next to them. However, we do not talk in
numbers and we shouldn’t create surveys that only have numbers. Questionnaires and surveys
should be thought of as a conversation between the person asking the questions and the person
answering them.
8 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

Open-ended questions do not limit the answers that can be given by the respondent
(see Figure 1.3). They should be worded so that the responses received are capable of correct
interpretation. For instance, if you asked the question, ‘How do you feel about the widespread
use of computer games?’, the responses would probably be too broad to be usefully categorised
and analysed. The wording must therefore limit the scope of the possible responses to specific
areas of interest: ‘How has the playing of computer games affected the school results for your
children?’ Open-ended questions also allow for follow-up questions, which are called probing
questions, such as ‘Why?’ or ‘Please give an example’. Such questions tend to elicit more
detail.
Open-ended questions allow people to answer the question as they want to. They are called
‘open-ended’ because participants are free to answer in any manner they choose. Unlike closed
questions, there are no response options specified. They are qualitative because responses are
considered and measured by feel rather than by numbers.
Closed questions are easier to develop, quicker to administer and answer, easier to collate
and analyse, and can provide a large and balanced sample; however, they may not be useful for
complex issues. In this case, open-ended questions may be needed as they elicit greater detail
in the responses, can bring forth unusual ideas and can show links between various aspects of
the issues.

Closed questions
1 How long have you shopped at this store?
2 How many times per week do you go shopping?
3 How much do you spend per week?

4 Which of the following sources of information most influences your purchasing habits?

• Advertising pamphlets delivered to the home

• Newspaper advertisements

• Television promotions

• Recommendations from friends

5 Do you use a computer?   • Yes   • No

6 What time of day do you normally go shopping?

FIGURE 1.2 Closed questions should be designed to elicit short, straightforward answers

Open-ended questions
1 What is your opinion of the games available from this store?
2 How influential do you think the advertising campaign has been?
3 What are some of the errors in data entry that you have observed?

4 Describe the most frustrating experience you have had when using the computer system.

5 What are some of the problems you experience in receiving information on time?

6 What changes would you recommend to improve the billing system?

FIGURE 1.3 Open-ended questions try not to limit the answers the respondent can give
9780170364744 Chapter 1 Data analysis 9

Observation
Observation is a way of finding out about the world around us. Using our senses, such as
sight, smell and hearing, we are able to pick up detailed information about our environment.
However, as a method of data collection, observation is more than just looking or listening,
as we can be selective about what we perceive to be most useful to us. Researchers engaged
in observation attempt to learn what life is like for someone in a particular setting, while
they remain an outsider. While observing, they make careful notes of what they see, record
all accounts including conversations and interactions. Observation generally takes place in
community settings such as classrooms or locations believed to have some relevance to the
research questions. Observation is unlike other forms of data collection tools, as the researcher
approaches participants in their own environment rather than having the participants come
to the researcher.

Quality of data and information

One aspect of identifying relevant data from a given data set is ensuring that the data is usable.
To be usable, data must be relevant, accurate, free from bias and reliable.

Relevance
To produce usable information, data must be relevant. For example, if a computing department
in an organisation is evaluating PC-only software, then surveying people who only use a Mac
is irrelevant. The data collected from Mac users would not be relevant to the overall data
collection.
Data also needs to be processed while it is current, because decision making should not be
based on outdated data.

Accuracy
Data that is entered into a computer must be accurate. Transcription is often a cause of error.
Transcription errors occur when the person entering the data misreads the information through,
for example, a lapse in concentration, being interrupted or pressing the wrong key. It is easy to
make a mistake when entering a large amount of data, particularly numbers with many digits
that may not contain spaces or punctuation to signify thousands. Clearly, if the data collected is
incorrect, the information produced will be incorrect. If data has been gathered from a primary
source, it is a good idea to check it against this. If data has been gathered from a secondary
source and is suspect, it is worthwhile verifying the data using other secondary sources.

Freedom from bias

Bias can easily creep into data and make the information processed from it unreliable. Several
influences can result in the introduction of bias into data: namely, vested interest, timing, small
sample size, bias through sorting and bias through graphic representations.
10 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

Vested interest
Bias can enter data if the respondent to a survey or interview has a vested interest in the
outcome of the research. A common example is celebrities who are paid to promote particular
products in commercials or social media. It would be unreasonable to trust their statements
that one product is better than others purely based on the fact that they are celebrities; they
are only saying what they have been paid to say and may not necessarily be providing an
independent judgement that has been derived from research or experience.

Timing
The timing of the data collection may also introduce bias. For example, you plan to survey a
sample of the population for their views about Australia becoming a republic. The data you
gather may be biased if, just prior to the survey being conducted, a royal tour takes place and
there is extensive media coverage about the Royal Family. The timing of the data collection
would introduce bias because it coincides with a significant event that could influence
the responses.
Note too that bias is not restricted to data gathered from surveys or during interviews. For
example, suppose that Qantas needed to decide whether to schedule two new weekly flights to
New York. The decision could depend on the demand for existing flights. If the airline collected
data from bookings made over a four-week period just before or during a significant event,
the data gathered would be biased. Such data should not be relied on for making this decision
because the influence of this event on customer demand is irregular and unlikely to occur again.

Small sample size

Choosing a sample size that is too small may also create bias. The sample size and composition
must be suitable for the purpose of the data collection and, usually, a larger sample size
leads to greater precision, provided the sample composition is suitably representative of the
target population. The sample size must be big enough to make any conclusions drawn and
information produced credible. For example, if you wanted to determine whether or not the
school uniform should be changed, it would be remiss to only survey students in your class.
Not only would this sample not be representative of the student body, but it would also not
include other stakeholders, such as parents and school administrators. Similarly, if you wanted
to gather sales data over a four-day period to predict monthly sales at a fish and chip shop,
this time scale would not be sufficient to make a prediction. For instance, by choosing the four
Mondays in the month, you may be selecting the quietest trading days in the week. If you pick
the four Fridays in the month, you may be picking the busiest trading days. When selecting a
sample size, you need to ensure that it is representative of the whole population.

Bias through sorting

The way in which you sort lists can introduce bias, although frequently this is unavoidable. A
classroom teacher often consults a class list that is sorted alphabetically; for example, to select
students for special tasks. The list is biased towards students whose surnames appear early in
the alphabet and thus at the top of the class list. If you need to hire an electrician and consult a
paper-based telephone book or an online directory, it is more likely that you will pick an early
entry than one from the second page of listings. Bias of this type is difficult to avoid, so it is
preferable to educate the user to recognise that the output has built-in bias and to encourage
strategies to overcome that bias.
 9780170364744 Chapter 1 Data analysis 11

Bias through graphic representations

Bias can occur through your choice of graphic type, scale used and size chosen. Graphic
representations should be sized proportionally to avoid overstating or trivialising the
importance of one of the variables involved. For example, in Figure 1.4, a teacher has created
a graph to show the heights of her students. The graph does not really give a clear picture of
how the heights vary. The bars look as if they are all of similar height, so it is difficult to see
the differences between them. In contrast, the different heights in Figure 1.5 are more distinct.
This has been achieved by decreasing the scale of the vertical axis. The variation in the student
heights looks much greater, even though the data has not changed. This graph makes it easier
to see the small differences.

Student heights Student heights

131 130.20

130.18

130.16
Height (cm)

Height (cm)
130.14

130.12

130.10

130.08

130.06

130 130.04
Anne Billy Charlie Dora Eric Frances Grace Harry Ian Jenny Anne Billy Charlie Dora Eric Frances Grace Harry Ian Jenny

FIGURE 1.4 Column graph with little variation FIGURE 1.5 Column graph with greater variation

Reliability
The internet has made it easier for people to communicate their views and present information
THINK ABOUT
in a format that is easily accessible to others. There are many personal websites, homemade COMPUTING 1.2
videos, wikis, podcasts, vodcasts and a plethora of unchecked information on the internet, and Find three reliable sources
some of the views presented may not be widely accepted or proven to be accurate. Alternatively, and describe in one
paragraph the type of data
there are many sources on the internet that are reliable such as the World Health Organization
they produce.
(WHO), Smithsonian, Australian Bureau of Statistics and universities.

Referencing primary sources

Once primary data has been gathered, details need to be carefully recorded to enable appropriate
referencing.

Interviews
For an interview, the following details need to be documented so that an interested person can
go back to the source for checking, clarification and further information.
• Name of interviewee
• Date of interview
• Place of interview
• Qualification to be an interviewee – that is, whether the interviewee is a stakeholder in the
issue and/or an expert about it
12 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

• Organisation to which the interviewee belongs (if relevant)

• Contact information for interviewee – phone number, address, email address, online chat handle
• How the interview was conducted; for example, in person, by phone, email or online chat
• Name and contact details of interviewer

Questionnaires
If you want to cite an individual response to a questionnaire or a survey, you need to record
these details.
• Name of respondent
• When the questionnaire was completed
• Title of questionnaire
• Organisation to which the questionnaire belongs (if relevant)
• How the questionnaire was conducted – paper/online

Observation
For observation, the following details need to be recorded.
• The name of the person observed
• When the observation was conducted (date/time)
• Where the observation was conducted

Examples of referencing
Citations in a document help readers to find the source of the information and also assist
students to avoid plagiarism. There are many ways to cite sources, such as providing footnotes,
in-text citations or listing sources at the end of the document through a bibliography or
references list.

Footnotes
Footnotes are listed at the bottom of the page on which a citation is made. Some academic
disciplines prefer to use footnotes (notes at the foot of the page) to reference their writing.
Although this method differs in style from the ‘author, date’ system, its purpose – to acknowledge
the source of ideas, data or quotations without undue interruption to the flow of the writing –
is the same. Footnotes are usually sequenced: series of numbers above the text (superscript)
are placed in the appropriate part of the text to indicate the cited work and are matched at the
bottom of the page after the footnote. A footnote lists the author, title and details of publication,
in that order. Here is an example of a footnote:

For example, in a 2009 article in the Australian Financial Review,

journalist Jacqueline Maley wrote about the changing pattern of
consumers’ expenditure on leisure goods and services following
the GFEC.1
1
J acqueline Maley, ‘Tough times bring home life’s simple pleasures’, Australian Financial
Review, 7 September 2009, p. 3.

FIGURE 1.6 An example of a footnote: a superscript number is inserted in the body of the text;
however, the full reference is provided at the bottom of the same page
9780170364744 Chapter 1 Data analysis 13

APA
The American Psychological Association (APA) created a style guide to assist with academic
writing such as publications, essays and books. The APA style is widely used and is one of the
most common reference styles that students are expected to use. Citations within the text and
their corresponding source details in a references list at the end of the work are necessary
elements of the APA style. These show the reader where ideas and research have come from.
Typically, when referencing using APA, the author’s surname and the date of the publication are
featured in the text. If quoting directly from the source, then the page number is also included.
For example:

FIGURE 1.7 An example of APA-style citation: the author’s name and date of publication are
inserted in the body of the text; the full reference is provided in the references list at the end of
the document

Within the main body of the document, any reference to the publications will need to be
cited. As illustrated in Figure 1.7, when using the APA style, the format usually follows author-
date-page where the author’s last name, the year of the publication, and the page number of the For more detailed
quote are referenced. These are all separated by commas, and are placed within parentheses information, visit the
following the text. The page number is preceded by a lower case ‘p’ with a period (full stop) after APA website.
it; for example, (Parbury, 1999, p. 65).
EndNote is a commercial reference management software, used to manage bibliographies
and references. It is similar to a database and is used to keep all references in one place. EndNote
also integrates with MS Word, so that references can be easily inserted into the text with
For more information,
minimal effort, as shown in Figure 1.8. Alternatively, MS Word has its own built-in referencing visit the EndNote
capabilities that will allow you to create a bibliography and manage your sources without the website.
need of additional software.
14 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

FIGURE 1.8 EndNote integrates easily into Microsoft Word

http://www.citationmachine.net

The free Citation

Machine website,
shown in Figure 1.9,
generates citations in
APA style. It can assist
students to generate
references in the
appropriate format. FIGURE 1.9 The Citation Machine can be used by students to assist with referencing
9780170364744 Chapter 1 Data analysis 15

Seeking permission
Permission must be sought for collecting any data or information that involves people, because
of privacy laws such as the Australian Privacy Principles (APPs). For example, to photograph or
film individuals or groups, you should obtain permission. The organisation or individual who
wants permission needs to let the people photographed or filmed know the purpose of the
photographs or film and what it may be used for. Permission is usually provided in written
form and is often known as consent. Permission needs to be sought because a photograph or
video image in which an individual can be identified is considered to be personal information.
Pictures of people can be used in advertisements, or for marketing purposes, and sometimes
pictures can be used thoughtlessly and depict people in a false light.
Participants in any research need to be informed about what the research entails. They
need to know what they are required to do and how much of their time it will take, and how
often they will be required. All details of the research need to be given so that participants can
make an informed decision to participate. For example, when researchers want to conduct
a questionnaire, they need to specify how much time it will take (for example, 20 minutes)
and how many times the questionnaire will need to be completed. Participants need to know
whether the questionnaire will be paper-based or electronic, and how they will get access to it.
All these details need to be explicitly stated so that each participant has a clear understanding
before agreeing to take part. Participation needs to be voluntary. The researchers cannot put
pressure on the participants or use coercion, or provide financial or other incentives for them
to participate. Participation in research needs to be voluntary and informed.
In universities, research that involves people or animals cannot begin until researchers
obtain ethics clearance. Each university has an ethics committee established and they follow
the guidelines set out by the National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC). Before
obtaining ethics clearance, the researcher/s must demonstrate that they have followed correct
procedures and processes before collecting data to ensure that all risks have been addressed,
and that it is established that participation is informed and voluntary.

Consent forms
One method of obtaining permission for research purposes is to use consent forms. Informed
consent by all research participants is necessary. This means that before agreeing to participate
in research, they are aware of what the research involves, the time required from them and the
possible risks that may arise. Participation in research not only has to be informed, but also
voluntary; that is, participants are not pressured to be involved and have the capacity to make
their own decisions based on their understanding of the research.
You must obtain consent when interviewing or observing participants, creating
questionnaires or surveys or collecting any type of data.
Consent forms should have the following information clearly listed.
• The title of the project
• The name of the researcher
• What the project is about and why it is being undertaken
• What is required from the participants in terms of time, effort, resources and costs
• The rights and interests of the participants – that they freely consent to be involved in the
research and can withdraw at any time without having to provide a reason
• A statement of whether the participant’s identity will be preserved
16 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

• Statements of confirmation, such as:

— ‘I have been informed of and understand the purposes of the study.’
— ‘I have been given an opportunity to ask questions.’
— ‘I understand I can withdraw at any time without prejudice.’
— ‘Any information that might potentially identify me will not be used in published
material.’
— ‘I agree to participate in the study as outlined to me.’
• Name of participant, signature and date
FIGURE 1.10 A sample consent form

Name of school:
Project title:
Investigator(s):

1 I consent to participate in the project named above. I have been provided a copy of the project
consent information statement to which this consent form relates and any questions I have
asked have been answered to my satisfaction.
2 In relation to this project, please circle your response to the following:
• I agree to be interviewed by the researcher Yes No
• I agree to allow the interview to be recorded by electronic device Yes No
• I agree to make myself available for further information if required Yes No
• I agree to complete questionnaires asking me about <Insert topic> Yes No

3 I acknowledge that:
a my participation is voluntary and that I am free to withdraw from the project at any time
without explanation;
b the project is for the purpose of research and not for profit;
c any identifiable information about me which is gathered in the course of and as the result
of my participating in this project will be (i) collected and retained for the purpose of this
project and (ii) accessed and analysed by the researcher(s) for the purpose of conducting
this project;
d my anonymity is preserved and I will not be identified in publications or otherwise without
my express written consent.
By signing this document I agree to participate in this project.
Participant name: ……………………………………………………………………………
Signature and date: …………………………………………………………………………

Participation information statements

The most common way to obtain informed consent is to provide a participant information
statement written in plain English along with a consent form. This provides participants
with information about the research and also provides the scope to answer questions that
participants may have. Once they have read and understood the information statement, they
are asked to sign the consent form to indicate their agreement to participate. When developing
a participation information statement, consider the following.
• Use language your audience can easily understand.
• If technical terms are required, make sure they are clearly explained the first time they
are used.
• The statement should be suitable for a 12-year-old reading age.
• Write in a conversational style, as if you were speaking to the participant.
• Language used should be clear, concise, invitational, culturally appropriate and logically
set out.
9780170364744 Chapter 1 Data analysis 17

• Use pronouns, such as ‘I’, ‘we’ and ‘you’. This encourages the use of active voice and will be
clearer to the reader. For example: ‘You will be asked to participate’.
• Use reader-friendly formatting so that your document is easy to read.
• Ask others to read and edit your document.
• Include a statement on how the data will be stored.
• State where and how the research findings will be published.
• Give further information about the project, such as whom to contact.
Even if the data collection technique is an online survey and the researchers do not meet
the participants, respondents must still be informed of the research, and asked to consent
online prior to completing the questionnaire. They may be asked to consent by accepting and
selecting the ‘I agree to participate’. If they choose the ‘I do not wish to participate’ option, then
they do not get access to the questionnaire. See Figure 1.11 for an example of an integrated
online information statement and consent form.

FIGURE 1.11 Example of an integrated online information statement and consent form.
Note that personal information has been redacted for privacy reasons.
18 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

The consent information statement should be clearly labelled as such (or quite similar) and
contain key pieces of information as follows:
Project title
Give the project a full title
Investigators and other project personnel
List clearly all researchers.
Introduction to project and invitation to participate
Both introduce the project and invite participation.
What this project is about and why it is being undertaken
Sufficiently explain what the project is about, its aims, why it is being conducted.
Project and researcher interests
Researcher and project interests should be sufficiently disclosed as applicable; for example,
project is partly, mainly or wholly to satisfy the requirements for a student’s VCE subject.
What participation will involve – time, effort, resources, costs
Give sufficient clear detail as to what is being asked of participants – voluntary consent to their
time, effort, supply of information/body tissue/records/personal effects, etc. Avoid language that
can be read as orders or directives (i.e., not ‘You will do this or that’; but better as ‘We will ask
you’, etc.) and presumptuous language (e.g., ‘Dear Participant’).
Participant rights and interests – risks and benefits/contingencies/back-up support
Outline realistically any potential risks (minimal or otherwise) and what preventative,
minimisation or redress arrangements are in place. If some research questions or issues can
be considered particularly sensitive, give sample questions or topics as an indication of the
information that will be discussed or requested. Describe any benefits pertaining to individual
participation or more generally. Avoid grandiose claims.
Participant rights and interests – free consent/withdrawal from participation
Participation should be voluntary, free from any coercion or perceived coercion. Detail on this
matter should be clear – that an individual is free to participate or not and the circumstances.
If, for example, the participants are students, patients or employees, it will help to clarify that
their decision to whether or not to participate will have no bearing on their results, treatment
or employment (in some cases this may need further explanation, such as details about
recruitment).
A statement about the participant’s right to withdraw participation, data or material contributed,
ordinarily without question or explanation, needs to be included.
Don’t forget to outline how valid consent is to be obtained (by signed consent form, completion
and return of an anonymous questionnaire, any witnessing procedure if applicable, etc.). Often it
helps to highlight or bold this part.
Participant rights and interests – privacy and confidentiality
Give clear information about secure arrangements for data access, collection, use, retention
and/or disposal. This needs to comply with mandatory Australian Privacy Principles.
If signed consent forms are required, state whether they will be stored separately from any data
collected and who will have access to them.
Remember, people are increasingly concerned about data access and data matching. Clear
information will help allay any concerns.
Research output
Outline intended or anticipated publication or reporting of research findings. If need be, reiterate
or refer to privacy arrangements for confidentiality/anonymity. Offer to make available any report
or article or summary, where appropriate, and indicate how this will occur.
Further information about the project – whom to contact
You will need to nominate at least one person to contact regarding further information about the
research activity or participation in the project.

FIGURE 1.12 Information that should be included in a participation information statement

9780170364744 Chapter 1 Data analysis 19

Privacy
When undertaking research, it is very important to uphold the privacy of the participants.
Privacy is a fine balance between the interests of researchers and participants. Privacy laws
attempt to stop inappropriate intrusion into the lives of individuals. However, the collection of
data is often not the problem, but how the data is used or misused by people entrusted with
it. To maintain privacy, and to de-identify the data, personal identifiers such as names and
birthdates that are associated with individuals need to be removed so that information cannot
be traced or identified.
TABLE 1.1 Data that has been collected but not de-identified

Given name Surname Height (cm) Weight (kg) Sex Birthday Postcode Age Active
Charlotte Maine 145 48 F 22/10/2003 3103 11 No
Claudette Shine 153 40 F 10/10/2003 3105 11 Yes
Abdul Mensur 160 37 M 19/10/2002 3122 12 Yes
Eric Anton 142 38 M 12/12/2003 3040 11 Yes
Jaspreet Singh 148 41 M 31/12/2002 3041 12 No
Sienna Megane 152 42 F 2/12/2003 3103 11 Yes
Elijah Wu 144 43 M 6/01/2003 3122 11 No
Josephine Wu 149 47 F 6/01/2003 3122 11 Yes
Hamish Green 154 37 M 2/02/2003 3044 11 No
Jacinda Black 143 46 F 4/04/2003 3111 11 No

TABLE 1.2 Data that has been de-identified: personal information such as birthdates, first names
and surnames has been removed so that data cannot be identified or traced

Participant Height (cm) Weight (kg) Sex Postcode Age Active

ID1001 145 48 F 3103 11 No
ID1002 153 40 F 3105 11 Yes
ID1003 160 37 M 3122 12 Yes
ID1004 142 38 M 3040 11 Yes
ID1005 148 41 M 3041 12 No
ID1006 152 42 F 3103 11 Yes
ID1007 144 43 M 3122 11 No
ID1008 149 47 F 3122 11 Yes
ID1009 154 37 M 3044 11 No
ID1010 143 46 F 3111 11 No

Care must be taken to de-identify data. The example we have provided of de-identifying
data only removes the names and dates of birth of survey participants. Depending on the
remaining data and the information generated, this may be insufficient to protect the privacy
of individual research participants from being identified (even accidentally) by at least some
users of the information. This is particularly likely if the users know who the members of the
sample group are, or if they are familiar with the wider population that is being sampled. Users
of the information may be able to identify a survey participant even after his or her name and
date of birth have been removed. This could be caused by a characteristic known to be rare in
the sample group or wider population, because this helps to narrow possibilities. Combinations
of rare characteristics would help to narrow them even further, so that users of the information
could make an intelligent guess as to a person’s identity.
20 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

Physical security controls

Researchers must ensure that data and materials generated and collected as part of their
research, regardless of the format, are stored securely in a durable and accessible form. Data
must be stored in a way that meets all legal and confidentiality requirements. Stored data
can be protected with both physical- and software-based controls such as backing up data or
shredding confidential documents.
Data needs to be securely retained and then securely disposed of or destroyed when
no longer needed. How long the data or material need to be retained depends on the type
of research or data. The minimum standard is set out in Section 2 of the Australian Code for
the Responsible Conduct of Research 2007. The minimum timeframe for data to be retained is
five years. For some specific types of research, other timeframes may be required. For data
such as identifiable health research data, the minimum period may need to be seven years.
For identifiable health research data involving children, the data may need to be kept until
the individuals involved turn 25, or five years after any research outcome based on the data is
published or made available for release, whichever is the longer.

Encryption
Encryption is the process of translating data into a secret code that can only be read by
authorised users. To read an encrypted file, you must have access to a secret key that you
use to decrypt the data. Unencrypted data is also known as ‘plaintext’. Data that has been
collected for research purposes needs to be secured so that only authorised people have access.
Encryption is one way to ensure that the data is secured.

Backups
Backups form an essential step in data management. Regular backups protect against a
number of risks including human error, computer crashes and software faults. Critical data
files or data that are used regularly should be backed up frequently.
It is not unusual for someone to accidentally delete an important file or edit a document
and later realise that some important information was removed. One strategy to minimise loss
of data by an authorised user is to maintain a backup system. Important files inadvertently lost
can be retrieved from the backup media.
A full backup copies all of the files from a device to a storage medium. It can take
considerable time and is usually performed once over a time period (such as a week, fortnight
or month). A differential backup copies only those files that have been changed since the last
full backup. Restoration of data would involve restoring files from the full backup and then
from the differential backup. An incremental backup is similar to a differential backup, the
difference being that it uses more than two backup media, while a differential backup uses
only two media. An incremental backup only copies files that have been changed since the
last incremental backup. It is the most complicated strategy from which to restore files since
it requires restoration from a full backup and then from a series of incremental backups. It is a
good practice to clearly label all backup media so that you know when the backup was made
and what is on it.

Location of backup files

Once you have created backups, where do you put them? Ideally, your backups should be stored
in a location that is safe from theft and damage caused by extremes of temperature or disasters.
Most small businesses have a fireproof and waterproof safe in which valuable company
9780170364744 Chapter 1 Data analysis 21

documents are stored. This might also be used to store backups. It is preferable, however, to
The word ‘cloud’ is used
store backups at a remote location, perhaps even in the cloud. This means that if there is a large because the internet was
natural disaster, such as a huge flood or an earthquake, the backups will be safe. originally, and still is,
represented by a cloud
One last point to remember is to ensure that backups actually work when you want to in network diagrams.
restore the data. It is important to test the effectiveness of your backup files by running a An example of cloud
disaster recovery simulation. If files cannot be restored from the backup or the system refuses computing is Google’s
Gmail, which uses cloud-
to recognise them, it is better to discover this before a real emergency. computing processing
Cloud-computing companies provide offsite storage, processing and computer resources powers and storage
facilities.
to individuals and organisations. These companies are typically third party and they store data
to a remote database in real-time. The internet provides the connection between this database
and the user’s computer. One of the advantages of cloud storage include the ability to access
data from any location that has internet access, eliminating the need to carry a USB, or a hard-
drive to retrieve and store data. The ability to share files with other people and collaborate
simultaneously, such as by using Google Docs, is also an advantage. Finally, if something were
to happen to the computer, such as a fire or natural disaster, and the data on it were to be
destroyed, having the data saved offsite in the cloud would prevent the data from being lost.
Google Docs allows users to upload documents, spreadsheets and presentations to Google’s
servers (Figure 1.13). Users can edit files using a Google application and work on them at the
same time as others, so they can read or make edits simultaneously.

Usernames and passwords

A username usually is identifiable as belonging to a particular person and can be easily
remembered. Usernames are uniquely assigned to users. Passwords are set by the user and
should be known only to that user. To maintain high levels of security, user passwords should:
• be at least eight digits long
• include non-alphabetical characters
• not be easily guessed (for example, a favourite pet’s name is not suitable) FIGURE 1.13 Google
• be changed every month. Docs
Some network policies force passwords to be changed on a regular basis, and do not allow
passwords to be repeated.
In terms of securing individual files, a password can be placed by an individual to prevent
unauthorised people accessing the data. Password protection can be placed on files to prevent
them from being viewed by unauthorised people, as shown in Figure 1.14.

FIGURE 1.14 Password protection has been placed on the file, preventing access to it unless a
password is entered

Firewall
A firewall is a server and software combination that filters the information coming through an
internet connection into an organisation’s internal network. Any packet of data that is flagged
by the filters as unwanted is not allowed through.
22 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

The filters used by a firewall include examining the IP address of computers that request
information from an internal server, blocking all access to certain domain names, banning
certain protocols (e.g. file transfer protocol, mail protocol or Telnet protocol) from accessing
particular servers, and searching for certain words and phrases included in packets of
information, and blocking transfers that contain them.
A firewall can also be used to restrict employees’ access to sensitive information. For
example, a firewall can be used to stop some personnel from accessing the payroll database.
Most firewalls use two separate network interface controllers (NICs); one is connected to
the internal network and the other to the outside world. Material can only move from one card
to the other through the CPU of the server computer that is acting as the firewall. While the
Firewalls are explained in data or information is being checked for authenticity, it is also examined for viruses and other
more detail in Chapter 3. malicious codes. Everything that comes in from outside is examined for danger.

Malware protection
Malware is malicious software that includes spyware, adware, Trojan horses, worms and
viruses. Spyware and adware use cookies to track the internet sites that a user might visit.
Trojan horses can leave your computer open to others to read your personal information by
creating backdoor access to your system. Viruses and worms can hijack your system to send
multiple emails to others or perform other acts of mischief. Both can use up essential system
resources, which may result in the computer freezing.
Network administrators usually require workstations to run virus protection software. The
antivirus software is often updated automatically via the network. A firewall is also useful to
block malware from sending personal information over the internet. Anti-adware programs
should also be run on workstations.

Australian Privacy Principles

Originally, the Privacy Act 1988 only dealt with the handling of data by Federal government
agencies. Many people criticised this limitation because it seemed that private organisations
were not required to apply even the most basic of safeguards on data they collected. Even worse,
there were no regulations preventing non-government organisations from collecting data by
any method and using it for any purpose without the consent of the people whose private
details were concerned. In particular, the rapid growth of electronic transactions, especially
over the internet, led many people to demand some sort of legal protection from those who
might gather data about internet browsing habits. The government was keen to encourage the
development of electronic commerce, while protecting the confidentiality of consumers and
increasing public confidence in electronic transactions. These amendments have now been
incorporated into the Privacy Act 1988 (Cth) and are the most significant changes to privacy
laws since the inception of the legislation.
There have been several additional powers included within this Act since 1988, but its main
purpose has remained unchanged. The Privacy Act 1988 (Cth) was amended by the Privacy
Amendment (Enhancing Privacy Protection) Bill in 2012. This came into effect in 2014. As
part of this Act, the Australian Privacy Principles replaced the National Privacy Principles
and the Information Privacy Principles so that Australia now has one set of privacy principles.
The Australian Privacy Principles (APPs) generally apply to Australian Government agencies.
They do not apply to Local Councils or State or Territory Governments. Some States have their
own privacy laws. For example Victoria has The Privacy and Data Protection Act 2014 (PDPA).
9780170364744 Chapter 1 Data analysis 23

The changes to the Privacy Act include 13 new privacy policy principles known as the
Australian Privacy Principles (APPs). The APPs were devised to set out the standards, rights
and obligations for collecting, handling, holding, accessing, using, disclosing and correcting
personal information. The APPs oversee the handling of personal information by:
• Australian and Norfolk Island Government agencies
• all private health service providers
• businesses that have an annual turnover of $3 million or those that trade personal
information.
Of particular interest are Principle 2, Anonymity and pseudonymity, and Principle 6, Use or
disclosure of personal information.

TABLE 1.3 The Australian Privacy Principles

APP 1 Open and transparent management of personal information

Ensures that APP entities manage personal information in an open and transparent way. This includes having a clearly
expressed and up-to-date APP privacy policy.
APP 2 Anonymity and pseudonymity
Requires APP entities to give individuals the option of not identifying themselves, or of using a pseudonym. Limited
exceptions apply.
APP 3 Collection of solicited personal information
Outlines when an APP entity can collect personal information that is solicited. It applies higher standards to the collection of

Office of the Australian Information Commissioner website – www.oaic.gov.au, Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Licence
‘sensitive’ information.
APP 4 Dealing with unsolicited personal information
Outlines how APP entities must deal with unsolicited personal information.
APP 5 Notification of the collection of personal information
Outlines when and in what circumstances an APP entity that collects personal information must notify an individual of certain
matters.
APP 6 Use or disclosure of personal information
Outlines the circumstances in which an APP entity may use or disclose personal information that it holds.
APP 7 Direct marketing
An organisation may only use or disclose personal information for direct marketing purposes if certain conditions are met.
APP 8 Cross-border disclosure of personal information
Outlines the steps an APP entity must take to protect personal information before it is disclosed overseas.
APP 9 Adoption, use or disclosure of government related identifiers
Outlines the limited circumstances when an organisation may adopt a government related identifier of an individual as its
own identifier, or use or disclose a government related identifier of an individual.
APP 10 Quality of personal information
An APP entity must take reasonable steps to ensure the personal information it collects is accurate, up to date and complete.
An entity must also take reasonable steps to ensure the personal information it uses or discloses is accurate, up to date,
complete and relevant, having regard to the purpose of the use or disclosure.
APP 11 Security of personal information
An APP entity must take reasonable steps to protect personal information it holds from misuse, interference and loss, and
from unauthorised access, modification or disclosure. An entity has obligations to destroy or de-identify personal information
in certain circumstances.
APP 12 Access to personal information
Outlines an APP entity’s obligations when an individual requests to be given access to personal information held about them
by the entity. This includes a requirement to provide access unless a specific exception applies.
APP 13 Correction of personal information
Outlines an APP entity’s obligations in relation to correcting the personal information it holds about individuals.
24 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

APP 2 Anonymity and pseudonymity

Australian Privacy Principle 2 provides individuals dealing with organisations the option
of using a different name or a pseudonym in relation to a particular matter. This measure
is in place so that individuals cannot be identified. In addition, individuals can also remain
anonymous. For example, when an individual calls an organisation, often a message states that
the call will be recorded for training purposes. If the individual objects, the call is not recorded.
At a later date, when staff from the organisation receive training, the names of the individuals
whose voices have been recorded must be changed in order to protect their identity when these
real examples are used.

APP 6 Use and disclosure of personal information

Australian Privacy Principle 6 states that the information that is being held is in line with the
primary purpose it was intended for. Information cannot be used for a secondary purpose
unless the holders of the information have received consent from the individuals concerned.
For example, if a sporting organisation collected information about their players for the purpose
of organising competitions and making the details available to the coaches and captains, then
that would be the primary purpose of the data. However, if the sporting organisation wanted to
provide the details of their members to a shop that specialised in sporting merchandise, then
it could not do so, as this would be using the information for a purpose for which it was not
intended.

Ethical dilemmas
Everyone wants the benefits of digital systems; however, intended and unintended negative
effects can impinge upon people’s rights. As a result, those who design, control and use digital
systems have a responsibility to consider the real and potential negative effects and to eliminate
or lessen them as much as possible. Sometimes even this may not be enough to justify the
proposed collection or creation of data. It is important to take into account legal objections
and ethical considerations when creating or acquiring data. The purpose for collection needs
to be clear. This also needs to be articulated in the participant information statements and the
consent forms provided to the people from whom information will be sought.
Ethics refers to behaving in ways that are based on our morals and accepted standards.
These standards may be common in a particular society or specific to a single organisation. They
apply to questionable activities over and above any legal requirements. Ethics often provide
us with a set of guidelines of appropriate behaviour. If we choose to ignore these guidelines,
we may not be committing a crime, but we may be sacked by an employer or shunned by
society. For example, the impact of violent video games on children has long been debated.
Some people have voiced their concerns that video game writers should not include animated
violence in their games because it has a negative impact on children. A system of classification
exists for games, similar to television and film classifications, but there is no legal restriction
preventing these games from being created. These examples demonstrate how ethics hinge
on society’s values and standards. In this example, there are two competing principles. On the
one hand, some proponents would argue that protecting children from possibly harmful video
games is the right thing to do. On the other hand, others would argue that it is more important
to maintain freedom of expression. Often, then, questions of ethics become debates over which
9780170364744 Chapter 1 Data analysis 25

of two principles is more important. Such conflict may be said to constitute a dilemma. This is
especially the case when the consequences of action are open to debate or interpretation.
The standards or guidelines that determine whether an action is good or bad are known
as ethics. Ethics are the moral guidelines that govern, among other things, the use of data
collection. Often ethical principles/guidelines have an accompanying law, but the ethical
principle is usually broader and the law applies only to certain circumstances or applications
of the principle.
For example, it is ethical to obtain permission to publish photos of people on websites or
in promotional material. Sometimes people may object to their images being used for these
purposes. The purpose for taking the photo and how it is intended to be used need to be made
clear. Ethically it is wrong to use a photo for a different purpose from that for which it was This may be of particular
originally collected. Similarly, when using data-collection tools such as surveys, interviews concern when deciding
what must be removed to
and questionnaires, it is important to reassure participants that the data provided, within the de-identify data sufficiently
limits of the law, will remain anonymous and that their individual comments will not be able to protect all its potential
to be identified by others. It is not simply that it is important to put participants’ minds at users. It is also important
when reporting personal
rest regarding their concerns about protecting privacy; it is also important to ensure that their information anonymously
privacy is in fact protected (and also to ensure that non-participants in the larger group of or using pseudonyms in
a newspaper report, for
which the sample is supposed to be representative, are not put at unacceptable risk of suffering example.
as a result of mistaken identification).
Ethical frameworks assist people to work through ethical dilemmas. A six-step framework
as described below can be used for handling ethical dilemmas to solve a legal, ethical or
social tension. This framework will provide support and guidance in making a decision when
presented with an ethical dilemma.
1 Identify the problem: What decision has to be made and what facts are required?
2 Identify the stakeholders: Who are they? What interests do they have? What power do
they have? Who is vulnerable? How are the vulnerable to be protected?
3 Identify possible alternatives: What options are available? What are the likely
consequences?
4 Identify ethical standards: Are there any applicable laws? Are there any morals or
standards that could be applied? Is there a precedent?
5 Evaluate options: Identify strengths and weaknesses. Identify the option that causes least
harm. Can the decision be reversed?
6 Make a decision: Select the preferred option. Justify the option.
 26 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

ESSENTIAL TERMS
CHAPTER SUMMARY

backup copying files from an information system incremental backup similar to a differential backup
to some type of storage device to guard against in that it works in conjunction with a full backup,
possible data loss but only backs up files that have been altered
bias a prejudicial or unreasoned judgement since the last incremental backup; it is the most
closed (or closed-ended) questions queries that complicated strategy from which to restore files
are restricted in the range of options provided so information processed, organised and value-added
that only specific answers are elicited data, which can be paper-based (hard copy) or
data unprocessed, unorganised and distinct facts or digital (soft copy)
ideas; in addition to text and numbers, data also informed consent a necessity for all participants
includes sounds, images and video before agreeing to take part in research,
decrypt to translate encrypted data back into participants must be informed of what the
ordinary text that can be read by anyone research involves, the time commitment
differential backup used in conjunction with a expected and the possible risks that may arise
full backup, only files that have been altered malware programs designed to infiltrate and
since the last full backup are copied; restoration cause harm to a computer or network without
requires the full backup to be restored first, the owner’s knowledge or consent, including
followed by files from the differential backup viruses, worms, Trojans, adware, spyware, logic
bombs and keyloggers
dilemma when people must choose between two
observation a way of finding out about the world
(or more) equally desirable (or undesirable)
around us; using our five senses, we pick up
options; for example, between allowing the sale
detailed information about our environment
of violent video games to preserve freedom of
open-ended questions queries that allow people
expression and banning their sale in order to
to answer the question in the manner they wish;
protect children from possible harm
they are called open ended because the person
encryption the process of translating data into a
responding is free to answer in any manner he or
secret code that can only be read by authorised
she chooses
users; to read an encrypted file, you must have
participant information statement a document
access to a secret key that you use to decrypt the
that provides participants with information
data; encrypted data is also known as ‘ciphertext’
about the research in an unbiased way, and also
ethics guidelines based on our morals and
provides the scope to answer questions that the
accepted standards; these standards may be
participant may have
common in a particular society or specific to a
primary sources original, uninterpreted data and
single organisation, and apply to questionable
resources; that is, information that has not been
activities over and above any legal requirements
processed, analysed or interpreted in any way,
– ethics often provide us with a set of guidelines
such as interviews, speeches, emails, debates
of appropriate behaviour
and meetings; primary data usually come from
firewall hardware and software that restrict access stakeholders
to data and information on a network pseudonym a fictitious name that is given to a
focus group the meeting of a small group of person, or that is chosen by a person, to hide or
individuals who are guided through a discussion protect their identity
by a researcher; focus group members are qualitative data collected data that is harder to
carefully selected, so that each one fits a particular measure because it is based on subjective data
demographic and the researcher can obtain the collection techniques such as interviews, focus
necessary data through a guided discussion that groups, video footage and observation
probes the participant’s attitudes about the topic quantitative data collected data that is measurable
footnotes a type of reference that is listed at the and specific; quantitative data gathering is
bottom of the page on which the citation is made based on verifying theory through the use of
full backup copying all chosen files to a backup statistics and largely numerical data
device; it can be slow to perform, but is the questionnaire or survey usually a set of questions
easiest and quickest way to restore data form that ask for a response to be selected from
hypothesis a statement based on probabilities a list of alternatives, such as A, B, C, D; or
proposing what will happen according to the from a range, 1–5 or very low to very high;
applied theory; some hypotheses are tested using questionnaires can easily be given to many
data collection tools such as questionnaires and/ people, and are easily processed and analysed
or interviews, and the results of the study will using computer-based methods because the
either support or disprove the hypothesis answers can be recorded as numbers
9780170364744 Chapter 1 Data analysis 27

referencing citations in a document that assist stakeholder an individual or group who either has

CHAPTER SUMMARY
readers to know where to locate the source of an interest in or is affected by the decisions and
an original idea or quote in a piece of work, and actions of an organisation
assist students to avoid plagiarism survey see questionnaire
secondary sources information that has been unencrypted data also known as ‘plaintext’
processed, interpreted or analysed in some variable in programming, a key word, phrase or
way by others, such as textbooks, websites, symbol that represents a value that may change
magazines, newspapers and TV programs vested interest arises when an individual, group
or organisation has a strong personal interest
because there is an advantage to be gained

IMPORTANT FACTS
1 Data must be relevant to produce usable is often not the problem, but how the data is used
information. Data needs to be processed while it or misused by people entrusted with it.
is current because decision-making should not 10 Researchers must ensure that data and materials
be based on outdated data. generated and collected as part of their research,
2 Data that is entered into a computer must be regardless of the format, are stored securely in a
accurate. Transcription is often a cause of error. durable and accessible form. Stored data can be
Transcription errors occur when the person protected with both physical and software-based
entering the data misreads the information controls such as backing up and shredding
through, for example, a lapse in concentration, confidential documents.
being interrupted or pressing the wrong key. 11 Cloud-computing companies provide offsite
3 Interviews are usually done one-to-one, but can storage, processing and computer resources to
sometimes be done in groups, and can take a individuals and organisations. These companies
substantial amount of time. A major feature of an are typically third party and they store data to a
interview is the opportunity for in-depth follow-up remote database in real-time.
and clarification questions that cannot be done 12 To verify users’ rights to access a network,
with questionnaires, which are often answered in security features are required. A system of
private. Interviews are very useful for eliciting the establishing usernames (or user IDs) and
feelings, attitudes and opinions of people that are passwords allows for the identification and
too complex to easily record in a questionnaire. authentication of each user.
4 Bias can infiltrate data if the respondent to a 13 The Privacy Act 1988 (Cth) was amended
survey or interview has a vested interest in the by the Privacy Amendment (Enhancing
outcome of the research, if the timing of the data Privacy Protection) Bill in 2012. This
gathering is inappropriate, or if the sample size came into effect in 2014. As part of this Act,
chosen is too small. the Australian Privacy Principles (APPs)
5 Timing of events needs consideration when replaced the National Privacy Principles
collecting data as it can cause skewed results, and the Information Privacy Principles
which can lead to inaccurate or misleading so Australia now has one set of
conclusions. privacy principles. The APPs apply to
6 Sample size must relate to the purpose of the Australian Government agencies.
data collection and, generally, a larger sample 14 APP 2, Anonymity and pseudonymity
size leads to greater precision. offers individuals dealing with
7 There is a plethora of unchecked information organisations the option of
on the internet; however, some of the views using a different name or a
presented may not be widely accepted or proven. pseudonym in relation to a
Sources cited should be reliable. particular matter.
8 The American Psychological Association (APA) 15 APP 6, Use and disclosure of
created a style guide to assist with academic personal information states
writing such as essays, books and other that the information that is
publications. The APA style is widely used and being held is in line with
is one of the most common styles that students the primary purpose
are expected to reference. it was intended for.
9 Privacy is a fine balance between the interest of Information cannot be
researchers and the participants. Privacy laws used for a secondary
attempt to stop inappropriate intrusion into the purpose without consent
lives of individuals. However, the collection of data from the individuals concerned.
28 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE

Qz
DATA AND INFORMATION
1 What can occur if information is produced from incorrect or incomplete data?
Review quiz
Review quiz 2 Why is it important to ensure that data is accurate?
3 What are the properties of usable data?
4 What is a common cause of inaccurate data?
5 How can the accuracy of a primary source be determined?
6 With an example, explain the importance of timeliness in ensuring the quality and
usability of data.
7 What influences the introduction of bias into data?
8 What is the difference between quantitative and qualitative data? Provide two examples.
9 What strategies could be used when gathering quantitative data?
10 Provide an example of referencing based on APA.
11 Why is it important to obtain permission when collecting data?
12 What is the purpose of consent forms?

DIGITAL SYSTEMS
13 Why is encryption important in data security?
14 How do usernames and passwords protect data?
15 What makes a strong password? Provide an example of a very strong password.
16 Describe a strategy on backing up data?
17 What is the difference between a full backup and an incremental backup?
18 Why is it important to secure data when conducting research?

INTERACTIONS AND IMPACT

19 How do the Australian Privacy Principles affect the individual?
20 Under which legislation does the Australian Privacy Principles fall?
21 Why is it important to de-identify personal data?
22 What is an ethical dilemma in the context of data collection for research purposes?
9780170364744 Chapter 1 Data analysis 29

APPLY YOUR KNOWLEDGE

STREET TRAFFIC
1 Arthur believes that there is too much traffic in his street, particularly on weekdays – in
the morning and evening. Arthur lives in a small residential street, but cars use this street
as a shortcut to avoid traffic lights and the main roads. Arthur wants to do some research
to support his theory about the traffic on his street, and present a case to the local council.
a Clearly state the topic Arthur will investigate.
b What type of data will Arthur need to assist in his investigation?
c Identify an appropriate data gathering technique Arthur could use.
d Justify the selected data gathering technique.
e How will Arthur keep the data safe?
f Does Arthur need to get permission to conduct his research and if so, from whom?
g What tools will Arthur use to interpret the results?
h What types of relationships and patterns is Arthur looking for?
i How will Arthur present the data to the local council?

INTERNET USAGE
2 Go to the UN Data website and find the Information and Communications
Technology database. Select to view the data on the percentage of individuals
using the internet.
UN Data
a Filter the data to show only the percentage of individuals using the internet.
b Copy and paste this data into a spreadsheet program.
c Create a column chart, a scatter diagram and a bubble chart that depict these
statistics.
d Discuss which graphic representation best conveys the data and why.
30 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

CHAPTER
APPROACHES TO PROBLEM-
SOLVING METHODOLOGY:
DATA ANALYSIS
Key knowledge
After completing this chapter, you will be able to demonstrate knowledge of:
Approaches to problem solving
• types of graphic solutions suitable for educating, persuading and informing
audiences
• design tools for representing the functionality and appearance of graphic solutions
such as input-process-output charts (functionality) and annotated diagrams/mock
ups (appearance)
• formats and conventions suitable for graphic solutions such as titles, text styles,
shapes, lines and arrows, sources of data and legend, colours and contrasts
• software functions and techniques for efficiently and effectively manipulating data to
develop graphic solutions, and for validating data
• techniques for testing graphic solutions.

For the student

Following on from Chapter 1 where you conducted an investigation into an issue, in
Chapter 2 you will create a digital solution that graphically presents the findings of the
investigation. Graphical data solutions are necessary for data analysis and interpretation.
Graphic solutions can draw attention to trends and patterns in numerical data and
information that might not otherwise be obvious.

For the teacher

This chapter is based on Unit 1, Area of Study 1 and, together with Chapter 1, provides
the key knowledge required to complete Unit 1, Outcome 1. At the end of Chapters 1 and
2, students should be able to acquire, secure and interpret data and design and develop a
graphic solution that communicates their findings of an investigation. Students are able
to use any software tool to create their graphic solution.
9780170364744 Chapter 2 Approaches to problem-solving methodology: Data analysis 31

Approaches to problem solving

When an information problem exists, a structured problem-solving methodology (PSM)
needs to be followed to ensure that the most appropriate solution is found and implemented.
Without a structured approach and methodology, problem-solving can become a hit or miss
affair. It is therefore important to adopt an agreed structure to solving problems. The obvious
advantage of consistency is that when new problems arise, individuals or groups know which
approach to follow.

The four stages of problem solving

1 Analysis: Understand all aspects of the problem and state what is required of the solution.
2 Design: Decide what has to be done to achieve the solution.
The VCAA has not
3 Development: Build the solution with either off-the-shelf or custom-made hardware and prescribed specific software
software. to create the graphic
4 Evaluation: Determine whether the solution has solved the original problem, and check solution, and this choice
the requirements of the user to see if they have been met. is up to schools. In this
chapter, both spreadsheet
Within these four stages of the problem-solving methodology, various activities take and web-authoring software
place. In the previous chapter, we explored how to acquire, secure and interpret data through will be covered. They will
both be used to create an
investigating an issue. This chapter continues the investigation of an issue and focuses on how infographic.
to design and develop a graphic solution that communicates the findings of the investigation.

Functions of a spreadsheet
Spreadsheets can be used for many purposes that involve calculations (see Figure 2.1). For The rows and columns
example, spreadsheets can be used for account keeping or stock control, to present budget collectively are called a
information as part of a project, or to store and manipulate data from surveys or results of an worksheet. A number of
worksheets can be included
investigation. in a spreadsheet file.
Spreadsheet functions include:
The ability to perform complex mathematical functions. Mathematical functions include
Spreadsheets will help
the ability to: you to manipulate data
• perform basic arithmetic operations (+, −, /, *) to develop graphs and
charts. Spreadsheets can
• perform statistical or other mathematical functions (average, minimum, maximum,
also accommodate small
median, standard deviation). to massive data sets,
The ability to perform complex logical functions. Logical functions include the ability to: include a large variety of
charting tools and types,
• create decision statements such as IF() or SUMIF()
include chart style galleries
• use a LOOKUP() table to extract data needed for a calculation from another worksheet that allow users to format
• use AND(), OR() or NOT() to create complex formulas. each component of their
graphic solution, allow
The ability to produce different types of graphs and charts, including the ability to:
users to enhance graphic
• graph a series of data using a range of graph types, including bar and pie representations, provide
• format a plot area and gridlines. tools that enable users
to highlight data trends
The ability to format data to meet the graphics needs of the user. Formatting functions
and present appealing,
include the ability to: persuasive graphical
• insert labels (such as headings and subheadings) summaries.
• insert headers and footers (filename, page and date)
• insert notes and comments (to explain a function or provide help)
• insert borders and shading to add more meaning to the layout.
32 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

FIGURE 2.1 Modern spreadsheet packages allow calculations of formulas, experimenting with
‘what–if?’ scenarios, as well as the arrangement and graphical representation of statistical data.

To make manipulating the data more efficient and to make the resulting information more
effective, spreadsheets may involve features such as the ability to:
• sort rows of data based on the values in a specified column
• program macros to automate calculations or formatting
• use hyperlinks to link worksheets together for ease of navigation and use
• use relative and absolute cell references to ensure accuracy of formulas
• name a range of cells to make formulas more meaningful when testing
• protect cells to ensure that the integrity of the formula is not affected
• check the range to ensure that accurate data is entered into the solution.

Analysing the problem

Refer to the PSM on pages
In any problem-solving task, you should follow the PSM and analyse the problem. Once you
xii–xiii. have defined the problem, the remainder of the analysis stage can commence. Within the
problem-solving methodology, the analysis stage is often considered to be the most crucial.
Getting the analysis stage correct and having a clear picture of what is required will provide you
with the appropriate building blocks for the latter stages.

CASE
STUDY THE NUMBER OF STUDENTS UNDERTAKING STEM SUBJECTS IS
INSUFFICIENT FOR AUSTRALIA’S FUTURE NEEDS
There is a worldwide shortage of Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics
(STEM)graduates. The situation includes Australia, where the Australian Industry Group
report (2013) suggests skills learned through each STEM discipline are critical for national
productivity and global competitiveness, but warns that ‘Australia’s participation in STEM
9780170364744 Chapter 2 Approaches to problem-solving methodology: Data analysis 33

skills at secondary school and university are unacceptably low’ (p. 1). There is clearly a
shortage of students studying STEM subjects at secondary school and continuing them at

Skills. Retrieved from http://www.aigroup.com.au/portal/

university. When looking at Australia’s PISA and TIMSS results (Table 2.2), there is evidence

Australian Industry Group (Producer). (2013). Lifting our

ContentDeliveryServlet/LIVE_CONTENT/Publications/
Science, Technology, Engineering and Maths (STEM)

Reports/2013/Ai_Group_Skills_Survey_2012-STEM_
to show that Australia is not doing as well in this space. To test out the hypothesis that not

binary/com.epicentric.contentmanagement.servlet.
many students study STEM subjects, we will undertake an investigation of the Year 11 and
12 students at RubyMede College and their STEM choices and rationales (continued in
Part 2, on page 35).
Two key international assessments are the Programme for International Student
Assessment (PISA), shown in Figure 2.2, and the Trends in International Mathematics and
Science Study (TIMSS). PISA, coordinated by the Organization for Economic Cooperation

FINAL_PRINTED.pdf
and Development (OECD) assesses reading, scientific and mathematical literacy, focusing
on knowledge and skills gained through education but applicable to everyday choices and
the solving of real world problems. PISA tests 15-year-olds from 74 different countries,
while TIMSS tests students in Grades 4–8 and is the longest running and most extensive
international test of science and mathematics learning.

PISA 2012 Results in Focus: What 15-year-olds know and what they can do with what they
know, OECD 2014, p. 3

FIGURE 2.2 What is PISA?

Designing solutions
Once the analysis stage is complete and a general idea of the solution is in mind, it is time
for the design stage. Designing a solution often occurs without using a computer at all – the
solution may just be drafted on paper. The main advantages of designing a solution on paper are
that you can sketch your ideas quickly and easily, and that you can make changes easily without
affecting the development of a solution.
34 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

ISSUE What students know and can do: student performance in

mathematics and science

• Shanghai-China has the highest scores in mathematics, with a mean score of 613 points – 119
points, or the equivalent of nearly three years of schooling, above the OECD average. Singapore,
Hong Kong-China, Chinese Taipei, Korea, Macao-China, Japan, Liechtenstein, Switzerland and the
Netherlands, in descending order of their scores, round out the top 10 performers in mathematics.
• On average across OECD countries, 13% of students are top performers in mathematics (Level 5
or 6). They can develop and work with models for complex situations, and work strategically
using broad, well-developed thinking and reasoning skills. The partner economy Shanghai-China
has the largest proportion of students performing at Level 5 or 6 (55%), followed by Singapore
(40%), Chinese Taipei (37%) and Hong Kong-China (34%). At the same time, 23% of students in
OECD countries, and 32% of students in all participating countries and economies, did not reach
the baseline Level 2 in the PISA mathematics assessment. At that level, students can extract
relevant information from a single source and can use basic algorithms, formulae, procedures or
conventions to solve problems involving whole numbers.
• Between 2003 and 2012, Italy, Poland and Portugal increased their shares of top performers and
simultaneously reduced their shares of low performers in mathematics.
• Boys perform better than girls in mathematics in only 37 out of the 65 countries and economies
that participated in PISA 2012, and girls outperform boys in five countries.
• Shanghai-China, Hong Kong-China, Singapore, Japan and Finland are the top five performers in
science in PISA 2012.
• Between 2006 and 2012, Italy, Poland and Qatar, and between 2009 and 2012, Estonia, Israel
and Singapore increased their shares of top performers and simultaneously reduced their shares
of low performers in science.
• Across OECD countries, 8% of students are top performers in science (Level 5 or 6). These
students can identify, explain and apply scientific knowledge and knowledge about science in a
variety of complex life situations.
PISA 2012 Results in Focus: What 15-year-olds know and what they can do with what they know, OECD 2014, p. 4

TABLE 2.1 A sample from the snapshot of performance in mathematics and science
Snapshot of
performance in

PISA 2012 Results in Focus: What 15-year-olds know and what they can do with what
Mathematics Science
Mean Share of low Share of top Annualised Mean Annualised
mathematics, reading score achievers in performers in
in PISA mathematics mathematics
change
in score
score
in PISA
change
in score
and science OECD average
2012 (Below Level 2) (Level 5 or 6)
494 23.0 12.6
points
–0.3
2012
501
points
0.5
Shanghai-China 613 3.8 55.4 4.2 580 1.8
Singapore 573 8.3 40.0 3.8 551 3.3
Countries/economies with a
Hong Kong-China 561 8.5 33.7 1.3 555 2.1
mean performance/share of
top performers above the OECD Chinese Taipei 560 12.8 37.2 1.7 523 –1.5
average Korea 554 9.1 30.9 1.1 538 2.6
Countries/economies with a Macao-China 538 10.8 24.3 1.0 521 1.6
share of low achievers below the Japan 536 11.1 23.7 0.4 547 2.6
OECD average Liechtenstein 535 14.1 24.8 0.3 525 0.4
Switzerland 531 12.4 21.4 0.6 515 0.6
Countries/economies with a
mean performance/share of Netherlands 523 14.8 19.3 –1.6 522 –0.5
low achievers/share of top Estonia 521 10.5 14.6 0.9 541 1.5
performers not statistically Finland 519 12.3 15.3 –2.8 545 –3.0
Canada 518 13.8 16.4 –1.4 525 –1.5
they know, OECD 2014, p. 5

significantly different from the

OECD average Poland 518 14.4 16.7 2.6 526 4.6
Belgium 515 19.0 19.5 –1.6 505 –0.9
Countries/economies with a
mean performance/share of Germany 514 17.7 17.5 1.4 524 1.4
top performers below the OECD Viet Nam 511 14.2 13.3 m 528 m
average Austria 506 18.7 14.3 0.0 506 –0.8
Countries/economies with a Australia 504 19.7 14.8 –2.2 521 –0.9
share of low achievers above the Ireland 501 16.9 10.7 –0.6 522 2.3
OECD average Slovenia 501 20.1 13.7 –0.6 514 –0.8
9780170364744 Chapter 2 Approaches to problem-solving methodology: Data analysis 35

TABLE 2.2 Singapore, Korea, and Hong Kong SAR were the top-performing countries in
TIMSS 2011 at the fourth grade. For multiple comparisons of average mathematics achievement,
read across the row for a country to compare performance with the countries listed along the
top of the chart. The symbols indicate whether the average achievement of the country in the
row is significantly lower than that of the comparison country, significantly higher than that of
the comparison country, or if there is no statistically significant difference between the average
achievement of the two countries.

SOURCE: IEA’s Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study

– TIMSS 2011, Grade 4 ©2003 IEA, The Netherlands
Average scale score

Russian Federation
Belgium (Flemish)
Northern Ireland
Hong Kong SAR
Chinese Taipei
Korea, Rep. of

United States
Netherlands
Country Singapore

Lithuania
Denmark

Germany

Australia
Portugal
England
Finland

Ireland
Serbia
Japan
Singapore 606 (3.2) ▲ ▲ ▲ ▲ ▲ ▲ ▲ ▲ ▲ ▲ ▲ ▲ ▲ ▲ ▲ ▲

Korea, Rep. of 605 (1.9) ▲ ▲ ▲ ▲ ▲ ▲ ▲ ▲ ▲ ▲ ▲ ▲ ▲ ▲ ▲ ▲

Hong Kong SAR 602 (3.4) ▲ ▲ ▲ ▲ ▲ ▲ ▲ ▲ ▲ ▲ ▲ ▲ ▲ ▲ ▲ ▲

Chinese Taipei 591 (2.0) ▼ ▼ ▼ ▲ ▲ ▲ ▲ ▲ ▲ ▲ ▲ ▲ ▲ ▲ ▲ ▲ ▲ ▲

Japan 585 (1.7) ▼ ▼ ▼ ▼ ▲ ▲ ▲ ▲ ▲ ▲ ▲ ▲ ▲ ▲ ▲ ▲ ▲ ▲

Northern Ireland 562 (2.9) ▼ ▼ ▼ ▼ ▼ ▲ ▲ ▲ ▲ ▲ ▲ ▲ ▲ ▲ ▲ ▲ ▲ ▲

Belgium (Flemish) 549 (1.9) ▼ ▼ ▼ ▼ ▼ ▲ ▲ ▲ ▲ ▲ ▲ ▲ ▲ ▲ ▲

Finland 545 (2.3) ▼ ▼ ▼ ▼ ▼ ▲ ▲ ▲ ▲ ▲ ▲ ▲ ▲

England 542 (3.5) ▼ ▼ ▼ ▼ ▼ ▲ ▲ ▲ ▲ ▲ ▲ ▲

Russian Federation 542 (3.7) ▼ ▼ ▼ ▼ ▼ ▼ ▲ ▲ ▲ ▲

United States 541 (1.8) ▼ ▼ ▼ ▼ ▼ ▼ ▼ ▲ ▲ ▲ ▲ ▲ ▲

Netherlands 540 (1.7) ▼ ▼ ▼ ▼ ▼ ▼ ▼ ▲ ▲ ▲ ▲ ▲ ▲

Denmark 537 (2.6) ▼ ▼ ▼ ▼ ▼ ▼ ▼ ▼ ▲ ▲ ▲ ▲

Lithuania 534 (2.4) ▼ ▼ ▼ ▼ ▼ ▼ ▼ ▼ ▼ ▼ ▼ ▲ ▲

Portugal 532 (3.4) ▼ ▼ ▼ ▼ ▼ ▼ ▼ ▼ ▼ ▼ ▼ ▲ ▲

Germany 528 (2.2) ▼ ▼ ▼ ▼ ▼ ▼ ▼ ▼ ▼ ▼ ▼ ▼ ▼ ▲ ▲

Ireland 527 (2.6) ▼ ▼ ▼ ▼ ▼ ▼ ▼ ▼ ▼ ▼ ▼ ▼ ▼ ▲ ▲

Serbia 516 (3.0) ▼ ▼ ▼ ▼ ▼ ▼ ▼ ▼ ▼ ▼ ▼ ▼ ▼ ▼ ▼ ▼ ▼

Australia 516 (2.9) ▼ ▼ ▼ ▼ ▼ ▼ ▼ ▼ ▼ ▼ ▼ ▼ ▼ ▼ ▼ ▼ ▼

CASE
STUDY THE NUMBER OF STUDENTS UNDERTAKING STEM SUBJECTS IS
INSUFFICIENT FOR AUSTRALIA’S FUTURE NEEDS

Hypothesis
Are there insufficient students undertaking STEM subjects to meet Australia’s future needs?

Identify the type of data that will be collected

The data will be collected from a variety of sources including:
• VCE students studying STEM subjects at RubyMede College – numerical data
• PISA and TIMSS results – numerical data
• government and industry reports – qualitative data.

Identify the data collection tool that will be used

• Questionnaires will be used to elicit primary data from students at RubyMede College.
• The internet will also be used to support any findings and supplement the investigation.
36 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

How data will be gathered

The questionnaire used for this investigation can be
seen in Figure 2.3. It has seven questions and some
space to add free text if participants want to clarify or
add some more information. The questionnaire will be
completed electronically over the internet and will take
no longer than 10 minutes to complete.
Create participation information statement and
consent forms
As the participation information statement and consent
forms are combined, they can be incorporated into
the start of the questionnaire. Participants of the
questionnaire will need to provide consent to take part
(Figure 2.4). This can be done by agreeing to take part
in the questionnaire and then pressing ‘start’. If the
participant chooses not to take part, they just need to
press ‘no.’ The survey is anonymous and will not collect
information that can identify the participants.

Identify risks to privacy and security and have

strategies in place to minimise them
The researcher will only have access to the data she will
be collecting for her study from the participants who
have agreed to be part of the research. The researcher
will not have access to any other data collected by
RubyMede for its own purposes. Identifiable data will
be coded and de-identified and only collated data will
be reported. The research will be carried out online and
all data collected will be stored on the computer’s hard
drive and backed up to the school’s network drive on
a password-protected computer. The data will also be
stored in a password-protected file to ensure that the
data collected cannot identified.

Collecting data
The researcher sent the URL of her questionnaire to all
VCE students in her school. There are more than 210
students in Years 11 and 12. Many of the students did
not want to participate, but the researcher secured
43 completed questionnaires from students at her
school. The participation rate represents approximately
20 per cent of students from the population. Even
though 44 students participated, one of the respondents
did not complete the questionnaire. It is acceptable for
questionnaires to be incomplete because participation is
voluntary. See the report information in Figure 2.5.

FIGURE 2.3 A questionnaire for students about STEM subjects

9780170364744 Chapter 2 Approaches to problem-solving methodology: Data analysis 37

FIGURE 2.4 Respondents must consent to participate in this questionnaire.

FIGURE 2.5 The report generated from the online survey shows number of respondents
who completed the questionnaire. Even though there were 44 responses, there were only 43
completed responses.
38 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

Data capture
Part of the data that was captured from the questionnaire is shown in Figure 2.6. At this
stage, it is important to just present the data from the questionnaire.

Year-level breakdown

Year level Year 11

Year 12

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30
Number of students
FIGURE 2.6 Student year-level breakdown of those who participated in the questionnaire

TABLE 2.3 Frequency table

The absolute frequency is
the total number of times
Choices Absolute frequency Relative Adjusted relative
a variable is observed in a
given range. For example: frequency (%) frequency (%)
Year 11 = 13
Year 11 13 29.55 30.23
Year 12 = 30.
The relative frequency Year 12 30 68.18 69.77
is the number of times a
variable is observed, in Sum 43 97.73 100
relation to the total number Not answered 1 2.27 –
of values for the variable.
For example: Total answered: 43
Year 11 = 13 ÷ 44 =
0.2955. Expressed as a
percentage, this is 29.55 %. Approximately 70 per cent of the respondents of the questionnaire were Year 12 students
In each calculation, you and 30 per cent were Year 11. Of those who participated, all were studying STEM subjects.
would move the decimal
place two places to the
STEM subjects studied by respondents
right. For example:
Year 12 = 30 ÷ 44 = Foundation Maths
0.6818 = 68.18 %. The Further Maths
same rule applies for the General Maths
Subjects studied

tables that follow. Maths Methods

The adjusted relative Specialist Maths
frequency removes the ‘not Physics
answered’ variable, so that: Chemistry
Year 11 = 13 ÷ 43 = 30.23 Biology
Year 12 = 30 ÷ 43 = 69.77. Computing
Informatics
Software Development
Systems Engineering
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
Number of respondents studying this subject
FIGURE 2.7 STEM subjects students studied
9780170364744 Chapter 2 Approaches to problem-solving methodology: Data analysis 39

TABLE 2.4 Frequency table

Absolute frequency in
Choices Absolute Relative frequency Relative frequency Adjusted relative Table 2.4 shows the
number of times a subject
frequency by choice (%) (%) frequency (%)
was selected in the survey.
Foundation Maths 6 5.83 13.64 13.95 For example, Computing
was selected 10 times, as
Further Maths 3 2.91 6.82 6.98 shown in Figure 2.7.
Relative frequency by
General Maths 6 5.83 13.64 13.95
choice (%) in Table 2.4 is
Maths Methods 9 8.74 20.45 20.93 the total number of times
a subject was selected
Specialist Maths 10 9.71 22.73 23.26 divided by the sum in the
Physics 13 12.62 29.55 30.23 absolute frequency column.
For example:
Chemistry 6 5.83 13.64 13.95 Computing = 19 ÷ 103 =
18.45 (rounded up).
Biology 6 5.83 13.64 13.95 Relative frequency %
Computing 19 18.45 43.18 44.19 in Table 2.4 is the total
number of times a subject
Informatics 11 10.68 25 25.58 was selected divided by the
total number of participants.
Software 4 3.88 9.09 9.3 For example:
Development Computing = 19 ÷ 44 =
Systems 10 9.71 22.73 23.26 43.18.
The adjusted relative
Engineering
frequency (%) in Table 2.4
Sum: 103 100 – – is the total number of times
a subject was selected
Not answered: 1 – 2.27 – divided by the total number
of participants, with the
Total answered: 43
‘not answered’ participant
removed. For example:
It appears that Computing is very popular among students, with 44 per cent of this Computing = 19 ÷ 43 =
cohort studying it. Physics was the next most popular, with 30 per cent studying it, with 44.19 (rounded up).
Informatics next on 26 per cent. The least popular subjects, according to the questionnaire,
were Further Maths and Software Development.

How important is each factor to your success in STEM?

Having a passion for STEM subjects

Studying hard
Factors

Attending a good school

Having supportive parents
Having a good mentor
Having good role models
Having an encouraging teacher
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
Respondents to identify this factor as important
FIGURE 2.8 Identifying factors to experiencing success in STEM
40 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

TABLE 2.5 Frequency table

For advice on interpreting
frequency tables, see the Choices Absolute Relative frequency Relative Adjusted relative
margin notes on pages 38
frequency by choice (%) frequency (%) frequency (%)
and 39.
Having a passion for 4 6.15 9.09 9.3
STEM subjects
Studying hard 14 21.54 31.82 32.56
Attending a good school 9 13.85 20.45 20.93
Having supportive 8 12.31 18.18 18.6
parents
Having a good mentor 3 4.62 6.82 6.98
Having good role models 3 4.62 6.85 6.98
Having an encouraging 24 36.92 54.55 55.81
teacher
Sum: 65 100 – –
Not answered: 1 – 2.27 –
Total answered: 43

The top three factors identified as important to success in STEM were having encouraging
teachers, studying hard and going to a good school. From the data, respondents believed
that having an encouraging teacher was important.

Who had the most influence on your decision to pursue STEM subjects?
Influential person

Parent
Teacher
Sibling
Family
No one
Other
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
Respondents to identify this person as influential
FIGURE 2.9 Influence on decision to pursue STEM subjects.

TABLE 2.6 Frequency table

Choices Absolute frequency Relative frequency (%) Adjusted relative frequency (%)
Parent 4 9.09 9.3
Teacher 19 43.18 44.19
Sibling 3 6.82 6.98
Family 5 11.36 11.63
No one 10 22.73 23.26
Other 2 4.55 4.65
Sum: 43 97.73 100
Not answered: 1 2.27 –
Total answered: 43
Text input:
My neighbour
Sheldon from The
Big Bang Theory
9780170364744 Chapter 2 Approaches to problem-solving methodology: Data analysis 41

Respondents indicated that their teacher had the most influence on their decision
to study STEM. The next largest category was ‘no-one.’ Family and parents rated around
the same.

What are your reasons for wanting to pursue a STEM career?

Attractive salary
It is intellectually challenging/stimulating
High level of job vacancies
I am passionate about it
Good grades in STEM subjects at school
Reasons

I want to make a difference

We need more STEM graduates in Australia
I know people who work in STEM
My teachers encouraged me
My parents didn’t give me any choice
I will be able to travel and see the world
Other
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Number of respondents
FIGURE 2.10 Reasons for pursuing a STEM career

TABLE 2.7 Frequency table

Choices Absolute Relative frequency Relative Adjusted relative

frequency by choice (%) frequency (%) frequency (%)
Attractive salary 1 1.96 2.27 2.33
It is intellectually 2 3.92 4.55 4.65
challenging/stimulating
High level of job vacancies 4 7.84 9.09 9.3
I am passionate about it 3 5.88 6.82 6.98
Good grades in STEM 6 11.76 13.64 13.95
subjects at school
I want to make a difference 4 7.84 9.09 9.3
We need more STEM 2 3.92 4.55 4.65
graduates in Australia
I know people who work in 5 9.8 11.36 11.63
STEM
My teachers encouraged me 5 9.8 11.36 11.63
My parents didn’t give me 2 3.92 4.55 4.65
any choice
I will be able to travel and 11 21.57 25 25.58
see the world
Other 6 11.76 13.64 13.95
Sum: 51 100 – –
Not answered: 1 – 2.27 –
Total answered: 43

Respondents were asked why they wanted to pursue a STEM-based career after
secondary school and many indicated that they were able to see the world and travel
through their chosen career. The next most popular response was because they received
good grades in STEM subjects at school.
42 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

Data analysis
Once data has been collected, it needs to be analysed. The researcher needs to identify any
patterns, give meaning to the data and draw conclusions.
As noted previously, only 20 per cent of the possible VCE students from the College
participated in this questionnaire, which represents a very small percentage of students.
The data obtained from the questionnaire alone does not provide a clear picture of
STEM subject enrolments at the school. However, when the respondents are compared
with actual enrolments, it reveals that 53 per cent of STEM students responded to this
questionnaire, indicating that fewer than 40 per cent of students undertake STEM subjects
at RubyMede College.

TABLE 2.8 The following table represents the questionnaire data compared with the actual
enrolments in STEM subjects at RubyMede College.

Subjects RubyMede subject enrolments Questionnaire participants

Foundation Maths 14 6
Further Maths 20 3
General Maths 17 6
Maths Methods 19 9
Specialist Maths 13 10
Physics 15 13
Chemistry 13 6
Biology 19 6
Computing 21 19
Informatics 22 11
Software Development 8 4
Systems Engineering 12 10
Total 193 103

Purpose of graphic solutions

Graphic solutions are pictorial diagrams that show interdependencies between variables.
They are one of the most commonly used methods of representing data and information,
and can make reading data and information more interesting, less time-consuming and more
See David McCandless’s
‘Information is
understandable.
Beautiful’ TEDTalk. They allow data to be compared at a glance. Graphic solutions are particularly useful for
summarising a series of numbers and their interrelationships, and they can assist in identify
trends and patterns in your data. The following section discusses the types of graphic solutions
that may be appropriate for your Outcome.
If you need greater clarity from a set of information or to identify patterns or relationships
with data sets, you may require a graphic solution. A graphic solution visually represents
analysed data. It is an elegant way to represent complex information or large amounts of data.
For example, if we want to:
• compare data, we might use a bar chart
• show a distribution of data, we might use a histogram
9780170364744 Chapter 2 Approaches to problem-solving methodology: Data analysis 43

• show a relationship between two data sets, we might use a scatter diagram
• show a composition of data that changes over time, we might use an animation or
simulation.
Often, before we start this process, we have a rough idea of what the solution might
look like based on the desire to inform, persuade or educate. We inform when we provide
information or tell facts, such as reporting on a current issue. We persuade when we
influence a decision or action, or change a person’s opinion. We educate when we teach and
provide knowledge and skills through a learning process. For example, data obtained about
the number of elderly pedestrians injured crossing a major intersection can inform the local
government about the black spot. That same data can be visually represented in another way
to persuade the engineering department of the local government to make some adjustments
to the intersection to prevent further injuries. The data can also be used to educate the
elderly about the need to be vigilant when crossing the intersection. The appropriate graphic
solution will need to be selected based on how the data will be used to persuade, inform or
educate.

Types of graphic solutions

Charts
Charts, also called graphs, represent detailed data in visual form. The most common forms of Other types of charts
charts are column graphs, bar graphs, pie graphs and line graphs. Charts generally use a scale you may find useful for
and/or a series of data sets that are indicated along two axes. However, in the case of pie graphs, your infographic include
histograms, bubble charts,
they use the divisions of the whole to communicate the quantities of data. Charts may use two- doughnut graphs and area
dimensional or three-dimensional representation for visual impact. charts.
You should choose the correct type of chart for your data.
Columns and bar graphs arrange data vertically (columns, Figure 2.11) or horizontally Microsoft Word and Excel
offer a large range of charts
(rows, Figure 2.10 on page 41). They are handy for presenting data changes over a period of that you can easily add to
time or for showing comparisons across different times. They enable visual comparisons easily any document via the Insert
so that differences can be recognised quickly. The STEM case study in this chapter uses many → Chart menu.
(horizontal) bar graphs.

The number of student enrolments in VCE STEM subjects at RubyMede College

25
Students enrolled in STEM subjects

20

15

10

0
s

s
at n

at r

at al

ho hs

at t

en e

er ms
tr

og
ic

ic
M ialis
M rthe

pm ar
tin
M atio

M er

is
ys

at
et at
hs

hs

hs

ds

hs

g
ol

ne te
lo ftw
em

pu

in
n

rm
M

Ph

Bi
ec
d

gi ys
Fu

Ge
un

So
Ch

fo
Sp

En S
Co
Fo

In
M

ve
De

STEM subjects offered at RubyMede College

FIGURE 2.11 An example of a column chart that depicts the number of student enrolments in
VCE STEM subjects at RubyMede College
44 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

Choose a line graph when you need to display continuous data over time, set against a
common time. It is useful for showing trends in data at equal intervals. If more than one line
is shown, use colours to distinguish each line. The ‘Pesticide Planet’ infographic, (Figure 2.22,
page 55) includes several line graphs, among other types of graphs.

RubyMede VCE STEM subject enrolments

Software Development 8 (4.15%) Informatics 22 (11.4%)

Systems Engineering 12 (6.22%)

Chemistry 13 (6.74%)
Computing 21 (10.88%)

Specialist
Maths 13 (6.74%)

Foundation Further
Maths 14 (7.25%) Maths 20 (10.36%)

Physics 15 (7.77%)
Maths Methods 19 (9.84%)

General Maths 17 (8.81%)

Biology 19 (9.84%)

FIGURE 2.12 This pie chart depicts the number of student enrolled in VCE STEM subjects at
RubyMede College. Each segment of the pie chart represents the subject and the number of
students studying each subject.

A pie graph is divided into ‘slices’ proportional to the percentage of the whole pie (Figure 2.12).
Consider choosing a pie graph if you need to depict approximate proportional relationships
(relative amounts) or compare part of a whole at a given point in time. The full circle represents
100 per cent. The angle of each ‘slice’ is found by multiplying its percentage value by 360°.
You should follow some simple rules with charts.
• They must have titles.
• The x-axis and the y-axis must be labelled.
• Use a key if more than one set of data is provided on the same graph.
• Include author identification and/or the source of the data, the date and a filename
(if appropriate).
• Include the unit of measurement on the relevant axis.
• Label each segment of a pie chart.
• Arrange segments of pie chart (starting at 12 o’clock position) from largest to smallest.
• Consider including absolute figures as well as percentages.
• Choose colours that match the information being discussed.
• Use graphs to show trends or relationships between values on each axis.
• If possible, limit the number of items represented in a chart to five or six.
9780170364744 Chapter 2 Approaches to problem-solving methodology: Data analysis 45

2D column

Clustered column Stacked column 100% stacked column

Doughnut Bubble

Doughnut Exploded doughnut Bubble 3D bubble

2D pie

Pie Exploded pie

FIGURE 2.13 Examples of charts used for graphic representation of data.

Flowcharts
Flowcharts graphically represent the steps
START
in a process or system. Boxes of data identify
the steps to help the user understand what
happens next. Flowcharts are used a great Process step
deal in information systems because they help
explain very complex, technical processes.
Many types of flowcharts exist, and some are No
Decision?
more visual than others, but the fundamental
step-by-step idea remains the same. Lucidchart – free
Yes Process step
Flowcharts should generally be read from flowchart software

the top down or from the left to the right. They Process step
also often use lines and arrows to visually
direct the user to the next step. In some cases, Process step
decision trees with yes/no options instruct the You will find it very useful
user where to go next in the flowchart. to become familiar and
Website site maps are also a type of END proficient with flowcharts
throughout your study of
flowchart. FIGURE 2.14 An example of a flowchart with Computing VCE. They are a
a decision tree valuable tool for helping you
Diagrams visualise your solutions and
work them out step-by-step.
Diagrams present data or information in a visually clear, accessible way using formats and
conventions such as colours, symbols, points, lines, shapes and explanatory drawings. They are
usually two-dimensional geometric, but they can be three-dimensional. A diagram is usually
a symbolic visual representation of what may be very complex data or information. Common
46 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

Blueprints are technical

types of diagrams include blueprints, schematics and annotated diagrams. An infographic is
drawings or design plans. an increasingly popular form of a diagram. A single diagram, especially an infographic, may
include multiple diagrams within it.
Schematics are diagrams
that represent parts of Images
a system using graphic
Images may include illustrations and photos. Illustrations may be two-dimensional or three-
symbols instead of realistic
images. dimensional drawings, drawn by hand using techniques such as orthographic, axonometric,
isometric or perspective drawing or using software such as Adobe Illustrator. Illustrations may
Orthographic drawings are also be art, cartoons or caricatures, with varying levels of detail. What makes them different
drawings from a series of from other types of graphic representations in this context is that they (usually) are not
views and are designed to
show every part of an object representing data.
clearly. They are thought of
as multiview drawings. Hierarchies
Hierarchies are a type of chart that usually depict the relationships and hierarchy between
Axonometric drawings use roles in an organisation, institution, project team, site map or process chart. While it is most
lines that remain parallel
and do not converge at common to use hierarchies to represent relationships between people, they do lend themselves
any given point. They are to other uses. Family trees are another type of hierarchy. Figure 2.20 on page 52, which depicts
sometimes called paraline
drawings. the design principles, is also a hierarchy.

Animations
Isometric drawing is a
technique where all lines An animation combines a series of images (either two-dimensional or three-dimensional) to
remain parallel and length create a sequence of moving images. Animations may include sound and some even offer a
and width are drawn at 30°.
level of interactivity. You could use an animation to show the workings of part of a solution or

Ad

NelsonNet
NelsonNet
additional resource additional

resource: Figure 2.15

Graph, p. 46

FIGURE 2.15 Widely regarded as the best graph ever drawn, Charles Minard’s visual
representation of Napoleon’s march to Moscow gives the user information on several levels at
once: geographical, climatic and numerical. The top line represents the troops moving towards
Moscow in 1812–1813. The figures on the side of the line show the dramatic fall in troop
numbers, and the corresponding thinning of the line shows the fall visually. It can be seen that
Napoleon lost large numbers of troops each time he crossed a river. The line at the bottom of the
graph shows the temperature. As the temperature dropped, still more troops were lost. The black
line shows the troops retreating. One can only speculate about how different history might have
been if Napoleon had had Minard in his midst during the troop campaign.
9780170364744 Chapter 2 Approaches to problem-solving methodology: Data analysis 47

perhaps to instruct on the functionality of your design. Animation may be used when printing
is not suitable to communicate your message.

Maps
A map represents an area of land or sea as a diagram, showing features such as roads, cities and
other markers, such as peaks (mountains), deserts, and borders between states and countries.
Another type of map you are likely to be familiar with is a transport map, which shows each
individual route of a train or tram line as a single line, to provide a clear guide to destinations
and a visual scale of distance between stations.
Signage and other wayfinding devices applied to maps create effective directional design. A
map alone is just a map. Adding symbols and other conventions, such as arrows, lines and text,
conveys a great deal more information.

Timelines
Timelines show events, images or data in chronological order. A timeline may include both
images and text. They are often used to graphically depict historical development over a period
of time. You may find them in history and science texts, as well as newspapers, magazines and
online. Timelines are often used in infographics to show comparisons or changes over time.
The ‘Farewell To A Genius’ infographic, Figure 2.33 on page 66, shows an example of a
timeline in an infographic that includes both text and images. This infographic may appear to
place textboxes haphazardly, but in order to fit the amount of detail in such a small space, each
box is carefully placed, making it more like a jigsaw puzzle.

Infographics
An infographic is a graphic solution that shows data and information using different elements Rather than writing the
that include: outcomes of research into
• graphs written documents, the
main points of research can
• pictures be presented in a visual
• diagrams format. This can be more
• narrative engaging for the reader.
• timelines.
Infographics often communicate multiple findings for a topic. Infographics allow us to
tell a more complete story of the data and are more engaging than most traditional ways of The final product of Unit 1,
Outcome 1 will likely be an
communicating data and information. infographic. Your infographic
It is important to be creative when devising your infographic. An infographic is more should be visually engaging,
contain a subject matter
than building a chart in a spreadsheet. Think of it as a creative poster that uses illustrations, that is appealing to the
icons, graphics and different fonts and colours to make a point. Pages 48–68 show examples of target audience, and
infographics that you may find useful as you prepare for your Outcome. be supported by other
engaging content.
The steps to creating an infographic are as follows.
1 Conduct an investigation into an issue, practice or event.
2 Interpret the primary data.
3 Familiarise yourself with different ways to visualise data.
4 Mock up a design of the infographic.
5 Create the infographic.
6 Include references/citations/sources in the infographic.
7 Apply formats and conventions to the infographic.
8 Test and validate the infographic. You can follow the same process to create most graphic
solutions.
48 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

Customer Magnetism

FIGURE 2.16 What is an infographic?

THINK ABOUT Ad
COMPUTING 2.1
Summarise what you think NelsonNet
NelsonNet
additional resource additional
an infographic is, making resource: Figure 2.16
reference to Figure 2.16. Infographic, p. 48
9780170364744 Chapter 2 Approaches to problem-solving methodology: Data analysis 49

The topic appears at

the top

Shows the most

important findings at the
top in the largest fonts,
with large quotation
marks to emphasise that
it is a quote

Provides two different Ad

time periods
NelsonNet
NelsonNet
additional resource additional

resource: Figure 2.17

Infographic, p. 49

Shows the data Uses a complementary

charted in an unusual, colour palette of
interesting way that oranges and burnt reds
draws the user’s eye; with subtle hints of
countries that are contrasting blues
largest have improved
access to sanitation;
the smaller the country
in the chart, the worse
their access is

Key findings are

highlighted. Notice
that these are the only
two instances where
text is bold.
Copyright Guardian News & Media Ltd 2015

Social media links are

included

FIGURE 2.17 A simple infographic on sanitation in Africa

50 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

Ad

NelsonNet
NelsonNet
additional resource additional

resource: Figure 2.18

Infographic, p. 50

Christian Behrens, The Data Visualisation Catalogue

THINK ABOUT
COMPUTING 2.2
1 Annotate Figure 2.18 to
identify:
a the specific different
types of charts and
graphs used
b the general types of
graphic solutions used.
FIGURE 2.18 Another example of an infographic
 9780170364744 Chapter 2 Approaches to problem-solving methodology: Data analysis 51

Section titles
(Titles)

Different text styles

(Text styles)

Vibrant, contrasting colours

(Colours and contrasts)

Shapes
(Shapes)

Ad

NelsonNet
NelsonNet
additional resource additional

resource: Figure 2.19

Infographic, p. 51

Faint lines act as section

dividers
(Lines and arrows)

Sources of data are cited

(Sources of data and
legend)

FIGURE 2.19 This

infographic depicting what
to do with chewing gum
that has already been
CustomMade.com

chewed has been labelled

to indicate how it uses
formats and conventions
suitable for graphic
solutions. See if you
can add more labels.
52 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

Design principles for graphic solutions

Design principles are guidelines to help you enhance the appearance and functionality of
solutions. Graphic solutions that are displayed onscreen need to be easily understood and
accessed with minimal time and effort.
To communicate effectively, graphic solutions need to be clear and functional. You need to
ensure that facts are obvious and your message is unmistakable. Your solution must be carefully
designed, taking the design principles into account.

Design principles

Functionality Appearance

Useability Accessibility Alignment Repetition Contrast Space Balance

Ease Error
Robustness Flexibility Navigation
of use tolerance

FIGURE 2.20 Design principles are accepted characteristics that contribute to the functionality and appearance of
solutions. For VCE Computing, the principles that relate to functionality are useability, accessibility and appearance.

The principles shown in Figure 2.20 are discussed in the following section, in terms of how
they may apply to your solution.

Functionality
Useability
All graphic solutions that represent data need to be easy to use, flexible and robust. The user
should be able to acquire the required information easily and efficiently. When designing your
infographic for useability, consider the following.
• Can the user understand the graphic form and the information it conveys?
• Can the user quickly identify the purpose of the graphic form and interpret its critical data?
• Is the graphic form accurate and a true reflection of the data that has been analysed?
• Have you saved the final infographic in a lossless format to maximise legibility, but in a size
that will be quick to load?
• Have you chosen sensible dimensions? For example, you may want to think carefully
before designing an infographic that is very narrow, that is very long and requires a great
deal of scrolling, or that is wider than most website body panes (around 800px).
• Have you chosen easily readable font sizes?
• Have you tested the infographic in multiple browsers, and also printed it out in colour and
greyscale to check that it works?

Accessibility
A user should be able to access meaning and relevant information from a graphic solution
efficiently and easily. Users should not have to puzzle over the meaning or placement of text
and symbols used.
9780170364744 Chapter 2 Approaches to problem-solving methodology: Data analysis 53

To help users along, use simple and relevant labels and commonly understood symbols. For
example, use $ to represent money.
When using your graphic solution, users should be able to navigate their way through text
and images in a standard way – from top to bottom, or left to right. Use arrows if you literally
want their eyes to move a certain direction.
Do not make anything so small or hard to read that it goes unnoticed. Important facts should
be treated with appropriate formats and conventions that highlight why they are crucial.
Essentially, make it easy for users to glean meaning immediately. When you are creating an
infographic, it can never be too obvious.

Appearance
Alignment
Alignment refers to arranging text, images and objects vertically or horizontally in either
straight lines or correct relative positions. When using word-processing software, you may have
already used text alignment tools, which allow you to justify (align) your text to the left, right
or centre of the page. Horizontal alignment can be either left, right, centre or full justified. Full
justification refers to the text being aligned on both the left and right margins with spacing
distributed evenly across the line to achieve this. Vertical alignment can be top, middle or
bottom.
Using alignment cleverly gives your text, images and objects a sense of order and organisation
that helps to communicate your message clearly. For example, putting something in the centre
of the page vertically and horizontally suggests immediately that it is of central importance.
Putting something in a small font size at the bottom right would seem to be of little importance.
Smart use of alignment also helps to imply relationships between different elements of your
solution. You will find alignment tools in all graphics software packages.
When planning your solution, manage the elements of your infographic by drawing a visual
‘grid’ (Figure 2.21). This will help you to work out where you can place items in your infographic,
how much space you have, and what kind of alignment works best for each element.

Repetition
Repetition refers to the use of the same or similar visual elements repeatedly within a graphic
solution. It is used to unify elements of a layout, and is achieved by repeating patterns, textures,
fonts, colours and page elements. For example, a set of bullet points creates a sense of repetition
that connects those points. On a graphic solution, repetition usually means that each section or
module uses similar headings, colours, font styles or other visual cues so that it is easier for the
user to understand the relationships between elements within the solution.

Contrast
Contrast refers to the visual difference in colour or tone between objects (both text and images)
in a graphic solution. Greater contrast will make objects appear to stand out more from one
another. If there is not enough contrast between two objects, they may appear to blend into each
other, making it difficult for the user to see each of them clearly. Contrast between the background
of your graphic solution and text should make the information clearly visible and legible.
The use of white space can enhance contrast around objects within your graphic solution.

Space
Space refers to the areas around and between objects – text and images. If your graphic solution
is cluttered it may be difficult to follow. You may want to include lots of detailed information in
54 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

Column: Vertical containers of text and

images that provide a sense of order.
Decide on how many columns you want,
along with their width, in the early stages.

Margin: The white spaces

around a composition that
separate the artwork from
the edge of the composition.

Flowlines: Horizontal
lines that define areas
for placement of text
and images. Combining
flowlines and columns
creates modules.

Module: These spaces are Spatial zone: Created by

for text and images. They multiple modules
have been defined as grid
areas by columns and flow
lines.

Gutter: This refers to the spacing

between columns. If you have too
little space, your columns will look
cramped. The term is used in other
contexts in book printing.
FIGURE 2.21 The visual grid will not just help you with alignment – it also helps with balance, space and accessibility.
A downloadable version of this grid is available on NelsonNet.

your graphic solution, but it is important to put as much space between objects as is necessary
Ad for them to be distinguished as separate and navigated through in the correct order. That means
NelsonNet that if you arrange your space carefully and correctly, it will control user behaviour.
NelsonNet
additional resource additional

resource: Visual grid In theory it may sound very trying, but you are mostly going to be using areas of space that
template are only between a few millimetres and a few centimetres. A visual grid will be of use.
A large area of white space may be used to balance a section that contains an equally large
area of text, because it will be of equal visual ‘weight’. Working with space means also working
with balance.
9780170364744 Chapter 2 Approaches to problem-solving methodology: Data analysis 55

Succinctness
This infographic tries
to convey data and
information about
a specific topic and
problem. It visually
displays the research
concisely without too
much extra information.

Orientation
Orientation refers to the
direction and aspect
of elements within a
graphic solution. When
designing your graphic
solution, you must
consider all elements
with regard to the visual
hierarchy of various
objects. It is important
to keep in mind the
aspect of each object in
relation to other objects
and to the graphic form
overall. When deciding

‘Pesticide Planet’ by G. Grullón/Science, Science 16 August 2013: Vol. 341 no. 6147 pp. 730-731 DOI: 10.1126/
on the orientation of
objects, you should
consider the direction of
data labels (particularly
if there are too many
to fit horizontally), the
alignment of data labels
and text, and whether
the title will appear
above or below the
graphic form.
science.341.6147.730. Reprinted with permission from AAAS

Ad

NelsonNet
NelsonNet
additional resource additional

resource: Figure 2.20

Infographic, p. 55

FIGURE 2.22 ‘Pesticide Planet’ is the title for an infographic created by http://www.sciencemag.org/.
56 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

Balance
THINK ABOUT
COMPUTING 2.3 A balanced solution will appear harmonious, and this creates visual appeal. Whether you
Annotate the Sanitation understand or recognise it, you already like to see balanced designs. Do you ever straighten
in Africa infographic, something that is crooked? Do you try to divide things into even pieces because somehow it
Figure 2.17 on page 49,
to show how it applies
just seems appropriate?
the appearance design Unbalanced designs can lack the appropriate emphasis, can look untidy and they may end
principles. up discouraging users from viewing them.
In symmetrical balance, an object mirrors the elements on opposite sides of the visual axis,
from one side to the other – you see the same amount of white space on the left side as on the
right, for example. A person’s left hand exactly mirrors their right hand.
Being balanced is not always about being symmetrical – using asymmetrical balance is also
an option! This is characterised by an arrangement of elements that is not mirror or equal in
appearance, but still uses the central visual axis.
Whether you experiment with asymmetrical balance or stick to symmetrical balance, both
left-right balance and top-bottom balance are equally important, so use balance and alignment
together when placing objects in your graphic solution.

Formats and conventions

In addition to the basic design principles you should follow when creating your graphic
solution, there are a number of useful formats and conventions suitable for graphic solutions,
such as titles, text styles, shapes, lines and arrows, sources of data and legend, and colours and
contrasts.

Formats and conventions suitable

for graphic solutions

Lines and Sources of data Colours and

Titles Text styles Shapes
arrows and legend contrasts

FIGURE 2.23 Formats and conventions

Titles
In the simplest of terms, adding a title to a document makes it a dominant element. Titles are
generally styled as headings, with type that is bold and larger than the body text or subheadings.
Titles make an impression. Titles should be concise, to-the-point and easy to say. Your
title should be in larger text than the rest of your solution – perhaps at least 20pt if the body
text is 10pt.
9780170364744 Chapter 2 Approaches to problem-solving methodology: Data analysis 57

Reprinted with permission from AAAS

Vol. 341 no. 6147 pp. 730-731 DOI:
Science, Science 16 August 2013:

10.1126/science.341.6147.730.
‘Pesticide Planet’ by G. Grullón/
FIGURE 2.24 ‘Pesticide Planet’ has a large, visually interesting title.

Text styles
When we discuss text styles, we are essentially talking about fonts. A font is a typeface (such as There are other typeface
Times New Roman, Arial or Calibri) plus its attributes (20pt, bold, red). You may already know styles, such as handwriting,
a few standard, familiar typefaces, such as: script and decorative.
You will know decorative
• Times New Roman, a serif typeface. Serif typefaces have tiny marks or ‘tails’ on the end fonts such as Impact
of the horizontal and vertical strokes of each letter. Serifs are used in books for body text because it is the typeface
and especially for long passages of text. predominantly used in
memes online. Comic
• Arial, a sans serif typeface. Sans serifs do not have the serifs on the strokes of Sans, a casual script or
each letter. They work best for short paragraphs, large headings and online, but handwriting typeface, is
not for long passages of printed text. also well known.
• Courier New, a slab serif typeface, is often used in
programming. Slab serifs are best used when the focus is on
function and not appearance. Slab serif fonts ensure your
characters are legible and unmistakable.
When you are choosing text styles for your graphic solution, keep things simple. Use a few
well-chosen typefaces, perhaps three at most, and use bold, italic, colour and point size to set
out heading levels and distinguish between different types of text.
These two sections use the same three typefaces. The only
difference is the subheadings use different font colours
and have icons to the left to distinguish between them.

1, Dark green 1, Orange

2, Bold 2, Bold

2
2 2
2

3 3

FIGURE 2.25 Subtle changes make a difference in Pesticide Planet

Text styles will apply some contrast while promoting a streamlined, professional appearance.
However, using many different typefaces in one space can be untidy and overwhelming.
Remember: less is still more – bigger is not always better. Really think about what needs to
be emphasised the most and what needs to be highlighted. Not everything needs to be bold,
italic and 40pt.
58 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

Shapes
Using shapes in your solution can help to create patterns, contrast, hierarchies and backgrounds.
You can use shapes as containers for sections of text in your graphic solution, and as dividers.

FIGURE 2.26 The cross shape here acts as a divider and container

You do not have to stick to standard, two-dimensional geometric shapes such as squares,
circles, rectangles and triangles. Other types of shapes, such as irregular, abstract and freeform
shapes can evoke reactions in the user. You can also use shapes to develop logos, symbols
and icons.

THINK ABOUT
COMPUTING 2.4
1 Make a list of what you
immediately associate
with each of the shapes
in Figure 2.27.
2 Compare your list
with another of your
classmates. How much FIGURE 2.27 These familiar shapes may not be what you immediately
do they overlap? think of when shapes come to mind, but they may still evoke strong
reactions that could make them powerful in your graphic solution.
 9780170364744 Chapter 2 Approaches to problem-solving methodology: Data analysis 59

Lines and arrows

A line is a versatile visual element that uses only length and width. Lines can be:
Solid

Dashed

Dotted

Broken

Double

Thick

Thin

Curved

Freeform

• Bold or thick lines work well for emphasis and for representing a structure within a space.
The thicker the line, the more it will draw the eye to the space, but the more crowded and
boxed in it will look, so use a thick line carefully.
• Light and fine lines can suggest technical details but also retain a sense of minimalism.
Line thicknesses you might use range from:
0.25pt
0.5pt
0.75pt
1pt
1.25pt
1.5pt
1.75pt
2pt
You can use lines in your graphic solution as borders or containers for sections of text or
images.
The ‘Pesticide Planet’ infographic uses dotted lines as dividers, but also as a form of repetition
from the maps at the top. By using lightly coloured lines that are similar to the background
colour, and dots rather than solid lines, the infographic allows the user to read the infographic
in the correct order and tell sections apart, but without a sense of crowding that solid or darker
coloured lines could have created.
Reprinted with permission from AAAS
Vol. 341 no. 6147 pp. 730-731 DOI:

Yellow dots form shapes

Science, Science 16 August 2013:

10.1126/science.341.6147.730.
‘Pesticide Planet’ by G. Grullón/

Yellow dots form lines

60 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

You can also use arrows as pointers in your graphic solutions. There are a variety of arrows
and arrowheads to choose from:

FIGURE 2.28 Popular arrows and arrowheads

Some arrows are sophisticated and elegant, while others are basic. The colour of your lines
plus the colour of your arrow and choice of arrowhead can make a difference in the overall
appearance of your diagrams.

Sources of data and legend

If you are using data in your graphic solution you need to identify the source in an appropriate
way. If you are designing an infographic for your solution you could include a list of all of your
sources in the footer of the infographic, similar to ‘What is an infographic?’ on page 48.

Alternatively, you could cite your source when it is used, similar to ‘Pesticide Planet’. Note
that ‘Pesticide Planet’ runs the source vertically up the side of the infographic:
9780170364744 Chapter 2 Approaches to problem-solving methodology: Data analysis 61

Citing information resources is a must when working with infographics because the data
behind them is research-based. Citing sources also provides those who view the infographic the
opportunity to further research the topic.
Make sure you cite all of your sources correctly. Include the name of the source, the author,
the URL (if applicable), the page number, the date, the publisher and any other relevant
information.
You should also make use of legends in your graphic solution when needed to identify the
facts shown in charts or graphs clearly. In general, a legend or key explains the symbols used in
a chart, diagram, map or table. In terms of your graphic solution, a legend will mostly be used
as a patterned marker with blocks of colour that represent different groups of data in a chart.
‘Pesticide Planet’ includes multiple colour-coded legends – one for each ‘module’ that has a
chart. The legends in ‘Pesticide Planet’ make it easy to understand what the data stands for and
thus what each chart means, which is why legends are so useful. If you do not include a legend
for a chart with a complex idea, the user may become confused about what is being shown on
each axis and interpret your chart incorrectly. You can design them to take up very little space,
as shown below.

Each legend is colour-coded to match its chart,

and clarifies the data shown in that chart

‘Pesticide Planet’ by G. Grullón/Science, Science 16 August 2013:

FIGURE 2.29 Legends in ‘Pesticide Planet’ Vol. 341 no. 6147 pp. 730-731 DOI: 10.1126/science.341.6147.730.
Reprinted with permission from AAAS
62 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

Colours and contrasts

Colour should be used so that it makes the information clear, readable and attractive. The colours
should emphasise important features, and a colour scheme should be used to ensure consistency.
The following conventions for onscreen colour can be useful in determining colour schemes.
The most easily readable colours for text are black writing on a white background. Avoid
using red and green together because people who are colourblind have difficulty distinguishing
between them. Blue and brown together can also be difficult to read.
Light shades are best used for backgrounds. Avoid using yellow or other light colours for
text on a white background.
Avoid using bright, neon or vivid colours, except where you wish to highlight an object or
piece of information.
Limit the number of different colours used in your graphic solution.
As discussed on page 53, contrast refers to the visual difference in colour or tone between
objects in a graphic solution. Greater contrast will make objects appear to stand out more from
one another. If there is not enough contrast between two objects, they may appear to blend
into each other, making it difficult for the user to see each of them clearly. Contrast between the
background of the graphic representation and text should make the information clearly visible
and legible. The use of white space can enhance the contrast around objects within the graphic
representation.

Lowest temperature by Australian state

0

SA WA NSW QLD VIC TAS

–5
Degrees (°C)

–10

–15

State
–20

–25

FIGURE 2.29 This graph shows use of clear contrast.

FORMATS AND CONVENTIONS

1 Identify the infographic in this chapter that you think has the most effective title and
justify your choice.
2 a Identify the infographic in this chapter that you think uses text styles most effectively
and justify your choice using examples.
b Which, if any, of the infographics in this chapter could be improved by more effective
use of text styles? Suggest how improvements could be achieved making reference
to point sizes, typefaces, bold/italic, and so on.
3 a Identify the infographic in this chapter that you think uses shapes most effectively.
Justify your choice using examples.
b Which, if any, of the infographics in this chapter could improve upon their use of
shapes? Justify your choice and suggest how to achieve this by hand drawing or
mocking up the infographic with the new shapes that could be used.
9780170364744 Chapter 2 Approaches to problem-solving methodology: Data analysis 63

4 Other than Pesticide Planet, identify the infographic in this chapter that you think uses
THINK ABOUT
lines and arrows most effectively. Justify your choice and outline the types of lines and COMPUTING 2.5
arrows used, with reference to thicknesses and arrowheads. Annotate ‘What Happens
5 Describe how the sources of data and legend shown in the different infographics in this in an Internet Minute’ by
chapter differ from the citation methods described in Chapter 1. Explain the correct identifying formats and
way to cite your sources in your own work. conventions used. Identify
one type of each of the
6 Identify the infographic in this chapter that you think uses colours and contrasts least
following formats and
effectively. Justify your choice and suggest ways to improve the colour palette. conventions: titles, text
styles, shapes, lines and
arrows, and colours and
contrasts.

Visualisation Ad
Infographics should not be text-laden. Lengthy text can take longer to digest, while there is some
immediacy with images. By using a variety of tools such as shapes, charts, icons and diagrams, you NelsonNet
NelsonNet
additional resource additional
can can assist readers with visualising the data. Given that the purpose of an infographic is to provide resource: Figure 2.31
information in a visual format, using visual cues will assist the reader with interpreting the infographic. Infographic, p. 63

The Intel Free Press

FIGURE 2.31 A creatively drawn infographic using colour, shapes, icons, lines and arrows, graphics and illustrations,
with minimal text.
64 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

THINK ABOUT
COMPUTING 2.6
Annotate two of the
psychology of colour
infographics: one for design
principles (discussed in
Figure 2.20), and one for
formats and conventions
(discussed in Figure 2.23).

Ad

NelsonNet
NelsonNet
additional resource additional

resource: Figure 2.32

Infographic, pp. 64–5

WebpageFX

FIGURE 2.32 The psychology of colour

 9780170364744 Chapter 2 Approaches to problem-solving methodology: Data analysis 65
WebpageFX

FIGURE 2.32 Continues

 66 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

Proportion
A hierarchy is an arrangement of items in which
each is ranked above, below or at the same level as
another to show their importance. Proportion refers
to the visual hierarchy of objects within a graphic
representation. The proportions (or relative sizing)
of objects affect the visual hierarchy of the graphic
solution. This infographic does not function unless it
is viewed entirely on-screen and can be zoomed in to
100% because of its unusual proportions.

Design tools
Design tools are used to represent the functionality and appearance of
graphic solutions; normally, the solution is first sketched on paper. Several
design tools can be used to represent the design of graphic solutions;
however, annotated diagrams are the most apt for planning a solution and
presenting it.
Software such as spreadsheets can assist with Spreadsheet functions
the manipulation of data to develop graphs and and design capabilities
charts. Spreadsheets include functions that enable are discussed on
page 31.
users to work quickly and with less effort, thereby
minimising cost.
A wide range of design tools can be used to design the appearance of a
graphic solution. They include:
• input–process–output (IPO) charts
• annotated diagrams or mock ups.

IPO chart
An IPO chart (Table 2.9) is used during the design stage to clearly identify the
solution’s input and output, and the processing steps required to transform
the data into information. By completing an IPO chart, the developer gets
a sense of how much formula development work might occur during the
manipulation stage of the project. An IPO chart can be used to show how
data is processed into meaningful information. An IPO chart, also called a
‘defining diagram’, identifies what data is required for the solution (input),
what information the solution needs to produce (output), and the processing
manipulation activities required to transform the data into information, or
the function of the solution. In the case of creating a graphical solution,
the input requires an understanding of what data is needed and where it is
coming from, the process focuses on the functionality of the solution and
the output refers to the graphical solution that is being created.

Ad
Info Graphic World

NelsonNet
NelsonNet
additional resource additional

resource: Figure 2.33

Infographic, p. 66

FIGURE 2.33 Sources are listed at the

bottom of the infographic, making them
unreadable in printed form.
9780170364744 Chapter 2 Approaches to problem-solving methodology: Data analysis 67

TABLE 2.9 An example of an IPO chart for investigation into whether the number of students
undertaking STEM subjects is sufficient for Australia’s future needs.

Input (data) Processing (calculations) Output (information)

Selection of year level of participant Tally the results in each Aggregate total of each
(i.e. Year 11 or Year 12) category category
Selection of STEM subject studied (ie Tally the results in each Aggregate total of each
Foundation Maths, Further Maths etc) category category
Identification of factors to experiencing Tally the results in each Aggregate total of each
success STEM is selected category category
Identification of influence on decision Tally the results in each Aggregate total of each
to pursue STEM subjects category category
Selection of reasons for pursuing a Tally the results in each Aggregate total of each
STEM career category category

Annotated diagrams and mock ups

Annotated diagrams provide a visual depiction of how graphic solutions should look
(Figure 2.34).
The designs indicate features such as differences in font size, colour and positioning of
objects. The placement of objects must be planned so that a balanced, visually appealing and
clear effect is attained.
THINK ABOUT
COMPUTING 2.7
1 Hand draw one of the
infographics from this
chapter as an annotated
diagram similar to Figure
2.34. (You will not be
able to identify specific
typefaces when you do
this.)
2 Hand draw Figure 2.21
from page 54. Try to use
it to identify modules,
flowlines, columns and
gutters in the infographic
you have hand drawn.
3 Label the columns,
gutters, margins and
flowlines on the hand
drawn infographic.

FIGURE 2.34 An example

of an annotated diagram for
the STEM infographic
68 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

The annotated diagram should clearly indicate:

• the shape of graphic solutions
• titles and layout of the diagram
• formats and conventions that are used in graphic solutions.
Before using an annotated diagram, you should consider the data set that will be used as
the basis of the graphic solution. The amount and type of data, and purpose for developing a
graphic solution of the data will help you decide on the type of graphic solution to create.

Types of tests
It is important to check that what you are trying to produce meets the specified need and fulfils
the specified purpose. The effectiveness of a solution is determined by its quality. A solution
is effective if it is complete, readable, attractive, clear, accurate, accessible, timely, relevant and
usable; and if it communicates the message. Each of these attributes needs to be tested once
the solution has been built.

Validation versus testing

Validation is involved with input, while testing is concerned with the solution itself, or output.
Testing can, however, also involve ensuring that electronic validation works correctly. In the
design stage you need to plan the testing that you will conduct after the development stage.
Therefore, after the designs for the graphical solution have been created, we make the test plan
or test table. Testing and validation serve different purposes. Testing is performed to ensure
that processes, functions and formulas in a solution work as expected. Validation checks that
input data is appropriate and reasonable.

Completeness testing
A solution is considered incomplete if the intended user has to find additional information.
A graphic solution that does not provide sufficient information will not fulfil its purpose. To
check the completeness of a graphic representation, the developer should consider the following.
• Does the graphic representation provide the information required?
• Is the graphic representation clearly and accurately labelled?
• Will the intended users easily find what they need?

Reliability testing
The digital revolution has opened up limitless ways in which information can be communicated,
and access to this information is becoming easier and cheaper. But is all of the information
reliable? For many different reasons, the data and information presented to us may be
untrustworthy. To determine the reliability of data, the reliability of the source should be
checked. One way in which the information given in a solution can be verified is to confirm the
information from more than one source. Unreliable graphic solutions can cause confusion and
information about a particular topic.

Presentation testing
During the design phase of the problem-solving methodology a decision must be made on the
appropriate format of the solution; for example, how a solution should be communicated. It is
9780170364744 Chapter 2 Approaches to problem-solving methodology: Data analysis 69

important to consider its overall look and format. The solution must be attractive and clear. One
of the most important considerations should be the intended audience and intended purpose.
Some of the formats and conventions suitable for a graphic solution that can be tested are:
• appropriate use of white space and fonts
• the use of consistent font styles and sizes
• readability – that the information presented is easy to read and can be understood by the
intended audience
• consistent and appropriate use of colour and contrast
• careful choice of background colours (generally they should be white or grey)
• consistent use of a colour scheme (perhaps matching the corporate colours or image of
the client)
• easy-to-read charts and labels
• adherence to the formats and conventions discussed earlier in the chapter.
No matter what format is chosen, the presentation of the solution can be a difficult attribute
to test. What looks good to one person may appear ugly to someone else.

Functionality testing
The functionality of a solution relates to its ability to perform tasks and functions. If a solution
is deemed functional, it will provide accurate output that is reliable.
When testing the function of a graphic solution, it is prudent to test that the representation
accurately depicts the data as it was meant to. A useful way to organise this testing is to develop
a test plan.
A test plan is a method for recording the tests to be executed and the results of the tests.
Usually, it includes the type of test, what test data will be used, what results are expected and
the end results (Table 2.10).
When constructing your test table, take your time. Complete it while developing your
solution, using any mistakes you make as a basis for good testing.

TABLE 2.10 A test table

Feature tested Test/sample data Expected result and why Actual result

Relevance testing
Relevance describes how applicable a solution is to its intended purpose and its intended
audience. A solution that lacks relevance can be misleading and uninteresting. A question
to consider in checking the relevance of a solution is: ‘Does the infographic match the user’s
search for information?’

Communication of message
All of the required information presented in a solution must be clear and obvious. For instance,
a graphic representation that is meant to show the unemployment rates in Australia over the
last ten years must convey the trend and the figures plainly, without the user getting lost among
other insignificant or irrelevant information.
70 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

Questions to ask
To test the quality of onscreen information that is represented in graphic form specifically, ask
the following questions.
• Does the graphic representation depict the information required and fulfil its intended
purpose?
• Is the overall look and tone of the graphic representation appropriate to its intended
audience?
• Is the graphic representation accurate? That is, has the data source been validated and
verified?
• Is the type of graphic representation the most appropriate type for the data?
• Is there anything that is misleading, confusing or unclear?
• Are the axes correct?
• Are there any unnecessary elements or information in the graphic representation?
• Is the numerical scale of the value axis identified (for example, thousands or millions)?
• If the chart uses two value axes, can the audience easily identify the appropriate axis for
each series?
• If more than one chart is being developed for the same solution, are the charts consistently
formatted and presented?
• Is all of the text readable?
• Can any of the information presented be further summarised?
• Are font styles, sizes and colours consistent?
• Is all text spelled correctly?

Validation
To make the solution accurate and reasonable, all data that is used should be validated.
This means that the original data should be manually checked for illegal data types, for
reasonableness, for correct spelling, to ensure that data fall within a correct ‘range’ or that any
codes that are used are consistent (follow similar style) and reasonable (similar codes relate
to similar products). Although validation is actually used when entering data during the
development stage, it needs to be planned for in the design stage.
It is easy for data entry errors to occur during the input phase, particularly if a large amount
of data is involved. Data should therefore always be validated before any processing occurs.
There are two types of validation: manual and electronic validation.
Manual validation occurs when the data entered are checked for accuracy by a person rather
than by a machine. Proofreading is one manual validation technique. When you proofread
data, you look for transcription errors. The data entered should be compared with the source
document to ensure that they match. Any differences observed must be followed up.
Data may be validated by computer if a validation function is contained in the software or
built into the solution to a problem. Electronic validation techniques, sometimes called machine-
validation techniques, ensure the accuracy of data and are built into software, such as spell checkers.
Types of electronic validation include range checking, existence checking and data type checking.

Manipulating data to create solutions

The development stage of a problem-solving methodology involves using the appropriate
software to create the solution. This is the stage at which the data (in this case, numbers, text
and audio data from interviews) becomes information. Manipulation occurs when the data
9780170364744 Chapter 2 Approaches to problem-solving methodology: Data analysis 71

is transformed into information; that is, it is the process of making sense of the data. Before
computers existed, manipulation took place by hand and was subject to human error and
interpretation. With the aid of computers, however, data manipulation now requires far less
effort. The nature of the manipulation usually depends on the software being used to create the
infographic.

CASE
STUDY THE NUMBER OF STUDENTS UNDERTAKING STEM SUBJECTS IS
INSUFFICIENT FOR AUSTRALIA’S FUTURE NEEDS
Questionnaires are often left open for a finite amount of time to ensure that as many
participants have the opportunity to respond. Once the questionnaire has closed, data can
then be manipulated to assist with the development of the solution. Software packages
such as Opinio (online survey) can assist with filtering data to create totals of categories
found in the survey. For example, you may want to find out the number of Year 12 students
studying Informatics. To do this, you need to filter the remaining data to ensure that you
receive the data that you are after. In this case study, there were 10 students who satisfied As there is no prescribed
this criterion. The software was able to make a report on those 10 students, exploring the software in Outcome 1,
other STEM subjects they were studying as well as Informatics (see Figure 2.35). Various students can use a variety
reports need to be made to assist with data interpretation so that the research question is of software to create
their infographic such as
being answered thoroughly. Various data sources such as the PISA and TIMSS results are a spreadsheet, a word
also referenced to provide supplementary data to help answer the research question. Once cloud generator, illustrating
all the data has been gathered, the mock-ups or annotated diagram of the infographic software, or an online
infographic software
needs to be drawn (Figure 2.34). generator.
Software that will be used to assist with the development of the infographic needs to be
selected such as Excel and Piktochart. These packages have been selected to assist with
the development of the infographic (Figure 2.36). The infographic needs to be put together
in a creative and logical way by starting with one section at a time. The first section looks at
the PISA results (Figure 2.37) and provides some background information about the results
and Australia’s placement in mathematics. The next section focuses on the questionnaire
results and is creatively displayed in a Venn diagram (Figure 2.36). The other sections of
the infographic needs to be developed and then tested to ensure that the infographic is
complete and answers the question.

Other subjects studied by Informatics students

Foundation Maths

Further Maths

Maths Methods
Subjects studied

Specialist Maths

Physics

Biology

Informatics

Software Development

Systems Engineering

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Number of students

FIGURE 2.35 Data has been filtered to only include the Year 12 students who are studying
Informatics; this report wanted to see what other subjects those students were studying.
72 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

TABLE 2.11 Frequency table

Choices Absolute Relative frequency Relative Adjusted relative

frequency by choice (%) frequency (%) frequency (%)
Foundation Maths 1 4.55 10 10
Further Maths 2 9.09 20 20
Maths Methods 1 4.55 10 10
Specialist Maths 2 9.09 20 20
Physics 2 9.09 20 20
Biology 1 4.55 10 10
Informatics 10 45.45 100 100
Software Development 2 9.09 20 20
Systems Engineering 1 4.55 10 10
Sum: 22 100 – –
Not answered: 0 – 0% –
Total answered: 10

FIGURE 2.36 The creation of a simple Venn diagram using Piktochart

9780170364744 Chapter 2 Approaches to problem-solving methodology: Data analysis 73

The first section of this

infographic looks at
the PISA results and
provides some background
information about the
results and Australia’s
placement in mathematics.

TIMSS and PIRLS International Study Center (2011)

TIMSS 2011 International Results in Mathematics.
STEM enrolments at In IEA’s Trends in International Mathematics and
RubyMede data derived Science Study, Boston College.
from the questionnaire OECD (2012), What 15-year-olds know and what they
and data from the can do with what they know. In PISA 2012 Results in
school. Focus.

FIGURE 2.37 A section of the completed STEM infographic used to inform the
public that there are too few students undertaking STEM subjects
 74 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

ESSENTIAL TERMS
CHAPTER SUMMARY

alignment refers to text: can be left, right, centre or infographic a graphic representation of data and
full. Full alignment, which is also known as full information using different elements
justification, refers to text being aligned on the IPO chart (input–process–output) a defining
left margin of a column and spaced appropriately diagram that shows how data is processed into
so that the last letter in a word on the same line meaningful information; it identifies what data is
is aligned with the right margin. required for the solution (input), what information
annotated diagrams a visual depiction of how a the solution needs to produce (output), and the
graphic representations should look; designs processing steps required to transform the data
indicate features such as differences in font size, into information, or the function of the solution
colour and positioning of objects; the placement macro an automated series of tasks. In spreadsheet
of objects must be planned so that a balanced, programs such as Microsoft Excel, you can
visually appealing and clear effect is attained create macros by using the macro recorder.
clarity how clearly the information in the graphic Macros are used to automate series of tasks that
representation is presented and how well a user can are performed frequently. Macros can be run
differentiate between objects in the graphic form directly from a key combination or from a button
contrast the visual difference in colour or tone added to the user interface
between elements on a screen; there should be manual validation entails the data entered being
sufficient contrast between background and text checked for accuracy by a person rather than by
or other page elements to make the information a machine
plainly readable orientation the direction and aspect of elements
conventions standards that have been developed within a graphic representation
to determine the presentation of documents problem-solving methodology a structured
and other output produced using information approach to creating a solution; the method
systems; rarely static, they change over time as applicable to our course comprises the following
changes in technology and business occur; a steps: analysis, design, develop and evaluate
convention is first decided on and adopted
proportion the visual hierarchy (relative sizes) of
effectiveness the measure of how well a solution objects within a graphic representation
works and the extent to which it fulfils its purpose;
spreadsheet functions include performing
measures of an effective solution include
mathematical and logical functions, producing
completeness, readability, attractiveness, clarity,
various sorts of graphs and charts, inserting
accuracy, accessibility, timeliness, communication
labels, headers footers, notes and comments
of message, relevance and reliability
testing a step in which the solution created is
electronic validation techniques, sometimes called
checked for accuracy
machine-validation techniques, that ensure the
accuracy of data are built into software such as useability the ease of use of the graphic solution;
spell checkers all spreadsheet solutions, including graphic
representations of numerical data, need to be
graphic representation a pictorial diagram that
user-friendly; the user should be able to access
shows the interdependencies between variables;
the required information with ease and efficiency
common types derived from numerical data are
column charts, line charts, pie graphs, bar charts, validation a step in which the data that has been
area charts, scatter diagrams and bubble charts entered is checked for accuracy

graphic solutions pictorial diagrams that show variable in programming, a key word, phrase or
interdependencies between variables. symbol that represents a value that may change

hierarchy an arrangement of items in which each white space a section of a graphic representation
is ranked above, below or at the same level as that is empty of any colour or object that is used
another to show their importance to create a clean, uncluttered look and is not
considered wasted space by designers
9780170364744 Chapter 2 Approaches to problem-solving methodology: Data analysis 75

IMPORTANT FACTS

CHAPTER SUMMARY
1 Spreadsheet functions enable the user to 7 There are a set of formats and conventions
format data, calculate simple and complex to use when producing a graphic solution,
mathematical calculations, and produce different including appropriate labelling to ensure that the
charts and graphs. information communicated is clear and concise.
2 We inform when we provide information or tell 8 A user should be able to efficiently and easily
facts, such as reporting on a current issue. attain meaning and relevant information from an
We persuade when we influence a decision onscreen graphic representation.
or action, or change a person’s opinion. We 9 When testing a solution, the following areas
educate when we teach and provide knowledge can be tested for appropriateness: functionality,
and skills through a learning process. presentation, usability, accessibility and
3 Colour should be used so that it makes the appropriateness of communication.
information clear, readable and attractive. The 10 It is important to test what you are trying to
colours should emphasise important features, produce meets the specified need and fulfils the
and a colour scheme should be used to ensure specified purpose.
consistency.
4 Clarity is important for onscreen products.
All elements on the screen should able to be
seen clearly in order to convey the message
effectively to the user.
5 Consistency of navigation links, colour schemes
and other repeatable features allows users to
navigate an onscreen product comfortably with
minimal confusion.
6 Colours selected should make an onscreen
product readable and attractive.
76 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE

Qz
PURPOSE OF GRAPHIC SOLUTIONS
Review quiz
1 What is a graphic representation? 3 Describe the context of each of these
Review quiz
2 Find three different types of graphic three graphic representations and how
representations suitable for educating, they could best be used.
persuading and informing audiences.

DESIGN PRINCIPLES FOR GRAPHIC SOLUTIONS

4 Select one of the infographics from 6 List five conventions that are used in
Question 2 and comment on the data graphic representations.
that is displayed in terms of the clarity 7 Describe the types of data you would
of the message and the evidence include in an infographic.
provided to support the case. 8 How would you test an infographic?
5 What is the difference between a format 9 List five different software packages that
and a convention? could be used to create an infographic.

DESIGN TOOLS
10 What is a data set? 12 What is usually depicted in an
11 What does the acronym IPO stand for? annotated diagram?
Explain what each component means.

TYPES OF TESTS
13 Why is testing undertaken? 15 What is one result of an unreliable
14 What should be considered when graphic solution?
undertaking completeness testing? 16 What do you need to ensure by
undertaking relevance testing?

VALIDATION
17 What is validation? Identify two ways to perform validation.
9780170364744 Chapter 2 Approaches to problem-solving methodology: Data analysis 77

APPLY YOUR KNOWLEDGE

Using the ‘Infographic: The global impact of wireless internet connectivity’
weblink, answer the following questions.

1 Focusing on the infographic on the page, rather than the introductory

Infographic: The
article at the beginning, describe the data displayed in the
global impact of
infographic. wireless internet
2 List 10 of the subsections shown in the infographic. connectivity
3 For each of the subsections listed in Question 2, describe how the data
is represented and summarise the findings.
4 What is the ‘internet of things (iot)’?
5 Provide two additional examples of the iot, other than the ones listed in the infographic.
6 Using the infographic as a source, explain whether you believe that wireless is more than a
luxury, and why, in 500 words.
 78 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

PREPARING FOR
Acquire, secure and interpret

OUTCOME
data, and design and develop
a graphic solution that
UNIT communicates the findings of
an investigation

In Unit 1, Outcome 1, you are required to conduct an investigation into an issue, practice or
event through the systematic collection, interpretation and manipulation of primary data and
then create a graphic solution, such as an infographic, that represents your findings.

OUTCOME MILESTONES
1 Identify a topic to investigate. 5 Identify the techniques to minimise
2 Identify the types of data that will be risks to the security and privacy of data
gathered. and information.
3 Decide which data-gathering methods 6 Interpret selected data, identifying
and techniques to use. relationships and patterns.
4 Identify, legally and ethically acquire, 7 Select and apply appropriate design
and reference data and information tools to represent the functionality
from primary sources. and appearance of graphic solutions
for particular purposes.

STEPS TO FOLLOW
1 Choose a topic to investigate. Topics 5 Create content for data gathering.
could be as diverse as social networking, 6 Create the participation information
shopping habits or public transport statement.
usage. 7 Create consent forms.
2 Decide on an aspect of the topic to 8 Identify risks to the privacy of
investigate in detail. For example, the participants and security of data and
social networking habits of different have strategies in place to minimise
age groups, shopping preferences of them.
a particular sex and age group, or 9 Once permission has been granted from
monitoring public transport usage of a participants, collect the data.
specific group of people. 10 Once data has been collected, it needs
3 Identify the type of data you will collect. to be analysed. Identify any patterns,
4 Based on the type of data that will be look for meaning in the data and then
collected, identify the data-collection draw your conclusions.
method you will use in the research (for
example, observation, questionnaires/
surveys, interviews or focus groups).

Getty Images/Rafe Swan

9780170364744 Chapter 2 Approaches to problem-solving methodology: Data analysis 79

11 From the interpreted data, you will 12 Use software, and select and apply
need to create a graphic solution for functions, formats, conventions, data
the purpose of informing, educating or validation and testing techniques
persuading an audience. to manipulate data and create
graphic solutions efficiently. Note: no
restrictions are placed on the software
tools used to create your solution.
80 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

CHAPTER
NETWORKS
Key knowledge
After completing this chapter, you will be able to demonstrate knowledge of:
Digital systems
• applications and capabilities of local area networks (LANs) and wide area networks
(WANs)
• functions and characteristics of key hardware and software components of networks
required for communicating and storing data and information
• purposes of network protocols
• strengths and limitations of wireless communications technology
• types, capabilities and limitations of mobile devices connected to networks
• security threats to data and information communicated and stored within networks
• technical underpinnings of malware that intentionally threaten the security of
networks
Implications and impact
• how people, processes, digital systems and data combine to form networked
information systems
• legal requirements and ethical responsibilities of network professionals and users of
networks with respect to social protocols and the ownership of data and information
• risks and benefits of using networks in a global environment.

For the student

This chapter provides an overview of communications, with an emphasis on the
communication of data and information locally and within a global environment. The
chapter explains some of the terminology, equipment, procedures and applications that
are required to connect and maintain computers so that files, programs and resources can
be shared. It also discusses the advantages and disadvantages of using wireless networks,
and the role of portable devices. The ways that the security of data and information can
be compromised by accidental or deliberate acts are also explored.
In the Outcome at the end of this chapter, you will propose a wireless networked
information system that meets a particular need, explain its configuration and predict
outcomes for intended users.

For the teacher

This chapter focuses on networks used in a global environment. The capabilities of
local area networks (LANs) and wide area networks (WANs) are discussed. An overview
of hardware, operating systems and wireless network protocols is provided. A range
of wireless transmission media is considered, and several factors that influence the
design of a networked information system are identified. The roles and responsibilities
of network professionals in terms of their legal requirements and ethical responsibilities
are considered. At the completion of this chapter, students will have examined the roles
and functions of the components of wireless networks and will be able to recommend a
networked information system for a specific use. They will have also considered security
threats to data and information communicated via networks. The contents of this chapter
will help students to demonstrate key knowledge required to complete Unit 1, Outcome 2.
Students must use a graphics software tool to depict the components of a network.
9780170364744 Chapter 3 Networks 81

Networks
A network is a collection of computers and devices connected by communications channels
that facilitates communications among users and allows users to share resources with one
another. Examples of resources are data, information, hardware and software. Networks can be
To check the download
internal to an organisation or cover the whole world by connecting to the internet. speed of your home
Networks exist for sharing information, such as spreadsheet files, database records, email – internet connection,
indeed anything that helps someone get their job done. The ability to share resources, such as visit the speed test
weblink and run the
servers, printers and software, also makes a network valuable.
speed test.
As shown in Figure 3.1, for successful communications, a network needs:
• a sending device, such as a notebook computer, which initiates an instruction to transmit
data, instructions or information
• a communications device, such as a wireless adaptor inside a notebook computer, to
forward packets of data, instructions or information from a sending device via signals
carried by a communications channel
• a communications channel or transmission media, such as a cable or radio waves, through Sending devices can usually
which the digital signals travel also serve as receiving
devices. Examples include
• a communications device, such as a wireless router, which receives the signals from the notebook computers,
communications channel and forwards the packets to the receiving device personal computers and
• a receiving device, such as a printer, which accepts the data, instructions or information. mobile phones.
Notebook computers, tablets, smartphones and other sending devices usually have a built-
in communications device.
The primary function of a communications device, such as a broadband router, is to
transmit data, instructions and information between a sending and a receiving device. Data,
instructions and information travel along a communications channel in digital form.
A digital signal consists of individual electrical pulses that represent the bits grouped
together into bytes. Early networks used analog signals that consist of a continuous electrical
wave. Computers process data as digital signals, so a modem was used to convert between
analog and digital signals.
Wi-fi
Notebook Communications Printer
Sending device channel Receiving device

Router
Wireless network adaptor
Communications
Communications device; plugs
device
into the USB port on a notebook Cable
computer Communications channel
FIGURE 3.1 The notebook sends an instruction to the wireless adapter (communications device),
which sends a signal over radio waves (communications channel). The router (communications
device) receives the signal and sends an instruction to print via cable (communications channel)
to the printer (receiving device).
82 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

Types of networks
Local area networks and wide area networks are types of networks that are in common use. The
type of network refers to the area over which the network provides connectivity.

Local area networks

A local area network (LAN) connects computers and devices in a limited geographical area,
such as a home, school, office building (Figure 3.2) or closely positioned group of buildings. Each
computer or device on the network is a node. In many networks, the nodes are connected to the
LAN via cables. Many new networks use wireless transmission media. A wireless LAN (WLAN)
uses no physical wires; instead it uses wireless media, such as radio waves. Computers and devices
that access a WLAN must have built-in wireless capability. Usually a WLAN communicates with a
wired LAN for access to its resources, such as software, hardware and the internet.

Desktop computer
Smartphone
Network-attached
storage device

Desktop computer Switch

Wireless
access point Laptop computer

Printer Desktop computer

Laptop computer
FIGURE 3.2 A local area network operating within a confined geographical area.

Network World The logical design of the components of the network, including the number and types of
Reviews of network
servers, workstations and network resources, is known as the network architecture. It includes
operating systems and
general information on the communications devices and the types of physical and wireless transmission media used
networks to connect components.

Intranets
Organisations typically use an intranet to publish their event calendars, policies, procedure
manuals and technical support files, and to allow access to documents required for group
work. An intranet will often include a connection to the internet, allowing employees access
to information from the Web. Intranet pages will often include links to internet sites, with
information relevant to the organisation.
An intranet uses a web server, supports multimedia webpages coded in HTML and is
accessible via a web browser, such as Google Chrome, Mozilla Firefox, Microsoft Edge and
Internet Explorer.
An intranet provides the following efficiencies.
• It facilitates communication by allowing employees to work in groups.
• Users can access information faster since data does not need to pass through a router, and
loading graphics and images becomes much quicker than on the internet.
• An intranet reduces paper waste because companies are able to move their documents
and processes onto the intranet. This can greatly reduce the need for centralised printing
9780170364744 Chapter 3 Networks 83

and distribution. If a hard-copy version of a document is needed, on-demand printing at

the end-user level is all that is required.
• An intranet improves ease of use. Point-and-click technology allows easy access to
hyperlinked company documents.
The effectiveness benefits of an intranet include the following.
• An intranet allows restricted access to company information.
• An intranet provides dynamic information. Company documents stored on an intranet
can be updated more easily and quickly than hard-copy versions. The documents can be
kept up to date, providing more accurate and timely information to decision makers.
• An intranet allows connection across different network platforms. Users of complex
networks that employ a number of different operating systems – such as Microsoft Windows,
Macintosh and UNIX – are able to communicate easily within an intranet using their browser
software. The HTML code used by the webpages is universal across all platforms.
• An intranet makes data more accessible. Information stored on an intranet can be
accessed from anywhere in the world via the internet, if the user is authorised to connect
to the internal network. An employee travelling overseas can use the internet to access
files that otherwise would have been locked away in a filing cabinet back in the office.
• An intranet supports the ability to communicate using audio and video files rather than
just traditional text and graphic images.

Home networks
If you have multiple computers in your home or home office, you can connect all of them together
with a home network (see Figure 3.3). The advantages of a home network include the following.
• Desktop computers, notebooks, tablets and smartphones can all communicate with
each other.
• All the computers can be connected to the internet at the same time.
• All computers can share peripherals, such as a scanner, printer or a network-attached
storage device.

Internet

Broadband cable
Home office
Broadband
wireless router

Printer Wi-fi extender

Smart TV
Powerline adaptor
Lounge
room

Desktop computer NAS device Laptop computer Smartphone

Powerline

Wireless adaptor Upstairs Powerline Kitchen

bedroom adaptor

Smart TV Games console

Rumpus room Smartphone
Tablet Tablet

Wi-fi extender Network media player Network media player

FIGURE 3.3 A home network.

84 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

• Each networked computer is able to play multiplayer games with players on other
computers in the house.
• Smart TVs can connect to the internet.

Wide area networks

A wide area network (WAN) covers a large geographical area – for example, a city, a country
or the world – using a communications channel that combines many types of media, such as
telephone lines, cables and radio waves. A WAN can be one large network, or it can consist of
two or more LANs connected together. The internet is the world’s largest WAN. Mobile phones
could be considered to be operating in their own WAN.

Network architecture
Each type of network can be further categorised by its architecture. Network architecture refers
to the layout or design of the network. In this section we will consider client–server, peer-to-
peer and virtual private network (VPN) layouts.

Client–server networks
THINK ABOUT In a client–server network, a server, sometimes called the host computer, controls access to the
COMPUTING 3.1 hardware and software on the network and provides a centralised storage area for programs,
Suggest reasons why a
data and information. Besides storage capacity, a server allows for file sharing, website hosting,
peer-to-peer network would
not be used in organisations email management and access to shared printers. The other computers on the network, called
with more than 10 clients, rely on the server for these resources (Figure 3.4). For example, a server in a school’s
computers. administration might store a database of student details. Every client on the network can
access this database on the server.
The costs associated with a server-based network are significantly higher than those for a
peer-to-peer network. Not only is the start-up equipment more expensive, but a client–server
network also requires ongoing technical support to maintain the sophisticated hardware and
software. On the positive side, however, there are clear economies of scale, as the cost of adding
clients that share the server’s resources becomes relatively less.
The major difference between the server computer and the client computers is that the
server has more storage space and power. Some servers, called dedicated servers, perform

Switch
Client
Client Client

Wireless
access point Laptop
computer

Server
Laser printer

FIGURE 3.4 On a client–server LAN, one or more computers acts as a server and the other
computers on the network are called clients.
9780170364744 Chapter 3 Networks 85

a specific task. For instance, a file server stores and manages files. Each user on the LAN can
share files or programs stored on the file server. A print server manages printers and print jobs.
Print jobs received from users on the LAN are queued on the print server in order of their arrival
and fed to the various network printers one document at a time. A database server stores and
provides access to a database. A network server manages network traffic. A number of servers A client–server network
are often configured in a type of rack, which makes it easier to manage the cables and power provides better security
than other configurations,
supplies. The server rack is often located in a specialised room where the temperature is kept because user access can be
cool to offset the amount of heat generated by the power-hungry servers. managed and logged.
In the past, network administrators used to dedicate each server to a particular task. One
application per server made it easier to track down any problems that arose. This approach,
however, does not take advantage of the processing power of modern servers. Also, a larger
storage room is required as the number of servers is increased. Many servers in networks are
now virtual rather than physical. Specially designed software is used to convert one physical
server into multiple virtual machines.
Although it can connect a smaller number of computers, it is typically most efficient for a
client–server LAN to connect 10 or more computers. Most client–server LANs have a network
administrator because of their larger size. The network administrator is the operations person
in charge of the network.

Peer-to-peer networks
A peer-to-peer network (P2P) is a simple, inexpensive network that typically connects fewer
Each node in a peer-to-peer
than 10 computers. Each computer on a peer-to-peer network can share the hardware (such network shares hardware
as a printer), data or information located on any other computer in the network (Figure 3.5). and data with all other
computers on the network.
Wireless Desktop computer
access point

Desktop computer

Tablet
Switch

Laptop
computer

NAS

Scanner

Laser printer
USB connections
Ethernet cable
FIGURE 3.5 Each computer on a peer-to-peer network can access data from other users and
share resources such as printers. A peer-to-peer network differs from a client–server network in
that files can be directly transmitted between nodes rather than from a server.
86 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

Each computer can store files on its own storage device or on another computer. Each
computer in the network contains both a client operating system (like the ‘Home’ versions of
Windows) with basic networking capability, and application software. All computers on the
network share any peripheral device attached to any computer. For example, one computer
may have a laser printer and a scanner, whereas another may have an ink-jet printer. They
may also share a network-attached storage device (NAS) with a movie and music repository.
Network-attached storage
devices (NAS) are discussed Peer-to-peer networks are popular in homes where a login server is neither necessary nor
later in this chapter. practical.

Internet peer-to-peer
THINK ABOUT Another use of peer-to-peer (called P2P) involves an internet peer-to-peer network, which
COMPUTING 3.2 enables users with the same networking software to connect to one another’s hard disk drives
Kazaa was a popular
Internet P2P application
and exchange files directly (Figure 3.6).
for finding, downloading, Early P2P programs, such as Kazaa and Limewire, stirred up much controversy about the
playing and sharing files copyright infringement of music because they allowed users to copy MP3 music files easily
with millions of other users. from one computer to another. To help reduce copyright infringement, music-sharing services,
The Kazaa client could be
downloaded free of charge, like iMesh, typically are fee-based, and music files are often encrypted as they travel across the
but it came bundled with internet.
adware. After numerous Many businesses see an advantage to using P2P – that is, companies and employees can
legal proceedings against
exchange files using P2P, freeing the company from maintaining a network for this purpose.
Kazaa by the recording
industry, resulting in Allowing internet peer-to-peer file sharing exposes your computer to possible security
damages payments in violations. For files to be shared within a P2P network, a specific TCP port must be opened
excess of $100 million, it through the firewall on the computer. Once the port is opened, the computer is no longer
now operates as a music
subscription service. Users
protected from malicious software, such as viruses and Trojans, capable of causing
pay around $25 per month computers to malfunction or seize. Recognised sites, such as BitTorrent, often have built-
for unlimited downloads in security measures, but their dependability is open to question, and using them can be
of songs. risky at best.

The P2P acronym has

been adapted by some to
mean people-to-people.
The development of social
Hard disk drive
media software that allows Hard disk drive
individuals on the internet
to meet each other and
share ideas is an example
of people-to-people Hard disk drive
technology.
FIGURE 3.6 P2P describes an internet peer-to-peer network that enables users with the same
networking software to connect to one another’s hard disks and exchange files directly.

Virtual private networks (VPN)

Businesses with offices and branches across Australia or around the world need a fast, secure
and reliable way to share data and information across networks. A virtual private network
(VPN) allows businesses to use a public WAN, (the internet) to create a private network that
links remote sites and users to the business’s head office. The VPN uses encryption (we discuss
encryption later in this chapter) to ensure files and messages are secure.
9780170364744 Chapter 3 Networks 87

A VPN provides secure connections over the internet that allow businesses to extend their
private network, which in turn allows communication and information sharing with remote
branches and travelling salespeople.

Internet Branch
in
Brisbane

VPN
Branch in Router
Perth
Branch Branch in
VPN in Sydney
Adelaide Headquarters
Router in
Melbourne
Tablet
Router
Router
Branch
in
Smart phone Hobart
VPN Router
Salesperson VPN VPN
in the field Router

FIGURE 3.7 An example of a wide area network in Australia. The business is using a virtual
private network (VPN) to communicate over the internet with branches around the country.

Prior to businesses using VPNs over the internet, the common way to connect computers
between remote offices was to use a leased telephone line. Leased lines provided organisations
with a means to expand their private network beyond its immediate geographic area. These
connections formed a wide area network for the organisation. The telephone lines were leased
from telecommunications companies such as Telstra. While the leased lines proved to be reliable
and secure, they were expensive to operate, particularly the further the WAN had to reach.

P2P DOWNLOADS: TORRENTS

Internet P2P networks provide a popular means of downloading music, TV, video and Data sent or received over
software files. Downloading a file from a single site like iTunes typically involves a stream the internet is sent to the
of sequential fragments of the file being sent to the requesting computer. Since the IP address of the remote
computer and a specific
fragments are sequential, the user can play the file as it is being downloaded. If multiple Transmission Control
people want to download the same file then that single source can become overworked Protocol (TCP) port on that
and possibly crash. The more users on the network, the slower downloads become. computer. We discuss TCP/
IP further on page 102.
An alternative to single source file downloads is to use a torrent protocol. With torrents, A firewall is hardware and/
there are multiple users who download a particular file at the same time, or who have or software that restricts
previously downloaded the whole file. These users act as a source for each other. Together access to data and
information on a network.
the downloaders become a network of multiple sources all providing pieces of the file to We discuss firewalls on
each other. page 120.
Here is how it works (Figure 3.8).
A user, for example Jack, installs a torrent client application on his computer. Jack
searches the web to find a torrent provider. A torrent is a small file that holds information
88 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

about, say, a video file. It includes metadata (for example, the name and size) about the file
to be shared and identifies the tracker. The tracker is a specific computer that coordinates
the file distribution by making links to peers who have pieces of the required file. On the
torrent provider’s website, Jack locates the file he is after and downloads the torrent to his
computer. The torrent is read by the torrent application which uses the specified tracker to
locate other computers that are downloading the requested video file (peers) or already have
the whole file (seeds). The tracker makes links between Jack’s computer and the identified
peers and seeds. With the connections in place, Jack’s computer starts to receive the pieces
of file he has requested. Since the file is being sent in non-sequential pieces from multiple
sources, the video cannot be watched until all pieces are received and the video assembled.
Jack’s computer also can start to send pieces of the file to other peers who are
downloading the same video even while his computer is still receiving pieces. The torrent
application therefore turns downloaders into sources. The more downloaders means the
more sources and hence the faster the downloads. Using torrents to download files means
that home computers, rather than servers, can act as sources, and a lower bandwidth
connection to the internet is not the problem it would be with single source downloading.
If Jack does not allow his computer to pass pieces of the file to peers (that is, he only
downloads) he is referred to as a leecher.

BitSnoop.com Download BitTorrent

torrent file
Search File
1

Torrent provider Jack’s computer running

BitTorrent client
Peer
Peer

Seed
Tracker

BitTorrent
Tracker locates
other computers
that are downloading
the file (peers) or
have the whole file (seeds)
Jack’s computer Peer Seed

FIGURE 3.8
1 Jack’s computer downloads a torrent from a provider and loads it into BitTorrent on his
computer.
2 BitTorrent uses the torrent to locate a tracker that makes links with peers and seeds who have
part or all of the requested file.
9780170364744 Chapter 3 Networks 89

Peer Peer
Jack’s computer will
start sending bits of
the file to other users

BitTorrent

Seed

Jack’s computer

Peer Seed

Jack’s computer

3 The peers and seeds transfer pieces of the requested file to Jack’s computer. Meanwhile,
Jack can also act as a peer by allowing some of the pieces he has downloaded to be sent to
someone else requesting the same file. The more downloaders of the file, the more sources
and the faster the downloads become.
4 The requested file has been downloaded to Jack’s computer.

ISSUE Is it legal to download music and video files?

The Copyright Act 1968 allows users to download music and video files from the internet via peer-
to-peer transfers only if they have the permission of the copyright holder. Downloading a TV show, a
film or a music file is in breach of the law unless the owner has approved the transfer, usually for the
payment of a fee. If you pay to download a file, or even If you are not required to pay a fee, you often
have to agree to certain conditions before you can download it. Any such conditions override the
default provisions in the Copyright Act that allow private copying of the file. Sites like The Pirate Bay
allow torrents to be downloaded, which can then be used with an application like BitTorrent or uTorrent
to collect pieces of the original file from a number of peer sites and put them together. If the user plays
the assembled file without permission they have broken the law.
90 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

The Pirate Bay website operates from Sweden, where the copyright laws are possibly less strongly
THINK ABOUT enforced than other countries like the United States. Nevertheless, in 2009 the founders of the site were
COMPUTING 3.3
found guilty of making copyright content available to others. The site was shut down for a short period in
1 For each file-sharing
2010, but has since reappeared. In 2012 the High Court of the United Kingdom ruled that British-based
Internet site that has
been forced to shut down internet service providers must block The Pirate Bay. The British Phonographic Industry stated that sites
because of copyright like The Pirate Bay destroy jobs in the UK and undermine investment in new artists.
violations, many more Critics of site blocking argue that such measures are ineffective as they can be circumvented using
have been launched in proxy servers and other techniques.
their place. How can Pirate Bay must be blocked, High Court tells ISPs, by Matt Warman, Consumer Technology Editor,
The Telegraph, 30 April 2012
the rights of artists, film
makers and TV producers
be properly protected?
2 Should governments be
doing more? Or is it the
Communications devices
responsibility of society to Communications devices enable computer users to communicate and exchange items such
do the right thing? as data, instructions and information with another computer. For example, a broadband router
3 Look for recent examples is a communications device that enables computers to communicate via telephone or cable. At
of attempts to regulate or the receiving end, the communications device receives the signals from the communications
control torrent sites. How
channel.
successful have these
measures been? Today, thousands of networked digital systems exist, ranging from small wireless networks
operated by home users to global networks operated by numerous telecommunications firms.
To interconnect these networks, various communications devices exist. Some of the more
common types of communications devices are switches, basic routers, broadband routers,
network interface cards and wireless access points.

Switches
A switch is a device that provides a connecting point for cables in a LAN.
Network traffic in a LAN typically follows specific paths that connect members of a work
group, such as the accounts department of a business. A switch stores the address of every
device down each cable connected to it. When a packet enters the switch, it uses simple logic
to detect the destination of the packet and sends the packet only down the cable that contains
the addressed device. The result is that the packet reaches its destination quickly and without
colliding with packets being sent to other nodes.
As packets are sent straight to the destination device through a switch, the two devices act
as if they are directly connected. On a 100 Mbps switch, data can be sent simultaneously to all
nodes at 100 Mbps uninterrupted.
Encryption of data packets enhances the security of wireless transmissions. Setting up
complex passwords for file sharing, routers and access points, as well as using encryption keys
that are not obvious, greatly improves security.

Routers
A router is a device used to connect multiple networks – several LANs or a LAN and a WAN,
such as the internet. A router will connect LANs and WANs irrespective of the hardware and
network communications protocol used in each segment. On the internet or a large corporate
network, for example, routers receive TCP/IP packets, look inside each packet to identify the
source and target IP addresses, and then forward these packets as needed to ensure the data
reaches its final destination. Figure 3.9 looks at how a router can be used to communicate
between two LANs operating within one organisation.
While a switch uses a node’s MAC (Media Access Control) address to identify which path to
send the packet, a router uses the IP, IPX or Appletalk address. The algorithm that switches use
9780170364744 Chapter 3 Networks 91

Printer

Switch

Router

Second floor:
Graphics department

Basement:
Broadband Router Switch Information systems
cable department
Internet

Router
Wireless
access
Switch Server
point

Laptop Tablet
Smartphone Printer
computer Scanner
First floor: Accounts department

FIGURE 3.9 How a router can connect two LANs and provide internet access to both networks.

to decide how to forward packets is different from the one used by routers. Most carriers, such as
Vodafone, offer a 4G USB modem stick. The small size makes it ideal to use with a mobile device,
such as a laptop computer, to connect to the internet using the 4G phone network.
In Figure 3.9, a file sent from one member of a graphics department to another member of the
same group stays on the graphics LAN and does not affect network traffic on the accounts LAN.
The router detects if a file needs to move from one LAN to another and allows its passage. For
example, the graphics department may need to send large animation files between members.
The size of these files means that allowing all members of the two work groups to have unlimited
communication on the one cable through a single LAN can consume the available resources of
the cable. The network will become sluggish and frustrating for users. To overcome this, each
work group is given its own LAN and a switch with a router used to link the work group LANs.
In this way, large files that are needed only by the graphics department stay on the one LAN,
while files that need to be shared between departments can move from one LAN to the other.

Broadband routers
Routers for home networks (often called broadband routers) also can join multiple networks.
These routers are designed specifically to join the home (LAN) to the internet (WAN) to share
internet connections.
92 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

Wireless broadband routers combine the functions of a basic router (connecting the
LAN to the internet), a switch (for devices, such as a desktop computer, connected by cable),
a firewall (security measure) and a wireless access point (to allow wireless connectivity).
Figure 3.10 shows a broadband router with an antenna for wireless connections, LAN ports for
wired connections and a WAN port for connection to the internet.

Shutterstock.com/Flegere
WAN
LAN
Power supply port
Power on/off ports
connection
button

FIGURE 3.10 Wireless broadband router

The type of broadband router used to act as a bridge between a LAN and the internet depends
on the type of connection provided by the Internet Service Provider (ISP). A cable connection
uses the high bandwidth available through the same broadband connection that delivers
information to a television via a provider such as Foxtel. An asymmetric digitial subscriber
line (ADSL) connection provides internet access using copper wiring in telephone lines. The
cost of an ADSL broadband router is around $100. A cable broadband router is usually sourced
from an ISP, since it has to be registered on the ISP’s network before it will work.

NBN devices
The National Broadband Network (NBN) is a national network of communication infrastructure
that uses lightning-fast fibre-optic, fixed wireless and satellite technology. The original NBN
plans were to reach 93 per cent of Australian homes with download speeds up to 100 megabits
per second. Revised plans by the federal government, whereby connections are made to a
local node rather than directly to a home or business, will result in a speed of 25 megabits per
second. Current ADSL 2+ connections are 24 megabits per second depending on line quality
and capability of components in local telephone exchanges.
Homes connected to the National Broadband Network (NBN) will require a router that is
capable of supporting the faster download speeds that are available.
The NBN utility box (also known as the Premises Connection Device, or PCD) is installed to
the outside of a house during the street roll-out of NBN cable. Fibre-optic cable from the roll-
out is connected to the utility box (see Figure 3.11). The home-owner’s ISP then arranges for the
NBN connection box (also known as a Network Termination Device, or NTD) to be installed in
the home (see Figure 3.12). A fibre-optic cable is used to connect the PCD to the NTD.
9780170364744 Chapter 3 Networks 93

Power supply with

NBN utility box NBN connection box battery backup

NBNCo

Outside your premises Inside your premises

FIGURE 3.11 The NBN utility box

UNI-D
UNI-V

1 2 Reset 1 2 3 4 Power

FIGURE 3.12 NBN connection box

On the left-hand side of the NBN connection box are two voice ports. When copper-based
telephone connections are phased out, one of these ports will be used for phone connection
over the fibre-optic NBN network. The other voice port can be used for other services such as a
personal alarm service (for the elderly or disabled). One of the four data ports is used to join the
connection box to the home network’s router. The other ports allow a home-owner to connect
to other service providers.

Network interface cards and wireless adaptors

A network interface card (NIC) is a card inserted into an expansion slot of a personal computer,
Wireless adaptors and
or it may be built in to the computer’s motherboard. A wireless adaptor performs the function NICs work with a particular
of a NIC for notebook and other mobile computers (Figure 3.13). network technology, such
as Ethernet. An Ethernet
card is the most common
type of NIC for hard-wired
networks. Depending on
the type of wiring used, the
transfer rate on an Ethernet
Shutterstock.com/Jouke van Keulen

network can be up to
1000 Mbps.
iStockphoto/connect11

FIGURE 3.13 a A network interface card slots into the motherboard on a desktop computer. b A
wireless adaptor can plug into the USB port on a desktop computer or notebook that does not have
wireless capability.
94 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

A NIC performs three functions: it increases the strength of the signal from the computer,
packages the data for transmission and controls access to and from the network cable or the
wireless channel. An external USB wireless adaptor is available for a desktop computer or
portable device that does not have built-in wireless connectivity.
Mobile devices, such as tablets and mobile phones, can connect to a LAN using a built-in
wi-fi adaptor.

Wireless access point

A wireless access point is a communications device used on wireless local area networks.
To guard against hackers
stealing valuable files from It acts as a central transmitter and receiver of wireless radio signals. A wireless access point
your wireless network, is often connected to a wired network backbone for faster transmission of data back to the
consider using a protocol network server.
other than TCP/IP, such as
Ethernet, for file sharing. Wireless access points are mostly used in business networks where larger buildings and
Access points are usually spaces need wireless coverage. Home networks are small enough that a wireless router can
installed on a LAN behind
the firewall. If a hacker provide sufficient coverage without the need for an access point.
successfully connects to If an area is too large to be covered by a single wireless access point, multiple access points
your access point, they will can be used. There can be a momentary loss of connectivity when a user moves from the
have open access to your
LAN. Since the hacker will vicinity of one access point to another. Figure 3.14 shows a wireless network with overlapping
be using TCP/IP to connect access points. Overlapping access points provide a seamless area for users to move around in,
to your LAN, you can deny
them file-sharing access using a feature known as ‘roaming’. When a user moves from one area to another, the wireless
by using a protocol other networking hardware automatically jumps to the access point that gives the strongest signal.
than TCP/IP for that service.
The hacker may still be
able to use your Internet Switch
connection, but they will not
be able to access your files.
Router

Internet

Wired Ethernet-based
clients and servers

Wireless access point

Wireless access point

Wireless-equipped
laptops, smartphones Desktop computers with
and tablet wireless USB adaptors

FIGURE 3.14 A business network using multiple wireless access points.

9780170364744 Chapter 3 Networks 95

Wireless extender THINK ABOUT

Wireless extenders (wireless repeaters) increase the area covered by a wireless network (Figure COMPUTING 3.4
3.15). They allow users to keep mobile devices, media players and computers connected to a A concern with a single
frequency wireless extender
wi-fi network with expanded coverage throughout the home or office. Wireless extenders pick
is that they can cause a
up a wireless signal in the same way as a tablet or notebook computer, then re-broadcast that throughput loss of about
signal, effectively giving the network a second access point to connect to. This allows users to 50% of the radio signal,
overcome obstacles that normally would block radio signals and to enhance the signal quality. since the extender must
receive then re-transmit
Extenders typically increase the range of a wireless network by 20 metres (depending on the each packet using the
physical layout and construction materials of the home or office), allowing users to roam same radio signal on the
anywhere in the home or office and remain connected to the internet. same channel as the router.
The location of the extender is critical – too close to the wireless source can cause interference An alternative to using a
wireless extender is to
while too far from the source there may not be enough signal to enhance. increase the network’s
range by using Ethernet-
over-power (EOP).
Investigate the advantages
and disadvantages of EOP
over wireless extenders.

NETGEAR

FIGURE 3.15 A wireless extender, such as the 5GHz NETGEAR WN2500RP, increases the
coverage of a wireless network to all parts of the home. The extender also has four ports for
hard-wired devices such as a smart TV, Blu-ray player or game console.

Summary of wireless network technologies

Components used in wireless networks have strengths and limitations in terms of data transfer
rates, cost, security and reliability. Refer to Table 3.1.
Networks in homes and organisations often use hard-wired technologies to support the
wireless connectivity of end users. For example, Ethernet cables may be required to connect
a wireless access point to a router, or fibre-optic cable may be used to connect a broadband Wireless network security
options, including WPA2 and
router to the internet. Storage options in a wireless network can include a hard-wired or WPS, are discussed later in
wireless connection to a network-attached storage device (NAS), a file server or cloud storage. this chapter.
96 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

TABLE 3.1 A summary of the strengths and limitations of wireless communications technology;
the transfer rates and price data were current in 2015.

Device Cost Data transfer rate Security Reliability

estimate
Wireless $150 802.11ac standard, High provided • Throughput on the
broadband 867–1300 Mbps, • the router 5 GHz band can drop
router dual band identifier is kept quickly as the range
(2.4 GHz and 5 GHz secret increases.
Access point $120 frequencies). • encryption • In the early years of
Wi-fi $140 is used for 5 GHz connectivity,
extender broadcasts there is little
(WPA2) congestion.
Wireless $ 80 • Wi-fi Protection • The 2.4 GHz band
adaptor Setup (WPS) is can be affected by
used to attach interference from
devices to the household devices
wireless network such as automatic
garage doors, or from
other nearby networks
operating on the
same band.

Communications software
Communications software is an application or program designed to pass or support the
movement of information over a network. Some communications devices are pre-programmed
to accomplish communications tasks; others require a separate communications software
program to ensure proper data transmission. Communications software consists of programs
that help you establish a connection to another computer or network and manage the
transmission of data, instructions and information. For two computers to communicate, they
THINK ABOUT
must have compatible communications software.
COMPUTING 3.5
Check out the software Network operating system
installed on the network in
your school. Find out from A server operating on a client–server network requires operating system and application
the network manager how software that differs from those of a desktop or portable computer. A server is able to share data
many users are covered with multiple users in a secure environment and reduce bottlenecks. A server often is assigned
by a site licence for one
of the software packages. a particular role in a network, with associated software to facilitate that task. A server can be
Compare the cost of the set up to provide email services, internet connectivity, file backup functionality and to manage
site licence with that of print requirements.
the equivalent number of
A server uses specialised software to support its function. For example, an email server may
single-user versions (check
the price of a single-user use Windows Mail Server Software. A print server is responsible for sending jobs from multiple
version, such as in the clients to a printer in the right order and at the right time. Appropriate software is needed to
newspaper or online). What manage these tasks.
is the cost saving for the
A network operating system (also called a network OS or NOS) is the system software that
school by purchasing the
network version over the organises, controls and coordinates the activities on a local area network. A NOS controls the
single-user version? What attached computer systems, any peripherals and the communication between them. Some of
disadvantage is there in the tasks performed by a NOS include:
purchasing site licence
• administration – adding, deleting and organising users and performing maintenance tasks,
software compared with
single-user packages? such as backup
• file management – locating and transferring files
9780170364744 Chapter 3 Networks 97

• device management – coordinating print jobs and reports sent to specific printers on the
network, ensuring resources are used correctly and efficiently
• security – monitoring and, when necessary, restricting access to network resources.

Network analysis tools

Network administrators use a variety of software packages designed to monitor devices on a
network, check the use of different protocols, identify which ports have been accessed on a
web server, view event logs and analyse network traffic (Figure 3.16). A network analysis tool,
or network utility, is software designed to analyse and configure various aspects of computer
networks.

FIGURE 3.16 Analysis of network traffic using Wireshark analysis software.

98 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

TABLE 3.2 Popular analysis tools

Angry IP Scanner Scans a network’s open and closed ports. For each IP address found it
identifies the hostname, computer name, group name, username and MAC
address.
Wireshark Network protocol analyser and packet sniffer that allows administrators to
see what is happening on their network. Used for network troubleshooting
and analysis.
Snort A network intrusion prevention system capable of real-time traffic analysis
and packet logging.
NetStumbler Allows administrators to identify locations that suffer from a weak signal
within a WLAN, detect issues of wireless interference and rogue access
points. Within a business, it can be used to identify unauthorised wireless
LANs that provide access to outside users and thus run the risk of imminent
infiltration.
Cain and Abel Decrypts or recovers lost or forgotten passwords.

Internet services
A significant reason why individuals and organisations purchase computers is to access the
internet. The internet is a worldwide collection of networks that links millions of businesses,
educational institutions, government departments and individuals. A number of services
are available through the internet, with different types of software to support them. Internet
service software includes web browsers, email, Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) software
and cloud storage.

Web browsers
A web browser is an application software package that allows users to access and view
webpages. Popular browsers include Internet Explorer, Chrome, Firefox and Safari. When the
URL (Uniform Resource Locator) of a site has been entered into the address bar of a browser
(Figure 3.17), a webpage from that site is downloaded. The web address consists of a protocol,
the domain name, the path to a specific page and the name of the page to be downloaded. A
domain name server (DNS) identifies the requested site and ensures that data and information
are routed to the correct computer.
Search engines such as Google and Yahoo are helpful in locating webpages that contain
information of interest. Many search engines maintain a list of words found on the internet. The
search engine scans the list for words that have been entered in the search request. The sequence
of the list displayed prioritises sites where the search text appears in the page title or descriptor.

Hypertext transfer protocol

Hypertext transfer protocol, better known as http, is a set of rules that defines how pages are
When the https protocol
is used in an address the transferred on the internet. Many browsers and websites do not require the user to enter the
computer uses a different ‘http://’ and ‘www’ portions of the address.
TCP port (443) to standard
http transfers (TCP port
80). Https uses a protocol Hypertext transfer protocol secured
called Transport Layer Hypertext transfer protocol secured, or https, is a communications protocol for secure
Security (TLS) to transport transmissions over the internet. The https system provides authentication and encryption
data safely over the Internet.
The predecessor to TLS communication and is widely used for security-sensitive processing, such as payment
was called Secure Socket transactions and connections to banks. When a secure connection is made, ‘https://’ is displayed
Layer (SSL).
at the start of the URL and a lock symbol appears in the browser window (see Figure 3.18).
9780170364744 Chapter 3 Networks 99

Protocol Domain name Path Resource name

http://www.vcaa.vic.edu.au/Pages/vce/index.aspx

FIGURE 3.17 A URL contains a protocol, domain name, path and resource name

FIGURE 3.18 A secure connection is indicated by ‘https://’ appearing in the URL and the lock symbol, in this case to the left
of the address bar.

Email
Email is the transmission of messages and files via a computer network. Email can be sent over
the internet or within a LAN. Email software is used to create, send, read, forward, reply and
print emails. A client-server network will have a mail server established to handle the receipt
and delivery of mail to and from the LAN over the internet.

File transfer protocol

File transfer protocol (FTP) is an internet standard that allows computers to upload and
download files. Uploading is the process of transferring a document, graphic or video from the
user’s computer to a server on the internet. When someone creates a webpage they need to
upload it and associated resources to their ISP’s web server using FTP. Files can be downloaded
from an internet server to a user’s computer also using FTP.
100 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP)

Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) allows users to speak to other users over the internet. Users
A list of Australian need a high-speed internet connection (broadband cable, NBN cable or ADSL 2+), a microphone
VoIP providers together
or alternative audio input device such as existing phones, VoIP adaptor and subscription to a
with plan prices and
call rates can be found VoIP provider. A VoIP app needs to be installed on a mobile device such as a smartphone.
at VoIP Choice. If calls are mostly within Australia, then a local provider will make billing easier and likely
will provide better quality service. If international calls are important, then an overseas provider
may offer the best value. There is no reason why users need to limit themselves to just one
provider. A local provider for calls within Australia and an overseas provider for international
destinations may prove to be the best strategy.
International VoIP providers can allocate users an indial number for use in many countries.
This is particularly useful in situations where contacts do not have internet access, such as in
some developing countries. An indial number is allocated to the city of the user’s choice so that
overseas friends and family can call that local indial number to connect with the user. The call
is treated as a local call, which saves money.

Cloud storage
Cloud storage refers to saving data to an off-site storage system maintained by a third party.
Data is saved to a remote database using the internet rather than on a computer’s hard drive (see
Figure 3.19). The advantages of cloud storage are that data can be accessed from any location in
THINK ABOUT the world that has internet access and there is no need to carry a storage device or use the same
COMPUTING 3.6
What are some potential computer to access data that was used to create it. Cloud storage encourages collaborative
drawbacks of cloud storage? work practices since members of a project team can be given read and write access rights to
the data held in the cloud.

FIGURE 3.19 Dropbox is a file-hosting service that allows users

to store and share files over the Internet.
9780170364744 Chapter 3 Networks 101

Network communications standards The IEEE is a leading

authority in technical
Today’s networks connect terminals, devices and computers from many different manufacturers areas, ranging from
across many types of networks. These include wide area and local area networks, which use computer engineering,
biomedical technology and
both wireless and wired communication channels. For the different devices on several types telecommunications, to
of networks to be able to communicate, the networks must use similar techniques for moving electric power, aerospace
engineering and consumer
data from one application to another. electronics. The American
To avoid problems associated with incompatibility between hardware and software National Standards
components, organisations such as the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) Institute (ANSI) is another
organisation that has
develop network standards. A network standard defines guidelines that specify the way developed globally accepted
computers access the medium to which they are attached, the type of medium used, the speed network standards.
at which data flows and the physical technology used. A standard that defines how two network
devices communicate is called a protocol. The manufacturers of hardware and software must
design their products in accordance with the appropriate standard to ensure that their devices
can communicate with the network.
Standards are important in the computer industry because they allow the combination of
products from different manufacturers to create a customised system. Without standards, only
hardware and software from the same company could be used together. In addition, standard
user interfaces make it much easier to learn how to use new applications.
As data flows through a network from one application to another, it may use one or more
standards. Some of the widely used network communications standards and protocols for use
in both wired and wireless networks are Ethernet and TCP/IP.

Ethernet
Ethernet is a popular network standard that allows personal computers to contend for access
to the network.
Ethernet is a popular LAN standard because it is relatively inexpensive and easy to install
and maintain. Ethernet networks use cables to transmit data.
The speed at which data is transmitted is usually expressed as bits per second (bps). The
original Ethernet standard is not very fast by today’s standards – standard Ethernet transfer rate
is 10 Mbps. A second Ethernet standard, called Fast Ethernet, transmits data and information
at speeds of 100 Mbps, up to 10 times faster than the original standard. Gigabit Ethernet is now
in use in many graphic-design studios, and provides an even higher speed of transmission, with
speeds up to 10 times faster than Fast Ethernet.
Fast Ethernet uses the same twisted pair cabling as standard Ethernet with upgraded
Twisted pair cabling is
switches and adapters. Signals with Fast Ethernet travel up to 100 Mbps. Gigabit Ethernet discussed on page 110.
(1 Gbps or higher) requires cables capable of handling this faster speed (see Figure 3.32).
When a workstation on an Ethernet network wishes to transmit, it checks the network to see
if it is not busy and then broadcasts a packet. A switch ensures that if the packet is addressed to
workstation #15, only workstation #15 will read it. If two workstations simultaneously check the
network, find it is not busy and send packets at the same time, a collision occurs. When a collision
occurs, a special signal travels over the network to indicate that it is ‘jammed’. The workstations
that sent the messages wait a random amount of time before resending their packets.
An analogy for a network protocol would be to consider a computer on a network as a
person. The language that person speaks is the network protocol. Only two people who speak the
same language can communicate with each other. Similarly, only computers that have the same
network protocol can communicate on the network. Just as some people are able to speak several
languages, computers on a network may have several different protocols installed and running.
102 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

TCP/IP
TCP/IP (transmission control protocol/internet protocol) is a network standard that manages
the transmission of data by breaking it up into packets and transmitting the packets over the
internet. An important part of the IP protocol is the IP address. The IP addressing standard –
four numbers between 0 and 255 separated by full stops – defines a mechanism to provide a
unique address for each computer on the network.
A typical TCP/IP packet contains less data than other network protocols. On a WAN, such as
the internet, the smaller size allows the packets to travel in multiple paths to the destination. On
a LAN there is often only one viable path to the destination, so larger packets are more sensible
(less space is allocated to addresses and communications information). Nevertheless, most
LANs are now running the TCP/IP protocol because intranets require files to be communicated
in this medium.
When a computer sends data over a network, the data is divided into packets. Each packet
contains the data, the recipient (destination) information, the sender (origin) information,
and the sequence information used to reassemble the data at the destination (Figure 3.20).
These packets travel along the fastest available path, avoiding congestion and broken links to
the recipient’s computer via routers (routers were discussed on page 90). This technique of
breaking a message into individual packets, sending the packets along the best route available,
and then reassembling the data is called packet switching.

TCP/IP Network model encapsulation

Application User data

Transport TCP header User data

Internet TCP header User data

Network interface Ethernet header IP header TCP header User data Ethernet trailer

FIGURE 3.20 TCP/IP Network model encapsulation. At each network layer another
piece is added to the data packet. The Ethernet frame at the network interface level,
consists of a header containing the destination and source address, the middle
section, which includes the data and headers for IP and TCP protocols, and a final
section that checks for correct transmission.

Some blocks of IP addresses are set aside for internal private use by computers not directly
connected to the internet. They are used by business or home networks that need to use TCP/
IP but do not want to be directly visible on the internet. The block 10.0.0.0 to 10.255.255.255 is
commonly used by school networks and other large organisations with many nodes. Home
networks often use the block 192.168.0.0 to 192.168.255.255 to assign addresses to connected
devices while IP addresses from 172.16.0.0 to 172.31.255.255 are also for private use. Home
network routers often have 192.168.0.1 as their default IP address.
9780170364744 Chapter 3 Networks 103

ISSUE Are we running out of IP addresses?

Currently you should not have any trouble connecting your computer to the internet using the Internet
Protocol (IP). The version of IP address in common use for many years was Internet Protocol Version 4
(IPv4). An IPv4 address has four groups of numbers that range from 0 to 256 separated by a decimal
point (the system is called a dotted decimal number). Each group of numbers is called an octet. The
first octet identifies the network on which a computer resides, and the remaining three octets together
identify the specific computer or host within that network. The four octets in an IPv4 address allows
2 to the power of 32, or a little over 4 trillion (4 × 109), unique values. Some of these are reserved for
special use, leaving more than 3 trillion available addresses.
Three trillion addresses may sound like a lot; however, because so many computers and other
devices connected to the internet need a unique address, there is a shortage of IP addresses. To
overcome this shortage, a new version of IP addressing was developed. Internet Protocol Version 6
(IPv6) lengthens IP addresses from 32 bits (the octet size) to 128 bits, and increase the available IP
addresses to 340 × 1038.
IPv6 uses eight hexadecimal strings to specify the address. The problem is that adopting the new
IP version requires organisations to reconfigure their networks and possibly update their switches to A tablet connected to the
accommodate the new standard. Internet on a home wi-fi
network can use IPv4. If
Home networks and smaller corporate networks do not have enough devices attached to warrant the tablet is used on a
the implementation of IPv6. For the time being, home networks will remain within the 192.168.0.0 to 4G mobile network it will
192.168.255.255 private address block provided by IPv4. need IPv6.

The 802.11 standard

The 802.11 standard was developed to specify how two wireless computers or devices THINK ABOUT
communicate with each other via radio waves. This standard uses techniques similar to COMPUTING 3.7
those of the Ethernet standard and is therefore easy to integrate into existing wired Ethernet The new IPv6 standard is
needed because we are
networks. The range of wireless communications is up to 300 metres in open areas outside, about to run out of IPv4
and about 50 metres inside buildings. Wireless networks are popular in locations where there addresses. Do you think
is no existing wired system, or where the construction of the building makes it difficult to add all organisations should
be forced to adopt the
a wired network. For example, it can be difficult to place wires inside the brick or solid plaster
IPv6 standard to increase
walls that are common in older buildings. the number of addresses
The term wi-fi (wireless fidelity) identifies any network based on the 802.11 series of available? Do you think the
standards. demand for IP addresses
will increase over the next
The older 802.11b and 802.11g standards use frequencies in the 2.4 GHz band and employ few years in the same way
direct sequence spread spectrum technology to avoid interference from microwave ovens, that it has over the last
Bluetooth devices and cordless phones. The 802.11n standard uses 2.4 GHz and/or the 5 GHz 10 years, or will there be an
band. The higher frequency allows the signal to carry more data. The 802.11n standard transmits escalation? If an escalation
were to occur, what might
data at up to 150 Mbps. The newest standard, 802.11ac, operates in the 5 GHz band with data be the trigger?
transmission of 1300 Mbps.
104 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

The 5 GHz band is not populated by many devices, hence it tends to be quieter, meaning
there is less interference from neighbourhood networks or other devices. The 802.11ac standard
also makes use of beamforming, which means it detects where devices are and intensifies the
signal in their direction, rather than using the scattergun approach of earlier standards. The
result is the 802.11ac standard allows fibre optic broadband speeds throughout a house, with
multiple streams of full high-definition content.

Sending and receiving devices

Sending and receiving devices initiate or accept the transmission of data, instructions
and information. Notebook computers, desktop computers, tablets, midrange servers and
mainframe computers can all serve as sending and receiving devices. These computers can
communicate directly with another computer, with hundreds of computers on a company
network or with millions of other computers on the internet.
Web-enabled hand-held computers and devices also serve as sending and receiving devices.
A web-enabled device provides access to the internet and email from any location. Examples
are smartphones and GPS receivers.
Earlier in this chapter we noted that communication over a global network requires:
• a sending device, such as a computer
• a communications device attached to the sending device, such as a cable modem
• a communications channel – either cable, radio, microwave or satellite
• a communications device at the receiving end
• a receiving device that accepts the data or information.

Mobile devices connected

to networks
Mobile devices are usually small enough to fit in a pocket. These devices store programs
and data permanently on special memory inside the system unit or on a flash memory card.
They can usually be connected to personal computers to exchange information or to install
applications.
Most mobile devices can be connected wirelessly to the internet. This allows users to chat,
send messages, email and access websites. Internet-enabled mobile devices in common use
include smartphones, hand-held computers, navigation systems, games consoles and digital
cameras. A convergence of technologies has resulted in some devices including functions and
features from two or more different types of devices, while other devices like personal digital
assistants (PDAs) have become redundant.

Tablets
A tablet is a special type of notebook or laptop computer that resembles a letter-sized slate,
which allows a user to write on the screen using a digital pen. Tablets are able to connect to
wi-fi networks to gain access to the internet and other network resources. Tablets are designed
to be held rather than sat on a desk or in the user’s lap. Tablet computers have a number of
capabilities and some limitations.
9780170364744 Chapter 3 Networks 105

TABLE 3.3 Capabilities and limitations of tablet computers

Capabilities of tablets Limitations of tablets

Allows users to: • No physical keyboard
• surf the internet • Difficult to print from
• send and receive emails • Applications are limited to running
• operate a calendar of events on iOS, Android or Windows devices.
• play music Some Windows-based software used
• take pictures by businesses is not available on either
platform
• store images
• use GPS to identify location
• run apps.

Shutterstock.com/Zeynep Demir
Smartphones
Besides acting as a phone for voice-based communications, a smartphone allows users to send
emails and access the web (Figure 3.21). For many businesspeople, smartphones are replacing
notebook computers, especially if their work involves frequent travel. A smartphone and its
charger weigh about 200 grams, compared with a laptop computer and its related accessories
that weigh 2–3 kilograms.
Smartphones communicate wirelessly with other devices or computers. They also function FIGURE 3.21 The
as a portable media player and a digital camera. Smartphones have a number of capabilities Samsung Galaxy S6
and some limitations. is a web-enabled
smartphone.
TABLE 3.4 Capabilities and limitations of smartphones
Capabilities of smartphones Limitations of smartphones
Allows users to: • Screens are smaller than a desktop or
• make and receive phone calls tablet, so only a few lines of a document can
• surf the internet be displayed
• send and receive emails • Many webpages are not designed for a small
• operate a calendar of events screen
THINK ABOUT
• play music • The keyboard is usually a touch screen COMPUTING 3.8
and smaller than a standard keyboard, so Describe how the
• take pictures
correct data entry can be difficult limitations of smartphones
• store images
• Difficult to print from may in part be overcome
• use GPS to identify location
or addressed.
• run apps.

Most smartphones can connect directly to Bluetooth-enabled devices, such as keyboards

Australia’s digital economy
and printers. Bluetooth connections are discussed later in this chapter. grew strongly during
Mini-applications software, also called apps, are a significant component of smartphones. 2012–13 with increases
in internet usage and
Smartphones come pre-loaded with apps for social networking, photography, travel and more.
mobile phone access to
Additional apps can be downloaded from Apple’s App Store (for iPhone clients), Google’s Play the internet, according to
Store (for Android devices) or the Microsoft Store (for Windows phones). the ACMA Communications
report tabled in Parliament.
The increasing popularity of internet-connected mobile applications among businesspeople, The report stated that
teenagers and students is producing a strain on carrier networks. Applications on portable 7.5 million Australians were
accessing the internet via
devices that require continuous connection to a website can place a huge load on wireless
their mobile phones during
networks. As these devices become more popular, the traffic on networks is only going to June 2013, an increase
increase, putting further pressure on the ability of carriers to cope. of 33 per cent compared
to June 2012. There were
11.19 million smartphone
users in Australia in
May 2013.
 106 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

Handheld data-collection
devices
Shutterstock.com/Voznikevich Konstantin

As the name implies, a hand-held data collection device

is small enough to fit into your hand. Hand-held devices
communicate wirelessly with other computers and devices,
and many have miniature or specialised keyboards. Some
Getty Images/Arno Masse

hand-held devices use a stylus for data entry, including

recording a client signature to acknowledge receipt of goods.
Hand-held computers (Figure 3.22) are often used by
people who need to record information as they travel; for
example, electricity and water meter readers, scientists
FIGURE 3.22 A handheld data-collection device is used for collecting natural resource data in the field and couriers who
high-volume data collection, and features a touch screen, deliver parcels. Table 3.5 lists the capabilities and limitations
keyboard and number pad. of hand-held data collection devices.

TABLE 3.5 Capabilities and limitations of hand-held data collection devices

There is concern that
drivers relying on GPS Capabilities of handheld devices Limitations of handheld devices
are performing illegal
or dangerous acts. For • Designed to operate outdoors in variable • Screens are smaller than a desktop or tablet,
example, the rural village weather conditions so only a few lines of a document can be
of Wedmore, in England, • Shockproof displayed.
has seen its share of truck • The keyboard is smaller than a standard
• High visibility screens even in sunlight
drivers wedged between keyboard, so correct data entry can be
buildings because they • Runs apps of spreadsheets, word-processors,
presentation software, calendar and email difficult.
blindly followed the route
their GPS planned out – • Allows users to reach a specified location • Text written with a stylus may not be easy to
regardless of the fact that using GPS read.
trucks are prohibited from • Allows the collection, storage and
the village because of their
management of large amounts of data
size. There have also been
cases in which GPS units • Data collection can be tagged to location
have directed drivers onto using GPS coordinates
train tracks or the wrong • Data can be transferred to larger computers
way down a one-way street. or networks using Bluetooth or wi-fi

Navigation systems
The global positioning system (GPS) is a navigation system made up of
a group of at least twenty-four satellites that communicate with a fixed or
portable device mounted in, for example, a car. The GPS navigation device
Shutterstock.com/3d brained

is able to pinpoint the car’s location to within 15 metres (see Figure 3.23).
It receives three-dimensional data – latitude, longitude and altitude – as
well as precise time. The car’s position is then overlaid with digital mapping,
and navigation information is stored within the GPS receiver. From this the
device is able to give the driver directions, suggest a route around congested
traffic or locate a petrol station. The text-to-speech function allows the GPS
FIGURE 3.23 The GPS navigation device device to read street addresses rather than simply provide left and right turn
receives three-dimensional data from directions. This allows drivers to keep their eyes on the road.
a satellite network, which enables the
receiver to pinpoint the car’s location and Smartphones have GPS technology built in to them. Parents can locate a
give travel directions to the driver. child’s whereabouts through a smartphone with a GPS receiver (Figure 3.24).
9780170364744 Chapter 3 Networks 107

National Triple Zero Awareness Work Group ©

Getty Images/Patrick T. Fallon/Bloomberg

Fire Rescue New South Wales

FIGURE 3.24 Life360 is an app for a smartphone that allows parents to set up a circle FIGURE 3.25 Emergency +
of family members and follow their movements on a map, communicate with them, and is an app developed by the
receive alerts when members arrive at home, school or work. NSW Fire Rescue Service.

TABLE 3.6 Capabilities and limitations of GPS devices The NSW Fire Rescue
Service has released an
Capabilities of GPS devices Limitations of GPS devices app for mobile phones (see
Figure 3.25) that uses a
• Receives latitude, longitude and altitude • Accuracy may be variable due to smartphone’s GPS function
data from satellites triangulation issues and atmospheric to locate exactly where
• Plots accurate location on a map conditions a person is. Users in an
• Can be used to plan a route • GPS receivers are accurate to within emergency can provide
15 metres on average, though some systems the 000 operator with their
• Provides audio directions
might improve accuracy to 3 metres precise location – either the
• Can provide traffic information and speed address or map coordinates.
limit alerts • Devices do not connect to satellites in thick
• Locate places of interest such as petrol tree covering or in a gorge
• The device may provide a direct route rather THINK ABOUT
stations
than the safest route COMPUTING 3.9
Suna is an automated
traffic congestion
notification system used by
Wearable technology VicRoads. Investigate what
information is provided by
AFL coaches are keen to know how fast a player runs, track exactly where they go and collect the system and how the
data on the movements of groups of players, such as defenders or the on-ballers. Players wear data is collected.
a wireless position locating system (Figure 3.26) developed by CSIRO in a pouch on their backs.
These devices use wireless signals and hence work in areas that GPS satellites do not reach,
such as in Etihad Stadium when the roof is closed.
Wireless
This is a wireless ad-hoc system for positioning (WASP) technology and it monitors locator
player movements on the field. The device is called ClearSky and is used by international Getty Images/Adam Trafford/AFL Media

sports associations, including the US National Football League (NFL). Rather than
using satellites, the WASP system uses fixed reference nodes usually located inside the
stadium. The mobile device measures the time it takes signals to travel to each of the
fixed nodes and uses triangulation to work out the player’s position. The WASP system
has accuracy down to 20 cm (compared to 3 metres for GPS systems).
A combination of heart rate measurements and position tracking allows clubs to
monitor player fatigue and improve training.
Wearable technology falls into three broad areas – notifiers, trackers and
glasses. The notifiers are devices that show off the world around you. Pebble Steel is
a smartwatch that can load iPhone and Android apps. Trackers use sensors to record FIGURE 3.26 AFL players wear
data and include cameras, audio recorders, fitness-tracking devices (see Figure 3.27) a wireless position locator
on their backs so that their
and pedometers. Glasses include virtual displays worn on the head. The website www. movement around the ground
bluetooth.com/Pages/wearables.aspx describes some uses of wearable technology. can be analysed.
108 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

Shutterstock.com/BsWei
FIGURE 3.27 Wearable devices are being used to improve our daily lives, health care and safety;
such devices include fitness trackers, health care monitors, smartwatches, heads-up displays
and smart clothing.

TABLE 3.7 Capabilities and limitations of wearable technologies

Capabilities of wearable technologies Limitations of wearable technologies
• Body sensors that track • Some of the wearables can be uncomfortable
information relating to health and • Contacts can degrade if they get worn or dirty leading
fitness to incorrect readings or none at all
• Synchronise with the user’s • Power requirements require regular replacement of
smartphone using Bluetooth batteries (if not rechargeable)
• Smart watches run apps and • Static electricity (from sports uniform) and electric
identify incoming calls on fields from other devices can cause erroneous results
smartphones • Most wearables lack a screen so immediate feedback
from a tracking app is not possible
• Some wearables are limited to connection with a
particular smartphone
• Devices may have limits to the number of apps they
can hold at a time
• Portability and size means the devices can be lost or
misplaced

Games consoles
A game console is a computing device designed for single-player and multi-player video
games. A standard game console uses a handheld controller for input, a television screen for
output and a hard disk or memory disk for storage. Popular models include Microsoft’s Xbox
One, Sony’s PlayStation 4 and Nintendo’s Wii U.
A smaller handheld game console fits in the users hands and includes the controls, screen
and speakers in the one portable device (Figure 3.28).
Getty Images/Kiyoshi Ota/Bloomberg

The first home video game

was called Magnavox
Odyssey and was released
in 1972. The console lacked
a CPU so cartridges were
used for each separate
game – tennis, volleyball
and chase. The home game
industry struggled until the
Atari game Pong became
popular in the early 1970s. FIGURE 3.28 A portable game console MP5 player
9780170364744 Chapter 3 Networks 109

TABLE 3.8 Capabilities and limitations of game consoles

Capabilities of game consoles Limitations of game consoles
• Play games using Blu-ray disks or digital • Tend not to be upgradeable – technological
downloads advances require a new model
• Wi-fi connection to internet • Old consoles do not play media designed for
• Upload saved data to a cloud server a newer model
• 3D graphics • The manufacturer’s monopoly over a
• Stream videos from an online source particular console market forces developers
• Stream gameplay to an online service, such to certify games for that platform. This in
as Ustream turn can force limits on the functionality that
can be built into games.
• Record videos and images for posting online
• Social connectivity – voice chat with online
players or group chat with friends

Network-attached storage
device
A network-attached storage (NAS) device acts as a One terabyte (1 TB) is the

Shutterstock.com/ShaunWilkinson
same as one thousand
centralised repository for data. NAS devices (Figure 3.29) gigabytes (1000 GB) or
share files across a network. In a home environment, the one million megabytes
files are often videos, photos or audio files. Most NAS (1 000 000 MB).
devices can be used as a multimedia server which can
share and stream multimedia files to network clients
such as computers, tablets, game consoles and phones.
A NAS used on a home network is likely to have storage
capacity of about 16TB. Most NAS devices require a FIGURE 3.29 A network-attached
cable connection to a switch that has Gigabit Ethernet storage (NAS) device
connectivity.

Communications channel
An important aspect of communications is the channel, which is the communications path
between two devices. Bandwidth is the width of the communications channel. The higher the
bandwidth, the more data and information the channel can transmit.
For transmission of text-based documents, a lower bandwidth delivers acceptable
performance. If you transmit music, graphics and photographs, or work with virtual-reality or
3-D games, you need a higher bandwidth. When the bandwidth is too low for the application,
you will notice a considerable slowdown in system performance. For example, movies may
‘stutter’ or pause while buffering more data.
A communications channel consists of one or more transmission media. When you send
data from your computer to another device, the signal carrying that data most likely travels
over a variety of transmission media.
Transmission media are either physical or wireless. Physical transmission media use wire,
cable or fibre-optics to send communications signals. Wireless transmission media send
communications signals through the air or space using radio, microwave and infra-red signals.
110 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

Physical transmission media

Physical transmission media used in communications include twisted-pair cables and fibre-
optic cables. These are typically used within buildings or underground. Ethernet LANs often
use physical transmission media. Many wireless LANs rely on physical cables to transmit data
between a switch or router and a wi-fi device such as a wireless access point. Table 3.9 lists the
transfer rates of LANs using various physical transmission media.

TABLE 3.9 The speeds of various physical transmission media when they are used in LANs
Type of cable Transfer rates
Twisted-pair cable
10Base-T (Ethernet) 10 Mbps
100Base-TX (Fast Ethernet) 100 Mbps
1000Base-T (Gigabit Ethernet) 1 Gbps

Fibre-optic cable
10Base-FL (Ethernet) 10 Mbps
100Base-FX (Fast Ethernet) 100 Mbps
Gigabit Ethernet 1 Gbps
10-Gigabit Ethernet 10 Gbps

Noise in a cable can be Twisted-pair cables

caused by cross-talk One of the more commonly used transmission media for network cabling and telephone
(electric currents between systems is the twisted-pair cable. This cable contains one or more twisted-pair wires bundled
pairs of wires in the same
cable) and outside electrical together (see Figure 3.30). Each twisted-pair wire consists of two separate insulated copper
fields, such as power wires that are twisted together. The wires are twisted together to reduce noise. Noise is an
lines, motors and radio
transmitters. The greater electrical disturbance that can degrade communications.
the cable’s ability to resist
internal and external noise,
the longer the cable that Twisted-pair
can be used to connect cable
workstations and resources.

Twisted-pair
wire
Shutterstock.com/Galushko Sergey

Twisted-pair
cable

FIGURE 3.30 A twisted-pair cable consists of one or more twisted-pair wires; each twisted pair
wire is usually colour-coded for identification. Telephone networks and LANs often use twisted-
pair cables.
9780170364744 Chapter 3 Networks 111

Fibre-optic cable
The core of a fibre-optic cable consists of dozens or hundreds of thin strands of glass or plastic
that use light to transmit signals. Each strand, called an optical fibre, is as thin as a human hair.
Inside the fibre-optic cable, an insulating glass cladding and a protective coating surround each
optical fibre (Figure 3.31).

Protective
coating

Shutterstock.com/cigdem
Fibre-optic cable between floors of a building
Outer covering
jacket

FIGURE 3.31 A fibre-optic cable consists of hair-thin strands of glass or plastic that carry data as
pulses of light.

Fibre-optic cables have several advantages over twisted-pair cables. These advantages
include:
• the ability to carry significantly more signals than wire cables
• faster data transmission
• less susceptibility to noise (interference) from other devices, such as a copy machine
• better security for signals during transmission as they are less susceptible to noise
• their smaller size (much thinner and lighter).
The material used for fibre-optic cable has optical properties that cause light in the cable
to totally internally reflect from the outer surface. This allows all the light to progress down
the cable rather than escape to the surrounding air. As fibre-optic cables use pulses of light,
they have total immunity from electrical noise. Signals can therefore be sent over much larger
distances than with twisted-pair cables.
The disadvantages of fibre-optic cable are that it costs much more than twisted-pair and it
can be difficult to install and modify. Despite these limitations, many local and long-distance
telephone companies and cable television operators are replacing existing telephone and
coaxial cables with fibre-optic cables. Many businesses are also using fibre-optic cables in high-
traffic networks or as the main cable in a network.

National Broadband Network (NBN)

The National Broadband Network (NBN) is designed to provide infrastructure for affordable
and reliable high speed internet and telephone access to all Australians. The nature and size of At a connection speed
Australia means that a variety of technologies are required to deliver the NBN. The original NBN of 25 Mbps the NBN will
have a similar maximum
proposal was for communications of 100 Mbps, with fibre-optic cable connecting the internet speed to ADSL 2+
directly to homes. The scheme has been modified with a change of government, so that the plan connections (24 Mbps).
112 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

AAP Image/NBNCO
View the progress of the
NBN rollout at the NBN FIGURE 3.32 The roll-out of the NBN
website.
is for fibre-optic cable to reach a node in the street (called the ‘street cabinet’) from where it will
THINK ABOUT be split and hybrid cables or existing copper telephone networks used to carry signals to homes
COMPUTING 3.10 and businesses. The revised specifications indicate connection speeds of about 25 Mbps. The
Some future speculators
government argues that this is more than adequate for domestic connections. The estimate
believe that by 2023
households will have more for the revised NBN network is A$29.5 billion (the original estimate was A$37.4 billion) with a
than 100 devices connected completion date of 2019 (Figure 3.32).
to the internet. Devices such Households where it is impractical to use fibre cable will connect to the NBN via fixed
as lights, air conditioners,
heating systems, door locks,
wireless and satellite technologies. It is estimated that up to 10 per cent of homes will need
irrigation systems, motion wireless or satellite connections.
detectors, smoke detectors,
home entertainment
systems and connections
that monitor family Wireless transmission media
members, pets and vehicles
Wireless transmission media are used when it is inconvenient, impractical or impossible to
all will require bandwidth.
Online video chatting will install cables. With the faster speeds afforded by the 802.11ac standard, wireless connections
become common practice are on a par with wired networks. Wireless transmission media used in communications
and requires fast download include broadcast radio, cellular radio, microwaves, communications satellites and infra-red.
and upload speeds. Do you
think that 25 Mbps provide TABLE 3.10 Transfer rates of various wireless transmission media
adequate bandwidth in five
to 10 years’ time? What Transmission medium Transfer rates (maximum)
devices do you expect to be
Bluetooth 1–2 Mbps
connected in your home in
10 years’ time? HomeRF 1.6–10 Mbps
802.11a 54 Mbps
802.11b 11 Mbps
802.11g 54 Mbps
802.11n 108–600 Mbps
802.11ac 867–1300 Mbps

Cellular radio
2G 9.6–19.2 Kbps
3G 200 Kbps–2 Mbps
4G 2–12Mbps

Microwave radio 150 Mbps

Communications satellite 1 Gbps

Infra-red 115 Kbps–4 Mbps

9780170364744 Chapter 3 Networks 113

An 802.11ac wireless router operates on the 5 GHz bandwidth but can still run on the
2.4 GHz network simultaneously. Some vendors may quote a wireless 802.11ac router as a single
speed device operating at 1.75 Gbps. This figure is an amalgamation of the 5 GHz and 2.4 GHz
capabilities of the router. That is, it is the addition of 1.3 Gbps from the 5 GHz connection with
450 Mbps from the 2.4 GHz network.

Wi-fi communications
For wi-fi communication transmissions, you need a transmitter to send the radio signal and Bluetooth gets its name
a receiver to accept it. To receive the signal, the receiver has an antenna that is located in the from a legendary Viking king
(one of the main developers
range of the signal. Some networks use a transceiver, which both sends and receives signals was the Norwegian
from wireless devices. Wi-fi communication is slower and more susceptible to noise than communications company
Ericsson). One advantage
physical transmission media, but it provides flexibility and portability. of Bluetooth is that it can
Wireless computer network components typically use radio signals in either a 2.4 GHz range be used to set up a network
or a 5 GHz range. A 5 GHz network can carry more data than a 2.4 GHz network; however, the on the spur of the moment.
A group at a meeting can
higher the frequency of a radio signal, the shorter its range. So a 2.4 GHz network covers a all network their computers
much larger range than a 5 GHz network. The higher frequency is not as good at penetrating to share files, access data
from mobile telephones,
solid obstacles such as walls. On the other hand, there are a number of household devices, such and send documents to
as cordless phones, that operate on the 2.4 GHz band that could interfere with the broadcast printers and fax machines,
transmissions. The 5 GHz band does not compete with other common household devices. all without cables or
additional network interface
A number of components now come with dual band capacity to get the best of both worlds. cards. Of course, all of the
devices must be Bluetooth-
Bluetooth enabled. Data transmission
using Bluetooth is fairly
Bluetooth uses short-range radio waves to transmit data among Bluetooth-enabled devices. slow compared with other
wireless transmission
These devices contain a small chip that allows them to communicate with other Bluetooth- media.
enabled devices. Examples of these devices can include desktop personal computers,
notebook computers, hand-held computers, mobile telephones, fax machines and printers.
To communicate with one another, they must be within a specified range (about 10 metres,
but the range can be extended to 100 metres with additional equipment). A popular use of
Bluetooth is to enable hands-free chatting on mobile phones. Most cars are now sold with a
built in Bluetooth station that the user can synchronise with their mobile phone. Bluetooth and
wi-fi communications technologies use radio signals.

Near field communication

AAP/AP Photo/Manu Fernandez

FIGURE 3.33 An example of a near field communication use

for short-range contactless communication.
 114 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

Near field communication (NFC) is a form of contactless communication between

devices like smartphones or tablets. A user is able to wave their smartphone over
a NFC compatible receiver to send information without needing to touch the
devices together or set up a formal connection. A customer can simply wave their
AAP Image/Julian Smith

smartphone near a NFC device to pay for goods purchased in stores or pay for a
parking meter (the parking meter can even send messages to the smartphone
indicating how much time is left).
An unpowered chip, called a tag, can be used with an NFC device, such as a
smartphone with NFC capability. The tag draws its power from the device that
FIGURE 3.34 The myki public reads it using electromagnetic induction. A smartphone can be paired with an
transportation ticketing system uses NFC tag which can be programmed by apps on the phone to automate tasks.
near field communication to read a
commuter’s details from their smart For example, tapping on a smart tag on a poster will transfer information from
card. an embedded chip in the poster onto the smartphone. So a user tapping a movie
advertising poster will receive comprehensive details about the film, such as session times,
biographies of leading actors, reviews and more, on their smartphone. Tapping on a menu in a
THINK ABOUT restaurant could load the menu into the phone with nutritional information and cooking notes.
COMPUTING 3.11 NFC tags are small and cheap to produce, so are suited for a range of uses involving mobile
Use the Internet to explore
creative ways in which
payments and creative marketing. More interesting uses will appear as people get more aware
people are using NFC tags. of the capabilities of NFC (Figure 3.33).
Pay-wave transactions and Victoria’s myki transportation system (Figure 3.34) are examples
of cards that use NFC technology. Waving the card near a card reader allows data to pass from
There are four types of
NFC tags. Type 1 tags store the card to the reader and hence the transaction is completed with little effort or time taken.
96 bytes and operate at
106 Kbps. The biggest and
fastest tag is Type 4 which Cellular radio
can store up to 32 KB A mobile phone is a telephone device that uses radio signals to transmit voice and digital data
and transmit at 424 Kbps.
Type 1 and 2 tags can be messages.
written to multiple times, Cellular radio is a form of broadcast radio that is used widely for mobile communications,
or can use encryption,
which permanently locks
specifically mobile phones (Figure 3.35). A smartphone can be used to communicate with other
them so the data cannot be
manipulated. Type 3 and
4 tags can be written to
once only.

Cell
Public switched
telephone network

Cell Cell

Base station
(microwave station)
Called party

Calling party in car

FIGURE 3.35 As a passenger in a car with a mobile telephone travels from one ‘cell’ to another,
the radio signals transfer from the base station (microwave station) in one cell to a base station in
another cell.
9780170364744 Chapter 3 Networks 115

phones, access the Web, send and receive email, enter a chat room or connect to an office or
school network while away from a standard telephone line, such as from a car or a park bench.
Several categories of cellular transmission exist.
• 1G ( first generation) – transmitted analog data only
• 2G (second generation) – transmitted digital data at speeds of 9.6–19.2 Kbps
• 3G (third generation) – transmitted digital data at speeds from 200 Kbps to 2 Mbps
• 4G ( fourth generation) – transmitted digital data at speeds from 2 Mbps to 12 Mbps

Microwaves
Microwaves are radio waves that provide a high-speed signal transmission. Microwave
Microwave transmissions
transmission involves sending signals from one microwave station to another (Figure 3.36). are often a viable alternative
to cabling where an
organisation has premises
on different sides of a major
road. The cost of digging a
tunnel under the road can
be expensive and repairs
are difficult if there is
a break.

Microwave stations

FIGURE 3.36 A microwave station is an Earth-based reflective dish that contains the antenna
and other equipment necessary for microwave communications; the dish collects the signals
and redirects them to the central collector.

Microwaves use line-of-sight transmission, which means that microwaves must transmit in a
straight line with no obstructions between microwave antennas. To avoid possible obstructions,
such as buildings or mountains, microwave stations often sit on the tops of buildings, towers
or mountains.
Electromagnetic radiation, such as light and radio waves, travels almost as fast through the
air as it does through a vacuum (about 300 000 km per second). This means that microwave
communication is significantly faster than fibre optic transmissions which send laser light pulses
A licenced microwave link
down glass strands. The glass slows the light beam by 30 to 40 per cent. Microwave transmission (operating at frequencies
is used in environments where installing physical transmission media is difficult or impossible, between 7 GHz and
42 GHz) would be used by
where the organisation occupies a large site and where line-of-sight transmission is available. organisations if the data
being transferred is ‘mission
Communications satellite critical’, the connection
is long distance or they
A communications satellite is a space station that receives microwave signals from an Earth- operate in a high density
area where interference
based station, amplifies (strengthens) the signals and broadcasts the signals back over a wide is a problem at the lower
area to any number of Earth-based stations (Figure 3.37). These Earth-based stations are often frequencies.
116 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

microwave stations. Other devices, such as hand-held computers and GPS receivers, can also
Although satellite internet
connections are more function as Earth-based stations. Transmission from an Earth-based station to a satellite is an
expensive than cable uplink. Transmission from a satellite to an Earth-based station is a downlink.
internet, they are still the
only high-speed option in
remote areas. Communications satellites

FIGURE 3.37 Communications satellites are placed approximately 37 000 kilometres above
Earth’s equator.

Network security
Information transmitted over networks has a higher degree of security risk than information
kept on a company’s premises. Many security techniques – such as usernames, passwords,
biometrics and firewalls – are used by network administrators to protect a network. On a vast
network with no central administrator, such as the internet, the risk is even greater. Every
computer along the path of your data can see what you send and receive.

Security threats
The integrity and security of data and information stored within, and communicated between,
information systems can be threatened by a number of actions, devices and events. The threats
can be accidental, such as losing a portable storage device containing files; deliberate, such as
denial of service and worms; or as a result of an event, such as a power surge.

Accidental threats
Some accidental threats are hard to guard against. For example, people can accidently delete
files or send attachments via email to the wrong person.
Portable memory devices are handy for storing files that you can take anywhere with you,
but they can easily be lost. For example, losing a memory stick that contains important files
would be inconvenient if those files were needed for a meeting or to continue working at a
different location. Provided the original files were still available on a computer or network,
9780170364744 Chapter 3 Networks 117

however, the situation is retrievable, albeit with time lost and opportunities missed. If the
memory stick contained files that were irreplaceable, however, the situation could be dire.
Losing a memory stick that contained strategic business information or confidential data
could be critical if it fell into the wrong hands.

Deliberate threats
Deliberate threats to data and information occur when someone tries to damage or
manipulate the system. This can be through a hacker finding a way into a network that
bypasses security measures, or an employee sabotaging files or altering data for their own
benefit.
A hacker tries to gain access to a network from a remote location using the internet. An
authorised client using a password that is predictable or in some way compromised poses a
threat to the network. Regardless of the method used, an unauthorised user can seek to damage
files stored on the computer or network, steal secret information for their own advantage, or
cause mischief in some way.
Networks should also be protected from deliberate attacks from malware, such as viruses,
worms, Trojans, adware, spyware, keyloggers and logic bombs.
Malware is software that is created and used to disrupt computer operation, gather sensitive
information or damage the system.
A virus is a computer program that can destroy files and alter the performance
of the operating system. Once a virus is in a computer, it can spread over a network to
other connected computers. The amount of damage caused by a virus depends on the
maliciousness of the author. A number of viruses simply spread from file to file without
causing any real damage, other than taking up storage space and perhaps the embarrassment
of an email attachment being rejected by a colleague’s antivirus program. There are many
viruses; however, with sinister payloads: some actively destroy files, some overwrite the
boot sectors on hard drives to render computers unbootable (unable to load the operating
system), alter the directory information so that files cannot be accessed and an increasing
number install backdoor programs that allow virus writers to take control of computers
remotely. Computers with backdoor software installed are called ‘zombies’ and are often
used for computer crime. Virus-infected files are often transmitted through peer-to-peer
network connections.
Spyware is any software that covertly gathers information about a user through an internet
connection without the user’s knowledge or approval. Spyware is often bundled as a hidden
component of free software, but can also be transferred with some software updates. Spyware
monitors the user’s activity on the internet and transmits that information to a third-party. The
intention of spyware is to gather information about email addresses, banking details and credit
card numbers.
A number of software developers offer their products as freeware (or adware) until you pay
to register. Prior to registering, you may be swamped with reminders and upgrade offers. Other
adware products can be embedded in browser software as an ‘Add-on Extension’. Cleaning out
the ‘Add-on’ manager regularly will reduce these annoying messages.
A worm copies itself repeatedly in memory or over a network, using up system resources and
possibly shutting the system down. A computer virus embeds itself in some other executable
software, including the operating system, on the target system. When this program is run the
virus spreads to other executable files. A worm, on the other hand, actively transmits itself over
the network to infect other computers. This suggests that a virus needs the operating system or
user to initiate the infection, while a worm will spread by itself.
118 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

Trojans are programs that pretend to be one thing, but in reality are performing a quite
different and malicious function. For example, a Trojan can pretend to be a game, while in
the background it is collecting email addresses stored on your computer and sending them
to spammers. Worms and Trojans most commonly use vulnerabilities in email programs to
distribute themselves widely and quickly. Logic bombs are programs written to do something
unexpected, such as deleting all your files, at a triggered event such as a date.
Keylogger software is a type of Trojan that is designed to secretly monitor and log all
keystrokes. A number of keylogger programs are used for legitimate purposes, such as parental
control that allows parents to track the websites accessed by their children, organisations
tracking the use of computers for non-work related activities or businesses tracking keywords
and phrases associated with critical commercial information that would be damaging in the
wrong hands. While these uses may be legitimate, the majority of keylogger activities are related
to stealing people’s online payment system data.
Phishing involves sending an email to a user falsely claiming to be an established enterprise
in an attempt to scam the user into surrendering private information that will be used for
identity theft. Phishing emails typically purport to come from organisations such as banks.
Normally, the phishing email will request the user to access a website that will closely resemble
a legitimate site. The user will be asked to provide their login details or update their personal
THINK ABOUT
COMPUTING 3.12 information. These are details already recorded by the legitimate organisation, but can be used
Adware, spyware and by fraudsters to plunder the user’s bank accounts.
keyloggers are all Anti-virus and anti-spyware programs can be installed on computers to guard against
considered to be malware.
Are they all malicious? malicious attacks. These programs need to be updated regularly to ensure they can recognise
the profile of the latest threats.

Event-based threats
Event-based threats do not involve accidental or deliberate actions of a human. One example
of an event-based threat would be a power surge, which occurs when the incoming electrical
power increases more than 5 per cent above the normal system voltage (240 volts). A momentary
surge, called a spike, can be caused by a lightning bolt striking power lines. It can result in
immediate and permanent damage to a computer or network. Networks can be protected
against a power surge with the use of a surge protector. A surge protector limits the voltage
supplied to the computer by shorting any excess caused by a spike to ground.
A hard drive crash occurs when the hard drive malfunctions and stored data cannot be
retrieved using normal procedures. The cause of a crash can be an impact that forces the read-
write head of the device to scratch the disk surface, a magnetic field causing interference or
some contamination such as dust or water. Special software can be used to try and retrieve lost
files, but success is not guaranteed.

Measures to secure networks

An unprotected network is vulnerable to attack and this can result in serious consequences,
such as corruption of files and loss of data. A number of measures can be used to minimise
the chances of a security breach, such as usernames and passwords, firewalls, use of wireless
security protocols and UPS devices.
9780170364744 Chapter 3 Networks 119

Usernames and passwords

Most network operating systems require that you correctly enter a username and a password A two-phase process to
before you can access the data, information and programs stored on a computer or network. control access to a network
involves ‘identification’ to
Some systems assign your username, or user identification (ID). For example, a school may use verify that you are a valid
your student identification number as your user ID. With other systems, you select your own. user, and ‘authentication’
Many users select a mixture of their first and last names. For instance, a user named Michael to verify you are who you
claim to be. A username
Roland might choose ‘mroland’ as his username. and password are two
For passwords, most systems require you to select your own. Users typically choose an methods used to identify
and authenticate a user’s
easy-to-remember word or series of characters for passwords. If your password is too obvious, access rights.
however, such as your initials or birthday, others can guess it easily. Easy passwords make it
simple for hackers to break into a system, so you should select a password carefully.
The most common word
Longer passwords provide greater security than shorter ones. Each character you add to a used as a password is the
password significantly increases the number of possible combinations and the length of time word ‘password’. Some
it might take for someone to guess the password. Simply speaking, the more creative you are networks require users to
change their password each
when selecting a password, the more difficult it is for someone to figure out. Table 3.11 shows month. A log of the user’s
the effect of increasing the length of a password that consists of letters and numbers. The longer previous passwords can
be checked to ensure that
the password, the more effort required to discover it. Long passwords are more difficult for the password selected has
users to remember, however. not been used before. This
Many software programs have guidelines that you must follow when you create your can be an inconvenience to
the user, but the increased
password. Many systems require your password to be at least eight characters long and use a security can be worthwhile.
mixture of numbers, upper and lower case letters and special characters.

TABLE 3.11 Password protection

Password Average time to discoverb

Number of charactersa Possible combinationsb HumanC Computerd
1 36 3 minutes 0.000 018 second
2 1 300 2 hours 0.000 65 second
3 47 000 3 days 0.02 second
4 1 000 000 3 months 1 second
5 60 000 000 10 years 30 seconds
10 3 700 000 000 000 000 580 million years 59 years
a
Possible characters include the letters A–Z and numbers 0–9.
b
Average time assumes the password would be discovered in approximately half the time it would take
to try all possible combinations.
c
Human discovery assumes one try every 10 seconds.
d
Computer discovery assumes 1 million tries per second.
Banks and other financial institutions concerned about unauthorised transfers of money THINK ABOUT
COMPUTING 3.13
from online accounts are now using a secure SMS system to validate the transfer. Users are Many websites require
still required to log in to the institution using their login and password; however, if they wish passwords. Can a website
to transfer money to an account at another bank or to an organisation, the institution sends be secure? Why or why not?
Should a website limit the
them a randomly generated six-digit code via SMS to their previously registered mobile phone number of password entry
number. The code is completely unique to that transaction and expires within a set time limit, attempts to three?
usually five minutes. The user must read the code on their mobile phone and then enter that
code on the website to validate the transfer.
120 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

The purpose of a firewall Firewalls

is to securely separate the As the internet is a public network, anyone with the proper connection can access it. In contrast,
internet and other external
networks from the internal a private corporate intranet restricts access to specific authorised users, usually employees,
LAN. The firewall examines suppliers, vendors and customers. To prevent unauthorised access to data and information,
the content of incoming
packets and determines companies protect their intranet with a firewall (Figure 3.38). One use of firewalls is to deny
whether they should be network access to outsiders.
allowed to pass through To implement a firewall, many companies route all communications through a proxy server.
to the LAN. The firewall is
usually configured so that A proxy server is a server outside the company’s network that controls which communications
the internet connection pass into the company’s network. That is, the firewall carefully screens all incoming and
enters on a separate
network interface card, outgoing messages.
giving total control over the A server on a LAN can use one of the 1024 ports available to allow its services to be accessed
routing of external packets. by external users over the internet. Typical port numbers assigned to network services include:
• 21 – file transfer protocol used for uploading and downloading files (FTP)
• 25 – email (SMTP)
THINK ABOUT
COMPUTING 3.14 • 80 – web server (http)
There are many ways that • 443 – web server (https).
hackers and others with A firewall can be set to block any or all of these ports to restrict access to outsiders. By
misguided intent may try to
blocking the incoming ports, external users cannot use that port to hack into the local network.
access or abuse a network.
Use the internet to find out Holes are opened through the firewall by unblocking a port. This is done to allow legitimate
about email bombs, denial access to the LAN, such as permitting external users to access the web server.
of service (website) and
spam. What are they? Can Desktop computers Printer
they be avoided? How?

Desktop computers Desktop computers

Internet
Desktop computers

Firewall

Desktop computers

Desktop computers Desktop computers

FIGURE 3.38 One use of a firewall is to restrict outsiders from accessing data and information
on a network.

Uninterruptible power supplies

Power loss can be caused by storm damage, restricted supply imposed by the power company
or heavy demand in the area. An uninterruptible power supply (UPS) provides about 10 minutes
of reserve power, which provides sufficient time for the network administrator to shut down
the network in an orderly way so that there is no resulting loss of data. To provide the backup
power source, the UPS converts its 12-volt DC stored battery charge to a 240-volt AC supply.
Most power blackouts last for less than one minute so the UPS can keep the system operating
without the need to shut down. Most UPS devices also protect against power surges.
9780170364744 Chapter 3 Networks 121

UPS devices come in a range of capacities, with those targeting the home network market
operating at 1200 VA or 2200 VA. A volt-ampere (VA) is the unit used for the power in an
electronic circuit (the root mean square voltage times the root mean square current).
As a rough guide, a desktop computer requires 200 VA, a 15-inch monitor requires 50 VA, a
21-inch monitor requires 200 VA, a router needs 50 VA and an external hard drive needs 100 VA.
So a typical home network might need protection for, say, 550 VA. A UPS rated at 2200 VA will give
longer back-up time and extra capacity if more devices are added to the network in the future.

Wireless security
Wireless communications technology has enabled billions of homes and businesses that use
notebook computers, tablets and other mobile devices to communicate within a LAN or
globally with relative ease. Although wireless provides many conveniences to users, it also
poses additional security risks.
A common technique to locate a vulnerable wi-fi network is called ‘wardriving’. In this
technique, a perpetrator attempts to connect to wireless networks through their notebook
computer while driving through areas they suspect might provide easy access.
To avoid unauthorised network access, the wi-fi network should include a firewall and
ensure equipment uses one or more wireless security standards. Recommended security
strategies include the following.
• The wireless access point should be configured so that it does not broadcast its network
name (the service set identifier, or SSID, which is a 32-bit alphanumeric password for the
wireless LAN). It should also allow access only to specified devices. The alternative to a push-
• Use wi-fi protected access (WPA or WPA2), which is a standard that defines how to button WPS is to use a PIN.
encrypt data as it travels across wireless networks. Encryption technology scrambles This is less secure, since
many routers do not time-
messages sent over the wireless network so that they cannot be easily read. All devices on out after an incorrect WPS
the wireless network must use the same encryption settings. WPA and WPA2 establish a PIN is used. This leaves the
passphrase that is used to check the identity of all devices on the wireless network. router vulnerable to attack.
• Use wi-fi protected setup (WPS) with a push-button connection to attach devices to the
wireless network.

THINK ABOUT

Network physical designs

COMPUTING 3.15
To increase the security of a
wireless network a number
The physical design of a network takes into account the hardware and software needed to of other options, other than
provide the solution. One way to represent the physical design of a network is to draw a network turning on WPA2, should be
diagram. considered. Investigate the
strategies that follow.

Network diagrams • MAC address filtering

Networks in medium-to-large organisations can become very complex, with servers, • Assignment of static
(rather than dynamic) IP
workstations, printers and wireless access points spread widely throughout the premises. addresses to devices on
Technical support staff need a method of representing both the network and all of its different the network
pathways to provide an overview of the connections and to allow them to identify and locate
equipment.
Network diagrams use lines to represent cables, and icons to represent communications
devices. Figure 3.39 shows a network diagram for OzDVD, an internet-based DVD sales business.
You should be able to identify a number of servers, desktop computers, printers, routers and
switches.
The firewall restricts the traffic coming over the internet from directly accessing the
internal servers. The web server would be used to hold the static items of the OzDVD webpage.
122 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

The Broadband cable

internet
Router
Mail server

Router
Firewall
Data server
Switch DVD catalogue Office printer
and customer
list files
Business server
Marketing printer

E-commerce server Web server

Switch Switch Print server

Dispatch printer

Access
point

Workstation D1 Workstation D2 Workstation Workstation Workstation Workstation

M1 M2 M3 M4
Dispatch department Marketing department

Laptop Laptop

FIGURE 3.39 A network diagram for OzDVD’s sales system, showing the communications
devices and transmission media used in the network.

The e-commerce server provides the interaction with a customer. It would house the dynamic
webpage elements, such as the shopping trolley, checkout facility, DVD-cover graphics and
so on. The internal business server contains the catalogue and customer database files. Rules
within the firewall allow the business server and the e-commerce server to communicate with
each other.
Note that Figure 3.39 is not based on the plans of the building. This would make the
diagram cumbersome and difficult to read. The physical buildings are not important in a
The VCE Unit 1 Computing network diagram, but it is necessary to identify work areas. The network diagram identifies the
course does not require
the students to know the
marketing department and the dispatch department work areas.
specifics of the laws that
cover the legal obligations
of network administrators
and users with respect
to the communication
Legal and ethical responsibilities
and storage of data and Network professionals and users of networks have legal and ethical responsibilities with
information. The relevant respect to social protocols and the ownership of data and information. Social protocols are
acts are listed below:
The Copyright Act 1968
a set of rules or behaviours that apply when people use online environments. The protocols
The Privacy Act 1988 cover appropriate behaviour when communicating online, the ownership of intellectual
The Information Privacy property, the application of digital information security practices and the use of personal
Act 2000
Health Records Act 2001. security strategies.
9780170364744 Chapter 3 Networks 123

Legal responsibilities The use of cloud computing

presents issues for many
Legal responsibilities include those actions to which a person can be held accountable under network managers and
law. Breaching a legal responsibility has the implication of litigation or facing charges in a court users. Moving data into
of law. The first legal area to consider relating to the communication and storage of information the cloud means the data
will move out of the direct
is ensuring that copyright laws are not infringed. For example, software used on the network control of an organisation
should be legally purchased. Text, video and image files loaded on websites, or in files available or user. That data may
be processed and stored
on the network, should be original works or permission should have been given by the legal outside of Australia.
owner. Users need to be aware
Another legal requirement is to ensure that privacy laws have been complied with. This of their privacy and data
security obligations when
involves obtaining permission from people for their photos to be used on a website or in transferring personal
documents stored on the network, checking that personal details are not disclosed and information into any cloud
environment.
information is not available that allows a third party to identify individuals.
Information systems professionals also have a legal responsibility to ensure that data stored
on a network or communicated between nodes cannot be accessed by unauthorised users.

Ethical responsibilities
Ethical responsibilities relate to following the correct moral path. Not adhering to ethical
standards in an online environment has the consequences of a loss of respect, loss of customers
and criticism from aggrieved users. Examples are ensuring that sexually explicit material is not
stored or accessible; defamatory comments are not posted in email, in messages or on websites;
that communications between users cannot be intercepted; and that metadata from tweets
and other social media should not allow individuals to be identified.

Resolving legal, ethical and social tensions

Tensions can arise in a workplace if acceptable work practices are not clearly defined. Usually
an organisation will adopt a series of policies that outline what workers should or should not
do, and how to respond to particular events. If the policies lack clarity, or do not exist, issues can
develop that need to be resolved.
There are six steps that an organisation can use to solve a legal, ethical or social tension.
1 Identify the problem: What decision has to be made and what facts are required?
2 Identify the stakeholders: Who are they? What interests do they have? Who is the key player?
3 Identify possible alternatives: What options are available? What are the likely consequences?
4 Identify ethical standards: Are there any applicable laws? Are there any morals or standards
that could be applied? Is there a precedent?
5 Evaluate options: Identify strengths and weaknesses. Identify the option that causes
least harm. Can the decision be reversed?
6 Make a decision: Select the preferred option. Justify the option. Notify all stakeholders of
the decision.

Security practices
Applying appropriate security practices to protect information, particularly sensitive data such
as personal details, forms part of the social protocols that users of networks should follow.
Network professionals should ensure that networks are safe from accidental, deliberate and
event-based threats, as discussed earlier in this chapter. This should include measures to
protect the communication and storage of data and information, such as the use of firewalls
124 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

and security protocols that apply encryption techniques. Users of networks and members of
online sites should be required to use logins and passwords to access a network. Websites that
require users to input data online should incorporate a test to establish that the respondent is
human rather than a machine.

Personal security strategies

Users of networked information systems should apply safe practices while participating in online
environments. This includes users checking their default privacy settings to ensure maximum
protection of personal details. Using online filtering techniques to restrict the content that can
be communicated over a network is another form of personal security. Filtering can be applied
by an employer to personnel within the organisation, by a school to its students and by parents
to their children.
Users of social media should activate privacy settings in their accounts to avoid divulging
personal data such as photographs, addresses and names.

Responsibilities of network users

Networks reach across societies that have different values and traditions. People using
networks have capacities that allow them to do things they could not do before – and do so
with anonymity. The norms of society and values can be challenged by the character of human
interaction in electronic networks.
Users of networks, including those using social networking sites, must comply with copyright
laws and behave ethically. Internet etiquette, also known as netiquette, is a set of guidelines on
how users should behave when communicating online. These guidelines provide a set of social
online protocols and include:
• avoiding the use of bad language and not saying things to make other people feel bad
• not typing emails in upper case (since it looks like you are shouting)
• not using emoticons in formal emails
Rather than loading material • when forwarding an email, removing all personal information relating to the original
that may be subject to
copyright, it is better sender, including their email address
practice to include links to • obeying the rules of online discussion forums
the website that contains • deciding whether to use your real name or not (using a handle can protect your personal
the original source. Any
material used should be information)
appropriately cited. • avoiding running malicious code on a network by not opening emails from unknown
sources or opening files that may contain malware
Remember that it is often • not making defamatory or discriminatory comments on social media
not possible to remove • not posting text, images, videos or files which infringe on intellectual property rights
a comment made on a
social media site. Think of
• ensuring any sources used or quoted are reliable and authentic
the consequences before • not uploading or downloading sexually explicit content
you post. • respecting other people’s privacy.

Benefits and risks associated with using a network

The use of networks has become widespread as the technology has become more widely
available and the use of the internet and social media has become a seamless part of our lives.
There are many clear benefits in using a network, from the sharing of hardware and software
to accessing the internet. There are also a number of risks associated with the use of networks,
particularly within the context of a global environment. In this section, we look at the benefits
to individuals and organisations in using a network, then the risks that may be encountered.
9780170364744 Chapter 3 Networks 125

Benefits of using a network

Establishing a network has a number of benefits over running standalone computers and
resources, including access to peripherals (for example, printers), lower set-up costs (terminals
are cheaper than standalone computers) and the speed of communications. Further advantages
of using a network are provided below.

Facilitating communications
Using a network, people can communicate efficiently and easily via email, Facebook, instant THINK ABOUT
COMPUTING 3.16
messaging, chat rooms, VoIP, wireless messaging services and videoconferencing. Sometimes List the hardware that is
these communications occur within a business’s network; at other times they occur globally shared on your school’s
through the internet. network.

Sharing hardware
Each networked computer can access and use hardware on the network. Suppose several
personal computers on a network each require the use of a laser printer. If the personal Facebook is an online
computers and a laser printer are connected to a network, the personal computer users can social network established
in 2004. It was originally
each access the laser printer on the network when they need it. Businesses and home users available only to college
network their hardware for one main reason – it may be too costly to provide each user with the students in the United
same piece of hardware, such as a printer. States.

Sharing data and information

In a networked environment, any authorised computer user can access data and information
stored on other computers in the network. For example, a large company might have a
database of customer information. Any authorised person, including a mobile user using a
smartphone to connect to the network, can access this database. The capability of providing
access to and storage of data and information on shared storage devices is an important feature
of many networks. Project teams can share data, even if they are geographically remote, by
using an organisation’s virtual private network (VPN), which uses the internet to make global
connections. Networks support collaborative work practices through services such as cloud
Virtual private networks
computing, email and file transfer. were discussed on page 86.

Sharing software
Users connected to a network can access software (programs) on the network. To support
multiple-user access of software, most software vendors sell network versions of their software.
THINK ABOUT
In this case, software vendors issue a site licence. A network licence is a legal agreement that COMPUTING 3.17
allows multiple users to run the software package simultaneously. The site licence fee is usually What are the advantages
and disadvantages of
based on the number of users or the number of computers attached to the network. Sharing
using online programs
software via a network usually costs less than buying individual copies of the software package such as Google Docs and
for each computer. Office 365?

Transferring funds
Electronic funds transfer (EFT) allows users connected to the internet (an example of a wide
area network) to transfer money from one bank account to another via transmission media.
Consumers can use credit cards or an online payment system like PayPal to make purchases
over the internet. Businesses can use the internet to deposit their employees’ salaries directly
into their bank accounts. Both businesses and consumers pay bills online, which involves
instructing their bank to use EFT payment to pay creditors. Global networks are a boon to
online retailers, who can effectively trade 24/7.
126 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

Risks associated with using a network

The risks associated with using a network relate to inconvenience caused by any fault in the
network devices and damage or loss of sensitive data caused by breaches of security.

Breaches of security
Networks with inadequate security systems are liable to be attacked by malware or hackers.
These threats can result in valuable information being accessed, stolen, damaged or deliberately
altered for fraudulent purposes. Hackers have been able to access customer credit card details
by finding an opening in a commercial corporation’s network. Viruses and other malware can
deliberately sabotage the operation of computers and software.
Wireless networks without suitable encryption security run the risk of outsiders
eavesdropping on messages or accessing important files transmitted between users.

User dependence
Network users rely on a network to operate correctly to be able to access files, applications and
resources. If a component, such as a file server, develops a fault, users will not be able to run
applications or access shared data. This would limit the effectiveness of a worker and impact
on the productivity of the business.

Social networks
The popularity of social networking sites such as Facebook and Twitter has increased rapidly in
recent years. There are a number of negative effects that overuse of social networking can have
on users. These include:
• distracting users from more purposeful tasks such as studying
• reduced learning and research capability as students rely on information easily accessible
from social network sites but often unverified
• reduction in traditional communication between people, such as face-to-face
conversations
• adoption of poor language skills and underdevelopment of creative writing skills
• negative impact on health due to skipping meals and not participating in physical activity
• reliance on virtual world experience rather than from the real world.
Social media are now important tools for businesses to market their services and keep in
touch with their customer base. Customers expect organisations they do business with will
be contactable via sites such as Twitter, Facebook and LinkedIn. Social media risks faced by
organisations come under three areas: operational, regulatory and reputational.
• Operational risk relates to employees posting material in breach of copyright; the
monitoring of employees on social media; ownership of material posted.
• Regulatory risk involves company disclosures – market sensitive data revealed on social
media before a public announcement.
• Reputational risk includes what the business or employees say online, or what customers
may say about the company.
9780170364744 Chapter 3 Networks 127

ESSENTIAL TERMS

CHAPTER SUMMARY
802.11 standard the standard that specifies how communications software an application or
two wireless computers or devices communicate program designed to pass or support the
via radio waves with each other movement of information over a network
app a self-contained program installed on a mobile dedicated server a server that performs a specific
device that is designed to fulfil a particular task, such as file servers, print servers, database
purpose; some apps are provided as a standard servers and network servers
feature on the mobile device while others can be digital signals individual electrical pulses that
downloaded from commercial providers represent the bits that are grouped together to
asymmetric digital subscriber line (ADSL) a digital form characters
line alternative for the small business or home domain name server (DNS) residing with the
user. ADSL transmits on existing standard copper ISP used by the client, the DNS is used by
telephone wiring. The ADSL2+ technology allows the internet to store domain names and their
a faster transfer rate than the older ADSL rate – corresponding IP addresses; when a browser
20 Mbps compared with 8 Mbps. requests that a page be downloaded, the DNS
bandwidth the width of the communications translates the domain name into its associated IP
channel measured in bits per second address
Bluetooth a protocol that uses short-range radio downlink a transmission from the satellite to a
waves to transmit data along enabled devices, receiving Earth station
such as notebook computers, mobile telephones Earth-based stations communications facilities
and printers that use large, dish-shaped antennas to transmit
broadband router a basic router that connects a and receive data from satellites
LAN to the internet, also functioning as a switch, Ethernet a standard communications protocol
a firewall and a wireless access point embedded in software and hardware devices
broadcast radio a wireless transmission medium that allows computers to operate a LAN; it
that distributes radio signals through the air over was developed in 1973 by American electrical
long distances (such as between cities, regions engineer Bob Metcalfe, and has become the
and countries) and short distances (such as standard model for LANs worldwide
within an office or home) fibre-optic cable smooth, hair-thin strands of glass
cellular radio a form of broadcast radio that is used or plastic (optical fibres) that conduct light with
widely for mobile communications high efficiency; fibre optics are frequently used
channel the communications path between two in new voice and data installations
devices firewall hardware and software that restrict access
client–server network a network in which one or to data and information on a network
more computers act as a server (host computer) game console an input device with the video game
and the other computers on the network (clients) screened on a television set; handheld game
can request services from the server. A server consoles are portable and include the controls, a
controls access to the hardware and software on small screen and sound output
the network, and provides a centralised storage global positioning system (GPS) a navigation
area for programs, data and information. system that consists of
cloud storage an off-site storage system one or more Earth-based receivers that accept
maintained by a third party and accessed and analyse signals sent by satellites to
through the internet determine the
receiver’s geographic location
communications device any type of hardware
capable of transmitting data, instructions or hacker a person who breaks into
a computer for profit, from
information between a sending device and a
the motivation of a challenge,
receiving device or to view restricted data
communications satellites communications facilities hypertext mark-up language
that receive microwave signals from Earth, amplify (HTML) a set of special
the signals, and retransmit them back to Earth codes that format a file for
 128 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

use as a webpage; these codes, or tags, specify Mbps short for megabits per second
CHAPTER SUMMARY

how the text and other elements display in a microwaves radio waves that can be used to
browser and where the links lead provide high-speed transmission of both voice
hypertext transfer protocol (http) a set of rules and data; data is transmitted through the air
that defines how pages are transferred on the from one microwave station to another in a
internet manner similar to the way radio signals are
hypertext transfer protocol secured (https) transmitted
a communications protocol for secure microwave station an Earth-based reflective dish
transmissions over the internet; the https that contains the antenna, transceivers and
system provides authentication and encryption other equipment necessary for microwave
communication and is widely used for security- communications
sensitive processing, such as payment mobile devices compact, lightweight, easily carried
transactions and connections to banks and often high-speed wireless broadband
internet peer-to-peer network an internet network enabled devices, such as games consoles
which enables users with the same networking mobile phone a telephone device that uses radio
software to connect to one another’s hard disk signals to transmit voice and digital data messages
drives and exchange files directly
near field communication (NFC) contactless
internet service software web browsers, electronic communication between portable devices; a
mail, Voice over internet Protocol (VoIP) software smartphone can be configured to read an NFC
and cloud storage tag on a poster or menu to download relevant
intranet an internal network within an organisation information (for example, Paywave transactions
that uses internet and web technologies and the myki transportation system use NFC
keylogger a type of Trojan designed to secretly technology)
monitor and record all keystrokes entered on a network collection of computers and devices
keyboard; some are legitimate (such as parental- connected together via communications devices
control programs to allow parents to track their and wired or wireless transmission media,
children’s internet usage), but others may be allowing computers to share resources
used for spying or stealing data network administrator the person who
leecher a person downloading a file using a torrent oversees the operations of a client–server
protocol during a P2P session who does not network
allow their computer to pass pieces of the file to network analysis tools allow network administrators
other users to monitor devices, check protocols and port
local area network (LAN) a group of neighbouring activity, view event logs and analyse traffic
computers that can share information and network architecture the design of the network; for
resources using a network (such a network is example, include client–server and peer-to-peer
usually within a building or several neighbouring networks
dwellings, but can be up to a few kilometres); an
network-attached storage (NAS) a storage device
organisation owns the infrastructure used by the
often used to hold video, photo and audio files on
network, including the cabling
a network; a typical NAS has capacity to store 8
logic bomb a program that lies dormant until a TB of data and can be configured as an FTP, web,
specific piece of program logic is activated. In email and print server
this way, it is very analogous to a real-world
network diagram a schematic method of showing
land mine. The most common activator for a
the physical devices and communications lines
logic bomb is a date. The logic bomb checks
present in a network
the system date and does nothing until a pre-
programmed date and time is reached. At that network interface card (NIC) a communications
point, the logic bomb activates and executes devices that fits in an expansion slot of a
its code. computer and enables a computer that does not
have in-built network capability to communicate
malware programs designed to infiltrate and cause
with a network
harm to a computer or network without the
owner’s knowledge or consent, such as viruses, network operating system (network OS, NOS)
worms, Trojans, adware, spyware, logic bombs software that organises, controls and coordinates
and keyloggers; the term is short for ‘malicious the administration, file management, printer
software’. management and security activities on a LAN
9780170364744 Chapter 3 Networks 129

network protocol rules and conventions for protocol a set of rules and procedures for

CHAPTER SUMMARY
communication between network devices; exchanging information between two computers,
protocols for networks generally use packet- such as the network transmission control
switching techniques to send and receive protocol/internet protocol (TCP/IP)
messages in the form of packets receiving device accepts the data, instructions or
network standard guidelines that specify the way information
computers access the medium to which they are router an intelligent network-connecting device that
attached, the types of media used, the speed at can route communications traffic directly to the
which data flows and the physical technology appropriate network
used. Examples of network standards are Ethernet,
seed a computer on the internet that has a
TCP/IP and 802.11
complete file available for downloading using the
networking software computer programs that torrent protocol
establish a connection to another computer or
sending device initiates the transmission of data,
network, and manage the transmission of data,
instructions or information
instructions and information
smartphone an internet-enabled mobile phone that
node a network connection point, including
typically includes an address book, calendar
desktop or mobile computer, peripheral such as
and a calculator; a businessperson would
printer or scanner, or portable device such as
require a smartphone that is capable of sending
a smartphone. A node normally is assigned its
and receiving emails from the company’s
own IP address.
mail server, as well as opening and editing
optical fibre a strand of glass or plastic, as thin as a business applications, such as word processing,
human hair, that uses light to transmit signals spreadsheets, presentations and PDF files, and
packet switching breaking a message into packets, a web browser.
sending the packets over a network pathway, spyware any software that covertly gathers
and then reassembling the data information about a user through an internet
packets the small pieces into which data is broken connection without the user’s knowledge or
before being transmitted over a network; they approval
will be transmitted independently over the switch a device that provides a common
transmission media and, once all the packets connection point for nodes on a network; it
have arrived at the receiving computer, are put enables a packet to reach its destination faster
back together to produce the original, complete by storing addresses in memory and using logic
message to direct the transmission
password a secret combination of characters tablet a special type of notebook or laptop
associated with the username that allows computer that resembles a letter-sized slate,
access to certain computer resources which allows a user to write on the screen using
peer someone with equal communication access a digital pen
rights in a network. In relation to torrent downloads, TCP/IP (transmission control protocol/internet
peers are computers on the internet that are protocol) a network standard that manages
downloading a particular file at the same time. the transmission of data by breaking it up into
peer-to-peer network (P2P) an internet network packets and transmitting the packets over the
that enables users to connect to each other’s internet
hard disks and exchange files directly, such as torrent a small file that holds metadata relating to
BitTorrent a file that can be shared on a P2P network; the
physical design the communications devices, metadata includes the file’s name, size and its
transmission media and software of a network location
physical transmission media media that use wire, transmission media the materials or technologies
cable or fibre-optics to send communications that are used to establish the communications
signals channel; two types of transmission media are
phishing sending an email to a user falsely, claiming physical transmission media, which use some type
to be an established enterprise of some kind, in of physical cabling (twisted-pair wire, coaxial cable
an attempt to scam the user into giving up private and fibre-optic cable); and wireless transmission
information that will be used for identify theft media, which use wireless technology
(microwaves, radio waves or light waves)
 130 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

Trojan programs that pretend to be one thing, but wide area network (WAN) a network that is
CHAPTER SUMMARY

that are actually performing another, malicious geographic in scope (as opposed to local) and
background function; for example, a Trojan that uses telephone lines, microwaves, satellites or a
appears to be a game that is actually collecting combination of communications channels
email addresses stored on your computer and wi-fi any network based on the 802.11 standard
sending them back to spammers
wi-fi communications a wireless transmission
twisted-pair cable a cable made up of twisted- medium that distributes radio signals through
pair wires; twisted-pair cable systems are the air over long distances
graded according to categories that describe the
wi-fi protected access (WPA or WPA2) a standard
quality of the components and the installation
that defines how to encrypt data as it travels
technique. The most common twisted-pair cable
across wireless networks
is graded as category 5, CAT 5e or CAT 6.
wireless access point a central communications
twisted-pair wire pairs of copper wires that are
device that allows computers and other mobile
twisted together, commonly used for telephone
devices to transmit data among themselves
lines and to connect personal computers with
wirelessly using radio waves
one another
wireless adaptor a device used to connect
uplink a transmission to the satellite
computers and mobile devices to a wireless
username a unique combination of characters, network; the adaptor maybe in-built or
such as letters of the alphabet or numbers, that connected via a USB port on the computer
identifies one specific user
wireless broadband router a device that combines
virtual private network (VPN) a network in an the functions of a basic router (connecting the
organisation or business that uses the internet to LAN to the internet), a switch (for devices, such
link remote sites and users as a desktop computer, connected by cable), a
virus a computer program that can destroy files and firewall (security measure) and a wireless access
alter the performance of the operating system; point (to allow wireless connectivity)
once a virus is in a computer, it can spread over wireless extender a device that increases
a network to other connected computers the range of a wireless access point by re-
Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) a high- broadcasting the signal it receives, which allows
speed internet connection that allows users to home networks to avoid obstacles and reach
communicate as if they were on a conventional further than normal; a dual-band uses both the
telephone 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz radio frequencies, so one
wearable technology devices that use wireless frequency can be used to communicate with a
signals and can be worn by the user, either as router while the other frequency can be used
clothing or an accessory, such as smart watches to communicate with clients. The device must
and devices that track information relating to provide simultaneous transmissions rather than
health and fitness the option of 2.4 GHz or 5 GHz.
web browser an application software package that wireless transmission media media that send
allows users to access and view webpages communications signals through the air or space
using radio, microwave and infra-red signals
web-enabled device a digital device that provides
access to the internet for hand-held devices, worm a virus that copies itself repeatedly in memory
such as smartphones or over a network, using up a system’s resources
and possibly shutting it down; while a virus will
web server a computer that delivers requested
embed in executable software on a computer,
webpages to another computer
a worm will actively transmit over a network to
infect other computers
9780170364744 Chapter 3 Networks 131

IMPORTANT FACTS 11 Mobile devices that can be connected to a

CHAPTER SUMMARY
network include:
1 Networks allow users to share resources such as
• smartphones
data, information, hardware and software, and to
• hand-held computers
transfer money via electronic funds transfer.
• netbooks
2 To protect wireless networks, security measures
• navigation systems
are recommended, such as configuring the
• digital cameras.
wireless access point so that it does not
A convergence of technologies has resulted in
broadcast a network name and only allowing
one type of device also performing the functions
access to specified devices. Data should also
of a different type of device. For example,
be encrypted before it travels across a wireless
a smartphone may be capable of running
network.
applications software, accessing the internet,
3 Network professionals and users have legal
playing media and taking digital images beside
and ethical responsibilities with respect to
its main function of voice communications.
social protocols and the ownership of data and
12 Video games use a console to input commands,
information. These responsibilities relate to
a screen for output and a hard-drive for storage.
copyright, privacy, socially appropriate material,
Popular consoles include XBox One, PlayStation
malware, backup strategies and network access
4 and Wii U.
restrictions.
13 The transmission rate of a communications
4 Networks allow users to share hardware,
channel is determined by its bandwidth and
software, data and information, to transfer funds
its speed. The bandwidth is the range of
globally, attract new customers, entertain and
frequencies that a channel can carry. The speed
acquire knowledge.
at which data is transmitted is usually expressed
5 The risks associated with using a network in a
as bits per second (bps), the number of bits that
global environment include breaches in security
can be transmitted in one second.
that allow malware or a hacker to access,
14 The National Broadband Network (NBN)
steal or damage files and information, users’
uses fibre-optic cable to connect homes and
dependence, and the negative effects of overuse
businesses to the internet using connection
of social media.
speeds of 25 Mbps. Fixed wireless and satellite
6 Businesses need to be aware of the risks
connections are used where cable is impractical.
associated with communicating on social media.
15 Security threats to networks include accidental
The risks include employees posting information
loss, such as losing a portable storage device
in breach of copyright, issues relating to the
containing important files; deliberate threats,
monitoring of employee communications,
such as installing malware; or unforeseen
sensitive market information being leaked
events, such as a power surge
before public announcements and employees or
16 Usernames, passwords and firewalls are
customers posting negative comments.
used by network administrators to protect
7 Software installed on servers, referred to as
networks.
server software, allows them to provide email
17 To verify users’ rights to access a
services, internet connectivity, file management
network, security features are required.
and print services.
A system of establishing usernames
8 The National Broadband Network (NBN) requires
(or user IDs) and passwords allows for
a utility box to connect to the fibre-optic
the identification and authentication of
cable being rolled out across Australia and a
each user.
connection box to be installed in the home. The
connection box is used for phone connection
and to link with the home’s network router.
9 The range for a wi-fi network is about 50 metres
inside a building.
10 A smart TV can function as a conventional
television set as well as link to the internet to
screen interactive media.
132 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE

Qz
COMMUNICATIONS
1 What does the term ‘data communications’ mean?
Review quiz
Review quiz 2 Identify the devices you use on a day-to-day basis that connect to a network.

NETWORKS
3 Provide an example of a sending device 8 What security risks can occur if a user
and a receiving device. shares files on an internet P2P network?
4 What is a network? How is a local area 9 Describe the benefits in downloading a
network (LAN) different from a wide file from a P2P network using torrents
area network (WAN)? rather than from a single source.
5 How does a peer-to-peer network differ 10 What do the terms ‘peer’, ‘seed’ and
from a client–server network? ‘leech’ refer to when referring to torrent
6 Identify the dedicated servers that are downloads?
used on networks in your school. 11 What is an intranet? What benefits to
7 Describe the type of network a business organisations are there in setting up an
might use if they have a head office intranet?
in one city and wish to enable other 12 Describe the advantages of setting up a
branches and travelling salespeople to home network.
maintain regular contact and access data 13 There are four types of home network
and files stored on their central servers? in common use. Which type would
you choose to set up a network in your
home? Why would you choose that type?

COMMUNICATIONS DEVICES
14 Routers and switches are used to 20 It may be difficult to pick up a
connect separate networks. Explain the consistent wireless signal in a large
circumstances in which each of these home with solid brick walls. Where
would be used. should the access point be located to
15 What is the function of a wireless provide the strongest signal throughout
broadband router in a home network? the house? What solution would you
16 Identify the components that need to recommend to ensure that some of the
be installed in a home or business to more distant parts of the house, such as
enable a LAN to connect to the NBN. the back patio, receive a signal?
17 What is the intended purpose of the 21 Many home networks include a smart
two voice ports on the NBN connection TV and a network-attached storage
box? device. Describe the functions of these
18 What is the purpose of a network devices.
interface card? What do mobile 22 A particular network-attached
computers use in place of a network storage device has a capacity of 8
interface card? Terabytes. How many megabytes is this
19 A wireless access point can be wired equivalent to?
to the fibre-optic backbone of a bus
network. What is the purpose of the
wireless access point?
9780170364744 Chapter 3 Networks 133

COMMUNICATIONS SOFTWARE
23 Describe four important tasks of a network operating system.
24 Identify the four components of a URL address.
25 When should a website use the https:// protocol rather than the standard http:// protocol?
26 List some benefits for an organisation in using a cloud storage system such as Dropbox.

NETWORK COMMUNICATIONS STANDARDS

27 Why do manufacturers of network hardware and software follow established standards?
28 Briefly describe how an Ethernet network transmits data.
29 In what situations would the TCP/IP protocol be most useful?
30 Explain the term packet switching.
31 What network transmission standard would be useful in a situation where an old,
heritage-listed building with solid stone walls needs to be networked?
32 What advantages are there for users if a network moves from the 802.11n standard to
802.11ac?

SENDING AND RECEIVING DEVICES

33 A mobile telephone is an example of a wireless device that can be web-enabled. What does
the term web-enabled mean?
34 What functions are likely to be available on a smartphone?
35 What does the expression ‘convergence of technologies’ mean? Give an example in which
convergence of technologies is apparent in portable network devices.
36 Provide three examples of wearable technology.

COMMUNICATIONS CHANNEL AND TRANSMISSION MEDIA

37 What advantage do fibre optics have over wire cables?
38 In what circumstances would a network designer consider using wireless transmission
media?
39 Briefly describe the broadcast radio and cellular radio wireless transmission media.
40 Describe how near field communication technology allows a user with a smartphone to
read information at a museum exhibit.
41 What is the main limitation of microwave transmission?
42 Many companies use satellite transmission to access the internet. Web satellites, however,
will provide faster downlink transmissions than uplink transmissions. Why is the
difference in speed not of major concern to these companies?

NETWORK SECURITY
43 Describe how a virus, worm, Trojan and keylogger may threaten a computer network.
44 Describe how verifying the identity of a user can protect a network.
45 What is a firewall?
46 Describe three measures that should be incorporated into a wireless network to restrict
access by unauthorised users and to secure the transmission of data.
134 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

LEGAL AND ETHICAL RESPONSIBILITIES

47 The manager of a website in an organisation has legal responsibilities related to the
ownership of material used on the site. Describe these responsibilities.
48 Use the internet to find an example of how researchers and analysts use Twitter or
Facebook entries to study human behaviour.
49 What steps should a network user follow in order to behave ethically when using
social media?

BENEFITS AND RISKS ASSOCIATED WITH

USING NETWORKS
50 Describe the five main benefits of using a network.
51 Why is user dependence considered a possible disadvantage of networks?
52 What problems could eventuate if a network is not well managed?
53 How might the use of social media be considered as a possible risk for businesses?
9780170364744 Chapter 3 Networks 135

APPLY YOUR KNOWLEDGE

XYZ ENGINEERING
XYZ Engineering has its head office in the northern suburbs of Melbourne. The company designs
and develops water systems including channels, culverts and bridges for municipal councils,
government authorities and private owners. The head office contains several departments
including the civil engineers who design systems for clients, a project team that sub-contracts
building works to third parties, an accounts department that bills clients, pays sub-contractors
and staff wages, and a small information systems department responsible for establishing
and maintaining systems. The company has branch offices in Bendigo, Warrnambool and
Bairnsdale. Engineers often need to visit sites to take measurements and make observations.
They need to be able to access files stored on the LAN at head office and record their findings.
A number of requirements for a network have been identified.
• Desktop computers are used by those staff who work mainly from head office.
• Engineers and project team members who visit sites use notebook computers rather
than desktops.
• All departments need access to files including work plans, schedules, job logs, costings and
other documents relating to projects.
• Staff need access to printers.
• The company will require a website to promote their business.
• Files that include engineering plans and video clips of existing terrain or proposed
developments can be very large and need to be stored centrally.
• Email is the primary means of communication.
• All staff have a company issued smartphone.
• Presentations to clients (involving plans, video clips and costings) need to be made from
time-to-time at head office.
• A broadband cable connection to the internet is provided at head office.

Questions
1 What network device is needed to 4 What device would be suitable to store
connect to the broadband cable at head the large media files that the business
office? uses for presentations to clients?
2 Employees with portable computers 5 The company will operate a client-
need to be able to use them throughout server network. What servers need to
the head office. What communications be installed?
technology will these notebooks 6 The rural branches and on-site staff will
require? What hardware is necessary need to access files from the network.
to support this technology? What What type of network will link remote
security measures are needed to protect sites to a central network via the
data being communicated using this internet?
technology? 7 Describe the legal requirements
3 The desktop computers, printers and and ethical responsibilities of the
other network devices will use wired information systems manager with
technology. What type of cabling would respect to the company’s website and
be suitable? What devices are needed files stored on network devices.
to link the networks operating in each
department?
136 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

8 What risks associated with use of the network does the information systems manager
need to guard against? Identify some strategies that will negate these risks.
9 Draw a network diagram of the system at head office. Label all devices and work areas.
10 The company intends to set up a stand at the annual Water Treatment Exhibition. It
is hoping that visitors to the exhibition will be able to access information about XYZ
Engineering and the services they offer. Rather than providing information in paper form,
the company hopes that visitors can download information onto their smartphones.
Identify the technology that will be used and describe how it operates.
9780170364744 Chapter 3 Networks 137

PREPARING FOR
Design a network with wireless

OUTCOME
capability that meets an
identified need or opportunity,
explain its configuration and
UNIT

predict risks and benefits for

intended users

For Unit 1, Outcome 2, you are required to design a network for a specific use. The network must
have wireless capability, though it may also have some wired components. You must explain its
configuration, including identifying network devices and transmission media. You must also
predict the risks and benefits for intended users.

OUTCOME MILESTONES
You will be required to: 4 The network must have wireless
1 Consider how the information needs capability. Determine whether wired
of individuals or an organisation could transmissions are also required and
be achieved through the use of a identify the communications standard
networked information system. to be used.
2 Identify the data and information 5 Determine which network devices are
that typically would flow through the needed.
information system. 6 Draw a physical representation of the
3 Consider how data is to be stored network.
within the network and where it is 7 Consider the risks and benefits of using
processed. the network for intended users.

STEPS TO FOLLOW
Your teacher may provide a written scenario 2 Describe the purpose of the proposed
of a situation in which the implementation networked information system. In most
of a networked information system would cases, a local area network with wireless
provide benefits to an organisation. connectivity will be required, but users
Alternatively, you may be asked to identify a may also need access to the internet. If
you are creating a simple network with
system that you have observed and prepare
a small number of users, will you opt
a recommendation for the design of a small
for a peer-to-peer network or a client–
network. server network? Why?
1 Identify the information needs of
3 Identify the data and information that
individuals, such as a family, or would flow within the information
organisation from the scenario provided system and the location in which the
or your own observations. data would be stored.
138 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

4 Identify which portable computers or 7 Use a software tool to depict the

devices are required to use the network. components of the network and its
Determine if a wired connection to interactions.
some devices is required, or whether 8 Explain the function of components
a wireless environment on its own is and how data and information are
sufficient to meet user’s needs? transmitted.
5 Identify the number of work groups that 9 Predict the risks and benefits for
will operate and determine the number intended users. Risks might include
of switches (if any) required. Consider security threats to data and information
whether a router is needed. or user dependence on the network.
6 Determine whether communications Benefits might include shared resources,
devices are necessary. If there is to be access to the internet and reliable
internet access, will you recommend communications via email.
cable, ADSL 2+ or some other form of
transmission?

DOCUMENTS REQUIRED FOR ASSESSMENT

1 A brief report that identifies the •communications standard(s) to be
information needs of the organisation, used
the purpose of the network and the • communications devices (wireless
type of network needed to support the access points, switches and routers)
information system • transmission media (physical and
2 A written, oral or visual presentation wireless or just wireless)
that outlines your recommendation in • inclusion of a firewall if internet
terms of the network configuration and a access is recommended
rationale for the decisions made; points 3 A network diagram
to discuss are: 4 A report that predicts the risks and
• LAN, WAN or a combination of both benefits for intended users
• peer-to-peer or client–server LAN
• number and nature of servers
if a client–server network is
recommended

ASSESSMENT
A set of assessment criteria will be prepared and distributed by your teacher before the start of
the task.
9780170364744 Chapter 4 Issues in information systems 139

CHAPTER
ISSUES IN INFORMATION SYSTEMS
Key knowledge
After completing this chapter, you will be able to demonstrate knowledge of:
Interactions and impact
• applications of information systems in a range of settings
• a detailed study in a particular field such as entertainment, agriculture, finance,
sport, health, that focuses on:
– the nature of a contemporary issue associated with the use of information systems
– legal, social, environmental or ethical reasons for a contentious issue
– types and capabilities of digital systems associated with the field and issue
– key stakeholders such as individuals, organisations and governments, and their
responsibilities
– positive and negative opinions of each stakeholder about the issue
• ways in which end-users can express opinions on websites about how information
systems are used for particular purposes, such as writing a review in a textbox and a
rating system
Data and information
• sources of, and methods and techniques for, acquiring and referencing primary data
and secondary data and information
• factors affecting the integrity of data, such as correctness, reasonableness and accuracy
Digital systems
• advantages and disadvantages of using cloud solutions, and using cloud computing
for storing, communicating and disposing of data and information
• impact of growth of mobile devices on website design
Approaches to problem solving
• Visualising thinking tools and techniques for supporting reasoning and decision
making when analysing issues and ethical dilemmas

For the student

In this chapter, you will learn about a variety of contemporary issues associated with the
use of information systems. Techniques and strategies that can be used to investigate
information systems issues will also be explained. You are required to collect and analyse
data from stakeholders and information from other sources about a specific issue related
to the use of information systems. You will present the data you collect on a website you
have designed and developed collaboratively. The website should outline the issue, reasons
for the issue, key stakeholders involved and their opinions, including how information
systems could be used to express opinions about the issue. You will also report your team’s
point of view on the issue. Both content from this chapter and Chapter 5 will be used to
cover all the knowledge required for Unit 1, Outcome 3.

For the teacher

The focus for this chapter, together with Chapter 5, is on preparing students for Unit 1,
Outcome 3, in which students design and develop a website, collaboratively. The website
presents information related to a contemporary information systems issue in a specific
context, which can cause conflict between stakeholders. Students are required to collect
data from a variety of sources, then analyse the data to substantiate a point of view.
This chapter discusses a number of contemporary information systems issues, although
for the purposes of the Outcome, the information systems issue selected is open ended.
 140 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

Information systems
There is a significant difference between a digital system and an information system. A digital
system consists of hardware and software, but on its own a digital system cannot produce any
Alamy/Art Directors & TRIP

information.
Thus, an information system consists of hardware and software (collectively referred to as
a digital system) that also includes the additional components of data, processes and people.
To best illustrate an information system, we will look at the example of a supermarket self-
checkout system. It is the additional components that allow the system to produce the output
or information required.
FIGURE 4.1 Supermarket
TABLE 4.1 Supermarket self-checkout systems are a common sight in Australia today.
self-checkout information
The information system consists of the following.
system
Digital systems Data Processes People
THINK ABOUT • Monitor • Product • Scan item • Customer
COMPUTING 4.1
• Barcode scanner • Quantity • Make payment
An automatic teller machine
(ATM) is also an information • Weighing machine • Price • Receive change
system. Try to identify digital • Point-of-sale software • Print receipt
systems, data, people and • Operating system
processes involved in an ATM
system. Make a list of other
information systems.
Information systems in action
Information systems have provided significant benefits to society
over the last 50 years. Systems have been created that allow users
to communicate, store and protect data and information and to
automate processes that once had to completed manually; for
Shutterstock.com/KPG Ivary

example, writing a letter.

But along with the benefits associated with the use of
information systems, issues can also arise from the use of
technology that can cause tension conflict between different
stakeholders.
The following are some examples of contemporary issues
FIGURE 4.2 Conflict between stakeholders associated with the use of information systems.

Information systems and entertainment

The use of information systems for entertainment is widespread. Playing games, watching
For Unit 1, Outcome 3,
you will be working
movies or listening to music are three popular reasons individuals use a digital system. As
collaboratively with other a result, many websites have been created that support entertainment. A large number of
students to design and websites are dedicated to reviewing games, movies and music. Some sites allow individuals
develop a website that
analyses a contemporary to play games online or offer online streaming for music and videos, while others facilitate the
issue and presents your downloading of files.
team’s point of view on
that issue.
Issues in entertainment
Illegally downloading movies, music, software and other types of files is the source of much
tension and conflict between stakeholders. Australia is at the forefront of this behaviour with
sources claiming that more than 30 per cent of Australian adults routinely illegally downloading
television shows and movies.
Pirate hunt: is this the end of Australia’s love affair with illegal
downloading?, Kelsey Munro, Sydney Morning Herald, April 11, 2015
9780170364744 Chapter 4 Issues in information systems 141

Reasons for the issue

THINK ABOUT
There are a number of reasons why users download content through file sharing and streaming COMPUTING 4.2
websites. First, the cost of downloading a file can be less expensive than legally purchasing Is watching a video on the
the same product. Convenience is also a large factor. Users do not need to leave their own streaming service YouTube
legal? If someone posted
home to access the content and can then enjoy the content whenever and wherever they like. a video that someone else
Downloaded content often does not contain advertisements. Being able to access particular created onto YouTube, would
content that is not currently available through legal means (for example, a new series of a TV copyright be breached?
show not yet screening in Australia) is a further significant factor.
So why is downloading or streaming files from some sources illegal?
P2P is also discussed in
Downloading or streaming files over the internet is not necessary illegal. There are many Chapter 3.
websites that offer files to be downloaded or streamed legally. Download.com is an example of a
website where users can legally download files for free. For subscribers who are prepared to pay
a monthly subscription fee, Netflix provides a legal streaming service of TV shows and movies.
Whether a file is legal or illegal to download comes down to whether the copyright holder
of the content has given their consent for a user to download their work. Users who download
A summary sheet
or stream content in Australia without the consent of the copyright holder, are in breach of the outlining the Copyright
Copyright Act 1968 (Cth) and may face sanctions if found guilty, including being fined or, in more Act 1968 (Cth) can be
serious cases, being sentenced to a jail term. found at the Creative
Commons website.
Digital systems involved
A common method used, for both illegal and legal downloads, is peer-to-peer (P2P) file sharing
technology. As discussed in Chapter 3, peer-to-peer file sharing starts with one user offering In 2015, the company who
files they are willing to share. By using the correct software, other users can then download a owned the rights to the movie
Dallas Buyers Club went to
copy of these files. Instead of downloading a file in one go, P2P software downloads packets the Federal Court of Australia
of the software at a time. As soon as one packet of data is received, that user can then start to demand that a number
of internet service providers
offering that packet of data to others. As more users share the same file, it creates more sources (ISPs) release the contact
from where packets of data can be received, speeding up the downloading process. details of their customers
File streaming is a data transfer concept where, as a file is received, it can start to be processed who were linked, via their IP
address, to downloading the
or viewed before the entire file is downloaded, meaning the content can be accessed faster. movie without the consent of
There are a number of people, or groups of people, who can be affected by illegal downloading the company, through a file
sharing network.
and streaming.

Key stakeholders
One group seriously affected by the illegal downloading or streaming of files are the creators,
THINK ABOUT
authors or artists of the original work. Historically, many artists in the music industry earned COMPUTING 4.3
a large proportion of their income from the sale of their songs including albums and CDs. In Brainstorm some other
many cases, the revenue made from selling music has completely dried up, because of illegal measures that could put in
place that could curb, or
downloading.
stop, the amount of illegal
Artists suffer as online piracy worsens, Australian Financial Review
downloads occurring in
On the other hand, some artists have reported an increase in people buying tickets for their Australia?
live concerts. One reason given for this is that as more people have been able to access the
artists’ music online, this has helped to increase demand for concert tickets.
The Australian Federal Government is also a stakeholder in the issue. With illegal
downloading and streaming becoming such a significant issue in Australia, the federal
government may have to act to protect the interests of the creators, authors and artists.
There has been speculation that the government is considering a range of measures
to help curb illegal downloading, including blocking websites related to illegal file sharing
and streaming and forcing internet service providers to hand over the details of individuals
suspected of illegally downloading files.
142 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

Visualising thinking tools for supporting reasoning and

decision making
Often, a better understanding of the issues, problems and solutions can be obtained if the
process described is presented visually. Visualising thinking tools assist with thinking processes
and reflect on the thinking strategies to support understanding. These tools assist with coding
and classifying themes, identifying patterns and linking relationships. Tools such as concept
Lucidchart is a free
maps, sequence charts, mind maps, Venn diagrams assist researchers to document their
online tool that
allows users to create decisions and clarify their thoughts. In Figure 4.4, a visual analysis of a digital systems issue is
diagrams presented using Inspiration, a visual mind-mapping software package.
An analysis of an issue can be answered using the following questions.
1 What information system is being used and how is it being used?
2 What is the reason for the use, development of or change in the information system that is
causing the concern?
3 Who are the people (the stakeholders) involved? (They can be individuals, institutions,
societies, locally or globally, who develop and implement, control and use the information
system, or anyone who is affected directly or indirectly.)
4 What are the advantages and disadvantages for the various stakeholders from the use of
information system?
5 What are the main issues for the stakeholders? How do the various advantages and
disadvantages for the various stakeholders create the issue?
6 What are the ethical principles, laws, policies or rules that apply to the various issues?
7 What are the detailed ethical issues associated with the impact of the information system?
Which principles, laws, policies or rules have been violated and how have they been
violated?
8 What is the range of feasible solutions (decisions and/or actions) that can reduce or
remove the negative impacts? How do they solve the problems?
9 What are the advantages and disadvantages of the various solutions?
10 Which solutions should be chosen? Why? Which solutions should be rejected? Why?
11 What action should be taken? Who should be responsible for performing and monitoring
the action? What is the timeline? What resources need to be used?
At the end of the process, all the relevant information will have been presented, various
solutions suggested, a solution justified and a plan of action outlined.

ETHICAL DILEMMAS
In Chapter 1 we looked at how competing principles (such as upholding freedom of
expression versus protecting children from possible harm) may sometimes present us
with a dilemma (for example, whether to permit or ban the sale of violent video games).
Recall the six-step framework presented in Chapter 1, to provide support and guidance
for making an ethical decision.
1 Identify the problem: What decision has to be made and what facts are required?
2 Identify the stakeholders: Who are they? What interests do they have? What power do
they have? Who is vulnerable? How are the vulnerable to be protected?
3 Identify possible alternatives: What options are available? What are the likely
consequences?
9780170364744 Chapter 4 Issues in information systems 143

4 Identify ethical standards: Are there any applicable laws? Are there any morals or
standards that could be applied? Is there a precedent?
5 Evaluate options: Identify strengths and weaknesses. Identify the option that causes
least harm. Can the decision be reversed?
6 Make a decision: Select the preferred option. Justify the option. Inform all stakeholders
of the decision.

Figures 4.3 and 4.4 provide some further tools for analysing problems and making decisions
using visualisation to clarify issues and processes.

Intel Education

FIGURE 4.3 Intel Online Showing Evidence Thinking Tool helps students to construct well-reasoned
arguments supported by evidence, using a visual framework
 144

ADVANTAGES ADVANTAGES
Advertising Appeals to
– buyers, sample Note: This issue is determined by analysing the people’s
songs clash between the major advantages for some SOLUTION decency.
STAKEHOLDER Best solution
stakeholders and the major disadvantages for Educate users
Music to only sample,
other stakeholders. The best solution would be
companies then buy. to provide the users with an
DISADVANTAGES
DISADVANTAGES alternative by selling quality
People will still
Loss of CD sales new music with a new type of
download.
service – an online site that
sells individual songs cheaply,
Computing VCE Units 1 & 2

and selling individualised

ADVANTAGES
Advertising CDs in music stores. This
REASON FOR USE – buyers, sample ADVANTAGES will encourage the correct
OF ICT songs Acts as deterrent, behaviour in a positive way
To download MP3 STAKEHOLDER especially if high – some will continue to
music file Musicians/ SOLUTION
profile. download, but most people
singers Catch the
DISADVANTAGES downloaders and will usually choose the best
Loss of royalties make them pay product and the best service.
from CD sales a fine. DISADVANTAGES
Hard to catch
them all so many
will not stop. Action – who, when, where,
MAIN ISSUE
ADVANTAGES
what
Buyers sample Music is being
The major record companies,
songs and then downloaded without
individual musicians, music shops
ICT USED buy CD being paid for. This
and others need to set up websites
P2P file-sharing STAKEHOLDER deprives music ADVANTAGES
software, e.g. Music stores
and in-store services that supply
companies, musicians, Deterrent to
Kazaa, BitTorrent others.
sample music. They need to do it
singers and music
DISADVANTAGES SOLUTION soon. New laws need to be made,
shops of income,
Loss of CD sales Fine the makers and those who download and set
jeopardising the music and distributors up downloading websites need to
industry. of the P2P
DISADVANTAGES be caught.
software. Why other solutions are
Hard to catch
and have a trial. not good enough
ADVANTAGES
Skills, prestige, The other solutions are
some advertising negative and will not solve
STAKEHOLDER the real problem of getting
Software the music industry to use the
producers
ADVANTAGES internet properly. Educating
DISADVANTAGES SOLUTION Keeps music and fining will not discourage
None Start up a cheap industry going. downloading because it is too
downloading easy to do, and there is little
service with good- chance of being caught. There

FIGURE 4.4 Visual analysis – the issues surrounding illegally downloading music
quality music or
sell individualised
is some deterrent factor, but
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
CDs to shops. not enough to force people
Easy to get a Some will use it,
large amount of to go back to buying CDs. The
but many will not.
free music publicity from the court cases
STAKEHOLDER can help with the education
Downloaders of downloaders and puts
pressure on them to do the
DISADVANTAGES
Music quality is right thing for their
less than that on favourite
CD musicians.

PRINCIPLE/LAWS ASSOCIATED WITH THE ISSUE

A copyright on a work gives authors and artists
exclusive rights to duplicate, publish and sell their
material. Authors and artists maintain they need
this control in order to get a return for their
efforts in creating the works.
9780170364744
 9780170364744 Chapter 4 Issues in information systems 145

Information systems and sport

The growth in the number of people using social networking sites over the last 10 to 20 years has
been amazing. One group that harnessed the power of social media are professional athletes.

Social media growth 2006–2012

1200

1000
Users (millions)

800

Key
600 Facebook
Twitter
400 Linkedin
WordPress
200 Tumblr
Google+
0 Pinterest
2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012
Year
FIGURE 4.5 Growth in social media sites 2006–2012

There are many reasons why social networking sites have become so popular. Interacting In June 2015, the account
with others online is one popular reason. Others reasons include seeking information and with the most followers
entertainment (for example, access to games or movies through social networking sites). on Twitter was Katy
Perry with more than
Supporting a cause, expressing an opinion, or just for leisure are further reasons why social 70 million followers. The
networking sites have become so popular. Organisations are trying to harness the power top sportsperson on the
list was footballer Cristiano
of social networking sites to help to promote and market their goods and services, while Ronaldo with more than
professional athletes use social media to connect and interact with their fans. 35 million followers.
In addition to interacting with their fans, a number of sports stars have made considerable
amounts of money by promoting particular products through their social networking accounts
– for a fee.
But, along with the benefits that can be achieved through the use of social media, there
are also many issues that athletes need to be careful of when broadcasting information to
the public.

Issues in sports
If a well-known athlete posted something with inappropriate language or information, it could
quickly spread through cyberspace and come to the attention of the mainstream media. Not only
can this reflect badly on the athlete, but also it may damage the reputation of any individuals
An article appearing
or organisations connected with them. Consequently, the athlete may lose supporters and in the Herald-Sun
sponsorship deals. newspaper in 2015
Another issue facing athletes interacting with fans on social media is the potential for online referred to the fact that
social media was one
abuse from strangers. Haters, trolls and even fans can leave abusive, racist or violent messages
of the biggest issues
on social networking sites. In some cases, a professional athlete can be attacked relentlessly facing the AFL at
and consistently by trolls and these attacks can affect the performances of the athlete and even present.
affect their personal or family lives.
Giving away strategic information or making opposition teams angry or upset is another
area where athletes need to be careful when posting on social network sites. A seemingly
harmless post about a team-mate’s injury or clues to team selection may give opposition clubs
an advantage.
146 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

Furthermore, athletes need to ensure that posts do not get them in trouble with either the
sports authorities or the police. AFL footballer Dane Swan landed himself in trouble with the
AFL in June 2011, after making a reference to drug testing procedures during the AFL season on
Collingwood star Dane
Swan says he is fed up Twitter. He later apologised for his outburst.
with 6 a.m. drug testing
Reasons for the issues
One reason for the issues professional athletes encounter when they use social media is the
THINK ABOUT instant nature of social media. If an athlete submits a post to a social networking site it will be
COMPUTING 4.4
Can you think of any other instantly available for others to view. If the athlete has posted material they should not have, it
issues that sportspeople need is too late.
to keep in mind when posting Another cause of athletes having problems when using social media arises from their rather
on social networking sites?
sizeable following, whether friends on Facebook, or followers on Twitter or Instagram. Even if
an athlete realises they have posted something they should not have, the chances are that a fan
will see the post within minutes (if not seconds) of the post being displayed.

Digital systems involved

A particularly popular social networking site is Facebook, which allows users to create personal
THINK ABOUT
COMPUTING 4.5 profiles, upload images and video, send messages and keep in touch with friends. There are
What are your privacy a number of networking technologies that make up Facebook. One of the most popular
settings on Facebook? Have components is the Wall, which acts as a bulletin board or forum where messages are left by
you ever changed any of
the privacy settings? Are
other users and comments can be added. Status updates are a form of microblogging where
you aware of all the privacy a user can broadcast short announcements to their friends. The messaging service allows
setting options? members to send short messages directly to one (or more) of their contacts without other
friends seeing the message. Facebook contains a number of privacy options for its members.
An individual can choose to allow anyone to see their information, choose if their information
is searchable, keep parts of their profile private and restrict who can see their posts.
Twitter is another popular social networking site used by athletes. It is similar in nature to
the status update feature in Facebook, in that it is a microblogging site. Members post ‘tweets’
that other users can see. Unlike Facebook, the default setting for Twitter is public, meaning
‘Friends’ in Facebook is a anyone can view the tweet – as long as the default settings have not been changed. Each tweet
term to describe your user can be up to 140 characters and may include hyperlinks. Each tweet is sent to any user who has
contacts. These contacts subscribed to the member’s account, and a copy of the tweet will appear on the member’s page
may or may not be actually
known by the user, but on the Twitter website for public consumption. A feature of tweets is they can also include a
once you add a ‘friend’ they hashtag (#), which acts like a metatag on a webpage to help categorise the tweet. Instagram is
usually have access to all
the data you upload to another popular social networking site. Like Facebook, it allows members to create a profile,
the site. but Instagram focuses on allowing members to upload and share images with others. Images
can be posted to a number of social networking sites.
Instagram also contains photo editing capabilities, allowing members to enhance the look
of their images before posting online. Hashtags are also a feature of Instagram, which helps
Details of a BBC study
members to classify each image so others can search for a particular topic.
on social media abuse
of premier league Key stakeholders
footballers during 2015 An athlete who uses social media appropriately may benefit from increased sponsorship and
endorsement deals, just as an athlete that uses social media inappropriately may lose these
types of commercial deals.
Fans benefit from being able to interact with their favourite sports stars, but many athletes
have stopped using social media as a result of abuse on social media. Missing out on interacting
with their favourite athletes means all fans are being punished because of the actions of a few.
9780170364744 Chapter 4 Issues in information systems 147

A club or team may encourage team members to use social media because the publicity may
help to increase membership or sponsorship. However, a decline in membership or sponsorship is
also possible if an inappropriate or irresponsible post is made by someone within the organisation.
In addition, companies and organisations who invest significant amounts of money in
both individual athletes and teams may quickly see their own brand damaged, as a result of an
association that they have with an athlete.

FIGURE 4.6 A wide range of social networking sites

Information systems and agriculture

Agriculture involves crop cultivation, irrigation and harvesting; animal raising, reproducing and
culling; as well as handling, transporting, packaging, preservation, processing, value-adding,
quality management, storage and marketing, for both crops and animal products. Information
systems and digital systems have been developed to assist with most, if not all, of these tasks.

Issues in agriculture
As new technology is being introduced, the amount of training required to be able to use and
maintain the new technology is significant. This has caused problems when equipment breaks The New South Wales
down and the farmer is not equipped with the skills (or equipment) to fix the problem, resulting Department of Primary
Industry publishes
in equipment sitting around for days or weeks waiting for a specialist to arrive to solve the
a periodical list of
problem. apps relevant to the
Short- and long-range weather forecasts are another area that can lead to issues with the agriculture sector.
agricultural sector. Farming is considered one of the riskiest professions in Australia. The type and
timing of each crop needs to be carefully planned. Weather forecasts
are an important input to the decision-making process for farmers. In
the long term, farmers want to know the weather conditions over the
next few months to a year, because this will have an impact on their
crops. On a daily basis, farmers need reliable information about daily
weather conditions so they can make decisions regarding the tasks

Shutterstock.com/My Portfolio
that will be completed on any given day. Spraying crops and controlled
burning are example of jobs where the weather forecast plays a critical
role. Getting the forecast wrong can have critical effects on farmers.

Reasons for the issues

Many farmers are very skilled at manually fixing equipment but can
be very inexperienced when dealing with modern technology and may
FIGURE 4.7 Modern agricultural equipment –
need to be completely retrained. Also, farmers are often in isolated
a combine harvester
locations and it can take time for technicians and other professionals
to visit farms to fix equipment.
Although technology has assisted in improving the accuracy of weather forecasts in recent
years, forecasts, by their nature, are predictions and, like all predictions, there are times when New high-tech farming
unknown variables may come into effect. equipment can be a
nightmare for farmers
148 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

Digital systems involved

The availability of technology that allows people in remote locations to communicate with
others has significantly helped people working in the agriculture industry.
More specifically, global positioning systems are often used in farming, particularly to assist
in surveying and fencing property boundaries. Global positioning systems are used to collect
data about the topography and contours of properties, where this data is then used to determine
Bureau of Meteorology
the types and timing of crops for a particular property; weather forecasting systems also can
(BoM) forecasts under be used as inputs to the crop planting process. Most modern farming equipment ( for example,
fire tractors and harvesters) come equipped with computing and sensor technology.

Key stakeholders
All of these systems have been created to help workers or farmers complete tasks more
efficiently, and effectively. This means that the task completed would be better than without
technology. Although technology has helped the agriculture sector, there have been some
THINK ABOUT
problems along the way.
COMPUTING 4.6 There are many people affected when things go wrong in the agricultural sector besides
Identify some other issues farmers. Staff, many who work on a casual basis, may have their hours reduced or lose their
where information systems
jobs. The general public can also be affected through the shortage of food or goods available to
have created issues in the
agricultural sector buy. During floods in Queensland in 2011, the price of bananas increased by more than 200 per
cent of the normal selling price as a result of a shortage.

Information systems and finance

With the advent of the internet during the 1980s and 90s, which helped to create a global
computer network, individuals and organisations started to harness the power of the internet
to conduct commerce or business transactions online. Many organisations started to set up
e-commerce websites that allowed their customers to complete transactions online. Banks,
florists, government departments, restaurants, shops and travel agents are all examples of
businesses that embraced the chance to conduct business online.
By communicating electronically, it also allowed stores to start accepting payment by credit
or debit card instead of cash only, banks introduced automatic teller machines and utility
companies (for example, electricity, gas and water) started to accepted online payments of bills.

screen grab of Amazon.com.au at 4 July 2015

FIGURE 4.8 Online retailer Amazon.com was founded in 1994. Amazon.com.au launched in November 2013.
9780170364744 Chapter 4 Issues in information systems 149

Issues related to e-commerce

THINK ABOUT
With the popularity of conducting transactions electronically has come an enormous amount COMPUTING 4.7
of issues regarding the security of the data and people involved in these transactions. What year did the first
Many electronic transactions involve the use of a card, such as a debit or credit card, to online shop appear? Was
Amazon the first online
complete the transaction. As a result of this, there is a possibility that the card data, including bookshop?
the card number, could fall into the wrong hands and the card could be used for additional
transactions not made by the cardholder.
Card skimming often occurs when the customer’s card is out of their sight; for example, at
a bar or in a restaurant. Another common place for skimming to occur is at an ATM, where a
skimming device is hidden behind the panel of the machine and skims the data as the customer
inserts the card to complete a transaction. Often, a tiny camera will also be used in conjunction
with the skimming device to capture the PIN that goes with the card.
Phishing is another method used to collect card data without the consent of the owner. As
discussed in Chapter 3, phishing involves unauthorised people sending emails to individuals
pretending to be; for example, a bank or some other type of financial institution, stating
something along the lines that the person’s account is locked and that to unlock their account
the person needs email back their card details and PIN.
Another issue that has developed with the growth of e-commerce transactions is the issue
of identity theft. Identity theft can be similar to card skimming in that hackers and other
unauthorised people start to ‘steal’ data from individuals conducting e-commerce transactions.
But, rather than just steal card details and PINs, they start to collect a
wide range of personal and financial details about a person including
their name, date of birth, address, work history, banking details and
driver’s licence number. Some of this data is easily accessible on social

AAP Image/Queensland Police

networking sites. Criminals have even been known to go through victims’
rubbish bins to obtain one or two pieces of data they did not already have.
Once enough information is collected about a person, criminals
then may be able to apply online for a credit card or loan, without the
knowledge of the victim. Often they change the victim’s postal address so
no documentation is received and, in some cases, the first the victim hears
about these credit cards or loans is when either debt collectors start chasing FIGURE 4.9 False card reader containing card
them for default repayments or they are refused a new credit card or loan. skimmer added to an ATM

ISSUE Identity theft hits one in five: study

July 5 2012, Alexandra Smith and Dominic Bossi

One in five Australians have had their identities stolen or had their personal or financial data illegally
accessed, with credit card crime such as skimming one of the major problems plaguing consumers,
a new study suggests.
The Australian Debt Study, released today, shows that Australians aged 35–49 are the most likely
group to fall victim to identity fraud while 18–24 year olds are the least likely to report illegal access to
their personal or financial data.
The data intelligence group Veda, which surveyed more than 1000 Australian adults, also found
that people earning more than $70,000 are much more likely to be targeted for bank account and
credit card crime than those earning $40,000 a year or less and cases of identity theft and financial
fraud are highest in Western Australia and NSW.
Findings also show that almost one in three Australians suffered some form of credit crime and lost
their wallet containing credit cards and identification.
Matthew Strassberg, a Veda senior advisor said: “Identity crime is a thriving industry in Australia,
with the Australian Bureau of Statistics estimating the cost of personal fraud to consumers at
$1.4 billion dollars a year.
150 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

“Whilst credit card fraud is a common form of identity crime, many people do not realise that with
only a small amount of personal data, an identify thief could take out a second mortgage on a house,
or open up a new line of personal credit and purchase items in their name or under a false identity.”
The results of the study come as a 29-year-old Mascot man was yesterday charged with the alleged
possession of ATM skimming devices, hundreds of bank cards and seven duplicating machines.
Police spoke to the man and searched his van after he had allegedly parked illegally on Darling Point
Road, Darling Point at 12:30pm on Wednesday. He will appear at Downing Centre Local Court on July 25.
[July 5 2012, Alexandra Smith and Dominic Bossi] Sydney Morning Herald

Reasons for the issues

When financial and e-commerce transactions are conducted, sensitive data is transmitted. This
attracts criminals who try to use this opportunity for their own personal gain. The techniques
and practices that criminals used to try and capture financial data are always changing and
being refined.
Another reason that these issues occur is that often the victim is unaware of the dangers that
they are putting themselves in by conducting an e-commerce transaction, whether handing
over their credit card in a restaurant, purchasing goods online or replying to an email or phone
call from the ‘bank’.

Digital systems involved

Card skimming involves stealing the data stored on a card’s magnetic strip, using a card reading
device. The card data is then copied onto a ‘clone’ card, which is then used for unauthorised
transactions, or the card data is used in online transactions where the card does not need to
be shown.
Another method used to capture card details is while they are been sent across the network
from one location to another. The data is sent across the network in packets and it is possible
that these packets can be intercepted by unauthorised people as they are travelling between
devices. Once intercepted, the data within each packet can be read and, if useful, then used.
Phishing often involves sending emails pretending to be from a financial institution. The
email may include the same font and logo of a real organisation, but often the email address
itself may be a giveaway.
Identity theft involves the uses of a variety of digital and physical methods to collect data
from the victim.

Key stakeholders
The issues around e-commerce can have far-reaching consequences. For a victim of either card
or identity fraud, not only could he or she lose money initially, but any defaults regarding their
repayments may be recorded on his or her credit report, which could result in credit applications
being declined for years to come. Also, there is always the possibility that the criminals involved
may try to use the data again.
Businesses are also affected by identity theft. Banks and financial institutions may cover
some or all of the cost of money lost through card or identity theft. This in turn gets passed onto
the other customers of the organisation through higher charges or interest rates.
There are a number of precautions individuals and organisations can take to reduce the
chances of card or identity theft. Firstly, they can limit the amount of information provided on
social networking sites. Many online accounts get users to create security questions – used to
reset the password if forgotten. Often the answers to these questions can be found on personal
profile sites like Facebook. Cover the keypad when using an ATM. This may not stop the card
being skimmed, but may stop the scammers getting the PIN that goes with the card. Do not
complete e-commerce transactions on public computers such as those in internet cafes or on
9780170364744 Chapter 4 Issues in information systems 151

unsecured wi-fi networks, so data cannot be stolen using spyware or keylogging software. Only
THINK ABOUT
give personal and banking details on trusted websites and do not respond to emails or SMS COMPUTING 4.8
messages asking you to give sensitive details such as the username and password of an account Create a list of other
– phone the organisation directly if you are unsure. Only give sensitive information on sites that issues that may result from
completing transactions
use a secure protocol, where encryption is used to encode the data, so if it is intercepted, it will
online.
not be understood.

Shutterstock.com/
Jozsef Bagota
FIGURE 4.10 Secure protocols

Information systems and health

Electronic health records (EHR) are used to collect the medical
history of a patient. An EHR holds personal details including
age, height and weight, medical history, medications previously

Dreamstime.com/Pandpstock001
prescribed, allergies, blood-test results and more. The data is
saved in a digital format that allows the history, or elements
of the history, to be shared over a networked environment, the
internet and shared between information systems. The system
ensures that a complete patient’s history is available, in the one
location, when required. An EHR helps to reduce duplication
of data as only one copy of the file exists. This also reduces the
chance of input errors and helps to improve the integrity of data.
FIGURE 4.11 Electronic health record (EHR)
Issues in health
With all the advantages that an EHR brings there are a number of problems associated with
its use. Patient privacy is a large concern related to the growth of EHRs. A significant feature
of the electronic records is that, because they are transferable between the multiple health
professionals a patient may consult, the chances of the records being sent to the wrong location
or accessed by unauthorised staff, either accidently or on purpose, is significantly increased.
The problem of user dependency has also arisen in the use of EHRs. A hospital in Western
Australia faced a situation where, because of a network failure, the hospital was without access
to any of its digital systems, including EHRs of its patients, for more than 14 hours. The problem
was caused by a fault with the hospital’s data centre, which was located in Spain.
A study into EHRs found that some medical professionals were reluctant to use a new type
of information system.

Emergency physicians noticed that Electronic Health Records disrupted

workflow and was less desirable to use. The health information
exchange systems need to adapt to the needs of the end user to be
both useful and useable for emergency physicians.
Emergency Physicians’ Perspectives on Their Use of Health Information Exchange, Thorn,
Shirley A. et al., Annals of Emergency Medicine, Volume 63, Issue 3, 329 – 337

Reasons for the issues

THINK ABOUT
The Health Records Act 2001 (Vic) is a set of laws that protect the rights of an individual’s health COMPUTING 4.9
records. The act outlines what data can be collected, how the data can be used, who has the right Create a list of the 11
to access the files and even how the data must be stored. The Health Records Act 2001 (Vic) applies Health Privacy Principles
contained in the Health
to all medical records in Victoria, in both the public and private sectors. There are 11 Health Privacy
Records Act 2001 (Vic).
Principles (HPPs) contained in the Act, which outline how medical data must be handled.
152 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

Digital systems involved

An EHR stores the data and information regarding an individual’s health history on a server in
the one location. As the record is stored in the one location, whenever the data in the record is
updated or changed it will ensure that the record remains complete and up to date.
The EHR will be accessible via a network connection, so it allows the data and information
to be portable. For example, if the patient needs to see a specialist for the first time, the specialist
will be able to access the patient’s full medical history via a network connection.

Key stakeholders
The patient involved will benefit from an EHR because whenever they need medical attention
their full medical history will be available to the health professional they are visiting. Nonetheless
because the health records will be stored on a network environment, there is a chance that the
records may be accessed by unauthorised users.
Health professionals will also benefit from the use of EHRs as complete patient histories will
be available, to assist in providing the best treatment possible. Yet health professionals still need
training and support to be able to use the new information system as effectively as possible.

ISSUE Fiona Stanley Hospital systems crash

Daniel Emerson, 16 February, 2015, 5:51 a.m.

Doctors, nurses and administrators at Australia’s most technologically advanced hospital were
reduced to scribbling on paper when WA Health’s computer systems crashed for more than
14 hours.
Fiona Stanley Hospital reverted to ‘downtime procedures’ during a Statewide outage after the
department’s main data centre in Malaga, run by Japanese technology giant Fujitsu, failed early this
month.
It is understood lightning storms caused the problems on February 1.
A Health Department spokesman said the crash resulted in the loss of clinical and non-clinical
computer applications and the IT network, including email, from 2.55pm until 5am the next day.
Staff had to use pens and paper and then enter patient data once the system came back online.
‘The health information network staff, together with the vendor (Fujitsu), responded immediately to
convene management, resolution and a review of the impact to health care services,’ the spokesman said.
‘Hospitals also enacted their downtime procedures and hospital business continuity plans to
ensure patient safety was never compromised.’
Bankwest, which also uses the data centre, had crashes to its phone and online banking, ATM and
EFTPOS services.
[Daniel Emerson, 16 February, 2015] The West Australian
AAP Image/Richard Wainwright

FIGURE 4.12 Fiona Stanley

hospital had to respond to an
information systems crash.
9780170364744 Chapter 4 Issues in information systems 153

Expressing opinions THINK ABOUT

COMPUTING 4.10
There are many ways a user of an information system can express their opinion about the There are many more
system online. information systems used
in the health sector besides
Social media EHR. Can you think of
any? Can you think of any
Social media are common outlets where users can broadcast their opinions on information issues that may arise from
systems. Social media sites allow the user, with a few keystrokes, to express an opinion that their use?
potentially can spread quickly without much effort. They can then quickly interact with others
with opinions on the same system.
There are many social networking sites with sites or topics devoted to the Myki ticketing
system used for public transport in Melbourne and the surrounding areas. Search #Myki to see the
When a group of users interact using social media, this may assist in promoting a cause or social media discussions
encouraging action. around this topic.

Forums and bulletin boards

Forums and bulletin boards are also platforms that allow users to express their opinions about
information systems.
Many organisations attach a forum page to their website to allow their visitors to share and
discuss information and to offer their opinions, while some websites function solely as a forum
or discussion board.
Whirlpool is a website created to cater to broadband internet users. It contains one of
Australia’s biggest internet forums that specialises in information and digital systems.

FIGURE 4.13 Whirlpool forum

Ratings systems
Some websites set up rating systems so that users can give feedback about information systems.
Rating system allow the user to give feedback about the information product in a quick and
efficient manner. Many sites use a five-star rating system but many variations of rating systems
are used on different sites
154 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

Also many sites allow a user to give feedback by leaving comments. This offers an advantage
over a traditional rating system, because the user can be more specific about what they did or
did not like about the system. The comment can be similar to a forum post in that other users
can read the opinion and the comment might give more detail about how the system operates.
Also, potential users tend to trust the opinions of their peers much more than any organisation-
driven marketing or advertising campaign. Finally, online comments allow the organisation to
get honest feedback regarding the strengths and weaknesses of their products or services.

CBS Interactive Inc.

FIGURE 4.14 Five-star rating system

CBS Interactive Inc.

FIGURE 4.15 Comment feedback

9780170364744 Chapter 4 Issues in information systems 155

Methods and techniques to acquire

data and information
When investigating issues associated with the use of information systems, you need to use a
variety of primary and secondary data.
The best research uses both forms of data, as they can be used to explore issues more
comprehensively. For example, secondary sources can provide questions to be used in primary
research and, in return, primary research can provide ideas that need further secondary research.
The good place to start is with a review of secondary sources related to the information system.

Primary data collection methods

Primary sources involve collecting data from the stakeholders involved in the information
system issue directly. A number of methods can be used to collect data first-hand. Interviews,
observations and surveys are all common methods of collecting primary data.
To collect data either by interviewing, observing or surveying can provide different insights
and often more in-depth data than information from secondary sources. The data will often be
more up to date and can provide unusual and important insights into issues, especially at the
immediate local level, than secondary sources can, because secondary sources often present
overall conclusions and general summaries.

Interview
An interview involves a conversation between two or more people where questions are asked
and the interviewees give their answers to the question. Interviews are useful as the in-depth
responses can be elicited from the people involved. A range of questions can be asked and the
conversation can change focus at any stage depending on the nature of the responses.
An advantage of the face-to-face interview technique is that both non-verbal signals and
emotions can also be picked up by the interviewer. A user’s enthusiasm for an information
system may not be totally captured by a phone interview technique alone, because body
language and facial expression may also paint some of the picture. The same may apply to
issues and areas of concern that the user may be reluctant to discuss or only want to give brief
generic answers.
Disadvantages of interviews is they can be time consuming as the interviewer obviously
needs to be present throughout the process, this, in turn, makes interviewing a relatively
expensive data-collection method. As a result, this may limit the number of interviews that
take place to only a handful of key stakeholders.

Observations
Observation involves watching users interact with an information system to collect data where
and when the activity is taking place.
An advantage of observations is that the observer does not have to rely on other people’s
responses to or opinions about the system. The observer is seeing for themselves how the
system is operating. Observation techniques include making mental and physical notes and
taking photographs.
One disadvantages of collecting data through observations is that the people, knowing
they are being observed, may act and behave differently to how they would normally. Also,
observations may help identify issues with an information system but may not uncover
the underlying reasons for them or effects the issues are having and, similar to interviews,
observations can be very time consuming and expensive to conduct.
 156 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

Surveys
Surveys are a popular method of collecting primary data. A survey consists of a series of
Some online surveys, called
‘dynamic surveys’, are predetermined questions that can then be sent to a participant. The responses to each question
designed to show differentmight involve selecting from a list of alternatives, similar to a multiple-choice question, may
questions based on the
answers given to previous
involve writing a comment or a combination of these methods. Techniques for conducting
surveys include in person, over the phone, through the post or online.
questions. This is known as
question routing. The biggest advantage of a survey is that it can collect opinions from a wide range of people
in an inexpensive and timely manner. Surveys can be sent via email or conducted through a
website to get the opinions of hundreds or thousands of users. Some
people find completing a survey less intimidating than an interview, so
therefore may be prepared to give more honest feedback, particularly
Shutterstock.com/Andrey_Popov

if the survey is anonymous.

Disadvantages of surveys include surveys not being completed or
only partial completed. Some participants may not take much care
or effort in the way they answer the questions on the survey. Another
disadvantage is that data collected is based solely on the questions
asked. Unlike an interview, in a survey it is difficult to change the
course of the questions or ask for in-depth answers, as the structure of
FIGURE 4.16 Online survey the survey is often fixed.

Qualitative and quantitative data

When collecting data, the data can often be grouped into one of two categories, qualitative or
quantitative data.
Preferably, the primary data you collect would be quantitative data, because this is much
easier to process into information.

School is fun
7

6
Number of students

3
Strongly agree 5
2 Agree 6
Neutral 4
1 Disagree 3
Strongly disagree 1
0
Strongly Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly
agree Disagree
Opinion
FIGURE 4.17 Example of quantitative data

Unfortunately, not all data required can be collected in this format. Qualitative data is also
required, as personal opinions and ideas also make up part of the story. Qualitative data is
harder to manipulate into information as the type and number of possible responses make this
difficult. Methods are required to manipulate the data into useful information.
Wordclouds are one tool that may be useful in manipulating qualitative data. Each time a
word appears in a block of text the font size of that word is increased in the word cloud.
9780170364744 Chapter 4 Issues in information systems 157

Used Devices Secondary Primary

Evaluate Study Software
Associated
Student Outcome Functions Computing Entertainment Teams Develop
Appropriate Viewpoints
Data Techniques Knowledge
Example Responsibilities Appearance
Presents Problem
Create Stakeholders
Approach Team
Methods plans Issues Authoring Design
Acquired View Solving Impact Cloud
Manipulate Record Support Web
Use Tasks Text End-users
Storing Acquire Encouraging
Express Evidence Ethical Empowered Opinions System User Social
Actions
Appraise Shape Area Apply
Mobile Visualising Digital
Field Select Particular
Solutions Architecture key Thinking
Skills
Content
Analyse Encourage Monitor Website Project Sources
Examine

tools Students Systems

Point
Approaches
About Contemporary
Using Principles
Online Interactions Issue Different
Individuals
Environmental
Legal

FIGURE 4.18 A wordcloud created using the study design for VCE Computing

A histogram is another tool that may help to process qualitative data. Although histograms Secondary data
are used to represent graphically the distribution of numerical data, they can also be used to
represent qualitative data. To do this, you first have to sort the data into groups or categories. Examples of sources
The illustration below shows an example of a histogram being used to convert qualitative data Libraries
into a quantitative format. After the opinions were collected about their favourite thing at
Bookshops
school, these opinions were classified or grouped into broad categories. The frequency of each
group was then converted to a graph. Organisations

Methods of acquiring
What is your favourite thing about school?
RAW DATA FREQUENCY DATA DRAWN FROM RAW DATA
Books
Teachers are nice Home time Subjects 4
My friends Physical education Teachers 4
French is fun Range of subjects Friends 2 Websites
Close to my house Ms Neil my maths teacher Safety 1
School canteen English Other 3 Application
Television
My science teacher Playing with friends
I feel safe Mr Brown Radio

Favourite thing about school Apps

5
Newspapers
4
Reports
3
Techniques used to acquire
2
Downloading

1 Screen capturing

0 Application
Listening
Subjects Teachers Friends Safety Other
Podcasting
FIGURE 4.19 Example of qualitative data being converted to quantitative data
Note-taking
Secondary sources Photocopying or
recording
Secondary sources were traditionally books, newspapers and journals, and they were often mainly
Making mental notes
accessed in libraries (Figure 4.20). Nowadays, many secondary sources can be found on the internet,
and they come many formats, including text, audio and video. However, despite the easy access to FIGURE 4.20 Secondary
data: Sources, methods of
information that the internet affords, do not discount libraries – the reference staff are often able to acquiring, and techniques
provide you with better quality, more relevant secondary data. used to acquire
158 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

Although Wikipedia is a
No matter which secondary sources you use, the quality of the information needs to be
popular and convenient evaluated carefully. A good technique when using data from secondary sources is to find two or
source of data and more sources that confirm the same findings.
information, that does not
mean the information on it
is true. Referencing secondary sources of data
There are a number of methods that can be used to reference both primary and secondary
Referencing primary
sources was discussed in sources of data.
Chapter 1. The Harvard referencing style is also referred to as an author–date style of referencing.
TABLE 4.2 The Harvard referencing system

In-text reference Reference list

This book looks at how individuals and organisations use, and Lawson, J., Keane, T., Kelly, M.,
can be affected by, information systems in their daily lives. Potts, C., & Sullivan, A.,
Lawson et al (2016, p. v) 2016, Computing VCE Units
1 & 2 6th edn, Cengage
Learning Australia, South
Melbourne.
Guide to Harvard referencing method, University of Sydney, 2010

TABLE 4.3 Referencing a website using the Harvard style

In-text reference Reference list

Usually the author or creator of a work is the copyright owner University of Sydney 2010,
(University of Sydney 2010, ‘Who owns copyright?’ para. 1). Guide to copyright, University of
Note: The heading of the section was ‘Who owns copyright?’ Sydney, viewed 24 January 2011,
http://sydney.edu.au/copyright/
students/coursework.
shtml#who

Many universities
publish guides to the
Data integrity
Harvard referencing
Data integrity refers to the quality of the data held. There are a number of ways that can be used
method. to measure the quality of data. This includes accuracy, correctness and reasonableness.

Accuracy
Measures should be put in place to help
THINK ABOUT
COMPUTING 4.11 reduce the chances of incorrect data
Other referencing methods being entered. Validation techniques are
include the American often used on forms and surveys that
Psychological Association
may reduce the chances of incorrect data
(Latest Edition), Chicago,
and Institute of Electrical being entered, increasing the chances
and Electronics Engineers that the data is accurate. Many online
(IEEE). Explain any forms include validation techniques
differences between the
such as radio buttons, dropdown lists,
methods.
checkboxes, date time pickers and so on,
to make it easier for the user to enter data
and to give them less scope to make an
mistake.

FIGURE 4.21 Input form with validation to

reduce the chance of errors
9780170364744 Chapter 4 Issues in information systems 159

Correctness THINK ABOUT

The data collected needs to be suitable for its purpose. Is the data collected relevant to the issue COMPUTING 4.12
Think of other websites
being investigated? Is the data collected in a suitable format? Can qualitative data be converted
where you have been
to quantitative data so it can be manipulated? Or is the data collected in a correct data type? asked to enter data. What
Can an audio interview then be converted into text so a wordcloud of the conversation can be other types of validation
created? techniques are used to help
improve the reasonableness
and accuracy of the data?
Reasonableness
Reasonableness is related to whether the data collected is normal or acceptable for that type
of data item. If collecting data about a student’s age, if the data entered were ‘apples’ this would
not be reasonable for this data item (age). Validation techniques can again be used to help to
ensure that the data is reasonable.

Storing shared files

In simple terms, cloud computing means storing data, information and
software on a server located in remote location, rather than on your computer’s
hard drive. The data, information and software would be accessed via an
internet connection.
The ‘cloud’ is a metaphor for the internet. Traditionally, network diagrams Internet
would represent an internet connection as a cloud symbol, so the practice of
saving data and information to a remote location, using an Internet connection,
was referred to as cloud computing.
The location of the remote servers will depend on the organisation hosting
the data. Large organisations, such as Apple and Microsoft, will have numerous
data centres set up in different locations around the world. Some smaller cloud
FIGURE 4.22 Network diagram representing
providers may only have a data centre in one location.
the internet as a cloud symbol
Getty Images/Craig Mitchelldyer

FIGURE 4.23 Google’s data centre in Council Bluffs, Iowa

160 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

Advantages
There are a number of advantages to using a cloud service for hosting or storage.
THINK ABOUT
COMPUTING 4.13
• Data and information can be accessed using any device.
Think of some organisations • Data and information can be accessed from any location.
who offer cloud services for • It saves storage space and system resources on the user’s computer.
free. Why do you think they • Data is stored in a remote location so in the event of a local disaster, the data will be safe.
would be happy to provide • If a copy of the data is stored on the cloud, it automatically creates a backup of the data.
this free service?
• It can save money as the user does not need to purchase any storage media, such as a
file server.
• Data and information can be shared by nominated groups of people.

Disadvantages
There are also a number of disadvantages of using a cloud service for storage or hosting.
• Privacy of data is a concern.
• The level of security at the data centre is unknown.
• If a user’s internet connection goes down, then the data cannot be accessed.
• Client data can be lost if the cloud service provider goes out of business.
• The location of the data centre storing the data is often unknown.
• Data could be stored in a country where different laws apply, which could compromise the
safety of the data.

Mobile devices and web design

As the number of users using a mobile device to access webpages has rapidly increased, the
importance of designing a website for use on a mobile device has become more important.
Many organisations have created separate sites linked to the one URL: One for desktops
and notebooks and another site designed for use by mobile devices. When visiting the URL, the
system will detect the type of device being used and show the site appropriate for that device.

FIGURE 4.24 Web design for mobile devices

Some of the factors to consider when designing a website for use on a mobile device include
the following.

Screen size
The size of the screen will have a significant impact on the design of the webpage. Compared
with a website created for use on a desktop or notebook computer, the amount of information
that is visible at the one time is significantly reduced when the site is viewed on a mobile device.
9780170364744 Chapter 4 Issues in information systems 161

Screen resolution
The resolution of the display also needs to be taken into consideration. Resolution is often
measured in dots per inch (DPI). The higher the resolution, the higher the quality of the
webpage. This may affect the amount of information that can displayed at once or influence the
types of input methods used.

Input method
Desktops and notebooks are generally used with a keyboard and mouse. Mobile devices may
not have the same options of input methods. Some devices have in-built keyboards, some touch
screen capabilities, others use a stylus. The type of input method will need to be considered
when designing the website. Should the site have a menu system? Is text entry required? Can
all the functions of the site be operated by buttons?

Speed of data transmission

The speed of the internet connection also needs to be considered. With new cellular 4G
connections, data download speeds have improved significantly. This has reduced the time taken
to download and view larger file types such as audio and video files. But not all devices may be
able to access a network with transmission speeds fast enough to download larger file types.

Cost of data transmission

The cost users pay to transfer data also needs to be considered when designing the functions to
include in the website. Many mobile devices use plans with data limits or caps, so limiting the
amount of data required to view the website would be optimal.

Device resources
Mobile devices may contain components with less capabilities than desktop and notebook
devices. CPU, RAM capabilities may be significantly less powerful and the amount of hard disk
space significantly less. This may affect the design by reducing the amount of data required or
the processing needed to view the site.

Battery life
As mobile devices, due to their nature, generally use a portable power supply (battery) the
website should be designed in a way that reduces the drain on the battery. High-resolution
videos, animation and bright colours should be avoided.
 162 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

ESSENTIAL TERMS
CHAPTER SUMMARY

card skimming a practice where the data from a identity theft stealing individual pieces of
card’s magnetic strip is copied, using a card information about a person, until the thief has
reader device; the card data is then copied enough data to take out a loan or a credit card in
onto a ‘clone’ card, which is then used for the victim’s name or otherwise impersonate the
unauthorised transactions or the card data is victim
used in online transactions where the card does information system a structure consisting of a
not need to be shown combination of a digital system (hardware and
cloud computing storage of data at a remote software), data, processes and people that
location, rather than on the user’s device interact to create, control and communicate
copyright a form of intellectual property, copyright ideas and digital solutions
states that the creator of the original work (e.g. integrity of data relates to data quality’s three
song, movie or game is the legal owner of that characteristics: accuracy, correctness and
work and has the exclusive rights on how that reasonableness
work can be used and distributed; in Australia, peer-to-peer file sharing a method of transferring
laws relating to copyright are contained in the files often used to transfer files illegally
Copyright Act 1968 (Cth)
primary data data collected directly (first-hand)
e-commerce the buying and selling of goods and from the stakeholder involved in the issue
services, or transferring funds over a computer
qualitative data subjective data about qualities –
network, commonly the internet
opinions, comments and personal experiences
electronic health record (EHR) a digital copy of an that are difficult to measure or manipulate
individual’s medical record
quantitative data objective data about quantities –
forum an online bulletin board where users can it is numeric data that is easy to interpret
post, read messages, and leave replies; also
secondary data data from another source that has
known as a discussion board
already collected the primary data; for example,
Harvard referencing style a method of referencing a newspaper, or a website
primary and secondary data sources
stakeholders people affected by a given issue
Health Records Act 2001 (Vic) a set of laws
streaming allows the users to start viewing a file
that protect the rights of an individual’s health
before it is completely downloaded
records in Victoria
wordclouds a tool that may be useful in
histogram a tool that may help to process
manipulating qualitative data; each time a word
qualitative data. Although histograms are used
appears in a block of text, the font size of that
to represent graphically the distribution of
word is increased in the word cloud
numerical data; they can be used to represent
qualitative data, if it is first sorted into groups
or categories
9780170364744 Chapter 4 Issues in information systems 163

IMPORTANT FACTS covering your hand when entering a PIN at an

CHAPTER SUMMARY
ATM, and avoiding using e-commerce websites
1 Issues arise when an information system causes
on free or open wi-fi networks.
tension and conflict between stakeholders.
15 The Health Records Act (Vic) includes 11 Health
2 The Copyright Act 1968 (Cth) outlines the laws
Privacy Principles.
related to copyright.
16 Issues related to Electronic Health Records
3 A breach of the Copyright Act 1968 (Cth) could
include medical staff resistance to change and
result in fines or imprisonment.
user dependency.
4 Many artists are losing out financially as a result
17 Social media is a popular way for users to
of illegal downloading.
express their opinions of an information system.
5 Many sportspeople use social media to socialise
18 Rating systems and comments are other ways in
with their fans.
which opinions can be expressed.
6 Posting of inappropriate information has
19 Interviews, observations and surveys are
damaged the reputation of some sportspeople.
methods of collecting primary data.
7 Online abuse has led some sports stars to stop
20 Word clouds are a method used to visualise
using social media.
qualitative data.
8 Opposition teams have been given an advantage
21 Histograms can also be used to visualise
through leaked information on social media.
qualitative data, if the data can be grouped.
9 Popular types of social media sites used include
22 When using secondary data it is
Facebook, Twitter and Instagram.
very important to check the quality of
10 Information systems are heavily used in the
the data.
agriculture sector.
23 Advantages of cloud computing include
11 Changing practices in the industry are causing
accessibility, portability and reducing expenses.
conflict between the stakeholders.
24 Disadvantages of cloud computing include
12 Incorrect weather forecasts can have significant
security, privacy and legal concerns
impact on the farming industry.
25 Factors to consider when designing a website
13 E-commerce has developed with the
for use with mobile devices includes screen size,
development of the internet.
screen resolution, input method, data transfer
14 Precautions to help avoid card and identity
speed and cost of data transfer.
theft include limiting the amount and kind of
information posted on social networking sites,
164 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE

Qz
INFORMATION SYSTEMS IN ACTION
1 List the four components of an information system.
Review quiz
Review quiz 2 Explain what the term ‘digital system’ means.
3 Describe how an issue can occur in relation to an information system.
4 Explain what the term ‘stakeholder’ means.
5 List three reasons why people illegally download files.
6 Identify a situation where downloading a file may be legal.
7 Define ‘copyright’.
8 Explain how the concepts of copyright and intellectual property are related.
9 Name the Act outlining laws about copyright in Australia.
10 Explain how peer-to-peer (P2P) file sharing works.
11 Contrast downloading with streaming.
12 Outline how artists may be disadvantaged by illegal downloading and streaming.
13 Explain why sportspeople might use social media sites.
14 Discuss three ways that social media may become problematic for sportspeople.
15 List three social networking sites often used by sportspeople.
16 Explain the purpose of a hashtag.
17 List some uses of GPS in the agricultural sector.
18 Discuss some of the negatives around the introduction of new technology in the
agricultural sector.
19 Explain how incorrect weather forecasts can cause issues for farmers.
20 Explain why e-commerce has become so popular.
21 Define ‘card skimming’. List two places card skimming may occur.
22 Explain what ‘phishing’ means.
23 Explain how identity theft is different to card detail theft.
24 Discuss three precautions people can take to reduce their chances of both card and
identity theft.
25 Explain the type of data held in an Electronic Health Record (EHR).
26 Outline two issues arising from the use of an Electronic Health Record (EHR).
27 Name the Act that outlines the laws relating to the use of medical records in Victoria.
9780170364744
9780170364829 Chapter 4 Issues in information systems 165

EXPRESSING OPINIONS
28 Discuss why social media sites are a popular outlet to express opinions about information
systems.
29 Explain an advantage of using a five-star rating system as a method of collecting opinions.
30 Describe the advantages of written comments over a rating system for opinions.
31 Explain how a forum operates.

METHODS AND TECHNIQUES TO ACQUIRE DATA AND

INFORMATION
32 Explain the difference between primary and secondary data sources.
33 Discuss when an interview would be preferable to a survey when collecting data.
34 Discuss when a survey would be preferable to an interview when collecting data.
35 Outline one method to assess the reliability of data from a secondary source.
36 Explain how qualitative data differs from quantitative data.
37 Describe how a wordcloud works.
38 Explain how a histogram can be used to process qualitative data.
39 Name two methods used to reference primary and secondary sources.

DATA INTEGRITY
40 List the three characteristics of quality data.

STORING SHARED FILES

41 Define ‘cloud computing’.
42 List three advantages of cloud computing.
43 List three disadvantages of cloud computing.

MOBILE DEVICES AND WEB DESIGN

44 Explain why websites used in mobile devices need to be designed differently to websites
used on notebooks or desktops.
45 Distinguish between screen size and screen resolution.
46 List three ways that data may be entered into a mobile device.
47 Explain how the speed of transmission differs to the cost of transmission.
166 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

APPLY YOUR KNOWLEDGE

Practise analysing information systems issues and problems before attempting Unit 1, Outcome 3.
For each of the following situations:
• outline the nature of the issue
• identify any legal, social, environmental or ethical factors related to the issue
• describe the information system being used
• identify the stakeholders involved
• explain how each stakeholder identified is affected by the issue.

ISSUES
1 An employee uses her computer at work to make comments about the workplace, her
employer, her supervisor, fellow workers and customers on her Facebook page. Some of
these people have noticed the comments and are not happy about them. They have asked
that she be sacked.
2 A family has noticed their son spending a lot of time playing an online computer game
with his friends, and it seems to be affecting his school work and his relationships with his
family. His parents want to take his computer away from him.
3 The board of a company that wants to save money has decided that most of its hardware
and software will be transferred to a cloud-computing company. Many of the digital
systems staff do not think it will benefit the company.
4 A country hospital has decided to buy an expert system to help diagnose patient illnesses
because it is having problems finding enough medical staff who want to live in a country
town. Some of the townspeople are concerned that it might be used by inexperienced
doctors and the nurses to diagnose illnesses when the main doctor is too busy or is away.
5 A university student who is short of money has found a website that is selling musical
instruments much cheaper than the prices in the local shops. Her friends are not
enthusiastic about her using the website, but she insists on going ahead with the purchase
using her father’s credit card.
9780170364744 Chapter 5 Approaches to problem solving 167

CHAPTER
APPROACHES TO PROBLEM
SOLVING
Key knowledge
After completing this chapter, you will be able to demonstrate knowledge of:
Approaches to problem solving
• key principles of information architecture
• characteristics of effective user interfaces for mobile devices, for example useability,
accessibility, tolerance, visibility, legibility, consistency, affordance
• design principles that influence the appearance of websites
• design tools and techniques for representing websites
• formats and conventions suitable for websites
• software functions and techniques for manipulating and validating data, and testing
websites
• tools and techniques for coordinating the tasks, people, digital systems resources
and time required to create solutions.

For the student

Designing and developing a website collaboratively requires extensive preparation and
organisation. The purpose of this chapter is to assist you with designing a website for
Unit 1, Outcome 3, paying special attention to the principles of information architecture.
The design and development stages of the problem-solving methodology are described
in detail. You will explore techniques for representing designs, manipulating data into
information, and formats and conventions for websites.

For the teacher

This chapter introduces students to solving information problems through the use of
information systems. A problem-solving methodology is discussed, with the emphasis on
design and development. The content of this chapter leads students to an awareness of
creating digital solutions using various techniques and procedures. At the completion
of Chapters 4 and 5, students should be able to demonstrate Outcome 3, which requires
students to contribute collaboratively to the design and development of a website that
presents an analysis of a contemporary issue and substantiates the team’s point of view.
168 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

Creating team solutions

Working in a team is a common practice in most workplaces. The benefits of collaboration,
even with team members in other countries or states, are great. The right team can share
work and pool experience to produce more useful solutions far more quickly than any one
individual could achieve. With work teams comes the need for organisation. Resources need to
be allocated, timeframes determined and personnel briefed on an ongoing basis to ensure that
the project or task is completed on time and within budget. In this section of the chapter we
will look at some common techniques and tools used to coordinate team-based tasks – that is,
to manage a project.

Managing projects
The work of an organisation might consist of routine, day-to-day operations, or it might involve
organising unique projects. Managing a retail outlet or a manufacturing business, where sales
and production occur continuously, will be different from managing a construction project that
is unique and has definite start and completion dates. Project management techniques have
been developed to help organise a range of unique projects. Examples of projects could include
larger-scale projects such as introducing a new brand of toothpaste to self-serve checkouts in
supermarkets, and smaller-scale projects such as developing a website.

What is a project?
An idea usually launches a project. An individual or a group of people decide that there is a need
for a new solution, a study is commissioned and then project planning begins. A project has the
following characteristics.
• A clearly defined purpose
• A starting time
• A finite lifetime
• A number of interdependent tasks
Examples of large projects include the rollout of the National Broadband Network (NBN)
across Australia and the Fisherman’s Bend Urban Renewal Project in Victoria. Both have a
clearly defined purpose and a definite lifetime. Both required a complex set of interdependent
tasks. However, in small organisations, projects would not be as complex as these. Organising
a school dance, creating a website for a local sports club or creating solutions using databases
and spreadsheets are also projects in which project management techniques could be used
effectively.
We manage small personal projects every day, and they can range from preparing dinner
to buying a car. With larger projects, the number of tasks involved and the complexity of their
relationships make it more difficult to manage time and cost. Project management techniques
help managers to allocate resources (people and digital systems, for example), schedule tasks,
monitor the project timeline and manage costs.

Project management techniques

Project management involves identifying key tasks, allocating resources, scheduling and
monitoring those tasks, identifying milestones and determining contingency plans. It is
therefore important to be aware of the factors you need to consider, as well as the meaning of
commonly used terminology.
9780170364744 Chapter 5 Approaches to problem solving 169

Tasks
The project should be broken into a series of tasks. Each task should be substantial, but not so
large and complex that running over time will seriously affect the completion time of the whole
project. The criteria for assessing when the task will be complete must be clearly defined so that
a completion time can be recorded. One common method of checking that a task is complete is
a checklist. A milestone is reached when a particular stage of the project has been completed.
A milestone is not a task, so it has no time duration.

Resources
Resources are assigned to each task, and include technical (money and equipment) and human
resources. People involved in a task must have input into setting completion times for the task
so that timelines are realistic.
Because tasks are
interdependent, they must
Schedule be completed in a particular
order. Starting some tasks
Tasks are interdependent. A schedule allows you to map the project tasks and display depends directly on the task
interdependencies. A Gantt chart is one common way of displaying a schedule. A Gantt chart that is completed before
them. For example, when
provides a timeline of how the project will be implemented. It visually represents the tasks that baking a cake, you must
have to be completed, when they are to be completed and the time that each task should take. first gather the ingredients
A Gantt chart may also show which tasks are dependent on one another, thus allowing for the and materials, then mix
the ingredients together,
identification of the critical path of the project. then place the mixture in
a tin, and then put it into
Costing the oven. To bake the cake
before the ingredients have
A charge, or cost, is assigned for the use of resources. Human resources can be charged at hourly been gathered or mixed
together is not possible.
rates; other resources may have a fixed charge or a daily rate.

Quality control
The time for some tasks
Each project has a defined goal, and the project must meet all the specified requirements by can be extended without
completion. Quality control involves checking results against identified quality standards. It affecting the completion
time of the project. Other
is just as important to apply quality-control techniques to processes as it is to apply them to tasks might delay the whole
products or other end results. Quality control on processes can cut costs and improve timelines. project, even if they are a
short time overdue. Such
Tools such as flowcharts, control charts, cause-and-effect diagrams and scatter diagrams
tasks lie on the critical
can be used to monitor quality control. Of these, the flowchart is the most useful, especially for path of the project, and
procedures. extra resources may need
to be provided to ensure
that they do not run over the
Contingency plans time allocated.

You can create a ‘perfect’ project management plan; however, if there are some hold-ups with
the completion of tasks, your plan can be thrown into chaos. Project managers look carefully
to identify possible risks and work out how these potential problems could be overcome with
minimal disruption to the overall project timeline; for example, equipment not being available
at a critical time, proofreading taking longer than expected or a task proving to be more difficult
than expected.
Contingency plans are a set of predetermined actions that a project team will take if some
kind of disaster occurs. For example, if the new software is not developed in time for its scheduled
implementation, staff may keep using a manual system until the new one is ready. Meanwhile,
the software installation task could be delayed while another task, such as hardware delivery,
is brought forward.
170 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

Tools for managing projects

You can draw on a number of tools to assist you when planning projects. Most are designed
to show different aspects of a project’s status, such as the time taken as opposed to which
tasks depend on one another. Therefore, the project management tools discussed below should
be used to complement one another; not in isolation. Project management software does not
create tasks and assign resources. You must make informed decisions, and the software will aid
the management, documentation, presentation and communication of project information.
You can update the documentation easily when changes are made during the course of the
project.

Project table
The project manager will brainstorm, on a separate sheet of paper or word processing document,
all the possible tasks involved in analysing a problem, and designing, developing and evaluating
a solution (Table 5.1). Once brainstorming is complete, the project manager can use the task
analysis outline shown in Figure 5.1 to order each individual task.

TABLE 5.1 The main headings of a project table for publishing a report

Task Task name Duration Resources Task milestone Dependent tasks

number (days) required (Y/N) (predecessors)
1 Departmental reports 5 No N/A

2 CEO’s report 3 No N/A

3 Proofread 2 Yes 1, 2

4 Obtain artwork 5 No N/A

5 Cover design 3 No 4

Gantt chart
A Gantt chart provides a standard format for displaying project schedule information by listing
project tasks and their corresponding start and finish dates in a calendar format (Figure 5.1).
Gantt charts not only show a timeline for completion of the project, but they can also highlight

FIGURE 5.1 An example of a Gantt chart created in Microsoft Excel. Simple dependencies have been shown with arrows.
Different colours can be used to make it easier to identify individual tasks.
9780170364744 Chapter 5 Approaches to problem solving 171

tasks that are critical to the timely completion of a project. Using a Gantt chart makes it easy
for the project team members to see when tasks need to start and how long they should take.
Many Gantt charts also show milestones and basic task dependencies. Although you can
use dedicated project-management software to generate Gantt charts, simple ones can be
constructed in spreadsheet programs.

Groupware
When people work together to develop a solution to an information problem, they often
do so in sequence. One person may conduct research, the findings of the research are
considered for input and manipulation, and may be then passed on to the person performing
the data input, and so on to the next person in the work cycle. An example of this might be
a team working on a website, such as your group for your Outcome. The team must wait on
modifications to the design from each team member before a final design can be agreed on File-naming conventions are
and developing begin. Groupware is software that is designed to allow workers to collaborate discussed further on in this
chapter on page 201.
on tasks, whether they are in the same building or spread across the globe.
A key part of collaboration is file version control. Consider the importance of file names that
incorporate version information. With many people working on files, it is easy for someone to
be working with out-of-date information, unaware that revisions have been made. In addition,
workers may accidentally overwrite a newer version of a file with their own, older version.
Groupware applications, such as Microsoft SharePoint, allow project managers to keep
control of document versions. Moreover, using a sequential file-naming strategy and storing
Overview of Microsoft
working files in a central location that all team members can access will help to reduce the SharePoint for
problem of working with outdated information. Office 365

Designing websites
When designing a website, it is best to follow a few key principles for effective design.
• Place most text and images within the dimensions of the screen size to minimise scrolling.
• Make the pages no longer than two average screen lengths. If the content requires more
than two screens, divide it into several pages.
• Emphasise important words, not every word, so use bold and italics sparingly.
• Avoid underlining text because it can be confused with hyperlinks.
• Navigation buttons should be consistent and every page should link back to the homepage
(index page).
• Use thumbnails and small images where possible and appropriate to reduce page loading
times to keep visitors happy. If you want large image options, give users the options of
clicking on thumbnails and loading images in full size.
• View your site in different browsers and different OS. Different browsers and systems
always interpret code a little differently.
Lucidchart is a free
• Remember that generally, the colour of hyperlinks changes if a user has clicked it before. online tool that
Indications of past navigation helps users to understand their current location and allows users to create
consider where to go next. diagrams
172 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

Designing for mobile devices

Characteristics of effective user-interface design
User-centred design is a methodology that focuses on the needs and characteristics of users, and
is applied at the beginning of the design process to ensure that the website is useful and easy to
use. The user interface (UI) is the screen that users see when they interact with a device. User
interface designs can relate to websites, blogs, computers, mobile devices, ATMs, information
kiosks, airport check-ins and any other device that a human interacts with. Mobile devices have
become increasingly popular and are a rapidly growing technology. They are transforming our
daily lives and providing the means to access the internet without having to use a computer as our
primary means for accessing the internet. Given that websites are increasingly accessed through
mobile devices, website designers need to carefully consider their interface designs and how they
will be viewed on a mobile device (Figures 5.2 and 5.3).
As interactive touchscreen devices such as tablets and smartphones have become prevalent
FIGURE 5.2 Qantas
website on a smartphone due to their mobility and the low dependence of data entry, these devices present some

FIGURE 5.3 The Qantas website on a desktop looks very different to the mobile version.
9780170364744 Chapter 5 Approaches to problem solving 173

useability challenges. The issues associated with mobile devices include, small, low-resolution
screens, limited options for input, unpredictable connectivity issues and lower hardware
specifications. Many websites have been designed for full-scale laptops or computers and have
not been considered for mobile users.
Useability
Developers of websites need to understand their users, in particular their goals, skills,
preferences and propensities, before designing the website.
Useability of a website is a quality or characteristic that represents how easy the website
is to learn and to use. It is based on a set of characteristics aimed at designing usable and
accessible websites constructed on user-centred design.
When designing the interface, developers need to ensure that it is kept simple. That is, the
language is clear on the labels and there are no superfluous elements to distract the users.
Designers need to consider the consistency of common elements throughout the website.
Users need to feel comfortable by being able to pick up patterns in language, layout and design
throughout the site. For example, if the front page is called ‘home’ then all references to this page
need to be called ‘home’. Sometimes, instead of words, a graphic may be used to direct users An MIT Touch Lab study
to a particular page; for example, a picture of a house may be used to indicate the homepage. found that the average
width of the index finger is
Touch zone 1.6 to 2 cm (16–20 mm) for
most adults. This equates
When designing mobile interfaces, the touch zones on the website need to be big so that users to approximately 45–57
can easily and accurately tap the targets. Small touch zones or ones grouped closely together pixels, which is wider
make it harder to manoeuvre, as they require more accuracy. Sometimes users have to change than what most mobile
guidelines suggest. There
the finger used, a thumb, for example, is much larger than the target, and an index finger is are inconsistencies between
slimmer, which can assist with accuracy. The size of a touch zone should not cause users to Apple and other vendors’
guidelines; however, Apple’s
make errors; therefore, increasing the size will help users avoid mistakes. guidelines are for the touch
Increasingly, users of mobile devices walk while using their device, and therefore context zone to be approximately
and walking is another constraint. If you need to use your mobile device while walking, then 1.55 cm to allow for an
average human finger
the touch zone has to be bigger to accommodate the possibility of errors. The text of the page size when interacting with
needs to be even bigger to allow for the jumping and moving around. the device.

Read-tap asymmetry
A read-tap asymmetry is where the font is large enough to read, but is too small to touch.
While we can read very small fonts, they need to be much larger for us to touch them precisely;
therefore balancing this causes everything to increase in size on mobile devices. Using large
touch zones on websites will help users of mobile devices to have a positive experience.
Accessibility
People with a wide range of abilities need to be able to use interfaces designed for mobile
devices. Interfaces need to be operable, understandable and perceivable for people with all
levels of abilities including all disabilities, or limitations such as visual, auditory, physical, speech Accessibility is also a design
principle. See page 184 for
or cognitive impairments. For example, people who have visual impairments or cognitive more information.
disabilities can zoom or magnify the entire screen so that text appears larger.
The World Wide Web Consortium, sometimes known as WC3, is a widely accepted internal
group that works with the public to develop standards and guidelines for the Web. One set of
guidelines developed by WC3 refers to web accessibility for disabled users.
Some commercial companies sell software that can check websites against these guidelines.
For instance, Bobby software is an application that acts as a spider. It will ‘crawl’ through a
website to check that it meets all accessibility requirements. It then produces a report, which WC3 standard and
the website owner can act on to improve their site’s accessibility. guidelines for the web
174 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

Accessibility can also refer to technological barriers such as a lack of resources or choice of
technologies. For example, internet access can vary even when using broadband, and if users
need to download large files, this may not be accessible to those who have a slow connection.
THINK ABOUT Sometimes the location of the house and its distance from the telephone exchange mean that
COMPUTING 5.1
broadband is not available. As a result, the household must rely on mobile wireless data, which
1 Visit the World Wide Web
Consortium website and is costly.
look at the five guidelines
for Web accessibility. Tolerance
Choose three and write a Websites that are well designed should prevent users from making mistakes. Although mistakes
brief explanation of each. will always occur, a tolerant user interface should let users recover from their mistakes. For
2 Do you think that these example, if you forgot your password, how many times will you be allowed to retry it before the
five WC3 guidelines
system penalises you? Another example of tolerance is when the software auto-corrects spelling
should become law?
Discuss. mistakes in user messages – the software can anticipate and correct most typing errors. A final
example is when conducting a search on Google, the user types in what they are looking for and,
even with spelling mistakes, Google refines the search and produces variations.

Legibility
The use of typography, that is choice of fonts, sizes and arrangement of text can assist to create
hierarchy and clarity. It can also increase the readability of the site. Developers of user interfaces
should take into consideration the following.
• There needs to be sufficient contrast between the use of colours so users can differentiate
between contexts. One way to test this is to use the device in varying light conditions such
as indoors and then outdoors on a bright sunny day.
• Do not use a combination of red and green buttons to distinguish between two options, as
colour-blind people struggle to tell the difference.
• Research the use of colours, as some cultures and countries perceive colours in different
ways. For example, in Chinese culture the colour red signifies good luck; whereas white
signifies death and mourning.
• Text should be legible. Ideally, body text should never be smaller than 11 points, even when
the user chooses the extra-small text size.
• In general, use a single font. Mixing several different fonts can make your website seem
fragmented and sloppy. Instead, use one font and just a few styles and sizes.
documentation/UserExperience/Conceptual/
https://developer.apple.com/library/ios/

MobileHIG/ColorImagesText.html

FIGURE 5.4 Stick to one font throughout the development rather than many different ones
9780170364744 Chapter 5 Approaches to problem solving 175

Visibility
By giving thought to the placement of items on the page based on importance, a designer
can draw attention to the main pieces of information and can also assist with readability. The
use of colour, light, contrast and texture can either attract users or redirect their attention
from items. Effective visibility provides prompts and cues, which can assist users through an
interaction, guide them through a series of steps, indicate the possible options available to
them and communicate the context of the situation (See Figure 5.5).

VIS I B I L IT Y

1
People will attempt interaction with anything that could possibly

CLICK be clickable or touchable!

& Use standard, commonly accepted UI components (e.g buttons)

which are understood to be interactive.
TA P
Different text color, 3D and icons all invite interaction.

2
There is no hover for touch screens.
TOUC H
& Consider the lefties of the world by making interfaces reversible.

GESTURE Don’t make people reach over the interface and obstruct their view.

3
DRAG Indicate what can be dragged.

& Use ghosting during movement.

DROP Indicate where objects can — and cannot — be dropped.

3
S H OW Indicate when more content is available with commonly
accepted control icons (e.g. +, - ).
&
Use adaptive or responsive layouts: pages and columns
HIDE change height (or width) in a liquid way.

US E O BVI OUS, ACCEPTED U I CO NT RO L S

POOR VISIBILITY GOOD VISIBILITY

making the primary

action a button
instead of a text
link makes it more
obvious, accessible
and visible.

U S E C O N T E N T H I N T I N G ; AVO I D FA L S E B OT TO M S
VISIBLE IN BROWSER WINDOW

designing so content
appears “cut off” at the
bottom of the browser
window indicates that more
content and interactivity
exists “below the fold” or
beyond the visible space.
givegoodux.com

FIGURE 5.5 An infographic on visibility

176 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

Consistency
Just as we mentioned that consistency is important in navigation design on page 173, it is also
important to use common elements in a user interface to ensure that the site is consistent. By
Useability – US using common elements, users are able to navigate the website confidently and comfortably.
government website
guidelines Consistency of user interface involves creating patterns in language, layout and design as can
be seen in the Useability weblink.

Affordance
THINK ABOUT An affordance is a desirable property of a user interface. It logically and naturally leads people
COMPUTING 5.2 to take the appropriate steps to accomplish their goals. Affordances indicate what is achievable
How many possible actions
can you name from and can take many different forms such as shape, texture or size. For example, a toaster slot
the Tumblr home page affords the insertion of bread in the slot; a door knob affords the turning of it. Affordances
(Figure 5.6)? For example: provide subtle clues on how to interact with objects. Web and mobile interfaces must gain all
1 Input an email address of their affordance through design. For most designers, this is intuitive and instinctive, based
2 Input a password on the thousands of design patterns seen every day. In terms of a website, the solution should
provide strong clues to the operation of things. The user should know how to operate a control
3 Click the privacy link
just by looking at it rather than looking for words or instructions.

FIGURE 5.6 The homepage of Tumblr has many actions that are affordances.

On the Tumblr home page (Figure 5.6) there are many actions that are affordances, which
interact with the way that an interface ‘affords’ its capabilities to the user. By identifying and
recognising patterns, users are able to work their way through the website with little guidance
or direction, because of the capabilities of the user interface.
Skeuomorphism is a design principle in which design cues are taken from the physical, real
world; for example, the use of folders and files graphics for computer filing systems make them
feel recognisable to users. Affordance cues are still evolving; however, we are moving away from
skeuomorphic towards digital cues.
9780170364744 Chapter 5 Approaches to problem solving 177

Information architecture
When designing your website for Unit 1, Outcome 3, you should consider the site’s information
architecture. Information architecture refers to the ways that content, which is made up of
information and objects, is grouped, labelled and located in online solutions. In other words:
how a website is structured and its navigation pathways. If users cannot navigate easily through
a website, they will become frustrated and soon leave. Effective website navigation is crucial. If
you consider and use the key principles governing information architecture when designing your
website for Outcome 3, you will design a website more likely to enable users to intuitively and
confidently locate the information they require. The key principles of information architecture
include disclosure, classifications, navigation, growth and choices.

Key principles that govern information architecture

Disclosure Classifications Navigation Growth Choices

FIGURE 5.7 The key principles that govern information architecture

The user interface is everything designed into an information system with which a user
See Figure 5.31 on page
may interact. This can include both hardware and software components. Examples of hardware 199 for an example of a
UI components include the display screen, keyboard, mouse, tablet, stylus and touchscreen. layout diagram.
Examples of software UI include the operating system (such as Windows, Linux or Mac), and
application software.
An interface designer will utilise design tools such as layout diagrams to plan the appearance
of onscreen output. Layout diagrams show the placement of important elements on each
screen, including headings, graphics, text, hyperlinks and search fields.
Business and government websites would have differing information architecture (Figures
5.8 and Figure 5.9), so it is important that information is structured correctly. You should plan
the information architecture of your website carefully using appropriate design tools, such as
site maps and multimedia storyboards. These tools are used to plan the way the information
is structured, linked and navigated. It is equally important that your website be designed for
viewing on mobile devices.
Text-based information, in particular, requires information architecture because navigating
through files relies on user interaction. Make sure the structure is logical for the user. You
can make video-based information more self-contained and self-guided, but the information
architecture must still be well planned and structured. As with the architecture of a house
or building, careful forethought and design for information architecture will lead to a solid
structure for the solution.
The following section discusses each of the principles of information architecture in turn:
disclosure, classifications, navigation, growth and choices.

Disclosure
In information architecture, the principle of disclosure is about presenting only as much
information as is necessary to complete a given task. The users of your website will only be able
to process so much information at a time.
178 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

You have to limit the information, emphasise the important points and present only what
your users need. If you go too far and try to give them all the information you have at the same
time on the same page, you will create information overload and the importance and emphasis
will be lost in the ‘noise’.
The key is to show less information, but make sure it is the right information, and offer your
users options to access more content if they want to.
Dropdown menus, +/– icons that open and close a hierarchy, alt text and thumbnail images
that enlarge to full-size images when moused over are all simple ways of using disclosure to
your advantage.

Classifications
Users do not always use the same terms for searching or browsing. Information architecture
recognises that human beings are prone to classifying things in different ways and that no
single classification scheme will be right for everyone. It is wise to use multiple classification
schemes on your website so you can offer users more than one way to find content.
Classification schemes for online content include the following.
• Alphabetical
• Audience
• Formatting
• Geographical
• Organisational
UX Booth: Classification • Subject/topic
schemes – and when to • Task
use them • Combination

CLASSIFICATION SCHEMES
1 Research classification schemes online. Read the information at the UX Booth weblink
as a starting point.
2 Choose two of the classification schemes, other than alphabetical, and find three websites,
not from the weblink, which use that classification scheme. Take screenshot examples.
3 Summarise and justify how each website uses the classification scheme indicated.
Hint: Annotating the screenshots may help.

Navigation
When you have planned the organisation of your website thoroughly, you should plan your
navigation paths accordingly. For example, imagine that you were a shoe retailer and had the
following five webpages to add to your new website:
1 Job vacancies
2 Privacy policy
3 Grand opening sale
4 Items $20 and under
5 Mary Jane shoes sizes 8–10
You would never put links to all five of these webpages in the same menu, because they are
not of the same category. This principle goes together with the principle of classifications. You
need to focus the navigation on your website so that menus group similar items together to
make the most sense to users.
9780170364744 Chapter 5 Approaches to problem solving 179

As a shoe retailer, you could probably group ‘Job vacancies’ and ‘Privacy policy’ in the same If you wanted to be able
menu, because these are often located in the headers or footers of websites and users expect to view both ‘Items $20
these to be unobtrusive but easy to find if they scroll on the homepage. and under’ and ‘Mary
Jane shoes sizes 8–10’ in
‘Items $20 and under’ and ‘Mary Jane shoes sizes 8–10’ could be grouped in the same the same menu (shoes),
menu – but only at a stretch. One indicates a price ($20 and under) and the other a category you could instead use the
principle of disclosure
(Mary Janes in sizes 8–10) – but they both also indicate a product: shoes. by adding all products to
The only solo item would be the ‘Grand opening sale’, which would occupy prime real estate one page, and apply filters
on the front page. (by size or shoe style) and
sorting (by price) to show
By the time you are at the stage of developing the navigation for your website, you will know only the desired items.
a great deal about how you have organised its content. Have you organised it alphabetically, by
category, time, location or by using some kind of hierarchy? This organisation is relevant to how
you develop the navigation pathways.

Growth
When building a website, you should assume that the content you have today is only a fraction
of the content that will eventually be there. Websites keep growing and changing. Most are
perpetually under construction. You need to organise content on your website in a way that
allows for growth. Consider a simple blog – even this is constantly growing and changing as
entries are written, published and commented upon. Blogging software needs to be written to
allow for such growth. On the opposite end of the spectrum, websites with massive volumes
of sales change rapidly as new products are added, out-of-stock products are removed,
promotions are created and new stores-within-stores (such as Amazon’s Kindle storefront)
go live.
If you do not build a website with the principle of growth in mind, you will be faced with
needing to retrofit your design to accommodate it – or you will have a website that will not be
easy to update and will slowly stagnate and die.
You should try to make sure you can:
1 Easily add the same type of content to an existing category (for example, add new blog
entries to a blog)
2 Add a different type of content to an existing category (for example, add video or audio to
a category that only had blog entries)
3 Create a new category of content.

Choices
Sometimes when you are given too many choices for something, it can be harder to make a
decision. The longer the dropdown menu is, the less it is will be used. The principle of choices in
information architecture is about minimising the number of choices that users need to make at
each level, especially the top levels. You do not want to make your users sort through all of the
options in the menus to find what they really need, which is what will happen if your menus are
too long and are unfocused.
Make shorter, meaningful lists at the top level. Use tabbed, expanding lists, sub-lists and
hierarchical levels to show deeper levels of information where needed. Minimise the range of
choices that your users have to make at each level.
180 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

FIGURE 5.8 An example of commercial website architecture

THINK ABOUT
COMPUTING 5.3
Find another example of
a government website
and see if there are any
comparisons between the
features in Figure 5.9 and
your example. What makes
a government website
different from a commercial
one?
FIGURE 5.9 An example of government website architecture
9780170364744 Chapter 5 Approaches to problem solving 181

Design principles
Your website for Unit 1, Outcome 3, should be carefully designed. To communicate your issue
effectively, it should be easy to access and navigate with minimal time and effort, as well as
visually clear and functional.
If your website is not functional, it will frustrate users (Figure 5.10).

FIGURE 5.10 The Liberty Van website is a good example of a website with poor navigation and random links

Design principles are factors that enhance the appearance and functionality of graphic
solutions, such as websites. You need to ensure that your issue is obvious and your message is
unmistakable. Your website must be carefully designed, taking into account the importance of
design principles.
182 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

Design principles

Functionality Appearance

Useability Accessibility Alignment Repetition Contrast Space Balance

Ease Error
Robustness Flexibility Navigation
of use tolerance

FIGURE 5.11 Design principles are accepted characteristics that contribute to the functionality
and appearance of solutions. For VCE Computing, the principles that relate to functionality are
useability and accessibility. For appearance, they are alignment, repetition, contrast, space
and balance.

Website users want a well constructed website that provides the necessary information and
does not make them waste time sifting through pointless material. They also want a website that
loads quickly.
The principles shown in Figure 5.11 are discussed in the following section, in terms of how
they may apply to the website in Unit 1, Outcome 3.

Functionality
Useability
Useability refers to a website’s capability of being used and its availability to a user. It is
important that any website incorporates maximum compatibility with a wide range of devices,
including future technologies, so that users are not tied to a particular platform or device. This
is one reason why websites and apps are designed to work on desktop PCs as well as tablets
and smartphones.
If you ensure that users
cannot view or access any Robustness is a website’s ability to cope with errors during use. In your website, this may
data structures or important mean giving a user the option to correct data or undo an action, step backwards or forwards,
libraries during browsing, and provide accurate and unambiguous error messages. You should also make sure that users
you are also abiding by the
information architecture cannot access any data structures during browsing because this may introduce bugs into your
principle of disclosure. code and cause further website errors.
Flexibility is a website’s ability to support multiple ways of performing tasks. For example,
many websites were once designed with fixed-width dimensions, such as 800px. These websites
Flexibility relates to only supported a single way of viewing the website – using a browser that supported the fixed-
information architecture’s width page size. With so many different browsers, operating systems and devices in use today,
principles of
classifications, navigation it is better to build websites that are flexible, without fixed dimensions, and instead let the user
and choices. determine the page size.
Scalable type, which is text that can be scaled up or down in size, is also desirable. This is
especially important for Outcome 3, because you are creating a website designed for viewing
on mobile devices. Device independence and liquid layouts are also desirable. View the Peach
Peach Pit: Useability Pit weblink for more information on designing for liquid layouts, device independence and
tips you can use:
Designing flexible
scalable type.
layouts
9780170364744 Chapter 5 Approaches to problem solving 183

Ease of use refers to how user-friendly your website is. Some of the user-friendliness aspects
overlap slightly with the appearance design principles. However, you should also ask questions
when creating, planning and testing the website.
• Is it easy for users to intuit the design of your website and perform basic tasks?
• Can basic tasks be performed quickly?
• Will users remember how your website works when coming back after they have not
visited for a long time?
If it is hard to learn the design of your website – perhaps because it differs greatly from
other websites – it can be very confusing to users and they will be tempted not to return. If
Simply being different
accomplishing basic tasks is too hard users will be reluctant to come back: have you ever
from other websites does
felt frustrated simply because a website has required far too many clicks on one page just to not necessarily mean your
transition to the next page? website will be confusing.
If your design is logical or
Ask yourself and your group the tough questions about your website. You should make makes sense to users in
things as easy as possible for users. Too much scrolling, too much clicking, pages that pop-up other obvious ways, it may
still work. You never know:
unexpectedly and websites that are designed in unexpected or unpleasant ways can all reduce
your new website design
ease of use. may be a stroke of genius.

FLEXIBILITY
1 Using the Peach Pit weblink as a starting point only, research scalable type, device
independence and liquid layouts. Visit at least five other websites.
2 In your Outcome groups, write a summary of:
a device independence
b liquid layouts.
3 In your groups, find one website on an issue similar to yours. View it on a mobile device
and on a PC. In the table below are the principles of information architecture and design
we have so far discussed. In the right-hand column, score each website between 0 for
not at all and 5 for very well, in terms of how well you think it is applying each of the
principles. You do not have to agree with the rest of your group, but you should discuss
your opinions.

Score (0–5)
Principle of disclosure
Principle of classifications
Principle of navigation
Principle of growth
Principle of choices
Useability – robustness
Useability – flexibility
Useability – ease of use
184 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

Accessibility
Accessibility as a website design principle really means making your website easier to use
for everyone. With so many different versions of browsers and plug-ins available, avoid using
special effects created in software such as Flash, Java and JavaScript as the only navigation
method. (Particularly because devices such as iPads are unable to play Flash.) Your website
needs to be accessible to all visitors, and this is especially true of navigation techniques.
Interface designers should design onscreen user documentation that can be read in common
software applications, such as Adobe Acrobat Reader. Design your website to be compatible
with any browser, and do not require a specific screen resolution or plug-in for correct viewing.
Error tolerance as an aspect of accessibility means helping your users to avoid and correct
their mistakes using clear instructions. It also means making it difficult for them to make errors
by not allowing them to perform actions that could lead to errors in the first place. Grey out
non-selectable options. Ask for confirmation of major actions. This is connected to robustness.
Navigation as an aspect of accessibility refers to ensuring that the navigation system is
clear, simple and intuitive. For your website, it will also mean making sure that your website
can be navigated comfortably by a touchscreen (so the buttons should not be too small and
close together, making this difficult). Navigation has a number of other aspects that should be
considered.
High-quality UIs are transparent, meaning that your users would not really notice the
actual interface because it is so easy to use that they interact with it intuitively. The required
information would be found quickly enough that users focus on it rather than the way they
found it. The interface is a connection point or navigation tool rather than an end in itself, so it
should be unobtrusive but clear.
You should also consider meaning, comprehension, consistency, and appropriateness and
relevance in navigation.

Meaning
The labels of icons used for navigation should be meaningful, and the links need to be clear. For
example, a school’s internal newsletter is known by a particular name; however, visitors to the
site who are not familiar with the school may find it hard to find the newsletter if they do not
know its name. Someone who has never been to a website before should know immediately
where a link will take them.

Comprehension
If images are going to be used for navigation instead of words, these images need to be
commonly used and universally understood. For example, when we think of traffic lights, red
means stop; amber, caution; and green, go. An image of traffic lights is universally recognised
without having to write the words next to each light. Generally, images used as navigation on
websites are not universally recognised and can cause problems as visitors to websites do not
know how to navigate through the site. It is a good idea to associate text with images so that
the links are understandable.

Consistency
To ensure that the website remains consistent and has a similar feel about it on all its associated
pages, navigation should appear on every page of the website (Figure 5.12). The basic structure
of the navigation in the same location should remain consistent throughout the website, with
only minor changes used to indicate location within the hierarchy. It is often desirable to have a
link back to the home page. A template or style sheet is often used to provide this consistency
in a website. This also relates to repetition.
9780170364744 Chapter 5 Approaches to problem solving 185

FIGURE 5.12 Each page of a website should have a similar feel about it. The personal tab of the
ANZ website (a) has a similar feel to the corporate tab (b).
186 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

FIGURE 5.12 (continued)

Appropriateness and relevance

Your website must meet the needs of the intended audience with appropriate information that
is relevant to its purpose.
The website must be able to present the right information for its users in a usable format
and in a timely manner. Superfluous information, or distracting but unnecessary extras, should
be avoided. A skilled interface designer will produce a streamlined and functional but attractive
screen in preference to a screen full of fancy and artistic but useless or irrelevant items
(Figure 5.13). Users need efficiency and effectiveness in their interface, not a screen that shows
off a designer’s bag of tricks.
9780170364744 Chapter 5 Approaches to problem solving 187

FIGURE 5.13 The Google search engine is uncluttered with no irrelevant features.

Appearance
The screen layout of your website, or appearance, should not be unnecessarily elaborate and
decorative, or contain superfluous animations. Too many buttons, bullets, icons, rulers and
flashing graphics will confuse the eye and distract the user. Users should also have the option of
turning off any onscreen hints or help features that they do not require.
Long or wide screens that require users to scroll should be avoided when possible,
particularly if scrolling is required both across and down the screen (Figure 5.14). This makes
the information harder to view. Short screens of information, with links to other screens, are
more easily viewed and therefore more effective.

http://www.angelfire.com/super/badwebs/

FIGURE 5.14 An example of a long-screen website

188 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

Alignment
The alignment of text can be left, right, centre or fully aligned (justified), as shown in Figures 5.15
Alignment is also discussed to 5.18. Choose one alignment for each page and stick to it for the entire page. For paragraphs,
in Chapter 2, on page 53. left-aligned text is easier to read than centred text because the text begins on the left-hand side
every time. The text is in a straight line and readers can follow the text with their eyes starting
from the left edge. Centred text makes the eye work harder to locate the start of each line.
Unlike left alignment where there is a consistent straight edge for the eye to follow, there is no
consistent focus point for eyes to return to once each line is read (Figure 5.16).

Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur adipiscing elit. Nulla dapibus sit amet orci ut
tristique. Mauris vulputate, orci et rutrum tincidunt, neque ante convallis elit, maximus
posuere nisi risus quis ligula. Quisque sit amet urna ac leo feugiat mollis in nec purus.
Donec fermentum, leo eu rutrum posuere, mi est pharetra est, a cursus orci velit ut magna.
Suspendisse scelerisque, ex at luctus vestibulum, enim felis accumsan ligula, non tempor
lectus mauris et urna.

FIGURE 5.15 Left-aligned text has a straight left edge and each line begins at the same point on
the left edge.

Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur adipiscing elit. Donec vestibulum, magna nec
dapibus placerat, lectus dui volutpat ex, congue aliquet risus quam ullamcorper nisi.
Donec placerat nisl tortor, ultricies faucibus ipsum consequat ac. Aliquam a erat eget
enim egestas viverra vitae eget quam. Donec non augue vehicula, congue magna quis,
pellentesque nibh. Sed sed ligula nulla. Vestibulum vitae justo et neque fringilla
euismod. Sed pulvinar a elit eu dictum.

FIGURE 5.16 Centred text has a jagged edge and each line begins in a different point on the left
edge.

Centred text is often used for headlines and short lines of text. Users can read them with
ease because the lines are short and the eyes do not have to scan through many lines of text.

Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur adipiscing elit. Donec eu est porttitor, fringilla
dolor vel, elementum velit. Etiam ipsum justo, pellentesque vitae mauris sed, egestas
fermentum mi. Proin posuere, dolor ac ornare tempus, dolor nisi blandit neque, sed
blandit magna felis sit amet leo. Curabitur ultrices a sapien vitae dapibus. Morbi tempus
lectus ac sem varius, a pretium libero pulvinar.

FIGURE 5.17 Right-aligned text has a straight edge on the right side.

Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur adipiscing elit. Phasellus elementum elementum
odio et vehicula. Pellentesque blandit, nibh sed vestibulum pretium, mauris nunc rhoncus
elit, quis pellentesque nunc libero nec massa. Donec ut malesuada massa. Nullam sit amet
lobortis mi. Maecenas consequat varius elit, vitae laoreet lorem venenatis ac.

FIGURE 5.18 Fully aligned text has a straight left and right edge and each line commences in the
same point on the left.
9780170364744 Chapter 5 Approaches to problem solving 189

Avoid using all uppercase letters, except in some headings. Long sections of text typed in
uppercase are very difficult to read because all the words have a rectangular shape; it is also
considered to be bad ‘netiquette’ as mentioned in Chapter 3.

Expedia, Inc.
FIGURE 5.19 A website that uses left alignment

Repetition
Repetition is used to unify elements of a layout. This is achieved by repeating patterns, fonts,
colours, images and page elements. On a website, use repetition so that users can understand
how different pages or menus relate to one another, and to create a strong sense of identity and Repetition is also discussed
feeling of consistency. in Chapter 2, page 53.
The repetitive elements will help to create a sense of organisation to help the user interpret
the meaning of what they are seeing. For example, looking at the Qantas image in Figure 5.3,
three verbs – Plan, Book and Fly – are repeated in the red navigation bar at the top. Appearing
in the navigation bar at the top is one form of repetition. Being in the same font is another.
Being in the same form of wording – a short finite verb – is a third. This simple repetition tells
the user that these three links lead to similar task-based pages.

Font selection
Most websites maintain the same font selection throughout the entire site. Sometimes different
Text styles are also
fonts are used in banners or headings, but consistent use of fonts and sizes (usually between 9 discussed in Chapter 2,
and 12 points, with body text at 11 points) is recommended. page 57.
Serif fonts are usually easier to read in printed works than sans-serif fonts. Serif fonts, which
have small tails at the end of some letters, are used to make it easier to read, because they can
guide the eye and reduce eyestrain when reading large blocks of text. Serif fonts include Times
New Roman, Courier, New Century Schoolbook, and Palatino.
The differences
Sans-serif fonts, have no tails (are without serifs) and are better suited to the onscreen between serif and sans
reading. Popular sans-serif fonts include Helvetica, Avant Garde, Arial, and Geneva. serif typefaces

Contrast
Contrast refers to the visual difference in colour or tone between objects (both text and images). Contrast is also discussed in
Greater contrast will make objects stand out more from one another. If there is not enough Chapter 2, page 53.
contrast between two objects, they may blend into each other, making it difficult for the user
to see each of them clearly. Contrast between the background of your website and text should
make the information clearly visible and legible.
190 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

Colour
Most people do not use a scientific approach to colour schemes: they experiment and choose
colours that they think will go together. Trial and error and a fair bit of reflective evaluation are
usually required to ensure the colour scheme works. Remember that the colours selected for
your website should:
• make it clear, legible and attractive
• enhance important features
• ensure easy navigation.
Use your chosen colour scheme on all pages to be consistent.
Colours can convey a strong message about your website. Table 5.2 shows a summary of the
effects that different colours have on the emotions and impressions of users. For websites, what
is of concern are how the colours contrast with one another (Figure 5.20). In terms of contrast,
it is generally best to use a lighter, paler colour as a page background, with a darker colour for
the text. This makes it easier to read the onscreen text, which encourages users to continue to
browse the site. It is also important that the actual colours complement one another to achieve
a visual harmony. A colour wheel can be used by web designers to find colour schemes that
work well (Figures 5.21 and 5.22). Different but complementary colours may then be used for
onscreen elements, such as headings and the main body text. Again, an overriding principle is
that colour and contrast should be kept as simple as possible.

TABLE 5.2 The information you want to convey can be enhanced with the use of appropriate colours.
Colour Connotation Business application
Blue Conveys the impression of calm, reliability In business, blue is associated
and strength. Dark blue means ‘strong and with fiscal reliability.
conservative’; light blue, ‘youthful’.
Green Reminder of nature, spring and the Investment bulletins, order forms,
countryside. Less appealing traits: poison, training materials, flyers and
decay, illness and jealousy. labels.
Red Powerful effect on the human eye. In business, associated with debt
Symbolises blood, anger, fire, danger. Deep and deficit. Banks use red for
reds are aristocratic and stylish. withdrawal slips, inventory reports
and other action documents.
Pink Has feminine connotations. Pale pinks have Business forms, such as financial
calm, restful effects. statements and invoices.
Brown Has a sense of practicality, comfort and An elegant brown typeface on pale
realism. Sometimes can be seen as dull. brown paper conveys tradition and
quality.
Black Traditionally in Western cultures, black It also has the modern image of
symbolises the dark side: night, evil, death, distinction, sophistication and
despair and mourning. elegance.
Grey Symbolic of status and authority. Subtle Used as background colour, grey
greys are assured, successful and elegant. is very effective as it provides a
contrast to more vibrant colours.
Yellow The most visible of all the colours, and is It makes shapes appear larger
often a difficult colour to look at for a long and whiter.
period of time.
Purple Sophisticated, mysterious, mystical, Traditionally symbolic of
meditative, melancholy, dignified. sovereignty and justice.
9780170364744 Chapter 5 Approaches to problem solving 191

a Web page text b Web page text

c Web page text

FIGURE 5.20 Illustration of contrast. Note how (b) is easier on the eye than (a) when the colours
are reversed; (c) shows the problem of contrast with non-complementary colours – in this case,
red text on a blue background.

FIGURE 5.21 A colour wheel can show complementary colours. In colour theory, harmonious
colour combinations use any two colours opposite each other on the colour wheel, any three
colours equally spaced around the colour wheel forming a triangle, or any four colours forming
a rectangle (two pairs of colours opposite each other). The harmonious colour combinations are
called colour schemes.

FIGURE 5.22 The Adobe Color CC specialises in allowing you to make up attractive and interesting colour schemes
for websites.
192 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

Conventions for onscreen colours can be helpful in determining colour schemes:

• The most easily readable colours for text are black writing on a white background.
• Avoid using red and green together because colourblind people have difficulty
distinguishing between them. Blue and brown together can also be hard to read.
• Limit the variety of different colours on the screen.
• Light or pastel shades (or white) are the best choice for backgrounds. Avoid using bright,
vivid colours, except for an area of the screen you wish to emphasise.
• Blue is a standard colour for an unvisited hyperlink, changing to purple when visited. If
other colours are chosen for links, they should be consistent.
Traditional primary colours are red, yellow and blue; however, colours used by printers
are magenta, yellow and cyan. Some colour printers are unable to reproduce the full range of
colours visible to the human eye.

RGB
Combining red, blue and green (RGB) colours creates white, as can be seen in Figure 5.23.
Consequently, RGB colours are often known as additive colours. These are mainly used for
lighting, optics, video and monitors.
To show colour on a screen, a pixel must have three coloured phosphor dots. These dots are
the additive primary colours, red, green and blue. Each of the three-colour elements making up
a single pixel may be set to one of 256 values (ranging from 0 to 255). A value of 0 means that the
relevant colour is not visible at that pixel, and a value of 255 would cause the colour to be shown
FIGURE 5.23 Red,
green and blue (RGB) with maximum brightness. There are 256 possible values for each element, so the total number
combine to create of colours that can be displayed on a (true-colour) screen is 16 777 216 ( from 256 × 256 × 256).
white. Complementary colours are contrasting and stand out against one another. Often it is a
good idea to use a complementary colour as the highlight colour. The complementary colour
of a primary colour – red, blue or yellow – is the colour you get by mixing the other two: so the
RGB (red, green, blue) and complementary colour of yellow is red + blue = purple; for red, it is blue + yellow = green; and
CMYK (cyan, magenta,
yellow, black) are two for blue, red + yellow = orange. Even though colours are complementary, they aren’t necessarily
major categories of colour suitable because they might not be a good combination.
representation systems.
Space
Space refers to the areas around and between objects – text and images. If your website is
cluttered, it may be unpleasant to browse. Although you may want to include a lot of information
Space is also discussed in on your website, you still need to put space between objects so they can be individually
Chapter 2, page 54. distinguished and navigated through correctly.
You need to space objects on your website so they are easy to perceive but not overlapped
and obscured. The screen should not be so crowded with objects and features that the user
finds it difficult to see the information they need.
White space can be used as a contrast around a chosen element of the page to draw the
user’s eye (see Figure 5.24). Within graphics, animations or videos, levels of colour and contrast
should make the information clear and attractive. A common convention is also to avoid yellow
or other light colours for text on a white background because this can be difficult to read on
screen (Figure 5.25).
A large area of white space may be used to balance a section that contains an equally large
area of text, because it will be of equal visual ‘weight’. Working with space means also working
with balance.
9780170364744 Chapter 5 Approaches to problem solving 193

screenshot of webpage http://concierge.apple.com/workshops/R342 Copyright

© 2015 Apple Inc. All rights reserved.
FIGURE 5.24 An example of a webpage that uses white space effectively. The website
emphasises the eight pictures by using white space around them.

Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet,
consectetur adipiscing elit. consectetur adipiscing elit.
Pellentesque blandit nibh nisi, eget Pellentesque blandit nibh nisi, eget
blandit sem tincidunt sed. Ut ac blandit sem tincidunt sed. Ut ac
dolor at ipsum lobortis consequat. dolor at ipsum lobortis consequat.
Vestibulum dignissim, eros quis Vestibulum dignissim, eros quis
fermentum pellentesque, odio ligula fermentum pellentesque, odio ligula
vehicula odio, a vestibulum nibh dolor vehicula odio, a vestibulum nibh dolor
non tortor. Phasellus vel libero vitae non tortor. Phasellus vel libero vitae
dui aliquam rutrum vel sed sapien. dui aliquam rutrum vel sed sapien.
Fusce a diam porta, dictum ante Fusce a diam porta, dictum ante
vitae, vehicula purus. Suspendisse vitae, vehicula purus. Suspendisse
vehicula dapibus accumsan. Quisque vehicula dapibus accumsan. Quisque
at tellus nisi. Nulla dapibus ultrices at tellus nisi. Nulla dapibus ultrices
ipsum eleifend dapibus. Nam facilisis ipsum eleifend dapibus. Nam facilisis
pulvinar turpis eget lacinia. Fusce. pulvinar turpis eget lacinia. Fusce.

FIGURE 5.25 Avoid using light-coloured text on a white background as there is not enough
contrast to make it readable.

Balance
A website with a balanced design is visually appealing. Websites with unbalanced designs can
lack the appropriate emphasis, can look untidy and they may end up discouraging users from Balance is also discussed in
visiting them. Chapter 2, page 56.
194 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

All elements of a layout, websites included, have a visual weight. If the elements on either
side or the top and bottom of the screen are of an equal weight, then visual balance is achieved.
There are two types of balance: symmetrical and asymmetrical.
With symmetrical balance, the visual elements on each side of an imaginary horizontal or
vertical dividing line appear to be exactly the same in terms of visual weight, right down to the
proportions and shading.
Asymmetrical balance occurs where visually matched weighting occurs through a
combination of objects of differing sizes, shapes and colours.

Specific design considerations

In addition to the design principles and information architecture, there are some other specific
design considerations you may find useful.

Proportion
Proportion refers to the visual hierarchy of a page on the screen (Figure 5.26). The designer must
ensure that the most important pieces of information have visual prominence on the page, with
less vital information taking a less prominent position in the visual hierarchy. Headings, logos
or links may be very conspicuous on a company webpage, and therefore obvious to users. Other
information that the company does not wish to emphasise as much, such as the cost of an item,
may be in a smaller font in a less noticeable part of the screen.

HEADING Large bold heading

Subheading Subheading Subheading

Roman text (not bold,

not italic), such as
font size 12 pt

FIGURE 5.26 Visual hierarchy of a page. The main heading is large, bold and at the top of
the page. Subheadings are bold. Normal text is roman. The user’s attention is visually drawn
to the heading and subheadings.

The proportions, or relative sizing, of fonts and graphics affect the visual hierarchy of a
In the graphics industry, the
top of a page is sometimes screen. The positioning of particular page elements – including white space around objects, the
referred to as ‘prime real formatting of fonts and the use of animation – also affects the prominence of an element in the
estate’ because it is the
dominant location where
visual hierarchy of a page.
important information will
be most noticeable. This
concept also applies to
Orientation
onscreen pages, especially In designing the layout, the interface designer will consider all elements that are to be included
for long pages where
on the screen, taking into account the visual hierarchy or prominence of various items. They
scrolling is needed. The
bottom of a long page is low will orient objects on the screen and decide the direction that each screen element will face.
in the visual hierarchy, so An important consideration is the aspect of each screen element in relation to other objects
the most vital information
a user needs to see should on the screen, and to the screen overall. Some typical considerations for orientation of screen
not be placed there. elements could be the direction that a logo is to face; whether or not a graphic should be flipped
9780170364744 Chapter 5 Approaches to problem solving 195

over as a mirror image; whether a frame on a website should be at the top, bottom, left or right
of the screen; and how text should be aligned (Figure 5.27).
The size of an onscreen page needs to be considered in the design for orientation of various
screen elements. The orientation and juxtaposition of screen elements become extremely
important.

Sphero
FIGURE 5.27 The designer of this website has used the picture to feature the product and its
logo (flipped slightly to the logo on the top left). Text is aligned to the left and in a straight line
from the edge of the Sphero logo.

Design tools
A good solution will undergo a rigorous design stage before any attempt is made to implement
it. The solution must address the stated problem and provide all the required information. To
design a solution to an information problem, you need to choose and justify the choice of your
preferred solution, develop detailed design specifications, identify the appropriate procedures
and techniques to be used, choose the test data, and correctly apply appropriate formats and
conventions to the solution.
In the design stage, you focus on creating a plan of the solution. Designing a solution often
occurs without using a computer at all. Much time can be wasted if a design has not been
properly planned before work starts on developing the solution. As stated above, the two
activities associated with this stage are first designing the solution and then designing the
evaluation criteria.
In Unit 1, Outcome 3, you are creating a website. Generally, you would follow the steps below.
1 Identify the data you require.
2 Choose an appropriate web-authoring software.
3 Decide how to manipulate the data.
4 Determine the appropriate UIs and apply appropriate information architecture.
5 Develop the site map.
6 Construct storyboards.
7 Choose layout designs.
196 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

8 Choose test data.

9 Choose conventions and apply formats.
10 Consider the design principles that influence the appearance of onscreen solutions.
Many of the steps require you to make use of specific design tools. These tools can be
considered as addressing either the functionality or appearance design principles. The following
sections address each step and the design tools necessary to perform them.

Functionality
Identify the data you require
The PSM is also discussed In the first step, you gather the data required, but new material may be need to be produced
in Chapter 2, on pages during the development stage of the problem-solving methodology (PSM).
31–42.
Choose an appropriate web-authoring software
In the second step, you will be choosing an appropriate web-authoring software. The choice of
software will be strongly influenced by the nature of the issue. If, in the analysis stage, it was
decided that the creation of a webpage was the most suitable solution, the appropriate software
application would be a web-authoring package, such as Dreamweaver. However, sometimes the
choice could include custom-made software.
Decide how to manipulate the data
IPO charts are also
Input–process–output (IPO) charts
discussed in Chapter 2 For the third step, you will need to decide how to manipulate the data. In problem-solving,
on page 66. certain strategies are adopted to see the ‘bigger picture’ of the design – or the macro design.
These strategies include IPO charts. Also called a defining diagram, an IPO chart identifies a
program’s inputs, outputs and the processing steps required to transform the inputs into the
outputs. Once the overall design has been determined, the finer details of the solution are
considered, such as colour, fonts and styles.

Flowcharts
Flowcharts are also useful for the third step. A flowchart can be used to indicate the essential
Flowcharts are also
discussed in Chapter 2, procedures that will be employed to create a solution, and to generate the required information.
page 45. It uses symbols in a linear sequence to document each procedural step required; a simple set of
symbols is shown in Figure 5.28. The flowchart should indicate some detail of the procedures to
be followed to produce the solution and output.

Terminal for START

Flow line
and FINISH
Decision
Process

Input of data or Storage

output of
information
FIGURE 5.28 Simple flowchart symbols
9780170364744 Chapter 5 Approaches to problem solving 197

You could create a flowchart to show the steps that would be involved in producing a
webpage, based on your previous observations or experience. You would then trial the steps in
the flowchart to see how well they work, as a form of quality control. If necessary, you would
make changes to your flowchart to make the processes as efficient as possible. Next, you would
compare it with another flowchart showing how the same process is actually being done by
a web developer. Look for differences between the actual information flow and your ‘best
possible’ flow. These differences may indicate inefficiencies in what the web developer is doing,
which can then be rectified. Testing the solution following its development is also considered Quality control is discussed
to be a form of quality control. on page 169.

Develop the site map

A site map, or a linkage plan, is a graphic representation of how each page of a website links
together. It is commonly hand-drawn as a series of boxes attached to one another. It gives the

Main page

Curriculum Middle
VCE
Years 7–8 School

English Mathematics Science English Mathematics English Mathematics

FIGURE 5.29 A site map represents how each page of a school subject selection website links together

designer an overall picture of how large the site will be, and how each page is linked (Figure 5.29).

Construct storyboards
A webpage storyboard is a tool used to design the features of each individual page. A series of
storyboards provide helpful tools for visual problem solving. Storyboards show general hand-
drawn screen designs and the placement of graphics, and describe actions and links to other
pages (Figure 5.30). The main part of a storyboard is the drawing of what the site should look
like. Other features that should be included in a storyboard for a webpage are:
• title/heading
• page filename
• client’s name
• designer’s name
• page number
• background colour code/image file name
• the required screen dimensions
• the purpose/description
• a list of required image file names and their memory size
• a list of the required link file names.
To make it easier for a user to navigate through large documents or multiple webpages, the
designer can use links, icons, buttons and page numbers. These techniques help the user to find
information in which they are interested. It is inappropriate to produce a layout diagram by
capturing a screen dump of the solution since the solution has not been created at this point. A
storyboard is a common tool for a wide variety of presentations, not just webpages. For example,
storyboards are used to help filmmakers design the sequence of scenes needed for their film.
198 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

Storyboard for Darby Vale Page 1 of 43

Client William Screen dimensions 1024 × 768

School Graphic of students

crest
graphic Heading – graphic

Button Black text on white

links background
Purple headings – Verdana
School Blue
building
graphic

Blue

Purpose/description Page title Middle School

File name m_school
Introduction to Middle
School page
Links

Link name Link to

Graphics Subjects Table of subject

File name Size (kb) Year 7 & 8 Yr 7 & 8 page
DVC.jpg 23 VCE VCE page
building.jpg 27 Policies Policies page
heading.jpg 4 Contacts Contacts page
Site map Site map page
Background(s) Blue/white Home Home page

FIGURE 5.30 A storyboard is used to plan a website

Appearance
The following sections discuss tools that apply to the appearance of your solution: its layout,
testing and formats and conventions, including examples.
Choose layout designs
The tools most commonly used to choose layout designs are layout diagrams and annotated
diagrams, or mock-ups. The following sections discuss both of these and provide examples.

Layout diagram
Layout diagrams provide a visual representation of how the final designed product should look.
The designs indicate features such as variation in font size, colour and positioning of text. The
placement of text and graphics must be planned so that a balanced visual effect is achieved, as
can be seen in Figure 5.31.

Annotated diagrams are Annotated diagrams and mock ups

also discussed in Chapter 2, An annotated diagram or mock up provides a visual depiction of how an onscreen solution, such
page 67. This includes an
example of a hand-drawn as a website, should look. An annotated diagram or mock up can be hand drawn or mocked up in
annotated diagram. software using a program such as Balsamiq. It is similar to a layout diagram but it is more explanatory.
9780170364744 Chapter 5 Approaches to problem solving 199

Northern Tennis Club Image:

NTC_logo.gif
Insert text from ‘Introduction.DOC’ here
male_player.jpg

How to contact the club: Want to become

Address: a member of the
Northern Tennis Link:
123 Bell Street,
Club? Membership.
Northcote, 3070
Ph: (03) 9854 3600 Click here for more html
Fax: (03) 9853 9457 information about
Email: [email protected] membership.
Cell border
colour:
File name: index.html white
Email: Email: Template based on: NTC_template
[email protected]

FIGURE 5.31 Sample layout diagram

FIGURE 5.32 Sample mock up created with Balsamiq

200 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

Choose test data

Testing is a necessary step in problem-solving. Testing the product ensures that it is free of
errors. It is not done in an ad hoc way; rather, through the development and use of test (or
dummy) data (see Table 5.3). This is produced to test any error-handling or data-validation
techniques that may be included in the product. Testing will determine whether the fonts,
styles, type sizes and spacing are appropriate for the website. Testing to see that the message is
conveyed accurately and clearly is also an important task when creating a website. This ensures
that the correct information is communicated to the audience.
In the design stage of the problem-solving methodology, the test data is selected and the
types of tests to be conducted are determined. A test table is used to document the tests to
be performed. Actual testing takes place after the solution has been developed. Note that the
button links need to be tested to ensure all navigation features are working properly. All key
features of a webpage need to be tested, including video, audio or animation, if they are used.
TABLE 5.3 An example of test data in a test plan

What is to be Test data Expected/ Why? Actual result Concluding

tested required result statement
Internal link to Starting page = results. When the Because the link See See
‘Senior Singles html ‘Senior Singles’ is to ‘results. annotated annotated
Results’ on Link = Senior Singles link is selected, html#SeniorSingle’ printout. printout.
‘Results’ page Anchor name = Results. it should and there is an
html#SeniorSingle hyperlink to the anchor called
‘Senior Singles ‘#SeniorSingle’
Results’ anchor. just above the heading
‘Senior Single
Results’
‘Mailto’ email Starting page = index.html When the ‘ntc@ Because the link’s code See See
link to ‘ntc@ Link = mailto:[email protected]. ntc.org.au’ link is ‘mailto:[email protected]. annotated annotated
ntc.org.au’ on au is selected, it au’ printout. printout.
‘Home’ page should open
a new email
dialog box
with the email
address ‘ntc@
ntc.org.au’ in
the ‘To’ field.
Image ‘tennis_ Code on ‘results.html’ is: The image Because the code links See See
ball.gif’ loads img src = “Images/tennis_ ‘tennis_ball. to the ‘tennis_ball. annotated annotated
to the left of the ball.gif” gif” must load gif” file in the images printout. printout.
cell and in the Width = 40 at the left of the folder, its height and
vertical middle Height = 40 cell and aligned width are set to 40 and
of the text on Align = ‘absmiddle’ with the vertical its alignment is set to
the ‘results. middle of the ‘absolute middle.’ This
html’ page. text. Its height coding is placed before
and width the text in the table cell.
should be 40.
User Procedures: Users should be Interface has been
acceptance of Navigate to results page able to perform designed to allow for
functionality and locate current ‘Senior each of the easy navigation to these
Singles’ results. procedures key areas (navigation
Navigate to membership listed with panel on left and
page, locate information minimal advertisement on home
for potential members difficulty. page).
and download
membership form.
9780170364744 Chapter 5 Approaches to problem solving 201

Choose conventions and apply formats

Conventions and formats are terms that are applied to the layout and presentation of the
webpage. They enhance the appearance of information and make it more readable. Conventions
are simply formal ways of displaying information (Figure 5.33). They are rules that people follow
when creating webpages. An example is the placement of a navigation menu across the top or
down the left-hand side of a webpage.
To format information means to create and/or change the appearance of a document by
altering specific features, such as fonts, margins, spacing, columns, tables, graphics, borders,
page numbers, headers and footers. Formatting looks at the presentation of the layout and its
suitability.

FIGURE 5.33 A website convention involves maintaining a balanced relationship between words and graphics

File naming
The index page, or homepage, is the first page that appears when you open a website.
It is sometimes referred to as the default page. The file name of the index page is often
index.htm, index.html or default.html, depending on the service that is hosting the
website.
File names should be kept short and meaningful and they are easier to read in lower case
than in upper case. Every webpage must be saved with a unique file name. File names usually
contain letters, numbers or the underscore symbol. In a program such as Dreamweaver, the
organisation of resources is assisted by defining a site and creating a resource library.
Most websites contain a large number of files and folders, but keeping them organised and
logical is important. Create a set of electronic folders or directories to help locate files quickly.
You should name these folders in meaningful ways, such as ‘images’, ‘videos’ and ‘buttons’, to
make it easy to find files. File and folder names in websites should never contain spaces or any
of the following characters: /\?%*:|”<>. It is best to restrict the range of characters in a file
202 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

name to alphanumeric characters, hyphens, and underscores; for example, golden_gate.

jpg or cable_car2.jpg. Most file and folder names become part of the webpage’s URL, so
naming these files clearly is crucial. Keeping the file names short but meaningful makes it easy
for users to type into the browser, especially on mobile devices. Long URLs are much harder for
users to remember.

The index page

The index page of your website should include important information for users, such as:
• a contact email address or link to a contact form
• the date of the last modification to the website
• the author or company’s name and contact details.

Images
A graphic, or graphic image, is a digital representation of information, such as a drawing, chart
or photograph. Graphics were the first media used to enhance the text-based internet. The
introduction of graphic web browsers allowed webpage developers to incorporate illustrations,
logos and other images into webpages.
Webpages use colourful graphic designs and images to convey messages.
To enable graphics files to be used on mobile devices, they must be saved in an appropriate
format. There are three universally supported image formats: GIF, PNG, and JPEG.

TABLE 5.4 Graphic formats used on the internet. Some users look at the file extensions to determine the type of file.

Acronym Name File extension Characteristics Use

GIF Graphics .gif GIF limits the colour palette to, at most, 256 colours, • Can be viewed in all
Interchange which makes it a poor choice for most images. GIF is browsers
Format recognised as the best format when animation is required. • Creates animated
The colour limitations often lead to colouring issues. images
They appear as white spots or blotches of colour. • Used for cartoons
JPEG Joint .jpg JPEG uses a combination of lossy and lossless • Can be viewed in all
Photographics .jpeg optimisation to reduce the file size of the image. It is best browsers
Experts Group used for optimising photos and screenshots. Although • Easy to take and
JPEGs look fine from a distance, there is a loss of quality send photos via a
whenever users zoom in on an image. mobile device as
the file sizes are
relatively small
PNG Portable .png PNG files are a lossless format so compression does not • Can be viewed in all
Network Larger affect the quality of the image. It produces the highest browsers
Graphic quality image, but has a significantly higher file size than • Not suitable for
other formats. PNG files are larger than JPEG files, photographs
especially when they are high resolution.

JPEG is the standard for photographic images and uses compression techniques to reduce
the file size. These smaller sizes result in faster downloading of webpages. The more compressed
the file, the smaller the file, but the lower the quality. The goal with JPEG files is to reach a
balance between image quality and file size.
A graphic image saved as a GIF also uses compression techniques to reduce file sizes. The
GIF format works best for images with only a few distinct colours, such as line drawings, single-
colour borders and simple cartoons. GIF formats are limited to 256 colours and therefore not
recommended for large blocks of solid colour in simple graphics. One of the disadvantages of
using GIF is that it produces jagged edges when supporting transparency.
9780170364744 Chapter 5 Approaches to problem solving 203

A PNG format was created in response to the limitations with the GIF format. Compression
does not affect the quality of PNG files. Unlike JPEGs, which blur images at a certain point, a
PNG file will always look as sharp as the original image. PNG files tend to be slightly larger than
JPEG files, especially when they are high resolution.
JPEG, PNG, and GIF formats have benefits and limitations. Some formats are better suited
for specific purposes; for example, when the image needs to be animated, you should use a GIF
format. If file size is a consideration, and a smaller file size is required with some loss of image THINK ABOUT
quality then JPEG would be the best choice. PNGs are best used when image size is not as COMPUTING 5.4
important because they are better for capturing for lossless images. Take an image and convert
it into different formats and
To ensure that images are manageable when used with most applications, they must be evaluate the differences.
compressed, which reduces the size of the photos.

Video and audio files

As images, audio and video files take up a large amount of file space, it is worth investigating
methods to make their file size smaller. You should limit the use of movie footage or sound on
a webpage. Some users object to downloading large files, so clearly label the size of the file on
the page so that users can estimate the time needed for download. Users with slow internet
connections may have difficulty getting data fast enough and therefore the image quality will
be poor. Sound files can be stored in the formats MP3 and movie files as MP4.
MP4 video formats are widely used for computers and mobile devices, and for downloading
and streaming video. It is the default choice for smartphones and tablets and watching movies
on computers and TVs. MP4s are compatible with Android and Apple mobile devices. MP4s
support the H.264/AVC (Advanced Video Coding) codec, which processes the original large
media file into a small package that can produce high-quality video at very low bit rates. The
H.264 codec is optimal both for streaming internet video such as videos on YouTube and
iTunes. H.264 is perhaps best known as being one of the video encoding standards for Blu-ray.
Blu-ray discs handle high bit rates.
MPEG-4 is a file format that is commonly used to store media types defined by the Moving
Picture Experts Group (MPEG), though it can store other media types as well. The files of this
format usually have the extension .mp4. Apple’s QuickTime file format was the foundation of
the new MPEG-4 standard. MPEG-4 allows streaming over the internet, combining of multiple
video and audio streams in one file (multiplexing), variable frame and bit rates, subtitles and
still images.
MP3 (known as MPEG-1 or MPEG-2 Audio Layer III), is an audio coding format. It is MP3 was designed by the
commonly used to download digital music or audio streaming. Many digital audio players Moving Picture Experts
play MP3s. Even though it uses lossy compression, and the file is reduced in size, the sound Group as part of its MPEG-1
standard and later extended
reproduction is similar to the original uncompressed audio. Audiophiles would disagree and in the MPEG-2 standard.
notice the quality loss; however, most people would not notice the difference.

Style guides
Style guides provide instructions to website developers about where to use different type sizes
and fonts, and whether these should be in bold or italic. They can also contain information
on colours and patterns to be used as backgrounds on webpages (Figure 5.34). Formats and
conventions are also documented in the guides.
204 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

FIGURE 5.34 An
Mozilla

extract from Mozilla

Firefox’s style guide
9780170364744 Chapter 5 Approaches to problem solving 205

Developing websites
The development stage of a problem-solving methodology involves using the appropriate
During the design stage,
software to produce a solution as outlined in the design stage. There are four activities associated planning techniques such as
with this stage: manipulation, validation, testing and documentation. a site map and storyboards
were used to conceptualise
the solution. The
Manipulation development stage involves
using appropriate software
Manipulation occurs when the data is transformed into information; it is the process of making to apply the designs and
sense of the data. Before computers existed, manipulation took place by hand and was subject build the solution.
to human error and interpretation. With the aid of computers, however, data manipulation
now requires far less effort.
The following web-authoring functions and processes allow the user to manipulate data to
create a webpage.

Buttons
A clickable image or a button is created by the website developer to allow users to navigate within
a webpage, or to a different page or an external URL. Buttons need to be clearly identifiable to
users. In some cases, buttons may have to be created in another program, for example Adobe
Fireworks, and then imported back into the web authoring tool.

Hyperlinks
A hyperlink generally has two ends: one is called an anchor and the second is the direction. The
anchor is the starting point of the link (source) often found in the original webpage and the
other point is where the link leads to (target). The target point can be located on the same page
as the source, or it can be found on another page in the same website, or it can link to an object,
a document or URL.

Tagging
Meta tags assist webpage developers to provide search engines with information about their
website. The type of text to be inserted into the source code of the webpage include important
keywords about the content of the website. Often the title, keywords and description tags are
used as meta tags. Meta tags assist with search engine optimisation and how the website is
ranked within the search engine.

Sound editing
When sound grabs are used in a website, given the large file size, only portions can be used.
Sound needs to be edited so that only the parts that are essential to the website are retained.
Sounds, similar to images, need to be ‘cropped’. That is, all superfluous parts of the sound file
will be removed with only the portion that is needed kept. Applications such as Audacity are
excellent for sound editing.

Text editing
Changing the text size or fonts, aligning headings and justifying text are all ways in which
text can be manipulated. Copying data from a word-processed document, reformatting it and
placing it on a webpage is another example of manipulating data into information.

Image editing
The inclusion of images into a website needs careful consideration. Images may need to be
scaled or cropped when placed on a webpage so that they fit into the allocated space. If images
need more attention, such as further editing, then a dedicated image editing package such as
Photoshop or GIMP can be used.
206 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

Storage and retrieval

Both data and information need to be stored so that they can be retrieved for later processing or
communication. The best storage device to use is determined by the amount of information or
The user in the retrieval
stage is the webpage data being stored, and the amount of time the data needs to be stored. In relation to websites,
creator. writeable CDs and DVDs, USB flash drives, and internal and external hard drives are the most
common forms of storing data. It is important that files are stored using appropriate file name
conventions.
A document can be Retrieval is the process of accessing stored data or information. The retrieval process
retrieved easily if the user
knows the file name and involves transferring a copy of the data or information from its place of storage – for example,
where the file is stored. the hard drive, or the cloud – to the computer’s main memory.

Validation
Before data is validated, it needs to be entered so that it can be processed. In a web-based
solution, the storyboards created during the design phase will indicate where elements are to
be placed and the links that need to be made.
Many spellcheckers favour
American spellings and
Validation can be done either manually or electronically:
cannot be relied on to • Manual validation refers to a person checking the data to ensure it is correct and/
choose the correct word, or reasonable by proofreading the information. This includes checking both for correct
especially if one word has spelling, grammar and punctuation, and for accuracy of transcription and reasonableness.
several different meanings
and spellings, such as bare • Electronic validation refers to the use of software features, such as spell- and grammar-
and bear. checking, to verify accuracy.

Testing
Testing is a necessary activity in problem solving: It is done to ensure that the solution is free
of errors. Testing the solution is done through the development and the use of test data (also
called dummy data.)
Test data is produced to test any error-handling, data-validation techniques or formulas
that may be included in the product. Testing determines whether:
• the solution works within the scope of expected data and produces the required outcomes
• wrong or unexpected data needs to be rejected
• variations in graphics images fit templates, such as pictures fitting a particular space
• links work correctly
• fonts, sizes, styles and spacing are appropriate
• the message is clear. This particular test applies only to a small number of software tools,
such as desktop publishing, word processing, webpage authoring and presentation software.
Testing requires the creator of the product to ensure that the message they are conveying is
not lost among other parts of the document and that the message is clear and concise.
There are a number of attributes, or properties, of a web solution that need to be tested once
the solution has been built. Some of the attributes that should be focused on include:
• functionality
• presentation
• useability
See Table 5.3 for examples • accessibility
of testing. • communication of message.

Functionality
The functionality of a website relates to the activities or actions it was designed to carry out.
When testing functionality, it is important to look at the original problem and determine if the
solution meets the organisation’s needs.
9780170364744 Chapter 5 Approaches to problem solving 207

When testing the functionality of a webpage it is wise to continually preview your site on a
browser and test the links. This involves systematic testing using a variety of different browsers
to see how the website functions. The testing of the website’s functionality on a number of
different browsers, such as Internet Explorer, Firefox and Apple’s Safari, will reveal whether any
of the popular browsers have problems supporting the website. Any difficulties identified with
a browser accessing the website need to be addressed.

Presentation
During the design stage of the problem-solving methodology, a decision would be made about
the appropriate format of the solution; for example, whether the solution should be a multimedia
presentation, a website or a brochure. One of the most important considerations should be the
intended audience: there is no point creating a web-based solution if the audience is unlikely to
have easy access to the internet.
No matter what format is chosen, the presentation of the solution can be a difficult attribute
to test – what looks good to one person may appear ugly to someone else.
A sample of formats and conventions appropriate to webpage presentation that can be
tested include:
• ensuring that the webpage fits within the screen dimensions
• users of the website do not have to scroll any page more than two average screen lengths
• text styles (bolding and italics) are used with restraint
• hyperlinks are not confused with underlining
• the combination of colours used as backgrounds and text allows for easy reading
• each page in the website has consistent navigation buttons.

Useability
All presentations, whether they are brochures, posters or websites, need to be user-friendly. The
information being conveyed should be easily accessible.
When testing the useability of a website, it is worth asking some of the following questions:
• Can the user navigate throughout the website without getting lost?
• Is it easy to get back to the home page?
• Are navigation buttons always visible and placed in a consistent location?
• Do all the hyperlinks work?

Accessibility
A web solution needs to be easily accessible via a search engine. It must also be easy to load,
with small images that do not take too long to open.

Communication of message
Whatever the format, the important information presented in the solution should be clear and
obvious. An advertisement on a brochure, poster or website that intends to advise the date,
time and venue for a meeting must convey those details, without the readers getting lost among
other less vital information. The purpose of the website should be obvious to users, and the
message it is conveying should also be clear and simple.
 208 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

ESSENTIAL TERMS
CHAPTER SUMMARY

accessibility a functionality design principle milestone the achievement of a significant stage

comprising navigation and error tolerance; in a project and has zero time duration; for
accessibility of websites is primarily about making example, completing the printing of an annual
them easy for users to access, navigate and use, report so it can be distributed to shareholders
even in the face of errors or inexperience would be a task of zero time and represents a
brainstorming the collection of many people’s milestone. This follows tasks in which the report
ideas to devise or find a solution to a problem has to be researched, written and proofread, all
of which take time
collaboration where several members of a team
work on parts of the same solution at the orientation the direction and aspect of elements of
same time; team members may be separated an onscreen page; for instance, portrait (vertical)
geographically from one another or landscape (horizontal), the positioning
of frames at left or right on a website, text
contingency plans a set of predetermined actions
justification or the direction a graphic is facing
that a project team will take if some kind of
disaster occurs pixel short for picture element, a small dot of colour
that forms part of a picture on a screen
convention an accepted and standard way of
formatting data; the way it is displayed plug-in a program that enhances the capability
of an internet browser; used to enhance
critical path the line that runs from the beginning of
multimedia, such as Flash and Quicktime
a project until its conclusion, and is the longest
such path through the sequence of events project management the process of planning,
constituting the project organising and monitoring a project in order for
it to be completed on time and within budget;
dummy data a set of ‘pretend’ data used to
another way of describing project management
establish how a product will respond
is that it is a type of collaborative problem-
flowchart a chart used to indicate the essential solving involving the coordination of tasks,
procedures that are to be employed to create people, technical resources and time
a solution, and to generate the required
quality control checking results against identified
information; it uses symbols in a linear sequence
quality standards; it is just as important to apply
to document each procedural step required
quality-control techniques to processes as it is
format altering the appearance of a document to apply them to products or other end results
by changing features such as fonts, margins,
skeuomorphism where design cues are taken from
spacing, columns, tables, graphics, borders,
the physical, real world; for example, using folder
page numbers, headers and footers; also refers
and file graphics for computer filing systems to
to the actual font, margin, spacing, etc., chosen
make them appear recognisable to users
groupware a type of application software that
useability a functionality design principle
enables workers to collaborate by enabling file
comprising robustness, flexibility and ease of
sharing and ‘real time’ conferencing
use; useability of websites is about maximising
hyperlink a connection/link to a website or webpage compatibility for a range of devices, allowing for
juxtaposition being placed side by side them to continue functioning even if errors occur,
lossless a type of image compression that does supporting multiple ways of performing tasks,
not affect the quality of the image because all and providing a user-friendly experience
original data can be recovered when the file is validation checking data for accuracy and
uncompressed completeness
lossy a type of image and audio compression in version control managing changes to documents,
which bits of information deemed unnecessary applications, websites, and other collections of
are eliminated so the data file is much smaller information; Wikipedia has version control to
manipulation the process of making sense of data provide a history of the edits to articles
so that it is transformed into information
meta tag an information tag used to specify a
page’s title, description and keywords; essential
in helping search engines locate the page
9780170364744 Chapter 5 Approaches to problem solving 209

IMPORTANT FACTS

CHAPTER SUMMARY
1 An idea usually launches a project. An individual 11 Visualising thinking tools assist with thinking
or a group of people decide that there is a processes and reflect on the thinking strategies
need for a new product or service, a study is to support understanding.
commissioned and then project planning begins. 12 Information architecture refers to the structure of
A project has the following characteristics: the website and its navigation pathways.
• a clearly defined purpose 13 When planning navigation design, the following
• a start time aspects should be considered: accessibility,
• a finite lifetime meaning, comprehension and consistency.
• a number of interdependent tasks. 14 User-centred design is a methodology that
2 A project manager must be skilled in human focuses on the needs and characteristics of
resource management, communication, quality users, and is applied at the beginning of the
control, time management, costing, accounting design process of the website to ensure that
and contract management. the website is useful and easy to use. The user
3 A project is broken down into a series of tasks. interface is the screen that users see when they
Each task should be substantial, but not so large interact with a device.
and complex that it will affect the completion 15 Useability of a website is how easy the website
time of the whole project. is to learn and to use. Useability assessment
4 Resources are assigned to each task and is based on a set of characteristics aimed at
include technical and human resources. designing usable and accessible websites
5 A schedule allows you to map the project tasks constructed on user-centred design.
and display interdependencies. A Gantt chart is 16 When designing mobile interfaces, the touch
one common way of displaying a schedule. zones on the website need to be big so that
6 Tasks that might cause a project to be delayed users can easily and accurately tap the targets.
lie on the critical path of the project, and extra Small touch zones or ones grouped closely
resources may need to be provided to ensure together make it harder to manoeuvre.
that they do not run over the time allocated. 17 Websites that are well designed should prevent
7 Project management software, such as Timeline users from making mistakes. Although mistakes
or Microsoft Project, enables the project will always occur, a tolerant user interface
manager to schedule and monitor complex should let users recover from their mistakes.
projects. Information relating to starting 18 Effective visibility provides prompts and cues
dates, completion times, resources, costs and that can assist users through an interaction,
dependencies is entered and then displayed in or guide them through a series of steps,
graphic form. indicate the possible options available to
8 Common tools used in project management them and communicate the context of
include project tables and Gantt charts. the situation.
9 A project table enables a project manager
to brainstorm key tasks and work out their
dependencies before putting them into a
formal chart.
10 Gantt charts provide a standard format for
displaying project schedule information by listing
project activities and their corresponding start
and finish dates in a calendar format.
 210 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

19 Consistency of user interface involves creating 31 Alignment of text is when the text on a page is
CHAPTER SUMMARY

patterns in language, layout and design. positioned to the left or right side of the margin,
20 An affordance is a desirable property of a user centred within the page or spaced out evenly
interface. It logically and naturally leads people between the left and right margins.
to take the appropriate steps to accomplish their 32 Serif fonts are usually easier to read in printed
goals. Affordances indicate what is achievable works than sans-serif fonts. Serif fonts, which
and can take many different forms such as have small tails at the end of some letters, are
shape, texture or size. used to make it easier for the viewer to read,
21 The problem-solving methodology provides a as they can guide the eye and reduce eyestrain
structured approach to problem solving and when reading large blocks of text.
consists of the following stages: analyse the 33 A graphic, or graphic image, is a digital
problem, design the solution, develop the representation of information, such as a drawing,
solution and evaluate the solution. chart or photograph. There are three universally
22 Designing the solution involves describing the supported image formats: GIF, PNG, and JPEG.
process of solving the problem and considering 34 A graphic image saved as a GIF also uses
the layout of the output. Input data needs to compression techniques to reduce file sizes. The
produce the information required, and test data GIF format works best for images with only a few
is needed to test that the solution produces the distinct colours, such as line drawings, single-
desired results. colour borders and simple cartoons. GIF formats
23 Common design tools used to plan websites are limited to 256 colours and therefore not
include flowcharts, IPO charts, site maps, recommended for large blocks of solid colour
storyboards and layout diagrams. in simple graphics. One of the disadvantages of
24 A flowchart might be used to show the process using GIF is that it produces jagged edges when
or procedure that the user needs to go through supporting transparency.
to create a website. 35 JPEG is the standard for photographic images
25 Also called a defining diagram, an IPO chart and uses compression techniques to reduce
identifies a program’s inputs, outputs and the the file size. These smaller sizes result in faster
processing steps required to transform the downloading of webpages. The more compressed
inputs into the outputs. the file, the smaller the file, but the lower the
26 Layout diagrams provide a visual representation quality. The goal with JPEG files is to reach a
of how the final designed product should look. balance between image quality and file size.
The designs indicate features such as variation 36 Compression doesn’t affect the quality of PNG
in font size, colour and positioning of text. files. Unlike JPEGs, which blur images at a
The placement of text and graphics must certain point, a PNG file will always look as
be planned so that a balanced visual effect sharp as the original image. PNG files tend to
is achieved. be slightly larger than JPG files, especially when
27 Storyboards show general hand-drawn screen they are high resolution.
designs and the placement of graphics, and 37 Complementary colours are contrasting and
describe actions and links to other pages. stand out against one another. Often it is a good
28 Testing of the solution involves the use of idea to use a complementary colour as the
dummy or fictitious data to check that the highlight colour.
solution is producing the expected output. 38 Combining red, blue and green (RGB) colours
The data, although fictitious, is similar to what creates white. Consequently, RGB colours
the user will input. Test data includes both are often known as additive colours. These
reasonable and unreasonable values. are mainly used for lighting, optics, video and
29 A test plan shows all the elements that will need monitors.
to be tested to ensure correct functionality and 39 Contrast in an onscreen product refers to the
user acceptance. visual difference in colour or tone between items
30 File names should be kept short and meaningful. on the screen. Greater contrast will make items
They are easier to read in lower case than in appear to stand out more from one another.
upper case. Every webpage must be saved If there is not enough contrast between two
with a unique file name. File names usually items, they may appear to blend into each other,
contain letters, numbers or the underscore making it difficult for a user to see them clearly.
symbol.
9780170364744 Chapter 5 Approaches to problem solving 211

40 MP4 video formats are widely used for 43 Common design elements to consider when

CHAPTER SUMMARY
computers and mobile devices, and for planning a website include: proportion,
downloading and streaming video. It is the orientation, clarity and consistency, colour
default choice for smartphones and tablets and and contrast, useability and accessibility, and
watching movies on computer. appropriateness and relevance.
41 MP3 (known as MPEG-1 or MPEG-2 Audio 44 Proportion, or visual hierarchy, refers to the
Layer III), is an audio coding format. It is prominence of various elements on a screen.
commonly used to download digital music or The most important elements, such as headings,
audio streaming. Many digital audio players should stand out visually on the screen.
playback MP3s. 45 Clarity is important for onscreen products. All
42 Style guides provide instructions to website elements on the screen should be able to be
developers about where to use different type seen clearly to convey the message effectively
sizes and fonts, and whether these should to the user.
be in bold or italic. They can also contain 46 Consistency of navigation links, colour schemes
information on colours and patterns to be used and other repeatable features allow users to
as backgrounds on webpages. Formats and navigate an onscreen product comfortably with
conventions are also documented in the guides. minimal confusion.
212 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

Qz TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE

Review quiz
Review quiz

APPROACHES TO PROBLEM-SOLVING METHODOLOGY

1 List the characteristics of a project. 11 What is the purpose of using a site map
2 List the important skills of a project when creating a large website?
manager. 12 Why do solutions need to be tested
3 If a task is said to be on the critical using test data?
path, describe what will happen if the 13 Why is it important to consider the
completion of this task is delayed. elements of design when constructing a
4 Explain how a project table and a Gantt webpage on a website?
chart assist a project manager to plan 14 Describe and explain the purpose of at
and manage a project? least one method of manual validation
5 Why is it important to keep track of file and one method of electronic validation
versions when collaborating with others when producing a website solution.
on a project? 15 What is the difference between formats
6 How does groupware assist workers to and conventions?
collaborate? 16 Why does particular attention need to
7 List and describe the activities involved be given to naming files?
in the design and development stages of 17 Why are sans-serif fonts easier to read
the problem-solving methodology. than serif fonts on websites?
8 Create a storyboard for the 18 Why is it important to ensure that
development of your school’s website. light background colours are used in
9 Create a layout diagram for the webpages?
homepage of your school website 19 Why is it necessary to give careful
so that it can be viewed on a mobile consideration to website navigation?
device.
10 What is the difference between a
storyboard and a layout diagram?
9780170364744 Chapter 5 Approaches to problem solving 213

APPLY YOUR KNOWLEDGE

GANTT CHARTS
1 Examine the Project Table in Table
5.5. Create a Gantt chart to represent TABLE 5.5
this project. Be sure to include simple Task Duration Task Predecessors
dependencies and milestones. name (days) milestone?
2 Answer these questions based on the A 5
Gantt chart created in Question 1.
B 5 A
a Which tasks are on the critical path?
b How long is the critical path (in C 4 B
days)? D 3 A
c How is the critical path affected if
E 5 D
Task C takes an extra three days?
d What impact is there on the critical F 2 E
path if Task E takes four more days G 4 F
than planned? M1 0 YES C, G

CHARLOTTE – ONLINE H 2 M1

SAFETY PREFECT I 3 M1

Charlotte works alongside students at her J 2 H

school providing guidance and leadership M2 0 YES I, J
in online safety. Her school has an iPad K 4 M2
program where all students have access
M3 0 YES K
to their own device. She wants to set up a
website for students to assist with issues
they might encounter and places to get help, while at school and outside of school. She wants
the website to be viewed on mobile devices.

Questions about the development of the student-support website

1 Create a layout diagram for the first three pages of the website.
2 Create a detailed storyboard for the first three pages of the website.
3 Create a site map for the entire website.
4 Draw a flowchart and an IPO chart to help plan the solution.
5 List five formats and conventions that will be applied to the website.
6 Identify the file names that will be used for the first three pages of this website.
7 Nominate the colour scheme that could be used in this website, and justify the choice of
colours for the background and text.
214 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

PREPARING FOR
Design and develop a website

OUTCOME
collaboratively with others
that presents an analysis of a
UNIT contemporary issue and the
team’s point of view on the issue

Working in teams (virtual and face-to-face), you will use web-authoring software to create a
website that is designed to be viewed on mobile devices. The website will present an overview
of a contemporary issue associated with a particular field, such as entertainment, agriculture,
finance, sport or health. Your website should be informed by your knowledge of information
architecture. You should focus on:
• the nature of the issue associated with the use of information systems
• legal, social, environmental or ethical reasons for a contentious issue
• types and capabilities of digital systems associated with the field and issue
• key stakeholders such as individuals, organisations and governments, and their
responsibilities
• positive and negative opinions of each stakeholder about the issue.

OUTCOME MILESTONES
1 Select and apply appropriate methods 6 Select and use digital system
and techniques to acquire and reference components appropriate to your team’s
data and information. needs.
2 Use digital systems to document and 7 Select appropriate design tools
monitor project plans when creating and represent the appearance and
team solutions. functionality of solutions, taking into
3 Analyse the causes and effects of issues account user interactions.
using visualising thinking tools. 8 Recommend online techniques for
4 Synthesise viewpoints to formulate encouraging end-users’ support of
your team’s point of view. published viewpoints.
5 Evaluate cloud computing as a data 9 Use web-authoring software and select
storage solution. and apply functions and techniques to
manipulate data and create solutions.
9780170364744 Chapter 5 Approaches to problem solving 215

STEPS TO FOLLOW
1 Create a team to work collaboratively to 8 Blend individual team members’
research an issue. opinions to formulate a team point of
2 Conduct preliminary research into view on the issue.
issues that are affected by the use of 9 Evaluate the use of cloud computing as
information systems. a data storage solution.
3 Select one particular field to study in 10 Select appropriate design tools
detail. to represent the appearance and
4 Develop a project plan to document functionality of the solution.
and monitor the project. 11 Recommend techniques to allow
5 Acquire primary and/or secondary data end-users to express their opinions on
and information about the issue. websites.
6 Reference the data and information 12 Select and use the appropriate digital
collected. system components.
7 Use visualisation thinking tools to 13 Use web-authoring software to
analyse the causes and effects of the manipulate the data and create the
issue. solution.

DOCUMENTS REQUIRED FOR ASSESSMENT

1 Project plan annotated with progress 6 Evaluation of cloud computing as a
made and any changes that occurred data-storage solution
during the project 7 List of design tools used for the
2 List of tasks completed by each appearance and functionality of the
member of the team solution
3 Primary and secondary data collected 8 Recommendations of techniques used
regarding the study to allow users to express opinions
4 Visualising thinking tool used to analyse 9 List of the digital system components
the issue used to complete the solution
5 Documentation used to formulate the 10 Completed website solution
team’s point of view

ASSESSMENT
Assessment for the task will be based on the quality of the analysis of the subject involving the
use of information systems, the quality of the website solution developed and other required
documentation. A set of assessment criteria will be prepared and distributed by your teacher
prior to the commencement of the task.
9780170364744 Chapter 6 Programming 217

UNIT
INTRODUCTION
Unit 2 of VCE Computing focuses on data and how computational, design and systems
thinking skills are applied to support the creation of a range of solutions.
Throughout Unit 2, students will be required to apply the analysis, design, development
and evaluation stages of the problem-solving methodology outlined in Unit 1. In Area
of Study 1: Programming, students develop a range of knowledge and skills while using
programming and scripting languages, and associated software, to create solutions. In
Area of Study 2: Data analysis and visualisation, students expand on their knowledge of
data and the various tools that are used to extract it, reduce its complexity and manipulate
it to create clear, attractive and useful visualisations. In Area of Study 3: Data management,
students use database management software to create a solution that applies all stages of
the problem-solving methodology.

AREA OF STUDY 1: PROGRAMMING

Outcome 1
You are required to design working modules in response to solution requirements, and use
a programming or scripting language to develop the modules.
To achieve this Outcome, the student will draw on key knowledge and key skills
outlined in Area of Study 1.

AREA OF STUDY 2: DATA ANALYSIS AND VISUALISATION

Outcome 2
You are required to apply the problem-solving methodology and use appropriate software
tools to extract relevant data and create a data visualisation that meets a specified user’s
needs.
To achieve this Outcome, the student will draw on key knowledge and key skills
outlined in Area of Study 2.

AREA OF STUDY 3: DATA MANAGEMENT

Outcome 3
You are required to apply the problem-solving methodology to create a solution using
database management software, and explain the personal benefits and risks of interacting
with a database.
To achieve this Outcome, the student will draw on key knowledge and key skills
outlined in Area of Study 3.
218 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

CHAPTER
PROGRAMMING
Key knowledge
After completing this chapter, you will be able to demonstrate knowledge of:
Data and information
• characteristics of data types and methods of representing and storing text, sound
and images
Digital systems
• functions and capabilities of key hardware and software components of digital
systems required for processing, storing and communicating data and information
Approaches to problem solving
• functional requirements of solutions
• methods for creating algorithms such as identifying the required output, the input
needed to produce the output, and the processing steps necessary to achieve the
transformation from a design to a solution
• suitable methods of representing solution designs such as data dictionaries, data
structure diagrams, object descriptions and pseudocode
• characteristics of effective user interfaces, for example useability, accessibility,
structure, visibility, legibility, consistency, tolerance, affordance
• techniques for manipulating data and information
• naming conventions for files and objects
• testing and debugging techniques, including construction of test data

Key skills
• interpret solution requirements
• select and use appropriate methods for expressing solution designs, including user
interfaces
• apply techniques for manipulating data and information using a programming or
scripting language
• devise meaningful naming conventions for files and objects
• apply testing techniques using appropriate test data.

For the student

This chapter relates to VCE Computing Unit 2, Area of Study 1: Programming. It
introduces basic programming concepts such as software development tools, storage and
control structures, the software development process, design tools, types of programming
languages, and universal programming ideas such as pseudocode, modules, loops,
debugging and testing. You will also be learning a specific programming language that
you will use to develop a series of small programming tasks for Unit 2, Outcome 1.

For the teacher

This chapter introduces students to the universal theoretical concepts behind programming
that are required for Unit 2, Outcome 1. It does not assume knowledge of, or use source
code from any actual language. Instead, pseudocode is used. Little previous programming
experience can be expected from many students, so it is important to introduce the chosen
language to them early, and give them time to train up. Unit 2, Outcome 1 should consist of a
few (perhaps five) small, independent tasks that include basic programming concepts, such
as storage, logic, loops and calculations.
9780170364744 Chapter 6 Programming 219

Information systems in programming

This chapter deals with Unit 2, Outcome 1 of Computing. Throughout this Area of Study, you Information systems are
will focus on using a programming or scripting language that is capable of supporting object- explained in Chapter 3.
oriented programming (OOP) to create working software modules. Programming and scripting
languages provide more flexibility than applications do, because you can insert specific
instructions to create a purpose-designed solution.
The specific language that you study is flexible. You will also develop and hone your skills
in interpreting solution requirements that come from your teacher, and in designing working
modules. During this Area of Study, you will apply methods and techniques for completing
a series of small discrete tasks or working modules that use features of a programming or
scripting language, including predefined classes.
You will also apply knowledge and skills associated with the design and development stages
of the problem-solving methodology (PSM).
Information systems comprise people, data, processes and digital systems. In the context of
programming, the key parts are:
1 people, who interact with systems according to their needs, such as programmers, data
entry operators, system managers, technicians and end users
2 data, which is composed of raw, unprocessed facts and figures, such as someone’s date of
birth, that is used as input to be processed into meaningful information as output, such as
someone’s age
3 processes, which are the manual and automated ways of achieving a result, such as a
manual data backup or an automated hard disk error scan
4 digital systems, which are made up of the hardware and software needed to support
programming and software use.
Digital systems are made up of the following components. See Chapter 3 for more
• Networks exchange data between computers. information on networks
• Protocols are rules used to coordinate and standardise communication between and protocols.
devices.
• Application architecture patterns are sets of principles used to provide a framework for
structuring solutions to recurring problems; for example, thin client is the philosophy
that, rather than use powerful computers it is better to use ‘dumb’ workstations
connected to a powerful central computer that does all the processing work for them.
• Software comes in three types: systems, applications and utilities.
• Hardware is physical equipment for input, output, storage, processing and
communication.
The following section will discuss in more detail the hardware and software components of
digital systems.

Hardware
The physical components of digital systems are known as hardware. They include familiar items
such as the monitor, mouse, hard disk drive (HDD), motherboard, graphics card, sound card
and so on.
Hardware requires software instructions to control it; software requires hardware to carry
out its instructions. They work together to form a useable digital system.
Hardware falls under a number of categories, including:
• input devices, which are instruments and peripherals, such as keyboards, that enable
users to send data and commands to software and the operating system
 220 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

• output devices, which are instruments and peripherals such as printers and monitors that
display information from a computer in human-readable form
• processing hardware
• storage hardware
• communication hardware.
The following sections cover processing, storage and communication hardware in greater
depth.

Processing hardware
The key element of programming hardware is the processing hardware – the digital processor
that converts data into information and controls all of the other hardware in the system.

CPU
The central processing unit (CPU) is often thought of as the ‘brain’ of a digital system and it
THINK ABOUT handles most of a system’s data manipulation. The CPU is helped by other processors, such
COMPUTING 6.1
Research the CPUs of a as those in the video card, hard disk drives and audio controller chips. Major CPU designers
mobile phone, a laptop and include Intel, AMD, ARM and IBM.
a desktop gaming machine. Reduced instruction set computing (RISC) CPUs, such as ARM, have smaller instruction
How do they differ, and
sets than complex instruction set computing (CISC) CPUs, such as Intel’s i7. Being cheaper and
how is their performance
measured? smaller and therefore drawing less power and producing less heat makes CISC CPUs ideal for use
in smartphones and tablets.

GPU
As CPUs get smaller, the The graphics processor unit (GPU) is a very fast and expensive processor specifically designed
laws of physics start to be for high-speed image processing in graphics cards. Application software, such as Adobe
bent. When electrons travel Photoshop, video editors and 3D games, exploit GPU power to accelerate processor-intensive
in time, or disappear and
reappear elsewhere in the calculations.
universe, CPUs will become
unreliable. Quantum
computing hopes to fix Storage hardware
this problem. Storage hardware retains data and software for both immediate and later use. It comes in two
main types: primary storage and secondary storage.

Primary storage
Shutterstock.com/

Primary storage is a computer’s random-access memory

Jiggo_thekop

(RAM). It has billions of storage locations in silicon chips. RAM

stores instructions and values including variables, arrays
and other storage structures when programs are running or
FIGURE 6.1 RAM modules being created. RAM chips are volatile because they lose their
data when electricity is turned off. Dynamic RAM (DRAM) is used as the main memory in
computers; high-speed (and expensive) static RAM (SRAM) is used in graphics cards and CPUs.

Secondary storage
Permanent secondary storage stores data, information and applications when they are not
actively used. Secondary storage includes hard disk drives (HDD), solid state drives (SSD) and
network-attached storage devices (NAS).
Hard disk drives (HDD) are aluminium disks densely crammed with magnetically recorded
bits of 1 and 0. Spinning at up to 10 000 RPM, they store and retrieve data at incredible speed,
with breathtaking accuracy and reliability. They are very cheap per megabyte of capacity, and
9780170364744 Chapter 6 Programming 221

still the biggest, and most reliable long-term storage medium you can find. In 2015, a 4TB
(approximately 4000GB) HDD cost approximately $200, which works out to about 20GB of
storage per dollar.
Solid state drives (SSD) store data in non-volatile NAND RAM (similar to that used in Flash
drives and SD cards). They have no motors to age and fail, run silently, start up instantly, consume
less electricity, generate less heat, and may access data faster than a HDD. Unfortunately,
NAND RAM eventually loses its ability to be written to, stores less data per square centimetre
of storage space, and is expensive. In 2015, a 128GB SSD cost approximately $105, or around
1GB of storage per dollar.
A network-attached storage (NAS) device is a networked team of HDDs. Using a NAS Network-attached storage
offers more speed, capacity (e.g. 12TB), data protection (e.g. hot-swap disks), convenience and (NAS) is discussed in
more detail in Chapter 3
reliability than a simple USB hard disk alone. on page 109.
TABLE 6.1 Storage units
Equivalent to
Unit Symbol
RAM Data storage
Byte B 8 bits (1 or 0), the basic unit of storage 8 bits
Kilobyte KB 1024 bytes 1000 bytes
1024KB (roughly 1 million bytes – the size 1000KB
Megabyte MB
of two average novels)
Gigabyte GB 1024MB (PCs have gigabytes of RAM) 1000MB
1024GB (hard disks have terabytes of 1000GB
Terabyte TB
storage) Storing 1YB would take
1 000 000GB 2 500 000 cubic metres of
Petabyte PB 1024TB 64GB microSD cards – the
(1 × 106GB)
equivalent of the volume of
1 000 000 000GB the Great Pyramid of Giza
Exabyte EB 1024PB
(1 × 109GB)
1 000 000 000 000GB
Zettabyte ZB 1024EB THINK ABOUT
(1 × 1012GB)
COMPUTING 6.2
1 000 000 000 000 000GB Get online Australian prices
Yottabyte YB 1024ZB
1 × 1015GB) for various sizes of SSD
and HDD. Graph their costs
against their capacity.
Communication hardware
Communication hardware is used for sending and receiving data and information.
Ports are physical sockets or connectors that carry data between a computer and external
devices, often referred to as peripherals. Universal serial bus (USB) is a standardised high-speed
way to connect many devices, including Flash drives, printers, modems, keyboards, mouses, In the days before USB,
speakers and smartphones. many manufacturers
invented their own type
As a programmer of a high-level language you will not need to worry about directly of port. Computers were
controlling devices such as printers or disk drives. Your programming language will issue jam-packed with ports to
commands such as ‘display this’ or ‘save this data’ and the OS will negotiate with the hardware accommodate individual
makes of modem, printer,
to fulfil your requests. The OS knows how to talk to hardware because each device comes with mouse, keyboard, monitor,
a software driver, which is like a dictionary that tells the OS the commands that the hardware joystick, etc.
understands. The OS gives a generic command, such as ‘print this’, and the driver translates
the command into language that the specific piece of hardware understands. Hardware Networking hardware –
misbehaviour is often caused by using an incorrect or outdated driver. modems, routers, switches,
cables and wi-fi are
explained in Chapter 3.
222 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

Software
Software is used to control computing devices to process data. There are many types of software
programs used to:
• calculate, such as spreadsheets
• store and organise data, such as databases
• entertain, such as games
• communicate, such as web browsers, email and instant messaging
• control devices, such as embedded software in TVs, toasters and car engines.
Hundreds of other programs exist. These pieces of software are all created by programmers.

Types of software
System software tools are used by a computer to manage hardware and run the user’s programs;
for example, the operating system (OS), device drives and communication protocols.
Applications are used to perform work or complete larger tasks. Popular examples of
applications include Microsoft Word and Excel, Adobe Photoshop and Mozilla Firefox browser.
Utilities are usually small, single-purpose software tools that do a specific job or add
functionality to an operating system. They include text editors, audio format converters and
DVD burners.

The OS (operating system)

An OS such as Windows, Mac OSX, Linux or Android is system software that controls a
computer’s hardware and runs the user’s application software. Operating systems are usually
Windows users can run incompatible with one another, but they all perform similar functions.
services.msc to see • Loading and saving data and programs
the dozens of tasks the
OS is managing in the • Displaying output and printing
background. • Processing sound and music
• Allocating memory for user programs
THINK ABOUT
• Watching the user’s keyboard and mouse activity
COMPUTING 6.3 • Controlling network and internet access
Linux is a free, open source • Encrypting, decrypting, compressing and decompressing data
OS. Where is Linux used, • Caching downloads
and what benefits and • Controlling user logins and maintaining security over accounts, files and access to
drawbacks does it have
compared with Windows
resources
and Mac OS? • Running background programs to keep the system working efficiently; for example, disk
defragmenters, virus scanners and checking for upgrades

Programming and scripting languages

Programming languages are used to give instructions to computer processors so they can
There are more than 700 calculate useful information or carry out tasks for humans. Whether your phone is playing
programming languages,
but you will not have to an MP3, your car is turning on its anti-skid braking, or McDonald’s is calculating staff wages,
learn them all. programming languages are needed.
9780170364744 Chapter 6 Programming 223

Scripting languages conveniently store sequences of instructions that, alternatively, could

be entered one at a time. Like human languages, there are many programming languages, each
with distinctive grammar, punctuation and vocabulary. Most programming languages have
special abilities or strengths that make them more useful than other languages for a particular
task.
Professional programmers know a handful of languages and choose the best language
for each job based on its strengths and weaknesses. Choosing the languages to learn is a big
decision, but remember that learning one language makes it easier to learn others. The most
popular programming languages include C (C++ or C#), Python, Java, JavaScript, Perl and PHP,
SQL and Visual Basic.
• C, C++ or C# is used for writing low-level utilities and fast applications.
• Python is a scripting language used widely across the internet and to control devices.
• Java is used for server-side website programming and for Android apps.
• JavaScript is a client-side scripting language for websites.
• Perl and PHP are also used for websites.
• SQL, or structured query language, is a scripting language for database programming. SQL is covered in more
• Visual Basic is a good first programming language to learn and it is good for prototypes. depth in Chapter 8,
beginning on page 314.
While programming languages may differ, they all do basically the same job: they control a
digital system such as a computer, tablet or smartphone.
Programming languages differ in the amount of direct control they give over a computer’s
hardware and operating system. With a high-level language such as Visual Basic or Python, THINK ABOUT
COMPUTING 6.4
programmers avoid having to worry about complex details of the structure of actual disk files or Research three popular
where data is stored in memory. High-level languages are simpler to use, but lack the control of languages to discover their
complex but more difficult to learn low-level languages. Conversely, a low-level language such as origins. What did existing
C or machine code requires more skill and knowledge from the programmer, but allows more languages lack that led
to the need for the new
direct control of the workings of a computer. languages?
High- and low-level programming languages each have their uses. To write a simple alarm
clock program, a high-level language is fine. To write a device driver to control a printer, only a
low-level language will do. C has both high-level
features (for example, FOR
loops and arrays) and low-
level features (for example,

Software development tools memory pointers and

byte-level operators) making
it popular and suitable for
To develop software, you need a number of basic, essential tools, including an editor, compiler, many occasions.
linker and debugger. The following section discusses these in more detail.
An editor is a specialised word processor that is used for creating human-readable source
code, or rather, human-readable programming instructions. Code editors come with specialist
features designed to make programming easier, such as highlighting programming keywords,
detecting unbalanced parentheses and adding line numbering. Programming editors, such as
the one shown in Figure 6.2, show colour-coding, indenting, collapsible text and line numbering.
A compiler converts source code into executable programs that a computer can carry out;
that is, that a particular central processing unit (CPU) and operating system, such as Windows
or Mac OSX, can understand.
224 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

FIGURE 6.2 A programming editor

Executable code compiled for one platform will not work on another without being ported
THINK ABOUT
COMPUTING 6.5 (re-compiled for another platform). Porting is hard and expensive work; this is one reason why
Research online to choose many apps are available for Windows but not Mac or vice versa.
a popular code editor. A linker loads information that the executable code will need; for example, how to read a
Examples are Notepad++
keyboard or how to calculate square roots. Linkers come with useful pre-written code libraries.
and Programmer’s Notepad.
What features does it A debugger helps programmers to find bugs – or programming errors. Sometimes debugging
possess that make it better can take as long as the original programming time, or even longer if the program has been
than a plain text editor for poorly designed. Debuggers may:
creating source code?
• highlight incorrect syntax (programming expression) and show how statements should be
expressed
• allow programmers to set break points in code, where the compiler will stop and let the
Part of the difficulty of programmer inspect the current values of variables
porting is that programs • allow line-by-line stepping through code so developers can find exactly where a problem arises.
must often be substantially
changed to work under a Few programmers today use separate editors, compilers, linkers and debuggers. Most use an
different operating system. Integrated Development Environment (IDE) such as Microsoft’s Visual Studio to combine the
development tools into a single package.
Figure 6.3 shows:
1 the toolbox of graphical user interface (GUI) objects the programmer can insert into the
program
Refer to page 253 for more
information on GUI objects. 2 the code window, which the programmer uses to instruct the program how to act when
an event takes place, such as the clicking of a button
Refer to page 235 for more
3 the form, which will be the visible interface for the program’s user
information on interfaces. 4 the properties of the selected object, which let the programmer modify an object’s
characteristics or behaviour
Refer to page 232 for more 5 the project manager with which the programmer can manage the various files and
information on objects.
components related to the program
6 onscreen help to give brief reminders of what the currently selected object is like.
9780170364744 Chapter 6 Programming 225

FIGURE 6.3 An example of an IDE

Storage structures
A storage structure is a location in RAM where data is stored during the execution of a program.
The two main data storage structures are variables and constants. Variables are so-named
because the value stored in a variable can vary, or be changed by a program. Constants, on the
other hand, have fixed (unchanging) values during a program’s execution, such as the value of
pi, or the number of the Australian states and territories.
Arrays can store many values in numbered ‘slots’. For example, to store 12 monthly rainfall
figures, create an array called intRain[12] to house 12 values. To address (refer to) an
individual value, give the name of the array and the desired index (slot number); for example:
IF intRain[1] < intRain[12] THEN
Using variables and
DISPLAY “January was drier than December!” arrays is discussed later in
END IF this chapter.

Data types
Most languages want programmers to declare the type of data that needs to be stored, so they
can most efficiently store the data. After all, if someone asks you for a box, do they want to store Chapters 7 and 8 discuss
data types in greater depth.
a pair of shoes, a wild cat or a widescreen TV? Knowing the intended contents lets you choose
the container of the best size and type.
All programming languages support various data types for variables and arrays, but they
differ in what types they support. Most languages support text (string), integers, floating point
(real) numbers, date/time (timestamp), and Boolean data types, as described in Table 6.2.
226 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

TABLE 6.2 Common data types

Data type Description
Text (string) Alphanumeric characters and punctuation – any group of characters that can be
typed, such as Tom Smith, *Hello* or 123abc.
Numbers can be stored as string, but cannot be used for calculations in that form.
Use strings to store phone numbers like (03) 3945 2394, because strings can
hold parentheses, leading zeroes and spaces while numeric types cannot.
Integers Whole numbers with no fractional part, such as 1, 0, 3, 67 and 341567
Fractional data is lost when stored as integers. Integers require little RAM.
Floating Numbers with fractional parts, such as 2.42. Floating point numbers use more
point (real) RAM than integers. Types include single precision and double precision.
numbers
Date/time Calendar date and/or time of day. Using date/time data type allows programming
(timestamp) languages to perform complex time and date calculations.
Languages differ in how Boolean Stores only two values: true or false. Although this may not sound very useful,
they treat floating point computers spend a lot of time making true/false decisions and the dedicated,
numbers. A single precision
concise Boolean data type saves a lot of RAM.
variable may use 4 bytes of
memory to store a value up Character A single character only, such as M, F or $
to about 38 digits long, with
Byte An integer between 0 and 255
7 decimal places. Double
precision is much bigger! Currency Numeric, for storing monetary values only; it has a large number of decimal
places to prevent rounding errors
Pointer C uses this special data type to store pointers to the locations of items in RAM

When you select a data type, you should choose wisely so that you will not lose vital
THINK ABOUT information. For example, if you chose to store a floating point number in an integer variable,
COMPUTING 6.6
Look into the specifications it would lose its decimal places because, as described in Table 6.2 above, integer data types do
of the programming or not store decimal places. Conversely, small integers do not always need to be stored as floating
scripting language you are point numbers, particularly very large ones such as double precision, because they are small
using and find the minimum
and using large data types will just waste RAM and slow down your execution. Thus, when
and maximum values that it
can store in an integer. choosing data types, consider the form of data and its size.
You should also think about both current and future needs. For example, Kelly is
programming an employee database for a company that has 30 employees. She chooses ‘byte’
data type for the variable to hold the number of employees. Six years later, the company has
grown considerably and now has 256 employees. Kelly’s program crashes as soon as employee
number 256 is entered into the system, because byte variables can only store numbers up to
THINK ABOUT 255. Kelly’s conservative choice of data type killed her software.
COMPUTING 6.7
List the data types your Media data types
language supports. Identify A medium is a channel or means through which data and information are sent or stored. In
their purposes.
information and digital systems, multimedia means the use of several media, such as video,
audio, text and photographs, to convey information. Storage media are ways of storing data,
and include Blu-ray, SSDs, HDDs and the cloud.
Media are data-hungry. An 30-minute audio file uses 6–30 MB of storage. Video can consume
Byte measurements are
confusing. Since 1998, 20 times that amount. A digital photo can be anywhere from a few kilobytes (KB) to several
official IEC standards say megabytes depending on its quality.
that a kilobyte is 1000 bytes
and 1024 bytes is now a Data storage is measured in bytes. One byte is made up of 8 binary bits (1 or 0). A kilobyte (KB)
‘kibibyte’. Many ignore is approximately 1000 bytes. A megabyte (MB) is approximately 1 million bytes. Transmission
that and use the traditional speeds are usually measured in bits per second, not bytes. In abbreviations, byte is represented
1024 byte kilobyte.
by the uppercase ‘B’, and bits use ‘b’, so 56 Mbps means 56 million bits per second (7 million
bytes per second). Do not confuse bits and bytes! Refer back to Table 6.1 on page 221 for more
information on data storage units.
9780170364744 Chapter 6 Programming 227

The quality of stored media involves their resolution and compression, which is discussed
in the next section.

Resolution THINK ABOUT

Resolution is a measure of how much detail is in: COMPUTING 6.8
Research the resolutions
• images (dots per inch when printed or pixels per inch when onscreen and colour depth)
used for laser printing,
• video (frames per second, frame size and bitrate) phones and monitor
• audio (sample rate or frequency, bit depth and number of channels). screens. How do the
The higher the resolution, the more realistic the reproduction will be, and the bigger the differences affect file size?
media file ... and the longer it will take to transmit. Choosing a level of resolution for media
usually involves a compromise between quality, cost, storage requirements and the time needed
When saving JPEG files,
to transmit. the ‘Quality’ compression
number is not a percentage.
Compression It just means ‘a little bit’
or ‘a lot’.
Bulky media are usually compressed before being stored
or transmitted.
Lossy compression shrinks media by throwing away
details. Common lossy media formats are used to shrink: THINK ABOUT
• photos, such as JPEG COMPUTING 6.9
• video, such as DivX, MKV and WMV Using free software such as
• audio, such as MP3 and WMA. Audacity take an audio file
and save it with different
JPEG collapses similar colours into a single shade. sample rates (e.g. 8 KHz and
MKV may reduce the number of frames per second. FIGURE 6.4 Setting the 44.1 KHz) and sample sizes
compression level when using the
MP3 removes low or high musical notes that most ‘Save for Web’ option and saving (e.g. 16-bit or 32-bit) in
mono and stereo. Compare
people cannot hear. When users choose a level of lossy as a JPEG in Photoshop.
the sizes of the files and
compression, they must balance quality against size. sound qualities.
Lossless compression file formats (such as GIF, PNG, TIFF images, and FLAC audio) reduce
media size as much as possible without losing data. They work by summarising data. For
example, instead of recording 500 blue pixels individually, it says, ‘The next 500 pixels are blue’. Detail lost during lossy
compression can never
JPEG format is designed to store photos with subtle colour transitions. GIF is designed to be restored. Always keep
store images with big blocks of solid colour, using a palette of only 256 colours. This explains original, uncompressed
why JPG is a poor choice for storing logos, as GIF is for storing photos. master copies of media for
later use.
Text is never stored in a lossy format; throwing away little words or changing big words into
similar smaller words to save space would not be not wise! Text formats include:
• plain text (txt), which stores nothing but text characters
• comma-separated values (CSV) or tab-separated data files
• rich-text format (RTF), which includes formatting tags, such as HTML
• portable document format (PDF), which is a searchable, compressed format that can
be viewed in its original and perfect formatting without using the obscure or expensive
software that created it
• proprietary formats such as DOCX and WPD that have detailed formatting, images and
metadata (data about the text).
Image colour information is stored in two different ways. Images to be viewed on monitors
are stored as RGB with three bytes representing the brightness of a red, a green and a blue
pixel between 0 (off) and 255 (fully on). Images intended for printing use CMYK to describe the
strengths of the four ink colours – cyan, magenta, yellow and black.
228 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

THINK ABOUT
COMPUTING 6.10
Find a digital logo with a
couple of solid colours,
and a digital photo of a
landscape. Using an image
editor like Photoshop or FIGURE 6.5 A document in print layout when using word processing software
GIMP, load both images and
save them under both JPEG
and GIF with new names. {\plain \fs36 \b\f1\fs36 {\tc {This is a main heading}{\plain \
Compare the file sizes and fs36 \b\fs36 .}}\par
image qualities. Now try }\pard \fs24
saving the JPEG image with {\plain \fs24 \b This text is in }{\plain \fs32 \b\fs32 bold}{\
increasing compression plain \fs24 \b .}{\plain \fs24 \par
levels. Graph the sizes and }{\plain \fs24 \i Italics here.}{\plain \fs20 \fs20 \par
subjective assessments of
the image quality.
FIGURE 6.6 Part of the same document, saved as RTF

Problem-solving
methodology is explained
Developing software
further in Chapter 2. The software development used in VCE Computing can be applied either as the single
stage-by-stage process of the problem-solving methodology (PSM) or to each iteration of an
agile problem-solving process. An agile process is a flexible and responsive approach that
allows a return to earlier production steps when needs change; for example, if changes in
technology force a radical redesign of the product, the client wants to add new functionality, or
market pressures force a change of direction.

PSM stage: Analysis

The task of this stage is to develop the software requirements, both functional and non-
functional.

Functional requirements
Functional requirements describe the tasks that a program should be able to perform. In the
simplest terms, these are the things a program must be able to do – the main reason for creating
it. For example, a program’s functional requirements may specify that it must be able to:
• edit, crop and touch-up illustrations and photos
• create illustrations
• create handwriting typefaces.
The functional requirement or requirements are usually achieved in a specific and identifiable
place in a program or a solution, such as a particular formula or a piece of programming.

Non-functional requirements
Non-functional requirements describe the attributes or qualities that your solution should have.
Using the design program as an example again, its non-functional requirements may require it
to be the following: precise, flexible, fast and easy to use.
A non-functional requirement will probably not be achieved in one specific place in a
program. It usually requires a combination of factors across an entire program. For example,
achieving ease of use in a design program may involve building in simple menus, shortcut keys,
context-sensitive help, using clear language and making sure the interfaces are user-friendly in
many different places.
9780170364744 Chapter 6 Programming 229

The results of the analysis stage, comprising solution requirements, constraints and scope,
are recorded in a document called solution requirement specifications, or SRS. In this Outcome,
your teacher will give you the analysis.

Constraints
Constraints are limiting factors or conditions that you need to consider when you are designing
a program. A constraint will usually reduce your freedom of design choice. Constraints generally
fall into five categories: economic, technical, social, legal and useability.

Constraints on a program

Economic Technical Social Legal Useability

Speed of Availability Compatibility Level of Privacy of data Ease of use

Cost Time Capacity expertise of Ownership Usefulness
processing of equipment and security requirements of solutions
users

Example: Example: Example: Example: Example: Example: Example: Example: Example: Any Example: Example:
Hiring Program will Program Program will Program Program Users will be Program data used to Program Program
additional take 11 needs take up at requires will be designers, so ownership to develop should enable should
programmers months to to run on a least users to compatible program be retained program designers to create
to help build build and computer 400MB disk have a with Mac should have by should be create typefaces
the program deliver in full with space graphics devices only an interface developers de-identified handwriting in two
is expensive at least 4GB tablet with images and licenced typefaces or three
RAM for installed rather than by company easy steps
optimal being text- commissioning
performance heavy and it
technically
worded

FIGURE 6.7 Constraints on a program

PSM stage: Design

Design is a vital stage in starting to create a good program, and there are several acknowledged
good practices to observe.
Software design uses various tools to plan a program’s architecture (how it will be
constructed) and its appearance. The following sections discuss several types of software
tools that can be used to help plan a program’s architecture: data dictionaries, data structure
diagrams, input-process-output charts, pseudocode, object description and interface
mock-ups. You may find these tools useful during the development of your Outcome. Each
design tool has its own specific purpose and reason for existing. If you ever find yourself using
a design tool that gives no more information than that already provided by other design tools,
you are probably using it incorrectly.
TABLE 6.3 Tools to plan a program’s architecture and appearance
Design tool Designs
Data dictionary Data types, names, formatting, validation
Input-process-output (IPO) chart Output and data requirements, calculation strategies (algorithms)
Data structure diagram Structure and relationships within and between data items
Object description The behaviour and properties of components
Pseudocode The logic behind processing
Mock-up The appearance of output and the user interface

Data dictionaries
For more information on
A data dictionary is used to plan storage structures including variables, arrays, and GUI objects data dictionaries, refer
such as textboxes and radio buttons. The data dictionary should list every structure’s name and data to Chapter 8, page 312.
type. It may also include the data’s purpose, source, size, description, formatting, and validation.
230 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

TABLE 6.4 Data dictionary

Name Type Format Size Purpose Example
txtCustomerID Text XXX99 5 Customer ID SMO40
dateDOB Date YYYY-MM-DD Fixed Date of birth 1992-12-28
sngSales Single precision $##,###.## Fixed Total amount spent $12,456.78
boolClubMember Boolean Yes/No Fixed Is a member of the Yes
buyer’s club?
txtFamilyName Text Xxxxxxxxxxxx 25 Customer family name De Silva
txtFirstName Text Xxxxxxxxxxxx 15 Customer given name Horatio
intAge Integer 999 Fixed Age in years 34
intMemYears Integer 99 Fixed Years a member 12

Data dictionaries are valuable when code needs to be modified later by other programmers
and the purpose of a variable or array is unclear.

Object naming
Creating clear and obvious names for your program’s variables, arrays, GUI controls, forms and
windows makes your source code more readable and maintainable over time. It also makes it
more easily understood by programming colleagues, and will save you some time after you have
finished the code.
Descriptive names make it easier to know what an object is for, and how it should be treated.
For example, the name ‘Temperature’ is much more informative than ‘T’.
There are two industry-standard naming techniques.
Hungarian notation involves adding an object’s type as a prefix to its name, such as
intTemperature for an integer, or lblHeading for a label. This practice is particularly
common in databases and programming. The prefix reminds programmers how the object
should be handled; for example, you would not accidentally try to change the Multiline property
of lblHeading because the lbl party reminds you that it is not a textbox and does not have
a Multiline property.
CamelCase involves the use of capital letters to mark the start of new words in a file or
object name. Multi-word names can be hard to read in a name that has no spaces, such as
inttemperaturecelsius, but programming languages forbid spaces in names. In
situations like this, CamelCase helps by capitalising the initial letter of each word in a name, so
inttemperaturecelsius becomes intTemperatureCelsius. Using another example,
in the filename annualcompanyauditreport2017.docx, the initial capitals system of
CamelCase would make things much easier: AnnualCompanyAuditReport2017.docx.
The way that files are named is very important. Get started with best practices early.
• Use underscores (underlining) instead of spaces; for example, z_dev_MediaGrid.fmp
instead of z dev MediaGrid.fmp.
• Keep names short but meaningful; for example, some of the most common programs have
short but meaningful names: WINWORD.EXE, Acrobat.exe, and so on.
• Be consistent; for example:

 intTemperatureCelsius.xlsx, intTemperatureFahrenheit.xlsx,
intTemperatureKelvin.xlsx
˚ inttemperaturecelsius.xlsx, intTemperatureFahrenheit.xlsx, int
Temperature Kelvin.xlsx
9780170364744 Chapter 6 Programming 231

• You will be unable to use characters forbidden by the operating system, which include the
following punctuation marks in Windows:
* ? < > :/\“|

Data structure diagrams

A data structure diagram shows the structure and relationships within and between the data
items in the data dictionary. A data structure diagram does not repeat information already
present in the data dictionary; that would be a waste of time.

CUSTOMER

ID NAME SALES MEMBER? DOB

FIRSTNAME FAMILYNAME SINCE_YEAR AGE

FIGURE 6.8 Example of a data structure diagram

Input–process–output (IPO) charts

IPO charts help programmers to design formulas and algorithms. An algorithm is the strategy
for a calculation. A few steps must be followed to create and complete a chart correctly. First,
enter the information required, such as a person’s age, into the Output column. A bad algorithm can make
a program slow, fat or
Next, ask what data is needed to calculate that output. To calculate a person’s age, we need to unreliable. A good algorithm
know two things: Date of birth (DOB) and the current date. Enter these into the Input column. can make a program
Finally, work out what kind of processing (algorithm) needs to be done on the input to responsive, small and
trustworthy.
calculate the desired output. Enter this algorithm into the Process column as pseudocode – do
not write source code.
Every calculation – even
The second row of Table 6.5 below uses our example of calculating a person’s age in years. the really simple ones –
The algorithm in the Process column describes a technique for calculating the answer. Find and should be designed and
then subtract the number of days between the birth date and now, and divide that by 365 to get put in the IPO chart. Later
programmers might need
years. The IPO chart can now be completed. that information.
Row three of Table 6.5 calculates a subtotal by multiplying quantity by cost per item. Row
four calculates total cost by taking a subtotal amount and adding tax (if payable) by multiplying
the tax rate percentage by the subtotal. Row five uses a condition: if age is greater than 60 years,
then total cost should be total cost minus the total cost divided by discount rate percentage.
This becomes the senior citizen cost, the output.

TABLE 6.5 An IPO chart

Input (data) Process (algorithm) Output (information)
DOB (Current date – DOB) / 365 Age in years
Current date
Quantity Quantity * Cost per item Subtotal
Cost per item
Is tax payable? Subtotal + Total cost
Tax rate % (If tax is payable, subtotal * tax rate %)
Age in years If age in years >= 60, Senior citizen cost
Total cost Total cost – (total cost * discount rate %)
Discount rate %
232 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

See Chapter 2 for more

Notice how the information from previous calculations is often used in later calculations.
information on IPO charts. The IPO chart can then be given to a programmer and the algorithm converted into source
code for any chosen programming language.

Object description
In programming, an object is any item that a program can inspect and/or change in terms of
its appearance, behaviour or data. Today, object-oriented programming (OOP) is a common
practice. OOP focuses on objects, such as icons, menus, buttons and listboxes, in a GUI that a
user manipulates to issue commands and display information. OOP objects have properties,
methods and events.
1 Properties are the attributes of an object, such as width, colour, size, name and visibility.
For example:
listbox1. width =  200 sets a property.
2 Methods are the actions that an object can carry out, such as move, refresh, setfocus or
hide. For example:
mainwindow. refresh uses a method of the window.
3 Events are actions or occurrences that an object can detect and respond to accordingly,
such as a mouse click, key press or a timer going off. Each event usually has its own
procedure, which describes what will happen when the event occurs. For example:
txtFamilyName. keypress responds to a user’s typing into the FamilyName textbox
object.
An object description is a way of describing all of the relevant properties, methods and
events of an object.

OBJECT: txtName
PROPERTIES

Class: textbox
Left position: 300
Width: 500
Font: Arial
Justification: left
Visible: yes
Font colour: black

METHODS
Cut: save cut text to disk

EVENTS
Keypress: if key is CTRL+[ set text justification to left.

FIGURE 6.9 Example of an object description

Pseudocode is probably
the most important tool
Pseudocode
for students of Software Writing an algorithm in source code is slow. An algorithm written in source code also limits
Development VCE Units itself to use in only one compiler. Pseudocode, also known as Structured English, is a quick,
3 & 4.
flexible, and language-independent way of describing a calculation strategy – halfway between
9780170364744 Chapter 6 Programming 233

‘Pseudocode’ literally
English and source code. Once the algorithm is sketched out in pseudocode, it can be converted means ‘false code’.
into source code for any desired programming language.
A good algorithm can be extremely valuable and bring forth great change. A clever strategy
can make software run twice as quickly or use half the amount of RAM. An ingenious idea
can lead to the development of a program that was once considered impossible. For example,
Google’s PageRank completely changed the way the world searched the internet, and made
billions of dollars for its inventor in the process. The invention of public key encryption finally
cracked the age-old problem of how to encode and transmit secrets without having to also send Google PageRank
an unlocking key that could be intercepted. checker
This pseudocode determines if a year is a leap year:

if (year is divisible by 4 and not divisible by 100)

THINK ABOUT
or (year is divisible by 4 and 100 and 400) then
COMPUTING 6.11
it’s a leap year Use a testing table to check
else whether the leap year
algorithm works for the
it’s not a leap year
years 1999, 2000 (which
end if was a leap year), 2020
(also a leap year) and the
current year.
The rules of pseudocode
What are the rules of pseudocode? Easy: there are none. As long as the intention of the
calculation is clear, it is good pseudocode. If not, it is bad.
However, ensure that you specify assignment (the storage of a value) using the  symbol
rather than the equals sign (=) that is used in algebra and in most real programming languages;
for example:
IsLeapYear  True
The equals sign is reserved for logical comparisons, such as:
IF B=0 THEN CALL SoundAlarm
Common features found in pseudocode include:
• loops, such as WHILE/ENDWHILE and FOR/NEXT
• control structures, especially IF/ELSE/ENDIF blocks
• logical operators – AND, OR, NOT, TRUE and FALSE
• arrays, such as Expenses[31]
• arithmetic operators (+ - * /) and the familiar order of operations, as used in Year 7
Mathematics and Microsoft Excel spreadsheet formulas.
Pseudocode punctuation and the names of key words are largely up to you if it is clear
what you mean; for example, it does not really matter if you prefer WHILE/WEND or WHILE/
ENDWHILE.
To ‘Get data from keyboard’, you could use INPUT, GET, FETCH, or another keyword. To
read data from a disk file, you could choose INPUT, GET, READ or something else. To avoid
ambiguity, you could explain your pseudocode’s conventions using comments, as shown in the
example on page 234.
234 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

# The hash symbol precedes a comment

# GET reads the keyboard.
# READ loads data from a disk file.
# DISPLAY shows output on screen.
# WRITE saves output to a file.
DISPLAY “What is your name?”
GET UserName
OPEN FILE “Users.txt”
READ data for UserName
IF new data exists THEN
WRITE new data to file
END IF

Interface mock-up
If software will be used directly by people (rather than running hidden deep in the OS), it needs an
interface – a place where people can control the program, enter data and receive output. A successful
interface cannot be cobbled together. It must be carefully designed to make it usable and clear.
To design an interface, use a mock-up, which is a sketch showing how a screen or printout
will look. A mock-up should typically include the following features.
• The position and sizes of controls such as buttons and scroll bars
• The positions, sizes, colours and styles of text such as headings and labels
• Menus, status bars and scrollbars
• Borders, frames, lines, shapes, images, decoration and colour schemes
• Vertical and horizontal object alignments
• The contents of headers and footers

In VCE Computing it is not

mandated that you use
software to create your
mock-ups. You may use
software such as Balsamiq
Mockups if you wish, but
you may also create them
by hand using pen and
paper. FIGURE 6.10 A mock-up of a screen interface
9780170364744 Chapter 6 Programming 235

A mock-up can be considered successful if you can give it to another person and they can
Characteristics of
create the interface without needing to ask you questions. effective user interfaces

Creating effective user interfaces Useability

Very good interfaces are difficult to make because human beings are individuals. We have Accessibility
our own preferences and operate differently depending on gender, experience and cultural
background. However, to create usable interfaces, the same several factors must be always Structure
considered and applied: useability, accessibility, structure, visibility, legibility, consistency,
Visibility
tolerance and affordance.
Legibility
Useability
Software needs to do more than just create accurate output. It must let users work efficiently Consistency
and require minimal learning, memorisation and stress. You should make commonly used
features the quickest and easiest to find. Do not hide basic functions deep in a menu, because Tolerance
users will find it frustrating.
Affordance

FIGURE 6.11
Characteristics of
effective user interfaces

FIGURE 6.12 Ease of use: Although this mock-up looks easy to use, users would normally
expect that creating a new document of any kind, such as the new typeface, is usually a menu
option contained within the ‘File’ menu at the far left, which may make this interface less useable.
This is something to consider.

There are many ways to provide help for your users. Consider providing printed manuals,
quick start guides, internet help guides, context-sensitive help, onscreen instructions, pop-up
tool tips and/or examples.
236 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

Scroll bar
(affordance)
Quick start guides
and manuals
Pop-up tool tips

Onscreen
instructions

FIGURE 6.13 Tool tips, quick start guides, manuals and onscreen instructions make this interface
somewhat easy to use. What else would make this interface even easier to use?

Another useability factor to consider is showing progress.

Few things cause users more anxiety than when a program gives
no indication about what it is doing. Has it frozen? Is it deleting
everything on the computer? I need to leave in five minutes – what
is this machine doing? Computer users panic easily when programs
stop communicating with them. Give the user some reassuring
feedback about the operation’s status with a progress bar, an
estimate of time remaining, a spinner – anything to stop users
reaching for the unresponsive computer’s reset button (Figure 6.14).

FIGURE 6.14 Showing progress during a long operation

Affordance
Affordance refers to the concept that objects on your interface
should immediately suggest what they do and how to use them. An
interface with good affordance naturally leads people to use it accurately,
efficiently and intuitively to accomplish their goals.
• The shadow effect on a button suggests it should be clicked with a
mouse.
• A scroll bar looks like the natural thing to do would be to drag it up
and down.
• A flashing red icon instinctively suggests a problem.

Accessibility
In software development, accessibility refers to catering for the disabilities
or special needs that your software’s users may have.
• To cater for colour blindness, avoid putting green text on a red
FIGURE 6.15 A small form using tabs and background.
dropdown lists to prevent overcrowding
• To cater for poor eyesight or low vision, do not make text too small.
• To cater for those who have limited hand coordination, make buttons
THINK ABOUT
COMPUTING 6.12 larger and space them further apart.
What forms of colour • To cater for those who have limited reading ability, use short words
blindness exist? and avoid colloquialisms and jargon.
9780170364744 Chapter 6 Programming 237

Structure
You should organise any user interface that you design quite deliberately so that it makes sense
to end users. You could base it on existing models that users are already familiar with, rather than
changing fundamentals. For example, Figure 6.12 moves the creation of a new typeface document
from the ‘File’ menu to a new menu ‘Create’ away from the top left, and this is a needless shift. It
differs from a working model that is what users already expect. Part of a working structure that
you could use would move this grouping back to the ‘File’ menu, as shown in Figure 6.16.

FIGURE 6.16 Structure based on a consistent, recognisable model

You should also put related items together so they are easier to find, and separate distinct
items in clear, sensible groupings. Ensure that users do not need to hunt across several forms, THINK ABOUT
COMPUTING 6.13
menus or screens to carry out related actions. See the example of a GIMP interface shown in Download interface design
Figure 6.18. style guides from Microsoft
Software users do not want to have to learn each programmer’s personal stylistic preferences. and Apple (search for
‘windows style guide’ or
They want to start a program and use standard techniques, knowing instinctively where things
‘apple style guide’. How do
are and how they work. For example, in Windows, the software version is found under the Help their styles differ?
menu > About, and the Help menu is always the right-most menu item. Do not put it elsewhere
just to be different!
Software consistency is no accident. All major software developers publish style guides
giving programmers instructions about how to design software for their platforms. To ensure
software is predictable and easy to learn, some major software companies will not certify
software unless it obeys their guidelines.

Visibility
Visibility in a user interface means that the tools and options that the user needs to perform a
specific task should be visible to them without them being distracted by superfluous information.
If a user does not need to see extra information to make a decision to approve or reject a character
238 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

they have drawn in their typeface, then do not show it to them. For example, the thumbs up or
thumbs down Approve/Reject step shown in Figures 6.12, 6.13 and 6.16 will suffice.
You should only show as much information as a user needs to make a decision or proceed
to the next step, and no more. Overwhelming visual detail can make an interface confusing and
undesirable.
Instead of squeezing many objects onto a small form, use multiple forms, tabbed controls,
pull-down menus and combo boxes that collapse when not needed (Figure 6.15).
An uncrowded interface is even more important when programming for mobile devices
with small touchscreens that will be operated with big fingers.

Legibility
Promote ease of use and reading comprehension by ensuring that the information on the
user interface is noticeable and clearly distinguishable, and that any text that appears on the
interface is readable. (Refer to Chapter 2 for more information on design principles and formats
and conventions, which cover the contrast aspect of legibility in more detail.) Legibility deals
with aspects including contrast, leading, kerning, line length and font size.
For interfaces:
• avoid using text in all uppercase
• use underlined text only to indicate hyperlinks
• use familiar, plain typefaces designed for reading onscreen, because decorative typefaces
can be hard to read
• beware of overusing bold, italic and other font effects – not everything needs to be called
out
• left-align text
• apply a hierarchy, with important things larger than less important things
• use appropriate contrast between text colour and background colour to maximise readability
• make smart use of white space; an interface crowded with controls is ugly and can lead to
errors if users accidentally click the wrong item.

Tolerance
Tolerance is the capacity of software and interfaces to compensate for a user’s errors and cope
with people’s natural differences in how they carry out tasks. An interface that forces users to
obey its rigid expectations and is unforgiving of individual variation will be unpleasant and
difficult to use.
Here are some examples of tolerant practice.
• Allow users to cancel or undo actions, and do not lock them onto a path from which they
have no escape, such as printing 300 pages with no option to cancel.
• Provide settings and preferences so users can adjust a program’s behaviour.
• Use the MouseButton_Up event rather than MouseButton_Down to trigger a button
click. If users click a wrong button, a tolerant interface allows them to slide the mouse
pointer off the button and safely let it go, while an intolerant interface would trigger the
mouse event immediately, permitting no escape after the click.
• Warn users when they are about to do something dangerous or costly, such as deleting an
account.
• Compensate for users’ poor choices, such as by backing up data before deleting it – the
Recycle Bin utility in an OS does this.
• Anticipate common errors and handle them gracefully. For example, Microsoft Word’s
Autocorrect quietly fixes typos like ‘ACcidentally’ caused by holding the shift key down
for too long at the beginning of a word.
 9780170364744 Chapter 6 Programming 239

• Make the default action the least harmful one possible. Default values should be the most
popular and commonly chosen values. Courteous software lets users change default values.
• Make ‘Cancel’ the default button on a form so that no harm is done if the user carelessly
hits enter.
• Provide users with choice. People use computers and software in different ways, and good
software lets them choose how they do things, such as printing a document from the
menu bar, from shortcut keys on their keyboard (such as CTRL+P in Windows), or from a
button on a quick-access toolbar.
In Figure 6.17, by default,
simply hitting enter triggers
the ‘Yes: Save’ button rather
than closing the file and
losing data. The default
button can be identified by
its thicker border line.

FIGURE 6.17 The default button

Consistency
An interface should look and behave consistently from start to finish. Consistency should be
applied in as many aspects as realistically possible. Refer to the GIMP interface shown in Figure
6.18 for an example of consistency. This includes:
• icons
• body text and heading styles
• text and background colours
• margins, borders, headers and footers
• navigation and menus.

Menu items are

grouped in a
horizontal row
across the top

Tools are Image transform

grouped in operations are
the top left grouped in a
corner single menu
item

Tool options
are gathered
in one handy
location

FIGURE 6.18 GIMP interface

240 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

Fundamental programming concepts

Despite the differences between platforms and languages, many concepts are universal to
all programming environments.

Compiled and interpreted languages

Many programming languages, such as the C family, are compiled, meaning that source code is
converted once by a compiler into executable code, such as an EXE file in Windows, to be run
many times under a particular OS.
Scripting and interpreted languages, such as Python, PHP, Perl and JavaScript use a different
approach. The source code is compiled every time it is run, instead of being compiled once
by a compiler into a stand-alone executable program. This process is slower than once-off
compiling, but:
• programs can be easily, swiftly and repeatedly modified by the programmer or end user
without a compiler
• the code is human-readable and no viruses can be hidden in the source code
• source code only needs to be written once for all computers on all platforms that have the
interpreter to run it; this is important for server-side internet programming.
All OSs, and some applications, support scripted batch files to automate tasks. Windows
Powershell, Applescript, and Unix shell scripts are such scripting languages. They make complex
or often-repeated tasks simple, especially for unskilled users.

@echo off
THINK ABOUT
echo Moving torrent files from c:\down and p:\torrents to Revo (Y:)
COMPUTING 6.14
Python is a widely used if exist c:\down\*.torrent copy c:\down\*.torrent y:\down
scripting language, and if exist p:\torrents\*.torrent copy p:\torrents\*.torrent y:\down
well worth learning. You
timeout 4
can download a Python
interpreter and echo.
investigate it. echo Done

FIGURE 6.19 A Microsoft DOS batch file

Modular programming
Modular programming involves breaking programs into small sections of code. Large programs
are typically created as a collection of small, self-contained code modules (also known as
subroutines or subprograms) for these reasons.
1 It is easier to find a bug in a small module than in a massive chunk of code.
2 Software development is faster when several programmers can work simultaneously on
different modules.
3 A useful module can be re-used in other programs. This saves time and effort.
4 A program often needs to carry out the same action in different places. Rather than
repeating the code, it appears once and is called upon multiple times.
9780170364744 Chapter 6 Programming 241

FIGURE 6.20 A main program calls a subprogram

There are a few notable features in Figure 6.20.

• The same code is needed in three places in the main program (left). Each time, the main
program calls subprogram FindMin.
• For each call, the main program passes the subprogram two values it needs to calculate
with. Values passed to a subprogram are called parameters.
• The values sent to the subprogram are copied to variables (num1,  num2) that are local
to the subprogram; that is, the main program cannot see or change them. In this way,
a subprogram can use variables without worrying about variable names in the main
program or other subprograms. Global variables are visible to – and changeable by – the
main program and other subprograms. For safety, avoid using global variables unless
absolutely necessary.
• When the subprogram finishes, it passes control back to the main program. Execution
continues with the statement following the one that called the subprogram.

Functions
Functions are procedures that calculate and return a value. Function calls usually have
parentheses after them, to contain parameters; for example:
answer  SQRT(num)
Here, the SQRT function calculates the square root of parameter num and returns the
answer to the main program where it is assigned to answer. Commonly used functions like
SQRT come with the compiler for programmers to use. Typical function libraries include:
• mathematical: absolute, ceiling, cosine
• string: get left/right/middle characters, convert to lowercase, find substrings
• conversion: convert to Boolean/integer/string, convert string to number
• miscellaneous: time and date, logical (e.g. isDigit, isUppercase), random number.
Functions are often nested; for example:

PrintName  Upper(Left(Firstname,1)) & “.” &

Upper(Left(FamilyName,1)) & Lower(Right(FamilyName,Length
(FamilyName)-1))

Data validation
Validation checks that input data are reasonable. Validation does not and cannot check that
inputs are accurate.
A range check checks that data are within acceptable limits or come from a range of
acceptable values. For example, students enrolling in kindergarten must be between the ages of
242 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

3 and 6 years (acceptable limits). As another example, the product size must be small, medium
THINK ABOUT
COMPUTING 6.15 or large (acceptable values).
Visit a few websites that A type check is a useful way of confirming that the values entered into fields are of the
have data-entry forms. expected type. It will confirm if values are entered in the wrong fields, such as if numbers are
What validation rules
entered into fields that expect only text values.
are used on the data, and
why? Are any of them An existence check checks whether a value has been entered at all.
unreasonable (e.g. insisting
on a 5-digit zip code)? Internal documentation
Internal documentation explains the functioning and purpose of source code to programmers
to make code more meaningful.
Useful comments add information that is not already obvious in the code:

// IntTemp – temperature is in Celsius

IntTemp  0

It should not be trivial or contain obvious information, like this:

// Set temperature to zero

IntTemp  0

What to include in internal documentation

• The purpose of a module
• The author’s name
• Date of last modification
• Version number, to keep track of the latest version of the code
The contents of internal • Information, if any, about further work that is needed
documentation may be • Problems that still need to be fixed
dictated by a programming
team’s or organisation’s • Assumptions; for example, the customer file already exists
style guide. It promotes • Constraints; for example, it must work on a screen of only 300 × 500 pixels
consistency in a team’s • External code libraries or resources required by the module.
work, making it easier for
programmers to collaborate Adding internal documentation takes extra time and effort, but it is easier than studying
and work with the code obscure code.
of others. There are no rules regarding how comments should be marked in pseudocode. You could
use any of the following:
/* comment */
// comment
’ comment
# comment
Note: Programmers are encouraged to write internal documentation, but for the purposes
of this Area of Study, internal documentation is not required.
THINK ABOUT
COMPUTING 6.16
Search online for ‘google
Loops
style guide’. Why do you Much of the power of software comes from the ability to automate repetitive actions. Using a
think those rules were loop – doing something 100 000 times – is just as easy as doing it twice.
made? If the number of required repetitions is not known in advance, use an uncounted loop;
for example, when the number of accounts to process in a database might change every few
minutes. It keeps testing whether it should continue looping.
If the number of required loops is known, use a counted loop; for example, the number of
accounts has already been counted.
9780170364744 Chapter 6 Programming 243

Counted loops
The classic counted loop is FOR/NEXT, which uses a variable as a counter (the index) to keep
track of its progress as it loops from its starting point to its ending point.
This C code uses x as its index while looping from values 0 to 9 as it repeats the code within
the curly { } braces to produce the output:
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

for ( x = 0; x < 10; x++ ) {

printf( “%d\n”, x );
}

If you break down the typically concise C syntax, you can see the following.
• x = 0 initialises the counter to value zero.
• x < 10 looping continues while the value of x is less than 10.
• x++ increments x after each iteration (loop).
Inside the {loop}:
• printf is a function to display a formatted value.
• %d\n formats the output as a decimal followed by a new line.
• The semicolon tells the C compiler that the statement is finished.
This example in Basic is more typical of a real program because it uses variables rather than
constants for the loop’s limits.

FOR x = StartingValue TO EndingValue

PRINT x
NEXT x

Uncounted loops
Uncounted loops keep cycling while a logical test is true; for example, while the temperature is
less than 54 degrees Celsius, or until we reach the last record in the file.
Top-driven (test at top) loops carry out their continuation test before the loop begins. In
contrast, bottom-driven (test at bottom) loops carry out their instructions at least once and
then test to see if they should loop again.

TABLE 6.6 Uncounted loops

Top-driven loop Bottom-driven loop

(Test at top) (Test at bottom)
READ strName READ strName
Found  FALSE Found  FALSE
Pointer  1 Pointer  1
WHILE NOT Found DO
IF lstNames[Pointer] = strName THEN IF lstNames[Pointer] = strName THEN
Found  TRUE Found  TRUE
END IF END IF
END WHILE LOOP WHILE NOT Found

Table 6.6 shows a number of classical programming features.

The spaces at the start of some lines are called code indentation. Code indentation makes it
easier to see where loops and tests begin and end. You are expected to use indentation in your
pseudocode.
244 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

Note also the initialisation of the Found and Pointer variables. Some compilers
automatically initialise variables, but not all. Give variables explicit starting values, just to be
sure. Close files explicitly and free up reserved memory before ending programs.
The IF/THEN/END/IF control structure is a classic example of programming logic.

Don’t mix up ‘<’ and ‘>’. It’s Logic

embarrassing, and causes
serious logical errors! Digital logic is used to control a program’s behaviour under different conditions. For example:

TABLE 6.7 Logical IF B > 0 THEN

operators B  B + 1

Symbol Meaning END IF

= is equal to
The logical test (IF B > 0) must result in a true or false (Boolean) answer. If true, the code
< is less following THEN is executed (B  B + 1). If false, execution skips to the line after END IF.
than The other logical comparisons in pseudocode are shown in Table 6.7.
> is greater Some logical decisions are more complicated than a single test.
than Other logical operators can be used to allow powerful, intelligent decision making. Here are
<= is less some examples.
than or • AND adds another condition that must also be true for the result of the test to be true.
equal to IF (ID length=5) AND (first character is alphabetical) the ID is valid.
>= is greater Both conditions need to be true, otherwise the whole IF statement becomes false.
than or • OR adds a condition that, if true, would make the whole test true.
equal to If (destination is far away) OR (time is short) then travel by jet.
<> is not If any condition is true, the test result is true.
equal to • ELSE describes what happens when the result of the IF test is false.
• Parentheses can be used to group tests into related logical bundles.
Take the example, ‘An ID is valid if it is five characters long and starts with a letter, or it is
seven characters long and starts with a digit’. The pseudocode for this might be as follows.

IF
((ID length=5) AND (first character is alphabetical))
OR
((ID length=7) AND (first character is a digit))
THEN
ID is valid
ELSE
Display a warning.
END IF

• CASE is a handy structure used by many languages when there are many possible
conditions, each with its own appropriate action.

Debugging
The best-laid plans of programmers can go astray in three main ways:
1 syntax errors
2 logical errors
3 runtime errors.
9780170364744 Chapter 6 Programming 245

Syntax errors
Compilers expect precise instructions in a strict format with no ambiguity. If any source code
cannot be understood by the compiler because the syntax does not match what the compiler
expects, it will stop working until the code is fixed.
It is important to be
Such syntax errors are caused by incorrect punctuation, spelling and grammar. Incorrect aware of the potential
punctuation may result from simple mistakes, such as using a square bracket instead of a for introducing incorrect
parenthesis. spelling syntax errors
because compilers use
Incorrect spelling in a syntax error is not the same as incorrect spelling in regular American English and
communication. A compiler has a small dictionary of key words that it recognises. If a source Australian students write in
Australian English.
code instruction is not in the dictionary, even if it is a real word, the compiler will return an
error message. While a person may know that the word ‘colour’ has the same meaning as ‘color’,
a compiler does not, so it returns an error until ‘color’ is used and ‘colour’ removed.
Commands in source code must follow a precise format to avoid incorrect grammar errors.
For example, a language might expect the following syntax:
INPUT “prompt”; variablename
If the source code said the following instead:
INPUT variablename; “prompt”
the compiler would not understand the source code any more than you would understand a
person who greeted you by saying, ‘Like I hat your, hello!’
Thankfully, syntax errors are easily found by compilers, and easily fixed by programmers. In
fact, many modern source code editors pop up helpful syntax tips when they detect the use of
a key word, as shown in Figure 6.21.

FIGURE 6.21 Visual Basic editor pops up help when you type a command

Logical errors
Logical errors occur when a programmer uses a wrong strategy. To the compiler, nothing is wrong
with the syntax. The problem is that the instructions are just plain wrong. For example, to add
10 per cent tax to a price, the following statement would give an answer, but it would be wrong.
TotalCost = Price + 10%
A Price of 30 would yield a TotalCost of 30.10 instead of 33.00. What went wrong? The
algorithm.
To calculate a price plus tax, the correct algorithm is: Testing is discussed on
page 248.
1 Calculate 10 per cent of the Price.
2 Add that amount to the Price and store it as TotalCost.
The faulty algorithm simply added 10 per cent (0.10) to the price. It should have been:
TotalCost = Price + (10% of Price) THINK ABOUT
Logical errors are the hardest to fix because the compiler cannot detect faulty logic any more COMPUTING 6.17
than a car knows when you are driving in the wrong direction. The only way to find logical errors Write an algorithm to
3
convert a fraction like to a
is to create test data and manually calculate the correct answers for that data. Compare the 4
percentage.
algorithm’s answers with the expected answers. If they do not match, fix your algorithm.
246 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

Runtime errors
Runtime errors are caused by factors during the execution of a program, such as:
• the computer running out of memory
This may help you
remember the errors: • hard disk errors
1 Syntax error: Trying to • operating system failure
board a bus through the • a problem with network connectivity
exhaust pipe.
2 Logical error: Getting • incompatibility with another program running on the computer, such as antivirus software
onto the wrong bus. • incorrect or outdated device drivers.
3 Runtime error: The bus An OS may detect and handle unexpected system states to protect a program from crashing,
breaking down.
but you should try to anticipate possible runtime problems and make allowances for them; for
example, by making your code check for free space before saving data to disk.
Remember that a logical The loop pseudocode (Table 6.6) introduces a common but unwelcome programming
error is a fault in the feature: a logical error. See if you can identify it before reading on.
program’s logic and will not
be detected by a compiler The problem is that the program’s loop uses the Pointer variable to count its progress
or debugger. through the array lstNames, but Pointer never changes and Found will never become
True so the looping will never end. Such an endless loop will force the user to shut down the
program to regain control of the computer.
When they first see
To fix the logic, Pointer needs to be incremented (increased by one) with Pointer 
statements like Pointer Pointer + 1. But where should the statement go?
= Pointer + 1, Let’s put the increment statement here:
some young programmers
exclaim, ‘How can something
equal itself plus one?’ Pointer  1
In most languages, ‘=’
indicates assignment, WHILE NOT Found
and means ‘Evaluate IF lstNames[Pointer] = strName THEN
Pointer + 1 and
store the result back into Found  TRUE
Pointer.’ Unfortunately, Pointer  Pointer + 1
most languages also use ‘=’
END IF
for logical comparisons like
IF X=1 THEN X=0 END WHILE
The first ‘=’ means ‘is equal
to’. The second means ‘is
assigned the value’. Is the code now debugged? We can find out by doing a desk check.
This is why, to avoid
confusion, VCE pseudocode Desk checking
indicates assignment
with ‘’ Desk checking is a technique used to check the logic of an algorithm manually. Essentially, the
IF X=1 THEN X programmer imitates a compiler and manually tests pseudocode logic by stepping through the
 0
lines of code to check that the values are as they should be at each point. Throughout the check,
you must adhere to specified logic. In the table below, assume that the name being searched for
is ‘Ted’ and the 1stNames array contains the following test data.
Array index Value
THINK ABOUT 1 Bob
COMPUTING 6.18
List each loop structure 2 Carol
supported by your chosen
language, and categorise 3 Ted
its type. 4 Alice

Use your brain as a compiler to step through the code using our test data to calculate actual
values. Beside the lines of code, draw a table where you record the values of variables.
9780170364744 Chapter 6 Programming 247

The first desk check in Table 6.8 uncovers a new problem: When the IF  test fails, execution
skips to the END  IF line, which bypasses the new increment statement, and causes that endless
loop again! In the second desk check, we can move the increment statement again.

TABLE 6.8 First desk check

Code Loop 1
READ strName Strname = ‘Ted’
Found  FALSE Found = False
Pointer  1 Pointer = 1
WHILE NOT Found Found = False, so test is True,
so enter loop.
IF lstNames[Pointer] = Pointer =1.
strName THEN lstNames[1] = ‘Bob’.
‘Bob’ <> ‘Ted’ so skip to END IF
Found  TRUE Skip
Pointer  Pointer + 1 Skip
END IF What? Hang on! That’s NOT
RIGHT.
END WHILE

TABLE 6.9 Second desk check

Code Loop 1 Loop 2 Loop 3 Loop 4

READ strName Strname=‘Ted’

Found  FALSE Found = False

Pointer  1 Pointer = 1
WHILE NOT Found Found = False, Found=False so Found still Found = TRUE!
so enter loop. loop again =False, so loop Skip to line after
again END WHILE
IF lstNames[Pointer] Pointer=1. Pointer=2. Pointer=3. skip
= strName THEN lstNames[1] = lstNames[2] = lstNames[3] =
‘Bob’. ‘Carol’. ‘Ted’.
‘Bob’ <>’ Ted’ so ‘Carol’ <> ‘Ted’ so ‘Ted’ = ‘Ted’ so
skip to END IF skip to END IF drop to next line
Found  TRUE Skip Skip Found  True! skip
(Found=False) (Found=False)
END IF skip

Pointer  Pointer Pointer=2. Pointer=3 Pointer = 4 skip

+ 1
END WHILE Back to the top Do it again Back to the loop skip
test again
248 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

We expected the pseudocode to find ‘Ted’ in slot 3 of lstNames. The second desk check
THINK ABOUT verified it.
COMPUTING 6.19
Use the leap year Good test data caters for all possible circumstances, so you should also test that the code
pseudocode from earlier to works when the name being sought is not in the array; for example, strName is ‘Humphrey’.
desk check the years 1400,
1700 and 2100.
Process testing
You must always test the software you have developed, whether the program is a game, a
shopping cart for a website, or an aeroplane’s autopilot navigation system. If the game you
have developed fails, it may simply annoy the users. If the shopping cart fails, it could prevent
purchases or overcharge customers. However, if the software in an aeroplane’s autopilot system
fails, people could die.
In addition to all of this, buggy, poorly tested code can ruin a freelance programmer’s
reputation and make it difficult to find future work.
Several forms of testing can be conducted.
Alpha testing, which is sometimes called informal testing, is when programmers test their
own code during software development.
Beta testing is usually the first time that software is tested by future ‘end users’ and specially
chosen reviewers, using live data that is more random in nature. It usually happens once the
program has been completed and the goal is to weed out useability problems – you are actually
trying to crash the software.
Validation testing verifies that the code properly validates input data. For example:

IF (Sex <> “M”) AND (Sex <> “F”) THEN

DISPLAY “Invalid Gender!”
END IF

In component testing, individual modules within the software are tested in isolation. In
contrast, integration testing is used to test whether modules work together; that is, that they
can exchange parameters properly. System testing checks that the program works as a whole.
Finally, in the formal testing phase, the client who is paying for the software is shown how
the finished program meets all of the functional and non-functional requirements specified
during analysis.

Test data
Never trust a program’s
To prove the accuracy of a program’s output, you need to feed the program sample data to
output. It may look perfectly work on, and compare the program’s answer with one you know is guaranteed to be correct.
authoritative but still be Choosing this test data is not as easy as it sounds.
100% wrong.
Good test data should include the following.
• Valid data, which is data that is perfectly acceptable, reasonable and fit to be processed
• Valid but unusual data, which is data that should not be rejected even though it seems
odd; for example, a gifted 12-year-old child may enrol in university so that age number
should not necessarily be processed as an error
• Invalid data, to test the code’s validation routines; for example, if people must be 18 years
of age to be granted a credit card, the test data should include people under 18 so they can
be rejected
• Boundary condition data, which are on the borderline of some critical value where the
behaviour of the code should change; such ‘tipping point’ errors are a frequent cause of
logical errors in programming
9780170364744 Chapter 6 Programming 249

Testing tables
Part of software design is to write a checklist of all the input, processing and output the software
should be able to do, based on the design specifications. This list is used throughout the
development of the application to check and test that the application meets those specifications.
This list is called a testing table.
As an example, an online club allows members aged between 6 and 16. The validation
pseudocode says:

IF age > 6 AND age < 16 THEN accept member

Is there a problem with this logic? You can use a testing table to use the test data to calculate
a result manually and compare it with the output of the pseudocode. It is a good way to show
evidence of testing in your Outcome.
In this case, good test data would be 5, 6, 7, 15, 16 and 17, because they cover every possible
type of input: below the lower limit, on the lower limit, within the limits, on the upper limit, and
above it. The test data set is as small as it can be.

TABLE 6.10 Testing table 1

Testing table
Data Expected result Actual result Fix
5 Don’t accept Don’t accept
6 Accept Don’t accept
7 Accept Accept
15 Accept Accept
16 Accept Don’t accept
17 Don’t accept Don’t accept

The pseudocode behaves accurately most of the time, but on occasion it fails spectacularly.
Why? It only accepts members who are over 6 and less than 16 and rejects applicants who are
exactly 6 or 16.
Once these logical failures have been highlighted, the cause of the errors need to be found. The
rule effectively says ‘between 6 and 16’ not ‘older than 6 and younger than 16’. The logical operators
> and < are wrong. Now we need to devise a fix and fill in the last column of the testing table.
TABLE 6.11 Complete testing table
Testing table
Data Expected result Actual result Fix
5 Don’t accept Don’t accept 
6 Accept Don’t accept Change Age>6 to Age >=6
7 Accept Accept 
15 Accept Accept 
16 Accept Don’t accept Change Age<16 to Age
<=16
17 Don’t accept Don’t accept 

Using the completed testing table in Table 6.11 as a guide, the pseudocode can be corrected
as follows. Handy tip: Often when you
are asked to identify a
bug in code, the problem
IF age >= 6 AND age <= 16 THEN accept member is a result of boundary
condition errors.
250 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

Arrays
A variable can only hold a single value, which is a major limitation when processing a large
amount of data. Adding up annual rainfall using variables looks like this:
GET Rain01
GET Rain02
GET Rain03
GET Rain04
GET Rain05
GET Rain06
GET Rain07
GET Rain08
GET Rain09
GET Rain10
GET Rain11
GET Rain12
TotalRain = Rain01 + Rain02 + Rain03 + Rain03 + Rain04 + Rain05 +
Rain06 + Rain07 + Rain08 + Rain09 + Rain10 + Rain11 + Rain12

Elegant code is effective, Imagine the pain involved if there were 1000 rainfall figures. The solution is to use an array: a
short and clever (also storage structure with multiple, numbered storage slots. Arrays used with loops are a powerful
known as ‘a neat hack’). programming tool.
Especially good algorithms
are sometimes described as Using loops and arrays, the rainfall calculation could become far more elegant:
‘beautiful’, and are more art
than science.
nMonths  12
DECLARE ARRAY Rain[nMonths]
Using nMonths avoids
repeating ‘12’ throughout FOR monthnum = 1 to nMonths
the code. The code is easier GET Rain[monthnum]
to maintain when key values
can be changed in a single TotalRain  TotalRain + Rain[monthnum]
location. NEXT monthnum

FIGURE 6.22 An attempt is made to refer to slot 7 of a 6-slot array

9780170364744 Chapter 6 Programming 251

To cover 1000 months instead of just 12, simply change ‘12’ to ‘1000’ in the first line. It is that easy. Some languages use
To create (or declare) an array, a programmer must usually specify the data type it will hold [square brackets] to enclose
and the number of slots (or elements) it has. Referring to indexes outside of the defined limits array index numbers.
Others use (parentheses).
will cause a runtime error. In pseudocode you can use
The Rain array is a one-dimensional (1D) array because it is a single column of data, similar either, but be consistent.
to a list. To store data in a table with rows and columns like a spreadsheet, use a two-dimensional
(2D) array. Arrays are much like tables.
With tables, it often does
If the rainfall data needed to be stored for 100 years, you would create the array not matter if you create it
Rain[100,12] with 100 rows, each with 12 columns – 1200 slots all together. like this
As a table, the rainfall data may look similar to Table 6.12. A B
1
TABLE 6.12 A 2D array seen as a table
2
Array table
3
Month 1 Month 2 Month 3 Month 4 Month 5 Month 6 Etc. Month 12
or like this.
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Dec
Year 1 67 34 67 45 34 45 … 67 1 2 3

Year 2 56 45 75 41 75 32 … 61 A
Year 3 41 63 82 46 56 31 … 86 B
Year 4 59 51 74 31 56 78 … 78 Arrays are similar. We could
have created the array as
Etc. … … … … … … … … Rain[12,100].
Year 100 45 34 67 50 56 45 … 89

Having two dimensions requires two loops: one to loop through the 100 rows and one to
loop through each row’s 12 columns:

nMonths  12
nYears  100
DECLARE ARRAY Rain[nYears , nMonths]
// remember that years are the FIRST dimension, Months are the SECOND.
FOR yearnum = 1 to nYears
FOR monthnum = 1 to nMonths
GET Rain[yearnum , monthnum]
TotalRain  TotalRain + Rain[yearnum , monthnum]
NEXT monthnum
NEXT yearnum

For each repeat of the outer year loop, the nested month loop carries out its full 12 cycles –
like the hours and minutes on a digital clock. When the inner loop has run its 12 cycles, the
outer loop increments its counter and the inner loop runs its full course again.
So the data is processed in the order shown in Table 6.13.

TABLE 6.13 How nested loops work

Year Month Comment
1 1 Inner and outer loops begin with their starting values
1 2 Outer loop’s counter is constant until inner loop finishes its full count
1 3 Monthnum = 3
1 4
Cont.
252 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

Year Month Comment

1 Etc.
1 12 Inner loop finishes. Outer loop ticks over.
2 1 Inner loop starts its next full cycle.
2 2 Yearnum = 2. Monthnum = 2.
Etc. Etc.
100 10
100 11
100 12 Inner loop finishes. Outer loop finishes.

Important – an inner
What if each of these rainfall figures for 12 months over 100 years were recorded in
loop must be completely five different locations? Use a 3D array, Rain[5,100,12], and three nested loops.
enclosed within the
outer loop!
Stacks
A stack is a simple, basic method of temporarily storing data, with the PUSH command, and
THINK ABOUT releasing it as needed, with the POP command. Like a stack of pancakes or parked shopping
COMPUTING 6.20
Can you suggest a case trolleys, the most recently added item is always the first to be removed, so stacks are referred to
when a 4-dimensional array as first-in last-out (FILO) or last-in first-out (LIFO) structures.
would be needed?
Queues
Queues are often used when some code or a device such as a printer cannot keep up with
Stacks and queues are
required knowledge for incoming data or commands. Instead of discarding the code or device, they are stored in a
Software Development VCE queue in the order in which they arrived. When the processor or device becomes available,
Units 3 & 4.
queued jobs are processed in turn. A queue is a first-in first-out (FIFO) stack.

Files and records

Primary storage, or RAM, holds data during a program’s execution. Between runtimes, data
and instructions are stored in files on non-volatile secondary storage, such as hard disk drives.
The main file types you should become familiar with are sequential and random.

Sequential files
Sequential (or serial) files are plain text documents that contain human-readable text data.
Sequential files are easy to create but can be slow to search through because data items can be
of any length. This means that the location of a particular data record may not be easily found.
A record is a complete set of data fields relating to a single item, person, transaction or
event. An employee’s record may include fields containing her given name, family name, date
of birth, ID, department and so on. The concept of records and fields is also used in database
theory, so it is worth remembering.
Sequential files are often A common type of sequential file is called CSV, which stands for comma-separated values.
used to store logs –
ongoing histories of events. In a CSV file, each line is a record, composed of comma-separated fields:
New events are easily
appended (added to the
end of) sequential files. Susan , Wasib , 1990/12/31 , WAS0001, Accounting
OSs continuously maintain Spiro, Papadopolous, 1966/02/13, PAP0023, Management
many logs. Alphonse, Capone, 1924/11/01, CAP0003, Security
9780170364744 Chapter 6 Programming 253

Random files TABLE 6.14 A random file

Random files are made up of records of identical length, with fields that must be rigidly defined Employee record
in advance. Table 6.14 shows an example of a random file for an employee record. Field Length
Every record is the same length, so the location of any record in the file can be calculated (in bytes)
precisely with: FirstName 15
StartingPoint  (RecordLength * (RecordNumber – 1)) + 1 FamilyName 25
For example, the length of an employee record is 52 bytes. The starting point of record 3 in DateOfBirth 3
that random file would be (52 × 2) + 1 = 105. Using this calculation, the program can instantly ID 7
seek position 105 in the file and load record 3. SickDays 2
Thus, any record can be accessed instantly without having to step through every record
from the start of the file, as with sequential files.
Therefore, the benefit of random files is fast access. However, there are also some drawbacks
to consider.
Data that is longer than the reserved file size is simply truncated (chopped off) and lost.
‘Marybelle-ChristieAnne’ would forever be known in the employee file records as ‘Marybelle-Chris’.
A field value that is shorter than the allotted length still uses the allotted space. Thus,
employee ‘Su’ would have 13 wasted bytes in her FirstName field on disk. With millions of
records like these, a great deal of disk space can be wasted.
Try to imagine random files as books where every individual paragraph is allotted one exact
full page of space. If you want to find paragraph 99 it is very easy: go to page 99. If paragraph
99 should be longer than a single page, the extra information is truncated and lost forever. If
paragraph 99 is very short, most of the page is wasted.
Locating paragraph 99 in a normal book is much more like locating a sequential file. You
must start at page 1 and count through 99 paragraphs. It takes more time but no information
has been lost or space wasted.
Choosing between random and sequential files is not always easy, and it depends how much
data there is, and how important it is to be able to access data quickly.

GUI controls and structures

Most high-level languages have graphical user interfaces to make programs more intuitive
for users.
These languages provide pre-packaged classes of objects for programmers to use, such as
list boxes, menus, radio buttons and text boxes. With the GUI responsible for managing these
objects, the programmer’s work is made much quicker and easier.
Programmers can use GUI objects to avoid mastering arrays, variables, stacks and other
programming basics, but this is short-sighted, because their programs will be tend to be fat
and slow.
GUI structures are designed for ease of use, not raw power or optimal speed, and they
consume far more memory and processor time than arrays, stacks and variables. The
programmer also has little fine control over them, and essentially they are like cheap automatic
cameras that are capable of producing acceptable, but rarely exceptional, photographs.
As a programmer, you must learn basic concepts, practise your skills, and master your tools
to become successful.
When RAM was rare and very expensive, software had to be very basic, so it was difficult FIGURE 6.23 Visual
to use and difficult to create. Complex commands had to be memorised and usually typed. Basic GUI Objects
Software did not have the resources (RAM and hard-disk space) for all of the user-friendly
features taken for granted now, such as easy menus, dropdown lists, cut and paste, undo, icons,
dialogue boxes and scrollbars.
254 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

FIGURE 6.24 The unfriendly but powerful Windows command-line interface (CLI)

Eventually, researchers developed the concept of a graphical user interface where text
commands could be replaced by intuitive actions such as clicking on icons and dragging
objects around on screen. Credit for this ‘WIMP’ (Windows, Icons, Menus, Pointer) concept
must go to Xerox PARC researchers from Palo Alto, California, who developed it in 1973. Apple
later popularised WIMP ideas with the Macintosh in 1984. Microsoft and others soon followed.
GUI make software easier for end-users not interested in becoming power users. Power
users are generally experts who have learned various efficient techniques, such as keyboard
shortcuts and command-line text-based instructions.
GUI programming requires an object-oriented language that provides predefined classes
(objects), such as windows, buttons and listboxes, with offer properties and methods, and
which can respond to events.
The programmer writes code that can:
• read properties; for example, current mouse position
• change properties; for example, increase window height
• respond to events, such as a timer or a mouse drag
• cause an object to carry out a method, such as close, or refresh.
Object-oriented programming (OOP) lets programmers hand off a lot of work to the OS,
such as detecting events like mouse clicks, sorting listbox items and scrolling windows. The
programmer creates event handlers, which are procedures to handle events, such as, ‘When
the user clicks this button, take this action …’
This type of programming is considered event-driven because the OS detects and reports
events and the programmer provides responses to them. A drawback of GUI programming
is that it creates programs with large appetites for RAM, disk storage and CPU power. Such
programs may run poorly, or not at all, on mobile devices.
9780170364744 Chapter 6 Programming 255

Searching
Finding a single item among billions, like a database of eBay auctions, is the sort of thing There are many other
types of searches, each
programmers constantly need to do, and need to do efficiently; that is, without wasting time, with benefits under certain
money and effort. circumstances. Entire
treatises, such as The Art
A linear search checks every individual item in turn to see if it matches the item for which of Computer Programming
you are searching. It can be very slow when there is a lot of data to search, but it is easy to by legendary Donald Knuth,
program. have been written to study
the theory of searching.
The faster, more clever search is the binary search, which is preferable when searching large
data sets, especially when speed is important. The drawback is that the data set must be sorted,
and sorting is itself a slow, difficult task. THINK ABOUT
COMPUTING 6.21
Without reference to
copyright or other laws,
CASE identify the following.
STUDY ETHICAL DILEMMA
• What is Jean’s ethical
To help you tackle this dilemma, search online for ‘ACS code professional conduct’ and dilemma?
look at the ethical requirements, particularly in Section 1, that the Australian Computer • What are her options?
Society expects its members to follow.
• For each of these
Jean, a statistical database programmer, is trying to write a large statistical program
options, what are the
needed by her company. Programmers in this company are encouraged to write about likely consequences of
their work and to publish their algorithms in professional journals. After months of her choosing it?
tedious programming, Jean has found herself stuck on several parts of the program.
• How could she get out of
Her manager, not recognising the complexity of the problem, wants the job completed this dilemma?
within the next few days. Not knowing how to solve the problems, Jean remembers
• What relevant clauses in
that a co-worker had given her source listings from his current work and from an early
the ‘Australian Computer
version of a commercial software package developed at another company. On studying Society’s Code of
these programs, she sees two areas of code that could be directly incorporated into her Professional Conduct’
own program. She uses segments of code from both her co-worker and the commercial cover this situation?
software, but does not tell anyone or mention it in the documentation. She completes the
project and turns it in a day ahead of time.
Source: a case study from Australian Computer Society: ACS Code of Professional Conduct Case Studies, April 2014.
More case studies: https://www.acs.org.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0004/30964/ACS_Ethics_Case_Studies_v2.1.pdf Ethical dilemmas are
Code of professional conduct:
discussed in Chapters 1
https://www.acs.org.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0014/4901/Code-of-Professional-Conduct_v2.1.pdf
and 5.
 256 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

ESSENTIAL TERMS
CHAPTER SUMMARY

accessibility ease of use by people with disabilities mock-up a sketch showing how a screen or
or special needs printout will look, which is used to aid in the
algorithm strategy behind a calculation or design of an interface
procedure modular programming breaking programs into
arrays storage structures with many ‘slots’ small sections of code to simplify debugging and
(elements) that are addressed by number; arrays allow the re-use of modules in other programs
are managed with loops object any item that a program can inspect and/or
central processing unit (CPU) the ‘brain’ of a change, in terms of appearance, behaviour or
digital system; the handler of most of a system’s data
data manipulation operating system (OS) software programs that
code modules subroutines or subprograms; a manage a computer’s hardware and run
function is a special type of module because programs
it sends back (returns) a value; programmers output devices instruments and peripherals, such
must keep track of storage structures in multiple as printers and monitors, that display information
modules, making data dictionaries even more from a computer in human-readable form
valuable platform a combination of OS and CPU
communication hardware hardware that transmits ports physical connectors (sockets) for cables
data between computers and networked devices
primary storage random-access memory (RAM),
compiler programs that convert source code into which provides storage for data, information and
executable programs software during program execution
debugger a program that helps to remove processing hardware (CPU, GPU) hardware
programming errors (bugs) that runs the operating system, utilities and
default action the operation that the software will applications
carry out when the user does not give more properties characteristics such as width, colour,
detailed instructions visibility
default value used if the user does not provide an prototype a demonstration product that looks
alternative value; a word processor may default and feels like a finished program, but may be
to using Arial typeface, 12pt, with single-spacing incomplete or not fully functional
editor a specialised word processor for creating pseudocode code that designs algorithms in a clear,
human-readable programming instructions human-readable, language-independent format
field a single data item in a record; e.g. random-access memory (RAM) the primary and
FamilyName most common form of hardware storage; it can
graphics processor unit (GPU) a very fast and be accessed randomly, meaning that any byte
expensive processor specifically designed for of memory is accessible without touching the
high-speed image processing in graphics cards preceding bytes
initialise to give a starting value to a variable random files records of identical length with fields
input devices instruments and peripherals, such that must be rigidly defined in advance
as keyboards, that allow users to give data and reduced instruction set computing (RISC) CPUs
commands to software and the OS (like ARM), which have smaller instruction sets
integrated development environment (IDE) a than complex instruction set computing (CISC)
unified programming tool CPUs
interface within software, the place where people queue a ‘First In First Out’ stack, storing incoming
control the program, enter data and receive data or jobs to be processed in order
output record a complete set of fields relating to an entity,
iteration looping or repeating such as a person
linker a program used to load information that secondary storage (HDD, SSD) permanent storage
the executable code will need, such as read a sequential file plain text with variable field lengths,
keyboard or calculate square roots such as CSV; large files are slow to search
methods actions a GUI object can carry out; e.g. source code human-written and human-readable
window.refresh. version of a program
9780170364744 Chapter 6 Programming 257

stack a simple, temporary ‘first in last out’ (FILO) thin client the belief that it is better to use ‘dumb’

CHAPTER SUMMARY
storage structure workstations connected to a powerful central
storage structures places in memory holding computer that does all the processing work,
data that is being used by a program; includes rather than use many powerful computers
variables, arrays, textboxes and radio buttons validation rules rules that check the
style guide in software development, a set of reasonableness (not accuracy) of data’s range,
instructions for programmers about how to type, and existence
design software for the developer’s platforms

IMPORTANT FACTS
1 The three types of software are system (OS), 15 Onscreen images are saved with RGB colour
applications and utilities. information. Printed images use CMYK.
2 Interpreted languages convert source code to 16 Modules are called subprograms, procedures or
executable code only when a program runs. subroutines. Functions are modules that return a
3 Information systems are made up of people, value.
data, processes and equipment (digital systems). 17 Global variables are visible to and changeable
4 Digital systems comprise hardware, software, by the main program and all subprograms.
networks, protocols and application architecture 18 Local variables only exist within a single module.
patterns. 19 Counted loops (FOR/NEXT) repeat a known
5 Transmission media such as twisted-pair cables, number of times.
fibre-optic cables and WAPs each have their 20 Uncounted loops (DO, WHILE) loop while a
strengths and weaknesses. condition is true.
6 The problem-solving methodology (PSM) is used 21 Uncounted loops can be top-driven (test at top)
to guide software development. or bottom-driven (test at bottom), depending on
• Analysis determines the software’s where they test for continuation.
requirements, scope and constraints. 22 Syntax errors occur when a compiler cannot
• Design devises a method of solving the understand instructions in source code.
problem, including its appearance and 23 Logical errors occur when a faulty calculation
architecture. Tools include pseudocode, IPO strategy produces incorrect output.
charts, data dictionaries and mock-ups. 24 Runtime errors occur when problems arise
• Development is when software and hardware during execution, such as running out of RAM.
are created, assembled and tested. Training 25 Desk checking steps through code manually,
and documentation are created. acting like a compiler to verify an algorithm
7 Good naming practices include Hungarian and detect logical errors.
notation (e.g. intTemp) and CamelCase. 26 Logical operators are < (less than), >
8 A data dictionary lists all storage structure (greater than), <= (less than or equal to),
requirements, including data types and names, >= (greater than or equal to) and <> (not
size, validation rules etc. equal to).
9 Data types include integer, floating point, string, 27 The operator  means assignment in
character, date/time and Boolean (true/false). pseudocode. = is used for logical
10 IPO charts plan the data and processing needed comparison (e.g. IF A=3 THEN
to produce output. B  4)
11 Data structure diagrams describe the structure 28 A one-dimensional (1D) array
and relationships within complex data structures. is like a list with one column. A
12 Object descriptions completely describe the two-dimensional array (2D) is like
properties of objects; e.g. textbox.width. a table or spreadsheet with rows
13 Internal documentation in source code explains and columns. A 3D array is like
the workings of the code to programmers. a stack of 2D arrays. More
14 Mock-ups show what screens and printouts dimensions are possible.
should look like, including sizes and positions of
items, colours, alignment and fonts.
 258 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

29 Data can be saved to secondary storage as 33 Prove your algorithm and show evidence of
CHAPTER SUMMARY

CHAPTER SUMMARY
sequential or random files. testing by using a testing table.
30 Random files have fixed-length records that are 34 Events include mouse clicks, timers and so on.
quickly accessed. 35 Object-oriented languages use classes of
31 Testing ensures that programs work properly pre-defined objects (e.g. listboxes) that
and generate accurate information. programmers can manipulate.
32 Good test data checks software behaviour under
all possible circumstances.
9780170364744 Chapter 6 Programming 259

TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE

HARDWARE Qz
1 Describe two differences between primary and secondary storage.
Review quiz
Review quiz
SOFTWARE
2 Explain the difference between system and application software.

THE OS (OPERATING SYSTEM)

3 Summarise the role of an operating system.
4 Describe the roles of people, data, processes and digital systems in creating an information
system.

PROGRAMMING AND SCRIPTING LANGUAGES

5 ‘Programming languages may differ in syntax, but they are all basically alike.’ What does
this mean?

SOFTWARE DEVELOPMENT TOOLS

6 How are source code and executable code related?

STORAGE STRUCTURES
7 Name and give examples of five data types.
8 Describe how lossy and lossless compression reduce file sizes.

THE SOFTWARE DEVELOPMENT PROCESS

9 Why is the PSM analysis stage important?
10 Show examples of three different software design tools.
11 What is an algorithm, and how does pseudocode relate to it?
12 Suggest two possible good names for a variable used to hold an integer value describing
men’s average shoe size.

CREATING EFFECTIVE USER INTERFACES

13 Describe affordance and tolerance and give examples of each.
14 List five tips for creating an effective user interface.

FUNDAMENTAL PROGRAMMING CONCEPTS

15 List examples of syntax, logical and runtime errors.
16 How do compiled and interpreted languages differ?
17 Justify the use of internal documentation.
18 ‘Arrays and loops were built for each other.’ Explain.
19 When is desk checking used?
20 Why is it important to use test data that focuses on boundary conditions?
21 When would you recommend the use of a random file?
260 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

APPLY YOUR KNOWLEDGE

GUESSING GAME
You will design and develop a program that will play a game with a human. The human thinks
of an integer between 1 and 100. Your program will use the most efficient strategy possible to
guess the number. For each guess, the human must confirm if the guess was correct, higher or
lower than the secret number.

Tasks
1 Write pseudocode to describe the 6 Develop the solution, using good object
processing strategies involved in naming and creating useful internal
developing the program. documentation along the way.
2 Create an IPO chart to describe the 7 Test the solution with your test data.
data and information requirements. Fix all bugs.
3 Design the program’s interface with a 8 Get a classmate to play your game
mock-up. and give you written feedback on its
4 Create test data to fully exercise the appearance and ease of use.
validation and the algorithms.
5 Use your test data to desk check the
pseudocode.
9780170364744 Chapter 6 Programming 261

PREPARING FOR
Design working modules

OUTCOME
in response to solution
requirements, and use a
programming or scripting
UNIT

language to develop the

modules

STEPS TO FOLLOW
The Outcome will require approximately 10 classes to complete. For each programming
module, you will be given solution requirements (the analysis part of the PSM), and you will
select appropriate design tools to plan a solution, and then develop and test a working model
of the solution. Use pen and paper for the design to avoid prematurely beginning development.
Your teacher may choose to give you the tasks one at a time after periods of relevant
theory instruction, or as a group after all of the theory has been covered. To encourage serious
attention to design, your teacher may choose to enforce design-only periods of time where no
computers may be used.
Keep all of your designs, even failed attempts. A change of mind during design can actually
be a very desirable event!

DOCUMENTS REQUIRED FOR ASSESSMENT

• Screen mock-up
• Data dictionary
• IPO chart
• Internal documentation (must be used within the source code)
• All solutions must show evidence of testing using appropriate test data.

ASSESSMENT
You will be assessed on the following • Functionality: Does the program do
measures. everything it is meant to do?
• Whether your chosen design tools are • Appearance of both the interface and
appropriate and useful the output
• Your choice of data types and storage • Ease of use
structures • Internal documentation
• Object and file naming • Thoroughness of testing
• The accuracy of calculations
• The appropriateness of software
functions you have used
262 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

CHAPTER
DATA ANALYSIS AND
VISUALISATION
Key knowledge
After completing this chapter, you will be able to demonstrate knowledge of:
Data and information
• sources of authentic data in large repositories
• factors influencing the integrity of data, for example accuracy, timeliness,
authenticity, relevance
• characteristics of data types and data structures relevant to selected software tools
Approaches to problem solving
• types and purposes of data visualisations
• problem-solving activities related to analysing needs: functional and non-functional
requirements and constraints
• characteristics of file formats and their suitability to be converted to other formats
• design tools for representing data visualisations
• formats and conventions applied to visualisations to improve their effectiveness for
intended users
• functions of appropriate software tools to extract targeted data and to manipulate
data when developing visualisations
• criteria and techniques for evaluating visualisations.

For the student

If you can imagine that the amount of data that is generated every day just by using social-
networking tools, you might also be able to imagine that there is someone, somewhere,
who is looking through a mountain of data looking for meaning.
Data visualisation is the process by which we take large amounts of data and process it
into effective graphical representations that will meet the needs of users or clients.
These representations can take the form of charts, graphs, spatial relationships and
network diagrams. In some cases, the data visualisation might involve interactivity and
the inclusion of dynamic data that allows the user to deduce further meaning from the
visualisation.

For the teacher

This chapter introduces students to the knowledge and skills needed to use software tools
to access authentic data from repositories and present the information in a visual form.
The key knowledge and skills are based on Unit 2, Area of Study 2. If a data visualisation
is effective, it reduces the effort needed by readers to interpret information. This chapter
takes students through the different types of visualisations, and then uses a case study to
explore some of the tools available to process data from repositories, such as the Bureau
of Meteorology and the Australian Bureau of Statistics.
9780170364744 Chapter 7 Data analysis and visualisation 263

Information needs and data

visualisations
When clients or users require particular information, and no system currently exists that
provides the information, then an information need has been identified.
This could be due to an existing information problem (an organisation is worried about
declining sales), an identified need (park rangers need a method to communicate weather
conditions on total fire ban days), or an opportunity (currently no list of driving instructors in
Victoria exists).
The problem-solving
When an information need has been identified, one process used to help to create a solution methodology is
that will meet the needs of the clients or users is the problem-solving methodology (PSM). discussed in Chapter 2.

Average study scores by class

45
A B C D E
40

35

30
Study score

25

20

15

10

0
English Further Mathematics Biology Informatics
Subject
FIGURE 7.1 Visual representation of average VCE subject study scores by class

Sometimes the information need might revolve around finding a method to represent a
data set. Looking at data in a table does not provide much meaning for the user. Table 7.1
displays the subject results for students in different classes.

TABLE 7.1 Student test results

Class English Further Mathematics Biology Informatics

A 30 33 31 34
B 34 32 28 33
C 29 35 30 32
D 38 39 37 40
E 32 33 31 35

At first glance, the data does not really have much meaning, nor are any relationships or
patterns in the data identified. By following the four stages of the problem-solving methodology,
the requirements needed from the solution will be identified, possible solutions designed, then
264 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

developed, and after the solution is created, the user can evaluate whether the solution is
meeting their needs (the requirements identified in the analysis stage).
Figure 7.1 on the previous page is a solution that visually represents the data shown in
Table 7.1.
THINK ABOUT
COMPUTING 7.1 The solution presented in Figure 7.1 used a column chart to represent the data. A column
TV weather reports use data chart is useful for comparing different data items. In this situation the average study score of
visualisations to present each class is compared with the other classes. When looking at the data in the table it is difficult
weather conditions. Think
to identify any patterns or relationships. Once the data is converted into a visual format it
of other situations from
day to day, where data is quickly becomes apparent that Class D performed the best in each of the subjects.
presented in a visual format With the use of data visualisations, further investigation can be undertaken to understand
that is more meaningful why Class D performed better in the VCE than the other classes. Did Class D consist of all the
and is quick and easy to
understand.
high achievers at the school? Did they have the best teachers? Did the students in Class D
complete more homework than the other classes, or was it just a coincidence?

Sources of authentic data

As discussed in earlier chapters, there are two sources of data: primary and secondary.

Primary sources
Primary data sources involve collecting the data directly or firsthand from stakeholders.
Methods used to collect primary data include interviews, observations and surveys. By its
nature, data collected from primary sources should be considered authentic. Measures, though,
need to be put in place when collecting from primary data sources to ensure the data is accurate,
free from bias, reliable and relevant.

Secondary sources
Collecting data from secondary data sources involves using data that other users have
collected firsthand. The range of sources holding secondary data include newspapers, books,
magazines and reports, to name a few, with a wide range of organisations collecting data for
their own particular information needs.
One important question to ask when using data from a secondary source concerns how
authentic it is. Finding similar data from two or more sources helps to authenticate the data.
Also, collecting data from organisations that are considered reliable and trustworthy helps to
increase the chance that the data is authentic. Government departments collect and store vast
amounts of data and take many precautions to ensure that the data they collect is authentic.
They are increasingly making these data sets available for public use. As a result, government
departments are considered a good source of authentic data. Some of these sources are
discussed on pages 265–67.
9780170364744 Chapter 7 Data analysis and visualisation 265

Bureau of Meteorology
The Bureau of Meteorology (BOM) is Australia’s national weather, climate and water agency.
They collect a wide range of climatic data to be able to make regular forecasts, issue warnings
and offer advice. Much of the data that they collect is available for public use. Bureau of Meteorology

FIGURE 7.2 A screenshot from the BOM’s website

Victorian government data directory

The Victorian government data directory contains a range of data sets from Victorian
government departments. There are data sets available on a diverse range of subject areas
including education, finance, health and town planning. The data sets offered are in a range of Victorian government
file formats, including spreadsheets, audio and video, comma separated values, geospatial and data directory
API tools.
266 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

https://www.data.vic.gov.au
FIGURE 7.3 A screenshot from the Victorian government data directory website

Australian Bureau of Statistics

The Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) is the statistical agency of the federal government.
The ABS provides statistics on a wide range of economic, environmental and social issues, for
use by governments and the community. Data sets are available on a diverse range of topics
from foreign trade, agriculture, sporting facilities to crime statistics. In fact, the ABS website
ABS provides an endless supply of open data.

FIGURE 7.4 A screenshot from the ABS website

9780170364744 Chapter 7 Data analysis and visualisation 267

Data.gov.au
Data.gov.au is similar to the Victorian government data directory in that it provides publically
available data sets that have been collect by federal government departments.
Many other organisations offer data sets to the public. Data.gov.au

FIGURE 7.5 A screenshot from Data.gov.au

Data integrity
Data integrity refers to the quality of the data. An information system’s purpose is to transform
data into useful information. It therefore is important that the data inputted has integrity, THINK ABOUT
because the information produced is based on the data itself. For example, if a customer COMPUTING 7.2
Create a list of four other
database contains the wrong postal details for a customer this is incorrect data. When a data
organisations in Australia
set contains these types of errors, it loses its integrity. The more errors the data set contains, the who provide data sets
lower its integrity. for public use. Each
There are many ways the quality or integrity of the data can be measured. When using data organisation can be a
government department or
from either primary or secondary sources, factors to consider include accuracy, timeliness,
private organisation.
authenticity and relevance.
268 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

Accuracy
Accuracy involves ensuring that the data collected is correct and does not contain any errors.
When using primary methods to collect the data, validation may be able to be used to
reduce the chances of incorrect data being entered. Data validation often involves restricting
THINK ABOUT
COMPUTING 7.3
the data that can be entered into a particular field and by restricting what can be entered. The
How many validation chances of incorrect data being input are therefore reduced.
techniques are used in the Many online forms contain a number of validation methods that help reduce the chances of
online checkout form from errors being input. Validation techniques include dropdown lists, radio buttons, predictive text,
cafe press (Figure 7.6)?
check boxes and required fields.

CafePress.com.au

FIGURE 7.6 Online form containing validation techniques

9780170364744 Chapter 7 Data analysis and visualisation 269

Timeliness
Timeliness relates to the age of the data – how old is it? The data used should be relevant for the
time period. For example, using Melbourne’s population data from the 1990s to help plan the
location for new primary schools would result in a plan that does not match the city's current
needs. It is important that the data input into the information system is timely to match what
is needed, and is not collected too early (or too late).
Timeliness can also relate to the information provided by the information system. If the
information produced is not provided in a suitable timeframe it would be useless. Imagine a
school produces a daily bulletin outlining all the events that occur each day, but the bulletin is
always published at the end of the school day, and not the start. The information is not being
received in a timely fashion and, therefore, is useless to the organisation.

Authenticity
Authenticity relates to how genuine the data set is. Is the data genuine, original, accurate,
reliable and trustworthy? The authenticity of primary data is easier to confirm as it has been
collected firsthand, although precautions should be put into place to ensure it is accurate and
reliable. Also, when collecting primary data it is important that the sample size is not too small,
as this may lead to inaccurate results.

Calculate the size of your sample

Sample size
? Population size: 100

? Confidence level (%): 95

50

? Margin of error (%): 10

Calculate *This calculator uses a normal

distribution (50%) to calculate
your optimum sample size

FIGURE 7.7 Online calculator to calculate optimum sample size

Relevance
Relevance is related to whether the data helps to produce the information required to meet
the information need of the user. There is no point using the data that does not contribute to
producing the information required. Collecting data about the weather is useless if the purpose
of the system is to identify where new hospitals should be located in Australia. There are many
attributes of relevant data but ultimately the data should help achieve the needs of the user.

Data types and data structures

Data types are particular forms that an item of data can take, including numeric, character and
Boolean. The number of data types can vary between software applications. Each piece of data
can be classified into one of the data-type groups. Common data types include the following.

Character
A character data type holds a single letter, number or symbol and is usually stored in 2 bytes of
memory. Numbers stored as a character data type cannot be used in mathematical calculations.
Examples of characters include a, &, and 5.
270 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

Text (string)
A text data type consists of a ‘string of characters’. The terms ‘text’ and ‘string’ are sometimes used
interchangeably to refer to the same data type. Within software applications, the term ‘text’ is
often used. If the data consists of 2 or more characters then a string data type is used. The amount
of memory used to store the string will depend on the length (2 bytes × length of string). Again,
numbers stored as a string cannot be used in mathematical calculations. Often a phone number
is saved as a string. Examples of strings are Hello, 0406 000 000 and ABC123.

Integer
An integer is a number without a fractional or decimal component, e.g. a whole number. An
integer is usually stored in 4 bytes of memory. Numbers stored as integers can be used in
mathematical calculations. Examples of an integer include -345, 0, and 1234567890.

Floating point (or decimal)

A floating point number is a number with a fractional or decimal component, such as a decimal
number. A floating point number is split into two parts: The mantissa and the exponent. The
mantissa holds all of the digits with a decimal point after the first digit. The exponent holds the
power of 10 by which the mantissa must be multiplied to regain the original number. A floating
point can take up to 12 bytes of memory. Examples of floating point data types include 3.17,
-6.890 and 0.001.

THINK ABOUT
Boolean
COMPUTING 7.4 A Boolean data type can only hold two possible values, usually true or false. A Boolean data
In theory, a Boolean data type is known as a logical data type. It is often used in conditional statements to test if a
type only requires 1 bit of
memory space. Find out
condition or value is true or not. Boolean data types are efficient in terms of storage space as
why it needs to take up they only require 1 byte of memory for storage.
1 byte of memory instead.
Data structure
TABLE 7.2 Array data A data structure is a particular way of organising a collection of data items. Using data structures
structure helps to improve the efficiency of the data handling process. Three common data structures are
Number arrays, records and files.
Index Value
0 40
Array
1 34
An array is a collection of data items generally of the same data type. Each item in the array is
allocated an address.
2 56
Table 7.2 illustrates an array data structure. The structure is named ‘Number’ and holds six
3 21
data items – all integers. The value of Number (0) is 40 and Number (5) is 67.
4 12
5 67
9780170364744 Chapter 7 Data analysis and visualisation 271

Record
A record is a collection of data items of different data types. Each element of a record is
generally called a field. The record in Table 7.3 consists of six fields and involves data of different
data types.

TABLE 7.3 Record data structure

THINK ABOUT
Customer ID Name Phone VIP Quantity Cost COMPUTING 7.5
Referring to Table 7.3, how
01901 Karen 0406348790 Y 5 3.99 many different data types
can you identify?

File
A file data structure can hold
numerous data items, arrays or
records. A file is saved separately
from the software program that
utilises the file. Large data sets
can be read from, or written to, a
file for storage purposes. The file
to the right shows a collection of
records related to student results.
Figure 7.8 is an example of a
comma-separated value (CSV) FIGURE 7.8 File data structure
file. A range of file types will be
discussed later in the chapter.

Types and purposes of data

visualisations
Data visualisation is a relatively new field of computing. As more and more data sets are being
made available, the number of individuals and organisations performing analysis on this data
is also increasing. The types of visualisations being used is endless. Data is being manipulated
and processed into new forms of visualisations every day.
Figure 7.9 shows different types of charts used for different purposes, but these only scratch
the surface in terms of types of data visualisations.
 272

Variable width Table or table with Bar chart Column chart Circular area chart Line chart Column chart Line chart
column chart embedded charts

Many items Few items Cyclical data Non-cyclical data Single or few categories Many categories
Computing VCE Units 1 & 2

Two variables Many

per item categories
Few categories Many periods Few periods

One variable per item

Among items Over time

diagrams or maps
Column histogram
Few
Single data
Comparison variable points
Scatter chart Two
variables
What would you Line histogram
Relationship Distribution Many
like to show?
data
points
Bubble chart

Composition Scatter chart

Three
variables Two
variables

Changing over time Static 3D area chart

Few periods Many periods Three

variables

Only relative Relative and absolute Only relative Relative and absolute Simple share Accumulation or Components of
differences matter differences matter differences matter differences matter of total subtraction to total components

FIGURE 7.9 Some common types of data visualisations; it does not include network
Stacked 100% Stacked Stacked 100% Stacked area chart Pie chart Waterfall chart Stacked 100%
column chart column chart area chart column chart with
subcomponents
9780170364744

Source: Advanced Presentations by Design: Creating Communication that Drives Action, 2nd Edition, Andrew Abela, May 2013, Pfeiffer
9780170364744 Chapter 7 Data analysis and visualisation 273

Charts
A chart (also known as a graph) is a method of displaying data visually, where the data set is
represented as symbols in the chart. Charts are a popular way of presenting data visually and
many spreadsheet applications have charting (or graphing) capabilities. Features of a chart can
include a title, axis, scale or grid, data labels and a legend.
Charts are often used to visualise numerical data. There are a range of chart types, where
each type is used for different purposes. A bar chart can be used to compare different items, a
pie chart to show each data item as a proportion of the population, line charts are useful for
showing the trend in a data item over time and histograms are useful for grouping data then
showing the frequency of each group.

Shutterstock.com/vasabii

FIGURE 7.10 Types of charts

 274 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

Maps
A popular method to display geographical
data is by using map-based visualisations.
These types of visualisation are often called
geospatial visualisations. Geospatial data is
data that is related to the geographical location
covered. Data could be related to population,
roads, rivers, climate, mobile phone towers
or any other characteristic of the area. Many
geospatial visualisations are dynamic and allow
the user to zoom in or out or navigate over an
area. Geospatial visualisations are becoming
© 2015 Microsoft

more popular because they are a very powerful

tool that allows the data to be brought to life
through visualisation. As a range of data can be
overlayed with a geographical location the uses
FIGURE 7.11 Geospatial visualisation of these types of visualisations are enormous.
Common uses have been for agricultural, environmental, mining and urban planning purposes,
but the list is endless.

Networks
Network visualisations show relationships between different data items and relationships
Ad between different data sets. Finding relationships within and between data sets has been an
NelsonNet increasing area of interest in recent years as more data has become publically available from
NelsonNet
additional resource

additional resource: both government and private organisations around the world.
Figure 7.11 Geospatial A network visualisation might show the frequency with which individual players might pass
visualisation, p. 274 the ball to each other in a football game or the number of people who travel on a public transport
system each day. Network visualisations are also used to represent the layout of computer
networks, or public transport systems. Figure 7.12 shows an example of a network visualisation.

Alamy/Route55

FIGURE 7.12 Network visualisation

9780170364744 Chapter 7 Data analysis and visualisation 275

Time series
Time visualisation represents a data item or data set over a period of time. Some time-based
visualisations will show historical data, while others capture live data to provide real-time
information. It is also possible to display the dimension of time by adding motion or animation
to create a dynamic data representation.
The data could also be related to timeline or time series. Timeline data may relate to
individual items or events and show the order in which the items or events occurred over a
time period, while time series data may relate to the same data item and show the variations or
changes in the item over a time period. The visualisation shown in Figure 7.13 is an example of
a time series representation, showing the top eight name references to social networking sites
on the internet from 2006 to 2008.

Jeff Clark, Neoformix.com

FIGURE 7.13 Time visualisation

Hierarchy
Hierarchy visualisations show the relationships and structure between data items. In a
hierarchy, data items are represented as being above, equal or below other items in the data
set. Types of hierarchy visualisations can include organisational, structure and tree charts and
mind maps.
They can be used to show the relationship between items in a data set or they can illustrate
the breaking down of items into smaller components. Hierarchy visualisations are also useful
for representing non-numerical data types. Figure 7.14 shows a word map representing Chapter
3 of this book. The subject networks have been broken down into sections and then the
components of each section branch out from the centre.
276 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

Issue
Responsibilities of
network professionals
Issue
Ethernet TCP/IP 802.11 Network diagram
Legal and ethical considerations
File sharing
Network communication standards
Responsibilities of network users
Internet peer to peer
Peer 2 peer
Raising the profile of a business
WAN
Client server LAN File transfer protocol
Sharing hardware Communication Cloud services
Near field communications
Intranet Networks Web browser
Communication
Entertainment Benefits of using a network Internet services Microwaves
Broadcast radio
Voice over internet protocol
Routers Networks
Sharing software Satellite
Transferring funds Electronic email Wireless transmission media
Wireless extender Communication devices Communication software
Cellular radio
Knowledge acquisition NBN Connection devices Communication channels
Sharing data and information Switches NO 8 Network analysis tools
Smart TV Physical transmission media
Broadband routers
User dependency Sending and receiving devices Fire-optic
NIC & wireless adaptors Twisted pair
Network attached storage device
Network security
Risks of networks Wireless access point Mobile devices
Game consoles NBN
Wearable technology Accidental threats
Threats
Security breaches
Tablets Hand-held data devices
IP video cameras Deliberate threats
... T Smart Phones
Navigation systems
+ Social networks Event-based threats
Hacker
* Connected cars Measures
Home networks
Username and password Malware
Power line network Issue

Ethernet network Firewalls

Wireless security
WIFI network Power over Ethernet

FIGURE 7.14 Hierarchy visualisation

Flow
Flow visualisations involve representing data that illustrates the flow pattern of a data item or
THINK ABOUT items. This could be the pattern of customer movements through a supermarket or the series of
COMPUTING 7.6
User-flow diagrams pages a user would visit on a website
are studied in Unit 3, to complete a transaction (user-flow
Outcome 1 Informatics. diagram).
Using a search engine, find
Flow visualisations are also used
three examples of user-flow
diagrams. for scientific purposes to visualise
Science Photo Library/Omikron

the flow patterns of objects that are

normally invisible, including air and
water. Figure 7.15 represents the effect
of an aircraft wing on the airflow
passing the wing. The data for this
visualisation was collected during
testing using a wind tunnel, and the
FIGURE 7.15 Flow visualisation data converted to a visualisation.

Matrix
Matrix visualisations can be used to show the composition of individual items in the sample
size. In this regard, they can be considered similar to pie charts. Matrix visualisations often
divides the display area up into grids (similar to cells in a spreadsheet). Different sections of the
display area are then used to represent the proportion of individual (or groups) of data items.
Matrix diagrams can be used to compare different data items, similar to a scatter chart.
Again, the display area is divided in a grid or table format. Figure 7.16 shows a number of matrix
visualisations with each visualisation representing a county in the United Kingdom. The colours
represent the percentage of people who voted for a particular political party in an election.
9780170364744 Chapter 7 Data analysis and visualisation 277

Bedfordshire Cambridgeshire Cheshire Cornwall

Christian Behrens, The Data Visualisation Catalogue

Cumbria Derbyshire Devon Durham

Essex Herefordshire Hertfordshire Lancashire

Conservative party Labour party Liberal Democrats Greens party No party

FIGURE 7.16 Matrix visualisation

PSM: Analysis
As mentioned earlier, when an information need is identified, one method to create a solution
THINK ABOUT
that will meet the need is to use the problem-solving methodology. COMPUTING 7.7
The first stage of the methodology, the analysis stage, is often considered the most crucial. Explain how completing a
Many organisations invest more time, effort and money for this stage, as they consider getting thorough analysis stage
may save time and money
the analysis stage correct and having a clear picture of what is required will save time and in the latter stages of the
money in the latter stages. methodology.
The analysis stage is typically about ‘what’ questions. What is the current information need?
What is required to meet the current information need? What constraints may restrict the
requirements? What is the scope of the solution?
The analysis stage consists of three activities: determining solution requirements,
determining solution constraints and deciding upon the scope of the solution.

Solution requirements
Solution requirements are what the client needs from the solution. What features do they want
in the solution? Solution requirements can be broken down into functional and non-functional
requirements.
Functional requirements are directly related to what the solution will do. Some examples of
functional requirements for data visualisations include:
• display population data of towns in Victoria in a visual format
• represent the distances between these towns
• allow the user to zoom in on a particular region or town
• allow the user to select an individual town to read more detailed information.
Non-functional requirements are other requirements that the user or client would like the
solution to have but that do not affect what the solution does. Examples include:
• user friendly
• not display any personal details
• compatible with different web browsers and operating systems
• portable so it can operate on devices of different sizes.
278 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

When buying a car Solution constraints

the amount of money
available for the purchase Solution constraints are factors that may limit or restrict the solution requirements.
may restrict the user’s Like requirements, constraints can be broken down into groups: economic, technical, social,
requirements. The user may legal and useability. Chapter 6, Figure 6.7, page 229, shows an example of each type of constraint.
not be able to purchase
the car they really want.
Instead they may need to Economic
re-evaluate their needs. Economic constraints include time and cost.
The deadline by which the user or client needs to have the solution operational will define
the time available to design and develop the solution. The longer the time available, the more
time there is to complete an in-depth analysis, detailed designs and develop advanced features
of the solution. The shorter the timeframe, the faster that each stage in the problem-solving
methodology needs to be completed.
Meanwhile, the funds (money) available to complete the project may affect the hardware and
software (digital systems) available for use, the number and range of staff who are available to work
on the solution and even the data used as input, if the data sets required need to be purchased.
Both a lack of time or money may result in a re-evaluation of the user’s requirements, or a
re-evaluation of how the requirements can be achieved.

Technical
Technical constraints are constraints related to the hardware and software available for
the project. Available hardware and software, memory and storage capacity, processing and
THINK ABOUT transmission speeds, and security concerns are all examples of possible technical constraints.
COMPUTING 7.8 For example, developers need to keep in mind that smartphone users may not always have
List three other technical
access to a high-speed network connection, so they need to ensure that any animated data
constraints developers of
smartphone apps need to visualisation solution does not require a large amount of bandwidth to download and view.
consider when developing a
product. Social, legal and useability
Non-technical constraints relate to areas other than hardware and software. Useability and
the user’s level of expertise (social) are examples. If a solution is being developed for users with
little digital systems expertise, this may restrict some of the requirements that would involve
complex manoeuvres to complete. Creating a solution for a child audience may restrict the
method used to input data into the solution.
Legal requirements are another type of non-technical constraint. Privacy laws may restrict
features linked to displaying personal data in the solution, or to collecting data from the devices
of someone using your solution. Copyright laws may restrict features that allow other users to
upload content to the solution.

Scope of solution
The scope outlines the boundaries or parameters of the solution so all stakeholders are aware
of exactly what the solution will contain. The scope of the solution consists of two elements.
Scope is not required for your solution for this Area of Study.

Many house and land What the solution will do

package contracts state What the solution will do is a list of all the solution requirements (both functional and non-
exactly what is included functional) that will be included in the solution.
with the package and what
exactly is not included in the
package for the price. For What the solution will not do
example, tiles on the floor This is a list of all the solution requirements that will not be included in the solution.
of the kitchen are included,
but the garden will not be
Usually these are solution requirements initially sought by the client, but because of
landscaped. constraints they have been left out of the solution project.
9780170364744 Chapter 7 Data analysis and visualisation 279

At the start of the project, it helps to outline what will and will not be included in the solution
THINK ABOUT
to prevent arguments later in the project between the client and the developer.
COMPUTING 7.9
What problems do you think
Rifle target view a clear scope of solution
can avoid later in the
project?

The area that is within the scope is

relevant to the project; areas outside
the scope are not.

FIGURE 7.17 Scope of solution

An example of a scope of solution would be as follows: The solution will display population
data of towns in Victoria in a visual format and graphically represent the distances between
those towns. It will be created to be user friendly and for privacy reasons, it will not display any
personal details.
The requirement that allows the user to zoom in on a particular region or town will not be
included in the project because of economic factors, but may be added at a later stage.

Design tools
The second stage of the problem-solving methodology involves designing the solution. The
analysis stage was all about ‘what’ the solution required. The design stage is all about ‘how’ the
solution will be achieved.
The two activities involved in the design stage are the solution design and evaluation criteria.
We will look at evaluation criteria in a later section of the chapter.

Solution design
The solution design involves planning how the solution will appear and function. To assist
with planning, a range of design tools can be used to represent the solution’s appearance and
functionality.

Appearance design tool – layout diagram

A layout diagram can be used to plan how the visualisation will appear. The diagram can be hand
drawn or computer generated, but if computer generated, should not use the same software as
the solution. The purpose of a layout diagram is to illustrate how the final solution will appear.
Once completed, the layout diagram can be inspected to see if the type of visualisation chosen
is appropriate for the data set.
A number of alternative layout diagrams can be created to represent the data set in a variety
of types of visualisations, to help decide which type to use in the final solution.
280 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

The layout diagram allows the developer and the client to give feedback on other areas of the
solution, including formats and conventions used, colour schemes and other design principles.
It is much easier to make changes to the solution in the design stage than once development
begins.

FIGURE 7.18 A hand-drawn layout diagram set out as a column graph

Appearance design tool – storyboard

Nisha Samuel Design Storyboards can be used to show how the data-visualisation animation might work. For example,
Scroll to the section if you are using animation in the data visualisation, the storyboard might represent different
at the bottom of the stages of the solution. View Nisha Samuel’s website for an example of a storyboard showing
page and click to view
the ‘Crowdfunding‘
the sequence of scenes in a visualisation used to promote the understanding of crowdfunding
storyboard. communities. The website also shows other useful storyboards.

Functionality design tool – IPO chart

An input-process-output (IPO) chart is a design tool that helps to plan how a solution will
IPO charts are discussed in
function. The IPO assists in identifying the data required to produce the information (or output)
Chapters 2 and 3.
required by the solution. Often by reverse engineering from the output, you can identify what
processing steps are needed for the input data.

TABLE 7.4 Input process output design tool

Input Process Output

Distance travelled Select data Column chart
Number of visits Select insert tab
Select column chart
Add title and labels

Functionality design tool – flowchart

Flowcharts can be used to show the procedure users follow to create a data visualisation.
9780170364744 Chapter 7 Data analysis and visualisation 281

Creating a visualisation
START

Define Prepare Design

requirements data structures solution

Manipulate
Extract Interpret data & create
data data data
visualisation

Are
Is Does
patterns &
NO data YES NO YES NO visualisation
relationships
relevant? meet user’s
identified?
needs?

Martin Krzywinski
YES

END

FIGURE 7.19 Flowchart on how to make a visualisation

Formats and conventions

Formats are related to the font type and size selected, background colour used and any other
change of appearance. Conventions are general rules that are followed when using a particular
format. When we present data in a table, often the column headings are in bold, the text left
aligned and the numbers right aligned. When presenting data in a website, we use clearly named
hyperlinks to make it easy for the user to find the required information. When addressing a letter,
we often follow standard rules (or conventions). For example, the stamp goes in the upper right-
hand corner, the return address goes in the upper left-hand corner while the 'to' address is centred
on the envelope.

Write your name, address, city, state and postcode.

Jane Doe
425 Sugar Lane
Sugarloaf VIC 3221

Miss Joan Johnson

346 Elm Street
Docklands VIC 3008
Lettersops.com

Write the name, mailing address, city, state

and postcode of the person to whom you are mailing the letter.
FIGURE 7.20 Conventions followed when addressing an envelope
282 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

With data visualisations appearing in so many different formats, there really is a range of
conventions that would apply to each format.
THINK ABOUT Some common conventions that would improve the effectiveness of the visualisation would
COMPUTING 7.10 include:
Study a number of data • clearly title the visualisation and explain its purpose
visualisations you find • label axes if appropriate
effective. Try to identify the
formats and conventions
• use a key or legend to identify different data items
that have been used to • include the name of the author and the source of the data
make the solution stand out. • identify the units of measurement
• choose colours that match the information being discussed.

Software tools and functions

For this Outcome, you should follow two discrete steps to create your data visualisations. The
first step involves extracting data from data sources. The second step involves presenting the
data using a data visualisation.

Extracting data
Spreadsheet software
Many data sources provide data in a file format that is compatible with existing spreadsheet
software applications.
The image below shows a data set available from the Victorian Government website
Data.gov.vic.au, containing all of the details and locations of AFL teams and programs in Victoria.
The data set is available in CSV file format that is compatible with spreadsheet software (Figure 7.21).

Copyright © The State of Victoria, Department of Environment, Land, Water &

Planning 2015, Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Australia

FIGURE 7.21 Data about AFL clubs and programs in Victoria

9780170364744 Chapter 7 Data analysis and visualisation 283

FIGURE 7.22 Data set downloaded into spreadsheet software

Spreadsheet software also contains a feature know as a web query that allows data to
be acquired from data sources. One limitation of a web query is that the data needs to be
recognised by the spreadsheet software.

FIGURE 7.23 Example of a web query in spreadsheet software

284 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

FIGURE 7.24 Data imported into spreadsheet software using a web query

Database software
Database software can also be used to acquire data from data sources. Using the external
data function, data can be imported from a range of sources and file formats including HTML
documents, Excel, text and XML files, as well as external databases.
9780170364744 Chapter 7 Data analysis and visualisation 285

FIGURE 7.25 Options to import external data into database software

Programming languages
Some programming languages have the capability to acquire data from external sources. For
example, Python can fetch data from websites. Applications can be created in Python that will
fetch data from a website based on the page’s HTML code.
Using the ‘Inspect Element’ command in a browser, you can view the HTML code of a
webpage. The area that the data is located in the code can be identified and then imported into
another application. Once data has been acquired, it can be imported into other applications,
such as database or spreadsheet software.
Figure 7.26 shows a sample of Python code that will read all of the HTML code from Google.

FIGURE 7.26 Sample Python code reading HTML code from Google
286 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

Displaying data
The following list shows tools and functions that can be used to display data.

Spreadsheet software
Many spreadsheet applications have a chart or graphing feature that helps manipulate the data
into a visual form. Microsoft Excel has a range of different charts available.

FIGURE 7.27 Spreadsheet chart function

Google
Google has a range of online cloud-based software tools that can manipulate data into a visual
format. Google Sheets is spreadsheet software, Google Charts offer a range of live streaming of
data from websites, and Google Motion has the functionality to develop motion charts that can
be used to create time visualisations.
9780170364744 Chapter 7 Data analysis and visualisation 287

FIGURE 7.28 Motion chart created with Google Docs

Tableau Public
Tableau Public is free software that can
allow anyone to connect to a spreadsheet or
file to create interactive data visualisations
for the web.

OpenHeatMap
OpenHeatMap allows users to create THINK ABOUT
static or animated heat maps. Data can COMPUTING 7.11
be saved into files including Google Docs The tools mentioned are
merely a sample of those
or spreadsheets and then uploaded to the available online. Research
site to create the map. Heat maps represent other online tools and
values in a range of colours that indicate functions available to create
Tableau Software

data visualisations.
concentration, similar to a weather map.

FIGURE 7.29 Tableau Public

288 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

File formats
Earlier in the chapter, files were discussed as a type of data structure. A data structure is a way
to organise a collection of data items or a data set. Often the data set required to help create a
data visualisation will be stored in a file. But just as there are many types and formats of data
visualisations, there are many file types and formats that store the data sets themselves.
Below we will look at some common file formats used to store data used in visualisations.

XLM/XLMS file formats

A file with the XLM or XLSX file extension is an Excel Microsoft Office Open XML Format
Spreadsheet file. Microsoft Office Excel is the primary software program used to open and edit
XLM and XLSX files. Alternatively there are a range of free alternative spreadsheet programs
that can use these files.

WMS file formats

A WMS file is a Web Map Service standard that involves retrieving map images over the internet
from a webserver. WMS files are used in conjunction with GIS file formats to create geospatial
visualisations.

Kinglake Toolangi

Copyright © The State of Victoria, Department of Environment, Land, Water & Planning 2015, Creative Commons
Sunbury Goonawarra
Craigieburn
St Andrews
Toolern Vale
Diggers Rest
Bulla Hurstbridge
Epping Christmas Hills
Yarra Glen
Diamond Creek
Melton Dandenong Thomastown
Tullamarine Greensbo rough
Melton Eltham
Caroline Springs Broadmeadows
Coburg
Essendon Heidelberg
Deer Park Lilydale
Brunswick
Sunshine Doncaster Mount EvelynSeville
Derrimut Kew Balwyn
Ringwood
Melbourne Box Hill
Cranbourne Mount Dandenong
Port Melbourne
Bayswater
Laverton Williamstown St Kilda
Glen Waverley Ferntree Gully
Knoxfield
Werribee Oakleigh Upfield
Brighton Belgrave
Moorabbin Emerald Cockatoo
Sandringham Springvale Lysterfield Park Camberwell
Keilor
Dandenong
Mordialloc
Attribution 3.0 Australia

Berwick
Chelsea Beaconsfield
Pakenham
Portarlington Port Phillip Bay Cranboune

FIGURE 7.30 Web Map Service (WMS) using geographic information system (GIS) file data to show industrial areas of
urban development. The areas outlined with purple lines are flagged as ‘industrial nodes’.
9780170364744 Chapter 7 Data analysis and visualisation 289

GIS file formats

A GIS file format contains geographical data. For example, it could contain the location of rivers and
creeks in Victoria, stored as a series of longitude and latitude coordinates. For each river or creek, it
could also contain attribute information, including the name and some history information. The
GIS file will also contain data on how to display each creek and river in the visualisation.

CSV file format

A comma-separated value (CSV) file stores data in tabular format in a plain text file. The
data is saved as individual fields using a comma to separate values. There are a number of
advantages of saving data in a CSV format. First, a CSV is quite easy to import into (or export
from) a range of software applications, including spreadsheet and database applications. Plain
text files (such as notepad) also use very little storage space. Unlike some other file formats,
they are saved as text, so are readable.

FIGURE 7.31 Comma separated value file format

API tools THINK ABOUT

An application-programming interface (API) tool is more a tool than a file format, but does COMPUTING 7.12
There are many more file
allow the data required for a visualisation to be collected. An API tool contains the instructions formats for storing data
and standards to allow live data to be collected from external websites and then be used in a sets used in visualisations.
data visualisation. Create a list of five other file
formats you could use.

Evaluating data visualisations

Evaluation involves measuring how well the solution meets the information need and the needs
of the client. Evaluation is used in two stages of the problem-solving methodology. First evaluation
criteria are created in the design stage. Then, in the evaluation stage, two activities occur: determining
an evaluation strategy and then completing an evaluation report.
The evaluation stage is not completed until after the solution is developed and been used
by actual users for a period of time, often three to six months after development. This time
frame allows the users to learn and become familiar with the solution, so they can make
clear judgements on whether the solution is meeting their information needs and any other
requirements.

Evaluation criteria
Evaluation criteria are measures that will be used to judge whether the solution meets the
information needs of the client or user.
Criteria should relate to the initial solution requirements because if all the requirements
are contained within the solution, then the information need should be met. As the criteria
are going to be used to judge the solution, they should be framed or written so that they are
quantifiable or measurable.
290 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

OpenHeatMap: World
Bank Data Explorer

© OpenStreetMap contributors
FIGURE 7.32 Dynamic heat map created with OpenHeatMap

Quantifiable or measurable criteria are measures whose satisfaction is easily determined.

An example of a measurable criterion is ‘the solution displays the visualisation within five
seconds of loading the website’. It is relatively easy to then judge whether the solution can do
this, or not.
Evaluation criteria should also cover both effectiveness and efficiency. Effectiveness
criteria should relate to how well the solution works and if it provides the information needed.
There are a number of characteristics related to effectiveness including accuracy, accessibility,
attractiveness, communication of message, completeness, timeliness and useability. For a
solution to be considered effective, it needs to have these characteristics. Based on the sample
solution requirements, listed on pages 291–2, examples of evaluation criteria for effectiveness
include:
• population sizes of towns are represented accurately
• visualisation contains appropriate contrast, space and balance
• data used is timely
• data for all towns in Victoria is included
• solution is easy to use.
9780170364744 Chapter 7 Data analysis and visualisation 291

Efficiency criteria relate to saving time, cost or effort when retrieving the information from
the solution. Examples of evaluation criteria for efficiency include:
• town information can be accessed within three seconds
• zooming in and out can be completed without using the keyboard
• solution will reduce the amount of money spent on printing the data.
The evaluation criteria that have been created during the design stage are then available
for the developers to refer to during the development stage to provide guidance for the project.

Evaluation strategy
The evaluation stage of the problem-solving methodology is not completed until after the
solution is created and is being used by real users. As discussed, often a timeframe of three
to six months after implementation is considered a reasonable time for the evaluation stage
to begin. The first activity in the evaluation stage involves creating an evaluation strategy. An
evaluation strategy involves deciding how each evaluation criteria can be measured. It includes
creating a timeline for evaluation to take place, deciding on the data required to help judge each
criterion, and looking at the way the data required will be collected and how the data can be
used to evaluate each measure.
One method to display an evaluation strategy, using one criterion for effectiveness and one
for efficiency from the example above, is to use a table format, as shown in Table 7.5.
TABLE 7.5 The evaluation strategy

Evaluation criterion Data used must be less than 6 Town information can be accessed
months old within 3 seconds

3 months after solution 3 months after solution

Timeline
implementation implementation
Time taken for a user to zoom in to
Date that the data used to create
Data required a particular town and access the
the visualisation
town information
Interview the staff involved in Observe a user use the solution
collecting the primary data about and, using a stopwatch, time
Data collection method
population to establish the date it how long it takes to access the
was collected. information of a particular town.
Compare the average time taken,
Compare the date that the data
How the data can over 10 attempts, to access the
was collected to the current date
be used information to the benchmark
to determine how old the data is.
(3 seconds). THINK ABOUT
COMPUTING 7.13
A range of methods can be used to collect the data required for evaluation. We have Create a strategy table by
previously discussed using interviews, survey and observations to collect data. In addition, selecting two other of the
checking download speeds, counting website hits, inspecting the solution output, reviewing sample criteria listed on
page 290. Complete the
error logs or timing how long it takes users to complete tasks are just some additional methods evaluation strategy for each.
that enable evaluation criteria to be completed.
292 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

Evaluation report
Finally, after the evaluation strategy has been completed, the evaluation report can be written.
The evaluation report involves stating if the solution is meeting the information need and the
needs of the user. To provide evidence for the final conclusion, each evaluation criterion must
be assessed to identify if it has been achieved. If each of the evaluation criteria has been met,
then the solution can be considered a success.

TABLE 7.6 Assessing each criterion to assist in preparing an evaluation report

Evaluation criterion Data used must be less than 6 months old Town information can be accessed within 3 seconds

Timeline 3 months after solution implementation 3 months after solution implementation

Date that the data used to create the Time taken for a user to zoom in to a particular
Data required
visualisation town and access the town information

Interview the staff involved in collecting the Observe a user use the solution and, using a
Data collection method primary data about population to establish the stopwatch, time how long it takes to access the
date it was collected. information of a particular town.
Compare the date that the data was collected Compare the average time taken, over 10
How the data can be used to the current date to determine how old the attempts, to access the information to the
data is. benchmark (3 seconds).
Data 4 months 3.6 seconds
Achieved Yes No
9780170364744 Chapter 7 Data analysis and visualisation 293

ESSENTIAL TERMS

CHAPTER SUMMARY
accuracy correctness, without mistakes matrix visualisations visualisations used to show
application-programming interface (API) a tool the compensation of individual items in the
that contains the instructions and standards sample size
to allow live data to be collected from external network visualisations visualisations that show the
websites and then be used in a data visualisation relationship between different data items and
array a collection of data items generally of the data sets
same data type non-functional requirements other requirements
authenticity in relation to data, data that is genuine, that the user or client would like the solution to
original and considered trustworthy have but they do not affect what the solution
does
Boolean data type a logical data type; Boolean
data can hold only two possible values, usually non-technical constraints limitations relating to
true or false areas other than hardware and software: social,
legal and useability
character a single letter, number or symbol that is
usually stored in 2 bytes of memory; a data type record a collection of data items of different data
types
chart a method of displaying data as symbols
relevance data that produces useful information
comma-separated value (CSV) file a file type that
required by the information need; if the data is
stores data in tabular format in a plain text file;
not useful, it is not relevant
the data is saved as individual fields using a
comma to separate values sample size the number of completed responses
that you collect from interviews or surveys; the
data types particular forms that an item of data can
more responses completed the more likely the
take, including numeric, character and Boolean
data being collected is accurate
data visualisation the presentation of data in a
solution constraints factors that may affect or
pictorial or graphical format
restrict the requirements included in the solution
floating point number a number with a fractional or
solution requirements what the client wants from
decimal component
the solution; can be broken down into functional
flow visualisations representing data that illustrates and non-functional requirements
the flow pattern of an object or item
string data that consists of a string of characters
formats ways in which data and information can be
technical constraints constraints related to
presented
the hardware and software available for
functional requirements those directly related to the project
what the solution will do
time visualisations represent a data item or
geospatial visualisation overlay data related to a data set over a period of time
geographical area over mapping technology;
timeliness data that has been collected in a
Google Maps is an example of a geospatial
reasonable timeframe (is not too old) and
visualisation
information that has been produced in
GIS file a file format that contains geographical data time to be useful
hierarchy visualisations show the relationships and WMS file a web map service
structure between data items standard that involves retrieving
information need when particular information is map images over the internet
required, yet is not being currently supplied; from a webserver
causes of an information need may include XLM or XLSX file an Excel
a current problem, an identified need or an Microsoft Office Open XML
opportunity Format Spreadsheet file
integer a number without a fractional or decimal
component
map-based visualisations geographical data
displayed in a visual format
 294 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

IMPORTANT FACTS
CHAPTER SUMMARY

1 Government departments collect and store vast 20 Many spreadsheet applications have a chart or
amounts of data sets. graphing feature that helps manipulate the data
2 The Bureau of Meteorology is Australia’s national into a visual form.
weather, climate and water agency. 21 Google has a range of online cloud-based software
3 The Victorian government data directory tools that can manipulate data into a visual format.
contains a range of data sets from Victorian 22 Tableau Public is free software that can allow
government departments. anyone to connect to a spreadsheet or file to
4 The Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) is the create interactive data visualisations for the web.
statistical agency of the federal government. 23 OpenHeatMap allows users to create static or
5 Data.gov.au is similar to the Victorian animated heat maps.
government data directory in that it provides 24 A file is a type of data structure that can store and
publically available data sets that have been organise a data set. Files operate independently
collected by federal government departments. of the software application that uses the file, so
6 A file data structure can hold numerous after the application is closed, the file will still
data items, arrays or records. A file is saved exist. There are many file types and formats.
separately from the software program that 25 A file with the XLM or XLSX file extension is
utilises the file. an Excel Microsoft Office Open XML Format
7 Infographics generally are used to communicate Spreadsheet file.
a particular message. 26 An application-programming interface (API) tool is
8 The first stage of the problem-solving more a tool than a file format but does allow the
methodology is the analysis stage. The analysis data required for a visualisation to be collected.
stage is considered with ‘what’ questions. The 27 Evaluation involves measuring how well the
analysis stage is made up of three activities: solution meets the information need and the
determining solution requirements, solution needs of the client.
constraints and the scope of the solution. 28 In the design stage of the problem-solving
9 Economic factors include time and money. methodology, evaluation criteria are created.
10 Scope of solution helps to identify the 29 Evaluation criteria should also cover both
boundaries or parameters of the solution and effectiveness and efficiencies. Effectiveness
outlines what requirements will or will not be criteria should relate to how well the solution
included. works and if it provides the information needed.
11 The design stage is all about how the solution 30 Efficiency criteria relates to saving time, cost
will be achieved. or effort in retrieving the information from the
12 The solution design involves planning how the solution.
solution will appear and function. 31 The evaluation stage of the problem-solving
13 A layout diagram can be used to plan how the methodology is not completed until after
visualisation will appear. the solution is created and is being used by
14 Storyboards can be used to show how the data- real users.
visualisation animation might work. 32 An evaluation strategy is about deciding
15 An IPO chart is a design tool that helps to plan how each evaluation criteria can be
how a solution will function. measured.
16 Flowcharts can be used to show the procedure 33 Interviews, surveys, observations, checking
that users need to complete to create a data download speeds, counting the number of website
visualisation. hits, inspecting the solution output, reviewing error
17 Conventions are general rules that are followed logs and timing users are all methods used to
when using a particular format. collect evaluation data.
18 Common conventions include clear title, axis 34 The evaluation report involves stating if the
labelled, key or legend used, name of the solution is meeting the information need and the
author and the source of the data, unit of needs of the user. To provide evidence for the
measurements shown and matching colours. final conclusion, each evaluation criterion must
19 There are a range of software tools and functions be assessed to identify if it has been achieved.
that can be used to create data visualisations.
9780170364744 Chapter 7 Data analysis and visualisation 295

TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE

INFORMATION NEEDS AND DATA VISUALISATIONS
Qz
1 Describe an information need.
2 List three reasons why an information need may occur. Review quiz
Review quiz
3 Explain when an information need may result in a data visualisation being developed.

SOURCES OF AUTHENTIC DATA

4 Explain the difference between primary and secondary sources of data.
5 List three sources of primary data.
6 Explain when a survey would be better than an interview to collect data.
7 List three sources of secondary data.
8 Identify an issue related to using data from secondary sources.
9 Explain why government departments tend to be the source of numerous data sets.
10 Explain the role of the Bureau of Meteorology.
11 Identify how the Victorian government data directory differs from Data.gov.au.
12 Explain how the role of the Australian Bureau of Statistics differs from that of Data.gov.au.

INTEGRITY OF DATA
13 Define ‘integrity of data’.
14 List four measures used to judge the integrity of data.
15 Outline a measure that can be used to improve the chances of data being accurate
when collected.
16 Timeliness does not mean as quickly as possible. Describe the concept of timeliness.
17 List three attributes of authentic data.
18 For creating a visualisation, what would be considered relevant data?

DATA TYPES AND DATA STRUCTURES

19 Define ‘data type’.
20 List four data types.
21 Explain the relationship between a character data type and a text (string) data type.
22 Explain how an integer differs from a floating point.
23 If collecting data for the question ‘Are you 18 or over?’, which data type would be the most
efficient in storing the data? Give reasons for your answer.
24 Explain how an array is different from a record.
25 Give two reasons why files are an effective method of storing data sets.

TYPES AND PURPOSES OF DATA VISUALISATION

26 Define ‘data visualisation’.
27 List three types of visualisations that can fit into the chart category.
28 Explain the concept of geospatial visualisations.
29 Discuss one advantage of geospatial visualisations.
30 Describe a situation when you would use a network visualisation.
31 Explain how timeline data differs from time series data.
32 List three examples of hierarchy visualisations.
33 Explain the purpose of a flow visualisation. Give an example to support your answer.
34 Discuss how a matrix visualisation is often laid out.
296 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

ANALYSIS STAGE
35 List the three activities involved in the analysis stage of the problem-solving methodology.
36 Define ‘solution requirements’.
37 Explain the difference between functional requirements and non-functional requirements.
38 Define ‘functional constraint’ and ‘non-functional constraint’.
39 Explain how constraints can affect the solution.
40 State the purpose of defining the scope of the solution.

DESIGN TOOLS
41 Explain the purpose of the design stage.
42 List the two activities involved in the design stage.
43 Outline the purpose of a design tool.
44 Explain the difference between appearance design tools and functionality design tools.
45 List two design tools for appearance.
46 Discuss the advantage of creating a number of layout diagrams representing the data in a
different format.
47 Explain the purpose of an IPO chart.
48 Outline a situation when using a flowchart would be appropriate.

FORMATS AND CONVENTIONS

49 Define ‘format’.
50 Define ‘convention’.
51 List four conventions usually followed in data visualisations.

SOFTWARE TOOLS AND FUNCTIONS

52 List three software tools used to create data visualisations.
53 Explain the purpose of a motion chart.
54 Explain one similarity between Tableau Public and OpenHeatMap.

FILE FORMATS
55 Explain the relationship between files and software applications.
56 List three types of files commonly used to store data sets.
57 Explain the relationship between WMP files and GIS files.
58 Describe how a CSV file is structured.
59 Outline the purpose of an API tool.

EVALUATING VISUALISATIONS
60 Define ‘evaluation’.
61 Identify when an evaluation takes place. Explain why an evaluation takes place at
this point.
62 List the two activities involved in the evaluation stage.
63 Identify an activity completed in another stage of the problem-solving methodology that
provides input into the evaluation stage.
64 Explain the purpose of the evaluation strategy.
65 List three methods that can be used to collect evaluation data.
66 Discuss the purpose of an evaluation report.
67 Explain the link between the evaluation criteria and whether a solution can be deemed
a success.
9780170364744 Chapter 7 Data analysis and visualisation 297

APPLY YOUR KNOWLEDGE

Using the following data sets, create visualisations that will provide useful information.
1 Analyse the data to determine, in any three-month period (for example, Feb to Apr) which
city would be the best to visit for warmer weather.
TABLE 7.7 Sydney versus Melbourne weather

City Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Melbourne 25.9 25.8 23.9 20.3 16.7 14.1 13.5 15.0 17.2 19.7 22.0 24.2
Sydney 25.9 25.8 24.7 22.4 19.4 16.9 16.3 17.8 20.0 22.1 23.6 25.2

2 a Calculate each state’s proportion of Australia's population and display as a data

visualisation. All states have twelve senators in the Australian Senate, while the
Australian Capital Territory and the Northern Territory have two.
b Calculate the number of people in each jurisdiction for each senator. Create a data
visualisation of the results.
TABLE 7.8 Australian population by state and territory

State Population
New South Wales 7 272 800
Victoria 5 603 100
Queensland 4 516 361
Western Australia 2 296 411
South Australia 1 644 642
Tasmania 507 626
Australian Capital Territory 358 894
Northern Territory 229 675

3 Create a visualisation showing the total number of students at the school and the
proportion of boys to girls over time.
TABLE 7.9 Student enrolments at the Melbourne School

Year 1961 1971 1981 1991 2001 2011

Boys 81 450 600 750 750 900
Girls 0 0 0 0 150 400
Total 81 450 600 750 900 1300
These figures are estimates.
298 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

4 Create a visualisation to display the number of members of each AFL club from each state,
assuming that all members live in the state where their team resides.
Collingwood Magpies 77 405 Port Adelaide Power 40 510
Hawthorn Hawks 62 393 Sydney Swans 35 612
Richmond Tigers 60 053 North Melbourne Kangaroos 34 511
West Coast Eagles 57 830 St Kilda Saints 32 562
Essendon Bombers 54 903 Melbourne Demons 32 847
Carlton Blues 49 224 Western Bulldogs 29 641
Adelaide Crows 45 000 Brisbane Lions 23 760
Fremantle Dockers 43 638 Greater Western Sydney Giants 12 631
Geelong Cats 41 935 Gold Coast Suns 12 350
9780170364744 Chapter 7 Data analysis and visualisation 299

PREPARING FOR
Produce a data visualisation
that meets the need of a

OUTCOME
user. This will involve using
a complex data set and
accessing software or online
UNIT

tools that will enable you to

convert this data into a more
meaningful format
Apply the problem-solving methodology and use appropriate software tools to create a data
visualisation to meet user needs.

OUTCOME MILESTONES
1 Familiarise yourself with the design 5 Select types of visualisations that are
brief and analyse the information appropriate to the data.
problem that exists. 6 Select and apply appropriate tools to
2 Determine the type of data visualisation plan the design of the visualisations.
needed to solve the information problem. 7 Apply software functions to locate and
3 Select appropriate sources of data and acquire data to input and manipulate.
identify relevant data. 8 Use appropriate software tools, and
4 Determine the suitability of different select and apply a range of suitable
data types and structures for creating functions.
visualisations.

STEPS TO FOLLOW
Create the solution using the four stages of the PSM: Analysis, design, development and
evaluation.

Analysis stage
1 Determine the solution requirements.
2 Determine the solution constraints.

Design stage
1 Plan the solution: Use design tools for appearance.
2 Plan the solution: Use design tools for functionality.
3 Establish evaluation criteria.
4 Extract relevant data from data sources.
5 Manipulate data for use.

Development stage
Create a data visualisation using appropriate software types and functions.

Evaluation stage
1 Create criteria to evaluate if the data visualisation meets users' needs.
2 Select appropriate techniques to determine if the data visualisation meets users' needs.
300 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

CHAPTER
DATA MANAGEMENT
Key knowledge
After completing this chapter, you will be able to demonstrate knowledge of:
Data and information
• data sources and methods of data acquisition
• characteristics of effective data collection tools and user interfaces for the purposes
of entering data efficiently
• characteristics of data types
Digital systems
• capabilities and limitations of database management software to manipulate data
• roles, functions and characteristics of hardware components used to input, store,
communicate and output data and information
• accidental and deliberate security threats to data and information stored within
databases
• physical and software controls suitable for protecting the security of stored and
transmitted data
Approaches to problem solving
• the structure of a database, including fields, records and tables
• design tools for representing input forms to capture data and reports to meet
specific needs
• design tools for representing the structure of databases
• techniques for manipulating and validating data
• formats and conventions applied to create effective solutions
Interactions and impact
• applications of database systems in a range of settings
• personal benefits and risks arising from the use of databases.

For the student

Databases underpin many of our daily transactions including borrowing and booking
systems, storing and accessing medical records, updating content in social media
websites, and maintaining banking systems, membership of organisations, online
purchasing and voting systems.
In this chapter, you will gain an understanding of the purposes of databases by
exploring the data and information you supply to, and receive from, these systems.
You will use a database management system to construct a functional database that
includes queries to select specific data from underlying tables, based on criteria and
reports to format how that data is presented as information. Input forms will be used to
input data to the database and macros may be used to automate some database tasks.
You will also be required to identify hardware used in relation to data handling, threats
to data, control measures to minimise these threats and the risks and benefits associated
with database use.

For the teacher

The focus of this chapter is on how organisations gather data in databases, and how it
is input and then manipulated into information as reports. Students are introduced to
a database management system and its key features. This chapter forms the basis of the
background needed to prepare students for Unit 2, Outcome 3.
9780170364744 Chapter 8 Data management 301

Applications of database systems Well-known non-digital

databases include Ancient
In the last few years, an unprecedented quantity of data has been generated as people flock Egyptian papyrus scrolls
to a range of online or networked systems. Apart from business uses, social media websites with lists of quantities of
crops harvested for the
such as Facebook, Twitter and Tumblr, and even Google searches, accumulate vast amounts Pharaoh and the Domesday
of data. When you borrow a book or DVD from a library, or book concert tickets online, data is book of William the
Conqueror, which listed the
generated and stored. When you visit your local doctor, your health records are updated so that property and value of every
your complete medical history can be viewed by other doctors in the future. landholder in England, and
This data can be used for a variety of useful purposes but in order for that to happen, it needs was used to calculate taxes.
to be stored somewhere. A database management system (DBMS) is software designed to
store data and allow users to search and select from it in order to extract the information they Well-known DBMSs include
need in order to make decisions. Microsoft Access, FileMaker,
You will find DBMSs used in a variety of contexts. Businesses use databases to record MySQL, PostgreSQL,
Microsoft SQL Server,
transactions such as bill payments or shopping purchases. Banks are particularly heavy users Oracle, SAP and IBM DB2.
of databases because of the volume of financial transactions they must be able to process and
store every second. Bank customers now also perform much of their own banking online, which THINK ABOUT
is recorded in their bank’s DBMS. Libraries catalogue books and store details of borrowers in COMPUTING 8.1
their databases. Scientists and museums use DBMSs to catalogue their findings and specimens. Think of some other
examples of databases you
When you join a club or other group, you will be asked to supply a number of personal details. may regularly encounter.
These details will be collected and stored in a database. Many people purchase goods online
through websites such as Amazon and eBay. To register for these types of transactions, you
must be able to supply at least your email address, delivery address and payment details. In
some cases, you may even be involved in online voting, which also requires a database to store
and tally the votes for each option and report on the most favoured popular choices. Rating
sellers on eBay, videos on YouTube or ‘apps’ for mobile devices are common types of voting
systems you may encounter (Figure 8.1). Google and Wikipedia use powerful DBMSs to provide
a list of relevant websites or topics when you type in a search term, and every item in your
Facebook profile is also stored in a massive database. A list of names and phone numbers of
friends to invite to your party would also be considered a database.

FIGURE 8.1 A rating from online FIGURE 8.2 An example of metadata saved in a
voting for a popular game in the photo taken on a digital camera. Many images also
Windows Store save GPS coordinates to allow for geotagging.
302 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

In addition, all digital files now contain metadata, the primary purpose of which is to allow
THINK ABOUT
COMPUTING 8.2 databases to locate files that match certain search criteria more easily. Figure 8.2 on the previous
List the data that a bank page provides an example of metadata for a photograph. DBMSs also contain a specific type of
might need in order to metadata that record the details of structural elements in a database file. These details are often
process a supermarket
referred to as a data dictionary and may include details such as the size and data type of each
EFTPOS transaction.
field and characteristics of tables and other objects. Essentially, it is data about data!

Database management systems

(DBMSs)
For data handling, no other software type can compare with a database package. While each
package may differ in terms of its look and features, several key capabilities are common to all
DBMSs.

Capabilities and features

• Data redundancy is reduced by centralising different data sources into one database file.
Data consistency is a flow-on effect of reducing redundancy.
• Sharing of data allows multiple users to access the same data simultaneously. For
example, an accounts department might want to send an invoice to a customer, while
the marketing department wants to send an invitation to a special product launch. Both
departments will send their emails addressed the same way and including the same
personal details because they are both taking the data from the one company database.
• Data integrity can be maintained through the use of validation (see below).
• Data security measures mean only authorised users can access certain data. Data is often
read only to most users in order to restrict the number of people who can edit it.
• Multiple data elements can be updated in different tables when a transaction takes place.
• A common structured query language (SQL) is used in all packages to select data.
• Input forms can be created to make data entry easier for users.
• Reports can be created to display information extracted from database files. They can
be saved and modified for later reuse. Reports can include graphic representations such
as charts.
• Concurrency of data is maintained when two users try to edit the same record
simultaneously.
• Data is independent of the database application, so properties of fields can be modified
without altering the application or the database file itself.

Limitations
DBMSs also have a number of limitations that need to be considered if you are planning to
implement a database.
• Equipment (software and hardware) can be costly, especially if regular upgrades are needed.
• Conversion from a computer file used for data storage, such as a spreadsheet, to a DBMS
can be costly and time consuming. Fields and tables must be carefully constructed to
ensure that no data is lost.
• Staff need training on how to use the new system. This can be costly.
• Specialised database administrators need to be employed.
• If a database is corrupted, (for example, as a result of a technical failure), it has a huge
impact across the entire organisation.
9780170364744 Chapter 8 Data management 303

Benefits and risks

A DBMS can be a very useful tool for a variety of reasons. By storing all of your relevant data
in one place, the time and effort spent searching for information is greatly reduced, especially
when compared with a manual search. This is especially useful for medical histories and banking
details. Being able to find information more quickly could also save you money, especially in the
form of wages for data-entry personnel.
When you need to ask a particular question of your data, such as, ‘How many widget
sales have been recorded in Dandenong during the previous three months?’ or ‘What is the
distribution of Pobblebonk Frogs across Victoria?’ you can answer the question in a timely
manner with both relevance (only the information you require) and completeness (all the
information you require). Using validation and calculation formulas can guarantee the accuracy
of data and information, respectively.
An easy-to-use interface and selection tools can make your data more accessible and Benefits of a database
usable. Selected data can be formatted into well-presented and attractive reports that make the solution are classified
in terms of efficiency
information clearer and more readable to a wider audience on a variety of different platforms. (time, cost, effort)
These all contribute to delivering the message that the information needs to convey to the end and effectiveness
user. (completeness, readability,
attractiveness, clarity,
There are also several risks that need to be considered before and while using a DBMS. accuracy, accessibility,
As per the garbage-in equals garbage-out (GIGO) principle, the input must be validated to timeliness, communication
of message, relevance
avoid inaccurate data being entered. You may also have difficulties with version control of data. and useability).
Privacy must be protected. How will you prevent unauthorised users accessing confidential
data? Security must also be protected. How will you prevent hackers and other unauthorised
users from stealing or damaging data?
Database systems can be complex, difficult and time-consuming to design. Training is
required for all programmers and users, or data can be damaged. In addition to the costs of
training and running the system, the costs of purchasing suitable hardware and software can
be high.

Database structure
A DBMS is composed of several key parts. All the objects defined in the following sections can
be contained within a single database file.

Fields, records and tables

This information is perfect as a sample entry for a database: Please note that some
personal information
Mrs Maria Johnson is 26 years old. She lives at 23 Example Street, is redacted for privacy
Fairfield, 3078. Her mobile phone number is 04 123 456. reasons.

The individual data elements highlighted below could be described as database fields:

Mrs Maria Johnson is 26 years old. She lives at 23 Example

Street, Fairfield, 3078. Her mobile phone number is
04 123  456. Her customer ID number at the local newsagent
is 4820M.

A field is designed to hold a single type of raw data only. It cannot contain a formula. For
example, a field may hold a name, a postcode or a telephone number. Specific data types used
by fields are discussed below.
304 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

All the data that relates to one ‘entity’, in this case Maria Johnson, is called a record. Records
are distinguished from one another by creating a field in which the data it contains has a unique
value for each record. This is called a primary key. In the example above, the customer ID
number would be the primary key to uniquely identify Maria’s record.
A set of records is stored in a database table. When viewed, each column of the table
represents a field while each row represents a record. See Figure 8.3.

‘Last name’ is a field.

This row is a record.

FIGURE 8.3 An example of DBMS table with a field (Last Name) and a record (Zoe Robertson)
indicated.

Input forms
While a table holds the DBMS data, it is not necessarily a user-friendly object. To make
acquisition of data easier and more accurate, input forms are used. Their structure guides users
to understand what has to be entered and in what format. Forms use labels to explain the
purpose of fields, hiding the complex field name from the user. Data entered via a form goes
directly into the fields of the underlying table.

FIGURE 8.4 An example of an online input form

9780170364744 Chapter 8 Data management 305

Queries
An important feature of a database is the ability to select a set of specific data based on a
series of criteria. The database object that defines this selection is called a query. The query
criteria are the result of a question we might have of the data. For example, ‘How many of our
customers in Fairfield are between the ages of 20 and 60?’ (Figure 8.5) or ‘Can I have a list of
names and numbers for all our customers in Fairfield or Northcote?’ (Figure 8.7).
Modern DBMSs use a structured query language or SQL as a way of standardising how
data is managed in databases. Even DBMSs with GUI-based query creation, such as Microsoft
Access, use SQL in the background (Figure 8.9).

FIGURE 8.5 The design of a query that selects all customers living in Fairfield between the ages of 60 and 60

FIGURE 8.6 The results of a query of all customers living in Fairfield between the ages of 20 and 60

FIGURE 8.7 The design of a query to list the names and mobile phone numbers of all customers
living in Fairfield or Northcote

You query a database of

websites when you type
words in the search box on
the Google main page.

FIGURE 8.8 The results of a query to list the names and mobile phone numbers of all customers THINK ABOUT
living in Fairfield or Northcote. The suburbs are not shown in the final query because they are not COMPUTING 8.3
relevant to the needs of the user. Experiment with the
advanced search tools in
Google to see how to select
In Figures 8.5 and 8.7, each query has selected only the data we requested. A properly
a smaller set of results.
structured query helps to ensure any information we create is both relevant and complete.

FIGURE 8.9 The SQL for the query in Figure 8.5

306 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

Elements of effectiveness Reports

related to solutions
like reports include As useful as a query is, it is merely a simple list of selected records. To convert this list into
completeness, readability, real information, you must manipulate its formatting and layout, and add summary totals. A
attractiveness, clarity, report is the information produced at the end of this process. This is what you communicate
accuracy, accessibility,
timeliness, communication to the person for whom the information is created. It will be laid out as effectively as possible
of message, relevance to make the information stand out and be easy to read and interpret.
and useability.

FIGURE 8.10 An example of a database report. The information has been grouped and sorted,
and summary totals calculated to make the report easier to understand.

Macros
In many cases, we may have to run a series of tasks whenever a database is opened or while it
is in operation. For example, a data set may regularly need to be imported from another data
source. The series of steps required to complete this process can be automated by a macro. The
benefit of a macro is that it carries out the exact steps we ask of it when a single button or key
combination is selected. This ensures the steps are followed accurately every time, and saves
time and effort.

FIGURE 8.11 An example of the coding of a macro. This macro imports data from a spreadsheet
file and appends it to a table called All_Names.
9780170364744 Chapter 8 Data management 307

Characteristics of data types

The data held by a DBMS must be in a format suitable for storage. Typically, each field will be Data types are also
created to hold a specific type of data. This ensures data consistency in each field and assists discussed in Chapters 6
and 7.
with validation, because a field will refuse to accept data of the wrong type. For the purposes
of this study, you must be familiar with text (string), numeric (integer and floating point), date,
character and Boolean data types. Each of these is discussed in the section to follow Table 8.1.

TABLE 8.1 The most common data types used in databases

Data type Characteristics or uses Examples
Text • Alphanumeric up to 255 characters, • Name, address, postcode and
searchable phone number
Numeric • Numbers only (see below for • Any number to be used in a
different forms) calculation
Currency • Numbers, but in dollar amounts • Any number used to represent a
formatted with $ symbol and financial value, usually only applied
includes .00 at the end as a default to a total, rather than values in a list
Date/Time • A variation of numbers formatted to • Any date can be used in calculations
represent a date and/or time
Boolean • Represents one of two states, • Also represented as Yes/No and
usually True/False can be used in On/Off
logical tests

Text (string)
The majority of fields can be set as a text data type. Text may also be referred to as a string,
particularly in connection with programming. This type of field holds a mix of characters
(letters, numbers, special characters), also referred to as alphanumeric, to a limit of 255. Names
and addresses would be considered to be text data. Also, postcodes and telephone numbers are
normally formatted as text because they may contain spaces and are not intended to be used in
the same way as a numeric value. It is also more efficient to store the values as text rather than
as a large numeric value.

Numeric – integer, floating point

Another key type of data format used in databases is numeric. These fields will only allow
numbers to be entered. They are often used when the value is to be used in a calculation of
some kind. For example, the quantity of an item purchased might need to be multiplied by its
price in order to calculate a total amount payable. This sort of calculation cannot be performed
on a field formatted for text. Numeric fields can also be categorised into different variations.
Integer is used for whole numbers, including negative numbers. Where decimal numbers are
required, such as when dealing with financial transactions or percentages, then the floating
point data type is used. Depending on the database package you use, the specific names of
these numeric data types may vary, but their function will be the same.
308 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

Date
Strictly speaking, a date format is another variation of a numeric data type. The value is normally
based on the number of days since the ‘zero’ day built into the operating system or DBMS. For
example, the day ‘1’ might be displayed as 01 January 1900, while ‘42673’ would be displayed as
30 October 2016. Calculations can be performed on dates, which can be handy when comparing
the difference between them. Dates can be formatted to show a combination of years, months,
days, hours, minutes and seconds, depending on the needs of the user. In terms of time, they
can also display 12- and 24-hour clocks.

Character
This is a text field that will only accept a single alphanumeric character. It is used where there
are multiple options for a value, but they can be represented with a single character to make
data entry easier and to save storage space. For example, a wooden box that comes in small,
medium and large sizes might be entered as S, M and L, respectively.

Boolean
Boolean data type is used when the data to be entered falls into one of two categories. This
is usually True/False, but it may also represent Yes/No or On/Off. It is sometimes shown as a
checkbox or radio button on forms.

DATA TYPES
List two examples of each of the data types below. Note: You may also find it useful to refer
back to Chapters 6 and 7.
1 Text (string)
2 a Numeric – integer
b Numeric – floating point
3 Date/Time
4 Boolean

Data sources and methods of

data acquisition
In Chapter 1, you covered various data sources and methods by which data can be acquired.
In this Outcome, students
are expected to acquire These included various types of surveys and questionnaires involving a variety of open and
their own data via a data closed questions. As has been discussed earlier in this chapter, to make use of any online system,
collection tool that they
design. The data collection such as banking, to join a group, to purchase products or to vote, you will be asked to register.
tool does not have to be As a minimum, you will need to supply basic contact details. Authentication may only require a
online, instead it will most valid email address, but banks would also ask for formal identification such as a driver’s licence
likely be a form constructed
from within their DBMS. or birth certificate. To supply the requested data, you would complete an input form, similar
to Figure 8.12 (characteristics of these forms are covered in more detail on page 315). When
an online form is completed and submitted, the data is checked or validated, then written
to a database. If a hardcopy form is used, then the details are either manually transcribed or
scanned electronically into the database.
9780170364744 Chapter 8 Data management 309

Department of Education and Training Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Australia Licence
Requirements for
safeguarding personal
information are discussed
on page 332.

THINK ABOUT
COMPUTING 8.4
List the personal details you
need to supply in order to
join a social media site like
Facebook. Why might they
need each of those specific
elements of data? What
FIGURE 8.12 An example of an online application form. Note the mandatory fields marked with a items of data are optional?
red * and the use of dropdown boxes to assist with data validation.

Collection tools and user interfaces

for data entry
To ensure that data gathered via input forms is as accurate as possible, there are several
techniques that make it easier for users to enter data. The form must guide users as to
what types of data must be entered in different fields and what the accepted parameters or
boundaries are for that data. The form itself needs to be arranged logically, usually to allow data
entry starting from the top, and ensure that a user cannot complete the form without entering
key data elements, like an email address and password.
Forms will involve several types of data validation to ensure the data entered is as accurate
as possible. You will recall from previous chapters that validation involves checking that data
exists in a field, is the correct type of data for that field and that it fits within the field’s accepted
value boundaries. Existence checking can be achieved by the use of mandatory entry fields.
These are often marked with an asterisk (*) or might be in a different, eye-catching colour to
the other fields. Data type validation can be achieved if you include labels showing examples
of the expected values beside each field, and provide appropriate data-entry tools, such as
numeric keypads and calendars, to encourage the correct data type to be entered. Labels can
also indicate correct ranges of values that can be entered or by using dropdown lists with
310 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

prefilled options. The form might generate a suggested list of correct spellings if it detects the
user has misspelled something important, such as part of an email address. These tools can also
reduce errors caused by inconsistency.
An effective input form will also incorporate a number of other important design features
to make the experience better for the user. It is important that forms reduce the amount of
onscreen clutter by only displaying fields relevant to the user. In this way, forms can be adaptive;
for example, when a user selects a certain option (such as delivery method for goods purchased),
only fields relevant to that option (the type of delivery) are shown. Alternatively, as a user types
in a credit card number, the type of card is determined and the options available change based
on the card.
Forms must also display an appealing and attractive design overall.

Department of Education and Training Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Australia Licence
FIGURE 8.13 Before continuing with a registration, a user must be validated by providing details
of an accepted type of personal identification. Notice how the form tries to assist the user by
providing an example of the form of identification to use and other helpful advice.

The role of a user

Checklist of common effective form elements
experience (UX) designer • Explain form fields clearly with adjacent labels
is to create an online • Use indicators to show strength of passwords
environment that • Use inline validation of fields
encourages the user to
interact with the system • Automatically suggest corrections for misspelled email addresses
with ease by providing an • Provide a simple interface with large buttons for mobile phone users
interface that is both usable • Adapt forms depending on options chosen (for example, delivery method, type of credit card)
and accessible.
• Convert text to a consistent format
• Vertically align labels and fields
• Provide context-sensitive help or information
• Provide clear steps if a user must navigate several input screens
• Use input tools that match the type of data to be entered (such as numeric keypads, sliders
and tick boxes)
• Reduce form clutter so only what is relevant is on the screen
• Use an appealing overall design
9780170364744 Chapter 8 Data management 311

The case study below is broken into several parts throughout this chapter. Its purpose
is to show you a worked-through example of a database solution. Put yourself in the role
of Saro. You, as the student, will be expected to come up with your own design brief and
acquire your own data via a data-collection tool that you design. In this example, an online
data-collection tool is used, but generally you are more likely to use a form you create within
your DBMS.

CASE
STUDY KALUGANGA JUNIOR SWIMMING CLUB
The Kaluganga Junior Swimming Club is located in Doncaster. It provides swimming
training and its members compete in regular local swimming meets. As this is a junior
swimming club, members are 20 years old or younger, except for committee members,
who are adults. The club records address, age and contact details for each member as well
as their best times for several 50 m events. At present, each swimmer’s record is stored in
a separate word processing document that uses their name as the filename. After training
sessions or after competition meets, the new times are compared with the existing times
and updated if necessary on each swimmer’s record. The club coach and other committee
members often need to use the members’ details to determine who the best swimmers are
for certain events and who is up to date with membership fees.
There have been some problems with the current system. Sometimes the lists of
swimmers are inaccurate because names are mistakenly put into the wrong age group or left
off the list totally! The club’s finanaces are not in order, as it has not accurately identified and
followed up members who have not paid their annual fees. This has led to embarrassment
for club officials when payment notices have been sent to the wrong club members.
As a result, Felix, the swimming club president, has asked his friend Saro to look at how
to solve the problems with a digital-systems-based solution.
Saro has conducted an analysis of the problems and suggested a database solution
that includes the ability to add and edit swimmer details and generate lists for the coaches
and club treasurer. She has established the following requirements.

Functional requirements
• New swimmers must be able to be added.
• Existing swimmers can have their details edited.
• A list of all swimmers, grouped by age level and event can be generated.
• A list of all swimmers who owe club fees can be generated.
• The list for coaches must include all relevant performance details for each swimmer,
including their best times.
• A macro will be used to open and print reports.

Non-functional requirements
• Interface for entering data must be simple to use.
• Results from reports must be accurate.

Constraints
The club wants to use its existing PC running a recent edition of an operating system and a
popular office package that includes a DBMS.
Felix and the other committee members are confident with PC use, but unfamiliar with
database software.
The solution needs to be in use before the next swim meet in a month’s time.
Case study continues
312 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

Case study continued Scope of solution

The solution will allow the club to:
• add, remove and edit records of swimmers
• generate lists of swimmers by age level and event within a certain swimming time and
grouped by gender
• generate lists of swimmers with overdue payment of fees.
The solution will not:
• allow swimmers to edit their own details
• support online payments of fees.
This solution will benefit the club because:
• it will create accurate lists of swimmers and age groups for the coaches, allowing them
to choose from the right pool of members for each competition event
• it will create accurate and up-to-date lists of members who are yet to pay their annual
fees, which will assist in improving club revenue and reducing financial difficulties.

Database design tools

Database structure and appearance can be planned using a variety of common planning tools.
Data dictionaries, data-structure designs, flowcharts, input–process–output (IPO) charts and
query diagrams are useful for representing structure. Layout diagrams and mock-ups can also
be used to plan the appearance of input forms and reports.
Several of these design tools will be further explained in the context of a DBMS in the
following section.

Naming conventions
Every field and object within a database must be named properly so that it can easily be identified
by a developer or a user. For example, you might prefix tables with tbl (such as tblCustomer,
tblProducts) and fields within the Customer table with cus (such as cusCustomerID,
cusAddress). Queries might be prefixed with qry, forms with frm and reports with rpt.
Because users will interact with forms and reports often, ensure that the rest of the name
is descriptive; for example, frmInputCustomerDetails or rptOverdueInvoices
(Figure 8.14). From these examples, note that spaces and underscores are avoided in the object
names. To aid understanding there is, however, a mix of upper- and lower-case characters in
FIGURE 8.14
each name. In most databases a user would interact with a menu system with properly labelled
Examples of named buttons, rather than the individual objects in the main database screen.
objects within a
Microsoft Access
database file
Design tools to represent the structure of
databases
The most common tool used to represent the basic structure of a database table is a data
dictionary. This tells a database developer exactly how to setup the properties of each field
in the tables. Remember that tables do not hold formulas, but can include validation. When
planning fields, think about how the data might be used and how it might be best broken down.
For example, the name ‘Dr Andrea Smith’ might be broken into three fields of Title (Dr),
FirstName (Andrea) and FamilyName (Smith). Also look carefully at the type of data that
the field will hold to determine the most appropriate data type to select.
9780170364744 Chapter 8 Data management 313

TABLE 8.2 Example of a data dictionary to store invoices for a roofing contractor
Field Data type Field size Input mask Caption Description Validation rule Validation text
invInvoiceNum Text 4 Quote Quote number
number (primary key)
invCustomerID Text 4 Customer Customer’s
ID identification
code
invSize Number Integer Size of roof Between 0 Normal building
and 500 size should be
between 0 and 500
invCostMaterials Number Integer Cost of Cost of roofing Between 0 Cost of materials
materials materials used and 100 000 must be between 0
($) and 100 000
invCostLabour Number Integer Cost of Cost of labour Between 0 Cost of labour
labour ($) used and 20 000 must be between 0
and 20 000
invColour Text 15 Roof colour Colour of roof
invJobDate Date/ dd-MM- Date of job Date the job Between Job completion
Time YYYY was completed #01/01/16# must be in 2016 or
and 2017
#31/12/17#
invAccountPaid Yes/No Account Indicates
paid? whether or not
the account has
been paid

When relational databases

are designed, a data-
structure diagram is used
to show the relationships
CASE between each of the tables.
STUDY KALUGANGA JUNIOR SWIMMING CLUB – PART 2
Saro has taken the existing list of swimming club members and their details to determine
how they will be represented in the database table. She has also added fields and included
validation on the gender, postcode, date-of-birth and members-fees fields.

TABLE 8.3 Data dictionary for the Kaluganga Junior Swimming Club swimmers database
tblSwimmersDetails table
Field Data type Field size Input mask Caption Description Validation rule Validation text
swmID Text 5 Membership Membership
number number
swmFirstName Text 20 First name
swmFamilyName Text 20 Family name
swmGender Text 6 Gender (M/F) Male or ‘Male’ or Gender must be
Female ‘Female’ Male or Female
swmAddress Text 100 Address
swmSuburb Text 20 Suburb
swmPostcode Text 4 Postcode Between Postcode must
3000 and be between
3999 3000 and 3999
inclusive

Case study continues

314 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

Case study continued

Field Data type Field size Input mask Caption Description Validation rule Validation text
swmMobNumber Text 14 Mobile
number
swmParent Boolean N/A Parent Is the contact
contact? number that
of a parent
(True) or the
swimmer
(False)?
swmDOB Date N/A dd-MM- Date of birth <=Date() DOB must be
yyyy today or earlier
swmMemberFees Numeric 3 Annual fee ($) How much 90 Annual fees
a member are $90
needs to pay
each year
swmFeesPaid Numeric 3 Fees paid ($) How much a
member has
paid this year
swmFreestyleTime Text 12 Freestyle Best
time recorded
time for 50 m
freestyle
swmBreastStrokeTime Text 12 Breaststroke Best
time recorded
time for 50 m
breaststroke
swmBackstrokeTime Text 12 Backstroke Best
time recorded
time for 50 m
backstroke
swmButterflyTime Text 12 Butterfly time Best
recorded
time for 50 m
butterfly

The other elements that need to be designed for the database include the input forms,
Layout diagrams are also
discussed in Chapter 5. queries to select data, reports to format the query results and macros to make database
elements more efficient.
The key design tool used for input forms and reports is the layout diagram. It is essentially
a sketch of what an input form or the reports of the solution will look like. It shows an
interface developer the location of elements such as headings, labels and fields. This layout
is based on appropriate use of formats and conventions. The layout diagram is annotated
Balsamiq is a free
to show formatting details for all elements, including font type, size and style and options
handy online tool
for creating layout
for selection lists. Any formulas to be added to a form or report will also be shown on a
diagrams. Your school layout diagram. Like other design elements, layout diagrams are usually done by hand (see
can create a free Figure 8.15), although pre-printed ‘templates’ can be used for some common elements
account. or structures.
9780170364744 Chapter 8 Data management 315

Design tools for representing input forms to

capture data
When planning a layout diagram for a form, you need to ensure that it contains all the fields a
user needs for their purpose. Elements of effective forms were explained earlier in this chapter.
The fields should be laid out in a logical order, usually from top to bottom and in columns if
there are too many fields for a single column. Headings can be used to arrange relevant fields
into logical groups. Ensure that they have clear labels and make use of dropdown lists to assist
with data entry. All formatting must also be clearly indicated. See Figures 8.15 and 8.16 for
examples of annotated layout diagrams for input forms.

CASE
STUDY KALUGANGA JUNIOR SWIMMING CLUB – PART 3
Saro has designed a simple input form that Felix and the treasurer can use to manage (add,
edit and delete) swimmers. She has incorporated a dropdown list for the gender field and a
tick box for the field that notes if the mobile phone number field is a parent’s number.
She has also designed a second form for the coaches that only shows key personal
details and swimming event information.
Both forms use the same underlying table, but they only show data relevant to the needs
of each user.

FIGURE 8.15 Saro’s layout diagram for the main input form for the Kaluganga database
frmSwimmersPersonalDetails. She has listed all the key personal details for each swimmer
plus their membership fee payment details. The form has a heading section with the title, club
logo and the current date. There are no swimming event times on this form, as it is used by Felix
and the club treasurer.

Case study continues

316 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

Case study continued

FIGURE 8.16 Saro’s layout diagram for the input form coaches can use to update swimmers’ times for events
(frmSwimmersTimes). This form only has the personal details relevant to what the coaches need. They cannot edit any
details except the times. This form also includes a calculation to show each swimmer’s current age, in years, and their age
group. It also contains a header with the same information as the other form.

Designing queries
Queries are used in databases to select only those records that meet the query criteria. They can
also be used as a control structure to hold formulas used on forms and on other queries. The
result of a query is a list of selected records organised by specified fields. This list is then used as
the basis for a printed or electronic report.
The design of a query should specify the fields to be included and the tables to which they
belong. The design will also include the criteria for the query and how the resulting records are
to be ordered. The query design is usually hand drawn, although you may set up a basic table
as a template. In your solution, you should use at least two criteria and both a primary and a
secondary sort (sorting is explained in ‘Setting up the queries’ later in this chapter). Also, be
aware that not all fields used for selecting data need to be shown in the final list.
If formulas are created in the query, you should ensure that they have the correct data type
(for example, text or numeric) and a proper name applied.
9780170364744 Chapter 8 Data management 317

TABLE 8.4 A sample query design for calling up records of overdue accounts. The records will
be ordered by the last name of the customer and then the invoice number, since the leftmost sort
designation (primary sort key) is assigned to LastName.
Field cusCustomer cusLast invInvoice invSize invCost invCost TotalCost:= invJob invAccount
ID Name Num Materials Labour [invCost Date Paid
Materials]+
[invCostLab
our]
Sort Ascending Ascending
Show       
Criteria <#01/08/ False
16#-30

Query criteria
The query criteria can use <, >, =, <=, >=, and <> symbols when dealing with numbers or text.
Alternatively, plain language such as ‘between 0 and 20 000’ or ‘less than 500’ can be used. The
‘*’ and ‘?’ symbols are also valid wildcards. Text used in query criteria needs to be placed inside
single inverted commas. Other expressions such as ‘is null’ or ‘is not null’ can be used to show
records where a field is either empty or contains some data. A query can designate a date by
placing ‘#’ marks at each end of the date. If more than one field has a query criterion assigned to
it, the criteria are applied in an ‘and’ relationship. That is, both the criteria must be met before
data is returned by the query.

CASE
STUDY KALUGANGA JUNIOR SWIMMING CLUB – PART 4
Saro has designed two queries for the Kaluganga Junior Swimming Club database. One
of the queries will select all swimmers who have overdue fees. Because Felix wants to
call the parents of these swimmers to discuss payment, the query will also only show
those swimmers whose parent’s mobile phone number is listed. The other query will select
all under-17 swimmers with swimming times below a certain threshold in backstroke
(40 seconds) to enable the coaches to select the fastest swimmers for that race.

TABLE 8.5 The design of the query to select swimmers with overdue fees
(qryOverdueFeesParentContact). A formula called swdFeesRemaining has been created
to calculate the value of unpaid fees. If it is greater than 0 (0 means all the fees have been paid)
then the record is selected.
Field swmFamily swmFirst swmID swmMobile swmMember swmFees swdFeesRemaining: swm
Name Name Number Fees Paid [swmMemberFees]- Parent
[swmFeesPaid]
Sort Ascending Ascending
Show       
Criteria >0 True

Case study continues

318 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

Case study continued TABLE 8.6 The design of the query to list the fastest U17 backstroke swimmers
(qryU17BackstrokeBestTimes). It selects swimmers who have a backstroke time of less than
40 seconds and who are also under 17. The long formula is intended to calculate the correct age
in years as accurately as possible. All swimmers are under 17, so that field does not need to be
shown when the query runs.
Field swm swmBack swmFamily swmFirst “U” & DateDiff(“yyyy”,[swmDOB],
Gender StrokeTime Name Name Date())-IIf(Format([swmDOB],”mmdd”)>
Format(Date(),”mmdd”),1,0)+1
Sort Ascending Ascending Ascending
Show    
Criteria <“00:40.00” “U17”

Design tools to help reports meet specific needs

As discussed earlier in this chapter, the result of a query is used to generate a report. A layout
diagram is used to represent the structure of a report. Reports have common sets of formats
and conventions. Other essential elements specific to reports include the organisation’s details
and date in the report header, grouping of information and summary statistics. The records
that are returned from the query are placed in the detail section of the report.

Sections Content/Layout Formatting

Ralph’s Roofing Garamond 24pt
bold, blue
60 Wellington Street, Kew 3101 Ph 03 9884 1234 TNR 10pt
Report header
Accounts 30 days in arrears TNR 18pt bold, red
Report created by ALB on =Date( ) TNR 10pt

Page header Last Invoice Size Cost of Cost of Total TNR 10pt bold
CustomerID name number (sq m) materials ($) labour ($) cost ($)

cusLast Name
[cusCustomerID] cusLastName TNR 12pt bold, blue
header

Detail invInvoiceNum invSiz invCostMaterials invCostLabour TotalCost TNR 9pt

cusLastName
Total money owed by customer cusLastName =Sum([TotalCost]) TNR 9pt
footer bold

Page footer ="Page" & [Page] & "of" & [Pages] TNR 8pt

Report footer Total in arrears =Sum([TotalCost]) TNR 10pt bold

Report name: rptCustomersInArrears Source: qryOverduePayment

Page orientation: A4 portrait Grouping/sort: Group by cusLastName, sort by invInvoiceNum

FIGURE 8.17 An example of a grouped report design. This is the report shown in Figure 8.10.

Note the report elements down the left-hand side. These correspond with the section
headings used in the Design View of the report in Microsoft Access.
9780170364744 Chapter 8 Data management 319

CASE
STUDY KALUGANGA JUNIOR SWIMMING CLUB – PART 5
Saro has designed two reports for the swimming club. Each report is based on one of the
queries designed above. Saro shows the designs to Felix and the treasurer, who make
suggestions for minor changes that will make the reports clearer and more readable.

FIGURE 8.18 This is the design for Felix’s ‘Report for overdue fee with parent contact available’
report. The report is to be sorted on the ‘FamilyName’ field, then the ‘FirstName’ field.

FIGURE 8.19 This layout diagram shows the design of the report for the coaches, which selects
the best under-17 backstroke swimmers. This report is grouped by gender, then sorted in
ascending order by time.
320 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

Designing macros
Macros can be planned using pseudocode or a flowchart. When using pseudocode to design
Pseudocode, also known
as structured English, is a macro, be sure to use indenting and a logical order of steps, so that it is easy to see what it is
discussed in Chapter 6. intended to do and to make testing easier.

CASE
STUDY KALUGANGA JUNIOR SWIMMING CLUB – PART 6
Saro has decided to create two simple macros that print the two reports. The tasks that
she wants to perform include opening the report, printing it to the default printer and then
closing it. Her pseudocode design for one of these macros is shown in Figure 8.20. Saro
will also create a macro that opens the swimmer’s times form for editing. This macro may
be used in conjunction with a button on a ‘Dashboard’. The pseudocode for this macro is
BEGIN
shown in Figure 8.22.

Begin
Open report Open Report ‘rptOverdueFeesParentContact’
rptOverdueFees
Print report to default printer
ParentContact
Close report
End
Print report to
default printer
FIGURE 8.20 Saro’s pseudocode design for one of the macros that opens a report and prints it,
then closes the report

Close report
Begin
Open Form ‘frmSwimmersTimes’
END
Show on screen
FIGURE 8.21 This End
flowchart represents
the same steps as FIGURE 8.22 Saro’s pseudocode design for the macro that opens the swimmer’s times form
the macro design in
Figure 8.20.

Development of the DBMS

Once the designs have been finalised and agreed to by the client, the development of the
database can take place. The DBMS file is first created and stored; then, each of the key objects
inside the database is created, starting with the tables.

Creating tables
It is crucial that the developer constructs the tables properly as all other parts of the database
depend on this. They must ensure that the correct names and data types, as well as validation
rules, are assigned to each field.

Creating user input forms

Now that tables have been constructed, input forms can be created. Remember that an input
form is designed to enable easy data entry. It can also be used to calculate formulas, provide
selection lists and other data input control tools. Layout and various formats and conventions
to follow were discussed earlier in this chapter.
9780170364744 Chapter 8 Data management 321

Setting up the queries

The queries that will select the required subsets of data are constructed once the tables and
reports have been finalised. Each database might involve multiple queries with different criteria.

Creating reports
Reports can be generated once the queries have been set up. Each report uses the data selected
by its corresponding query. The report turns the data into information by presenting it in a
more useful format for the end user.

Creating macros
Once the key objects in the database have been constructed, macros can be recorded to
automate common tasks. Macros can even be placed on forms to create an interactive menu.

CASE
STUDY KALUGANGA JUNIOR SWIMMING CLUB – PART 7
Saro creates a database file called ‘Kaluganga Swimmers Details’. She then constructs
the ‘tblSwimmersDetails’ table, which will hold all of the swimming club data relevant to
the swimmers (Figure 8.23). Once happy with the table, Saro constructs the two forms
– for individual swimmers’ personal details (see Figures 8.25 and 8.26) and for individual
swimmers’ best times (see Figures 8.30 and 8.31). These are followed by the two queries
– regarding parent contact for swimmers with overdue fees (Figures 8.32 and 8.33) and for
swimmers’ best times for backstroke (see Figures 8.35 and 8.36) – and then the two reports
– the overdue fees parent contact report (see Figures 8.39 and 8.40) and the best times for
backstroke report (see Figures 8.41 and 8.42). Finally, Saro creates the macros to make it
easier and faster to generate the reports (see Figures 8.43 and 8.44). At this stage, Saro is
satisfied that the software side of the solution is complete.

FIGURE 8.23 The tblSwimmersDetails table in Design View in Microsoft Access. Note how
validation has been set on the postcode field.

Case study continues

322 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

Case study continued

FIGURE 8.24 Part of the swimmers’ details table with data entered.

FIGURE 8.25 The frmSwimmersPersonalDetails form in Design View in Access.

Case study continues

9780170364744 Chapter 8 Data management 323

Case study continued

FIGURE 8.26 The swimmer’s personal details form as it appears for data entry or editing.
Note that because the ‘fees remaining’ field is greater than 0, the ‘Fees still owed’ message is
displayed to alert the club treasurer.

FIGURE 8.27 This is the message that appears when a FIGURE 8.28 This is an alert for an existence check on
range checking validation rule is activated caused by an the membership number field. The membership number
incorrect value being entered in the postcode field on is the primary key so a value must exist for each record.
the form.

FIGURE 8.29 A data-type check alert occurs when an invalid date is entered in the date-of-birth field.
A similar message will also appear when a non-numeric value is entered into the fees-paid field.
Case study continues
324 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

Case study continued

FIGURE 8.30 The frmSwimmersTimes form in Design View in Access. The fields have been
expanded so the various formulas can be seen.

FIGURE 8.31 The swimmer’s times form to be used by the coaches for updating details for best
times in each swimming event. Personal details cannot be changed on this form, only the times.

FIGURE 8.32 The qryOverudueFeesParentContact query, displayed as an SQL statement

Case study continues

9780170364744 Chapter 8 Data management 325

Case study continued

FIGURE 8.33 The Design View in Access for the qryOverdueFeesParentContact query. The widths have been changed
on some of the fields so that the formula calculating the fees remaining to be paid can be seen.

FIGURE 8.34 When run, the overdue fees query selects only those swimmers with outstanding membership fees and whose
contact number belongs to their parents. Only fields relevant to the treasurer’s needs are used so that only the required data
is displayed.

FIGURE 8.35 The Access Design View of the qryU17BackstrokeBestTimes query. It selects swimmers with a backstroke
time of less than 40 seconds and whose age group is under 17. The age-group field does not need to be shown when the
query is run because all records listed will have the same age group, which makes this data redundant.

Case study continues

326 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

Case study continued

FIGURE 8.36 The under-17 backstroke swimmers query in SQL view.

FIGURE 8.37 The query selects the best under-17 backstroke swimmers and is sorted by gender,
then by time with the fastest at the top (ascending). It only selects the data the coaches need.

FIGURE 8.38 In
Access, simple totals
like sums and counts
can be shown in
queries by choosing
the totals option.

FIGURE 8.39 This is the design of the rptOverdueFeesParentContact report in Access. A

Count and a Sum function are both used at the end of the report to provide summary statistics.
These increase readability and communication of the message.

FIGURE 8.40
The final version
of the overdue
fees report for the
club treasurer.
It includes a
summary total
of the number of
records listed as
well as the total
amount owed
to the club. It is
designed to be
printed on an A4-
size portrait page.
Case study continues
9780170364744 Chapter 8 Data management 327

Case study continued

FIGURE 8.41 The rptU17BestTimesforBackstroke report in Access Design View. Note the
header and footer sections for the gender field because it is being used to group data.

FIGURE 8.42 This is the grouped list of the best under-17 backstroke swimmers sorted by
time for the coaches. It includes a subtotal for each gender group as well as an overall total
of swimmers who fit the selection criteria. This report is designed to be printed on an A4
portrait page.

Case study continues

328 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

Case study continued

FIGURE 8.43 The Design View for the macro that opens the under-17 backstroke swimmers report, prints it, then closes it.

FIGURE 8.44 This is the Design View for the macro that opens the Swimmer’s Details form when run.

FIGURE 8.45 This is a listing of all the database objects Saro has created and their names.
9780170364744 Chapter 8 Data management 329

Roles, functions and characteristics

of hardware components
In Chapter 5, you were introduced to hardware used for input, storage, communication and
output. In this section, we explore common hardware devices that perform these actions in
the context of databases. You may recall that each piece of equipment needs to be identified by
its role, functions and its characteristics. It is important that you are able to advise a client, or
confirm for yourself if you are creating the database for your own needs, of suitable hardware
that they may need to operate the database solution you create for them.

Input devices
The keyboard is a frequently used hardware device for typing data directly into fields. This may
be users filling in a form on a webpage or staff transcribing data from a printed form completed
by hand. A mouse is also used to interact with dropdown lists or as a convenient way to activate
tick boxes or similar controls. But these devices are inefficient when a database requires a
high volume of data to be entered rapidly from a non-electronic source. For example, imagine
how much longer shopping would take if a person at the checkout had to manually enter the
barcode of every product purchased!
To improve the speed of data entry, a range of scanners and reading devices exist. These
include optical scanners and readers, barcode readers, RFID readers, magnetic stripe card
readers, MICR readers and various electronic sensors. Often these input devices are grouped
into handheld data-collection devices so that a user can input data at the point where the item
or person is located. They will often communicate wirelessly with the database. Many waiters
may use such a device when they take your order in a restaurant. You may also see them in use
in large stores and supermarkets when managers walk along beside the shelves noting which
items need to be restocked. In some cases, you may even have been asked to sign for a parcel
on such a device.

TABLE 8.7 Input devices

Device Role Function Characteristics
Keyboard Manual input of data Users press keys to From 101–5 keys
input data Assignable special function keys
Can handle rapid input of
typed data
Mouse Users press buttons to 2–3 buttons
select data to input from Slow data speed
premade lists
Optical scanner Automatic data acquisition Source documents or Can handle high volume of
Optical reader and input via optical reader devices either pass in front data input
or radio signal. of, or nearby, the reader. Source documents are brought
Barcode reader to reading device
RFID reader Immediate input
High level of accuracy
Magnetic stripe card reader
Often wireless
MICR reader
Sensor
Data-collection device Manual or electronic input Device can go to the location Combination of different
of data of data being input and use acquisition and input devices
one of several input devices Immediate input
to send the data to the main Wireless
database wirelessly. Portable (hand-held)
 330 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744
Shutterstock.com/Ruslan
Kuzmenkov

FIGURE 8.46 A
barcode reader

courtesy of EDX Wireless

Shutterstock.com/Voznikevich Konstantin

FIGURE 8.48 This diagram represents a mesh network used to collect electricity usage data via
Smart Meters. AMI stands for Advanced Metering Infrastructure.

Storage devices
You will remember that storage is the permanent saving of data for later retrieval. Storage
hardware that is suitable for databases is the same as for any electronic files. These include internal
or external hard disk and solid state drives, flash memory drives such as SD cards and USB flash
drives. A more permanent backup copy of a database may be saved onto optical media like DVD
FIGURE 8.47 A data or magnetic tape. Some databases may be stored in the cloud, but this is usually a massive data
collection device that store with many hard drives connected using RAID (redundant array of inexpensive disks) to
reads RFIDs and can
communicate via wi-fi, minimise data loss if there is some kind of threat, whether accidental or deliberate.
Bluetooth and mobile
phone network.

Getty Images/Erik Isakson

FIGURE 8.49 Inside a typical cloud-storage data centre

9780170364744 Chapter 8 Data management 331

Communication devices
Databases can be transferred across and accessed over almost any networking device. You will
recall from Chapter 2 that common networking hardware consists of network cards, wireless
access points, routers, switches and cables. Data to be input might be transferred across any
number of these devices if it is being entered remotely across the internet or an organisation’s
own network.
An important consideration is to ensure that any data is protected from interception and Encryption is further
viewing by unauthorised users by using encryption. discussed on page 334.

Output devices
Output is data that has been manipulated into a useful and meaningful form. It is also referred
to as information. Information generated from a database is in the form of a report. The two
most relevant output devices for information contained in a database would be via a screen
(softcopy) or a printer (hardcopy). Information displayed on a screen is referred to as a softcopy
because it is temporary and only exists electronically. The layout of the information is designed
to suit the particular display device. For example, the format for Google search results will look
different on a mobile device when compared with a large desktop screen.
In contrast, printed material is more permanent and exists physically, which is why it is
called hardcopy. We might commonly also refer to hardcopy as a printout. The orientation
of the hardcopy depends on the media being used and the layout of the information. Where
possible, reports should be printed in a portrait orientation as this is generally easier to read.
Device Role Function Characteristics
Screen (softcopy) Displays information Information is displayed Temporary
so it can be read and on an electronic device Only electronic
Print (hardcopy) interpreted Information is printed More permanent
onto physical media like Exists physically
paper. Can use a range of
media

CASE
STUDY KALUGANGA JUNIOR SWIMMING CLUB – PART 8
Saro has investigated the hardware components that she thinks will be required to
successfully allow input, output, communication and storage of the swim club’s database.
For input she suggests that a mouse and keyboard will be adequate for entering
swimmers’ details and for updating financial information. The coaches will use a tablet with
data collection facility and touchscreen so that times for events can be entered immediately.
The tablets will communicate wirelessly with the database. The database itself will be stored
on a hard drive on the club’s server, but will also have copies saved in real time to a cloud-
based storage service. Felix and the treasurer will be able to view swimmer details onscreen,
although they can also print the report of overdue fees if required. The coaches can also
view the list of swimmers by event and time on the tablets, but they are also able to receive
a printed version of the report for when it is impractical for them to use the tablets.
332 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

Accidental and deliberate

security threats
Once our database is constructed and in use, it is important that it be safeguarded. If the data
is altered or damaged by someone who is not authorised to do so, it can easily be compromised.
This will lead to inaccurate information being produced for users. Most of the key types of
threats to data were explained in Chapter 2. The table below summarises these threats.

TABLE 8.8 Types of threats

Category of threat Types of threat Explanation
Accidental Data altered by An inexperienced or careless user may change or delete
accident data. This creates inaccuracies.
Stored files are Database objects or data are stored on a portable device,
lost like USB flash memory, and this device is misplaced.
Not deleting A storage device that may have stored database records
data from an old may be replaced by a newer device, but if the files are
storage device not removed then they could be recovered and accessed
by whoever the storage device is passed on to.
Deliberate Hackers Some people may target a database in order to alter or
delete its contents. A common method of attacking a
database is by using SQL Injection.

SQL injection is a way of Malware These types of malicious software may be designed to
attacking databases via automatically attack a specific database, like your email
their input forms. Malicious contact list, or may damage database files as a by-
SQL statements are inserted product of targeting any files on storage devices
in data-entry fields in order Event based Power related In these event-based threats, the results can be the
to target and damage same. Data may be lost or corrupted or the entire file
underlying data tables or Crash or failure of
a storage device might be destroyed.
steal their contents. Proper
validation on any input box Remote If a transaction, say from a web-based form, is interrupted,
can prevent this form of
connection fails it may result in an incomplete record being saved.
attack on data.

CASE
STUDY KALUGANGA JUNIOR SWIMMING CLUB – PART 9
Saro has considered the likely threats the swim club database may face. She has assessed
that the overall threat level from hackers is fairly low, but there is a larger possibility of data
loss occurring by accident, as Felix is less familiar with how to operate a database package.
She also thinks it is important to consider the possibility of malware infecting the server. The
other key threats are the possibility of a blackout or the failure of the storage device, which
could lead to lost data.
9780170364744 Chapter 8 Data management 333

Physical and software controls

for protecting security
All data in a database is valuable – we need to protect the integrity of the data so it can produce
the most accurate information. A database may hold confidential data that must only be
accessed by authorised users. Most government databases fall into this category, but this is
crucial for businesses too as they store confidential information such as business contacts or
customer details.
In Chapter 1, you were introduced to several physical and software-based controls that can
protect data both when stored and transmitted. These measures help to reduce or eliminate the
possible damage caused by the threats discussed above. These measures include backing up,
electrical protection, usernames and passwords, using system security software and encryption.

Backing up
Databases are generally ‘live’, but they need the ability to have data ‘rolled back’ to an earlier time
in case of data corruption or malicious activity. Full copies of databases can be made onto any
of the storage devices listed above. This means the entire database can be restored to a previous
point in time if necessary. Alternatively, many databases support version control, meaning
they actually store changes to each data element in any record so that, if necessary, only that
particular field is restored. A wiki site like Wikipedia is a good example of an implementation
of this type of database ‘protection’.

https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Database_design&action=history

FIGURE 8.50 Wikipedia stores backup copies of articles and changes made to them. This allows editorial staff to roll back to
a previous version of an article without having to rewrite it.
334 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

Electrical protection
A common way of protecting against power events is to use a well regulated power supply that
can intercept power surges or spikes. But a database may need to remain accessible even under
adverse power conditions. For this reason, backup power supplies and batteries are often used.
An Uninterruptable Power Supply or UPS can regulate electricity coming into a computer and
supply backup electricity for a short time if a blackout occurs.

Usernames and passwords

Usernames and passwords can be used
to restrict access to the entire database,
so that only authorised users can open it.
Alternatively, usernames and passwords
allow certain users to edit records, while
others can only read, but not alter them.
These types of databases will also make FIGURE 8.51 A password can be used in Access
a record of who changes what data as an to prevent unauthorised users from opening a
auditing feature. database file.

Systems security software

It is important to use a variety of systems security software to prevent malware or other
Malware is discussed in malicious coding from running on your system and either damaging or destroying the contents
Chapter 3. of a database.

Encryption (storage and transmitted)

Encryption is used to prevent interception and theft. It involves coding data into a form that
only authorised users can read and decrypt. The encryption and decryption processes both
require a ‘key’.
If data is entered via a website, then it will use SSL or TLS over an HTTPS connection. When
SSL or TLS protocols are used over HTTPS (on port 443), an encrypted and secure ‘pipeline’ is
created between the user and the database so that if the data being transmitted is intercepted, it
cannot be read without the key. You will often notice that online application forms, registration
forms and order forms use this type of encryption, as do internet transactions involving credit
card details.
When the plain text is encrypted, it is called ‘ciphertext’.
When stored, databases can also be encrypted. The contents can be encrypted inside fields.
This is known as ‘hashing’ and is often used to protect passwords. Hashing passwords is a way
of taking a variable-length password and creating a cryptic, fixed-length password from it. You
do this by generating and using a salt value. A salt value is a random value that you use to
generate the hashed password. If the password field is viewed by a user, they cannot decrypt
the hashed password.
The entire database file can also be encrypted so that if stolen, its contents cannot be
opened and used by another person.
9780170364744 Chapter 8 Data management 335

Encryption involves coding data into a form that only authorised users can read and decrypt.
The encryption and decryption process both require a ‘key’. When the plain text is encrypted,
it is called ‘ciphertext’. When SSL or TLS protocols are used over HTTPS (on port 443), an
encrypted and secure ‘pipeline’ is created between the user and the database so that if the data
being transmitted is intercepted, it cannot be read without the key. This system is commonly
used for internet transactions involving registration or order forms, and for credit card details.

CASE
STUDY KALUGANGA JUNIOR SWIMMING CLUB – PART 10
For the Kaluganga database, Saro has limited access to personal and financial details to
authorised users by placing a password and username on the files. The coaches can view
basic details about each swimmer but can only make changes to their times for events.
Any changes to data are logged. Anti-malware software will be installed on the tablets, PC
and server while an encrypted connection will be used to transmit data between the server
and tablets. The cloud storage service also acts as a backup and it keeps multiple versions
of the database. A portable external hard drive is also used as a secondary backup of the
database each night.
 336 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

ESSENTIAL TERMS
CHAPTER SUMMARY

data dictionary a set of information used to design metadata data about data; in a DBMS context it
the structure of a database table; it includes consists of details about the size and type of
field names, data types and size as well as each field within a database file
validation rules primary key a field attached to each record of a
data redundancy where the same piece of data, a relational database; this is a unique identifier for
customer’s address for example, is stored in two each record, such as a customer ID number or
or more places in a database. This can waste phone number
storage space if the data is merely the same query to select specific data based on a series of
data stored elsewhere, but can also be useful if it criteria in order to answer questions and make
is deliberately saved as a form of backup links between data; the criteria are the results
database software designed to store data and allow of questions about the data; for example, ‘How
users to search and select from it in order to many of our customers are female?’ or ‘Can I
extract information have a list of names and mobile numbers for
database management system (DBMS) software all customers aged 20 to 40, male, who live in
designed to store data and allow users to Fairfield or Northcote?’
search and select from it in order to extract the RAID (redundant array of inexpensive disks)
information they need banks of hard drives that are configured in such
hashing a way of taking a variable-length password a way that if one or two fail the data they contain
and creating a cryptic, fixed-length password isn’t lost. Instead the remaining disks can rebuild
from it the missing data in their own storage areas.
input form a form that allows user to enter data salt value a random value that you use to generate
into a database via a more user friendly interface the hashed password
than a table SQL (structured query language) a language
layout diagram a hand-drawn sketch that shows used by many database packages to provide
the elements to be included on an input form; a consistent way of selecting required data
The diagram would indicate the placement of from a table
fields and labels, the fonts to be used, and any
graphics or other elements to be included

IMPORTANT FACTS
1 The problem-solving methodology (PSM) 6 Risks associated with using a DBMS include
involves four stages: Analysis, design, inaccurate data leading to inaccurate information
development and evaluation. being produced, unauthorised users accessing
2 DBMSs are used in a range of contexts including data (privacy and security); they are time
banking, membership, online purchasing and in consuming to design properly, the possibility of
voting systems. accidental damage to data by untrained users,
3 Reasons for using a DBMS for data handling cost of purchasing suitable equipment.
include reduction of data redundancy, sharing 7 A field contains the same type of data for a
of data, maintenance of data integrity, increased series of records. The same field for a series of
data security, easy updating of data, the ability records will contain the same type of data.
to select data (with a query), use of forms 8 A database record is a set of data about one
for data input, creation of structured reports, entity; for example, a person, event or object.
concurrency of data and data independence. 9 A database table stores sets of records.
4 Limitations of a DBMS include expensive 10 A primary key uniquely identifies each record in
equipment, potentially costly conversion from a database table.
other file types, staff training, the need for 11 Records that meet specified criteria can be
specialist database administrators and the impact selected from the total number of records by
across an organisation if data is corrupted. performing a query. Each criterion can be a
5 Benefits of using a DBMS include improvements number, a piece of text or an expression.
in efficiency and effectiveness. 12 Reports format and present the data selected by
a query as usable information.
9780170364744 Chapter 8 Data management 337

13 Common data types used in a DBMS include 23 Input devices include a keyboard, mouse,

CHAPTER SUMMARY
text, numeric, date, character and Boolean. optical scanner, optical reader, barcode reader,
14 To gather data effectively, key characteristics of RFID reader, magnetic stripe card reader, MICR
forms include validation, a logical arrangement reader, sensor and data collection device.
of fields, uncluttered layout, and adaptive to 24 Common storage devices include hard and solid
what users select. state drives, flash memory devices, optical media
15 Use a consistent naming convention for DBMS and magnetic media. Data can also be stored in the
objects to make it clear what they are (for tables cloud and for added security RAID can be used.
and queries) and what they are part of (for 25 Communication devices include network
fields). Examples are tblCustomers for a table, interface cards, wireless access points, routers,
or qryAllProductsSoldToday. Fields should begin switches and cables.
with letters that indicate the object they come 26 Types of output include screen (softcopy) and
from, such as cusFamilyName. print (hardcopy).
16 Common design tools used with databases 27 Threats to databases can be classified as
include data dictionaries, data structure diagrams, accidental, deliberate or event based.
data structure charts, flowcharts, input–process– 28 Accidental threats include data that is altered by
output charts and layout diagrams. accident, stored files that are lost, and data not
17 A query design includes fields and criteria in being deleted from old storage devices.
order to select only the data required. 29 Deliberate threats to data include hackers and
18 Reports are designed with a more structured malware.
style of layout diagram. 30 Hackers may wish to damage or steal data in a
19 Macros can be designed with either pseudocode database.
(structured English) or a flowchart. 31 Event-based threats to databases include the crash
20 Input–process–output (IPO) charts are used to or failure of a storage device, failure of remote
identify inputs, outputs, and the processing steps connection and power loss or surge.
required to transform the inputs into the outputs. 32 Organisations use a range of software and physical
21 A list tool can be used to direct the entry of data controls to protect their data. These controls
where there is a limited number of allowed values. include backing up, providing electrical protection,
A list box on a form will display a predetermined using usernames and passwords, installing system
set of values from which the user must select. security software and using encryption.
22 A range of devices is used to input, store,
communicate and output data and information.
338 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

Qz TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE

Review quiz
Review quiz 1 Suggest a specific application/use for 7 Define each of the following DBMS
a database in each of the following terms.
contexts. a Field
a Banking b Table
b Membership of a club or c Primary key
organisation d Input form
c Online purchasing e Query
d Voting systems f SQL
2 In a database context, what is g Report
metadata? h Macro
3 List three capabilities of a DBMS. i File
4 List three limitations of a DBMS. 8 There are different data types that
5 What are three benefits of using can be used in a DBMS. In the table
a DBMS? below, write the most appropriate data
6 What are three risks associated with type and an example of data beside
using a DBMS? each field.

Field Data type Example

Company name

Australian postcode

Mobile phone number

Height in cm

Preferred pizza size:

S, M or L
Would you like to be sent our
newsletter?
Date of dispatch

9 Explain how the three validation checks 15 Recall the purpose of query criteria.
could be used on a field that records 16 Provide reasons why it is important to
people’s weight in kilograms. sort information in a report.
10 What are two characteristics of an 17 How do summary totals in reports
effective input form? assist with effectiveness of a solution?
11 What does the term ‘user experience’ 18 Recall the design tools that are
mean? commonly used to plan a macro.
12 Explain how the file-naming convention 19 State the role of input devices.
for database objects works. 20 Contrast data input by a keyboard to
13 How does a data dictionary assist in the that of a barcode reader.
design of a database? 21 What is an advantage of the use of a
14 How does the purpose of a layout wireless data collection device in a
diagram differ from a data dictionary? supermarket?
9780170364829
9780170364744 Chapter 8 Data management 339

22 List three differences between internal 28 How can backing up help to protect the
solid state drives and removable security of data?
flash drives. 29 What types of electrical protection can
23 How can RAID help to protect be provided by a UPS?
stored data? 30 Why is a combination of username
24 Why is communication of data critical and password used to protect a
for many databases? database, rather than an individual
25 What is the difference between a username by itself ?
softcopy and a hardcopy? Provide an 31 Recall the definition of malware.
example of where each may be more 32 How does encryption secure a data
appropriate. connection between a user inputting
26 How does a deliberate threat to data data and the database itself ?
differ from an accidental threat?
27 Describe what is understood as an
event-based threat to data.
340 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

APPLY YOUR KNOWLEDGE

DATABASE ACTIVITY
Catherine works as a junior programmer for a small software company. She currently earns
$2500 a month and pays $300 in rent. She has many other monthly expenses. Sometimes she
has overspent and run out of money before her next pay period. This has led to embarrassment
when she has been unable to buy food for herself or her cat at the local shop. In order to manage
her budget better, Catherine has asked you to create a database in which she can store her
bank transactions. At the end of each month she will use this database to analyse her spending
and determine if she is in credit or debit. For the purposes of this task, she is working with the
month of November 2016.
The two reports Catherine would like are as follows.
a A report that shows all the debits from her cheque account for the month of November
2016. It should be grouped by transaction category and sorted by transaction date within
each category. Be sure to include summary statistics that show the percentage and
subtotals for each group as well as an overall total so Catherine can see what money
remained at the end of the month.
b A report that lists all expenses from all of Catherine’s accounts for the ‘Car/Travel’ category
for the month of November 2016. The report should be sorted by transaction date (from
earliest to most recent) and then by amount (smallest to largest amount).
1 Table 8.9 shows the data set that Catherine has provided.
2 Looking carefully at the data, create a data dictionary to plan the database table. You may
rearrange the data into different fields as you see fit. Also remember to include validation
and to choose appropriate data types and formats.
3 Design a suitable data input form that will enable Catherine to add, review and edit her
bank records. Be sure to make use of labels and dropdown lists to assist in more accurate
data entry.
4 Create designs for the two queries that will be used to create the reports outlined above.
5 Design the two reports outlined above.
6 Design macros that will open, print and close each of the reports when they are run.
7 Using a DBMS package, create Catherine’s bank transactions database. This will involve
constructing the table, the input form, the two queries, two reports and the two macros
you designed above. Remember to include the data validation and appropriate formulas
and functions.
8 Create annotated screenshots of the various database objects you have created to show
their key features and how you have met Catherine’s needs.
9 In a paragraph, list the roles, functions and characteristics of suitable hardware
components that Catherine could use to input, store, communicate and output the data
and information in her database.
10 Identify one each of an accidental, deliberate and an event-based security threat to the
data and information stored in Catherine’s database.
11 Identify and explain suitable physical and software controls that will protect the data
when it is stored in Catherine’s database and when it is transmitted (both physically and
electronically).
12 Evaluate the potential success of the DBMS you have created for Catherine by comparing
relevant benefits and risks from its use.
9780170364744 Chapter 8 Data management 341

TABLE 8.9 The table of data Catherine has supplied you with for her bank transaction database.
Transaction ID Account Date Details Category Transaction Amount ($)
(cheque or type (debit
savings) or credit?)
21 Cheque 01-Oct-16 Monthly salary Salary C 2500.00
30 Cheque 15-Oct-16 Rent Miscellaneous D 300.00
5 Cheque 15-Oct-16 Food shopping Food/groceries D 15.20
10 Cheque 01-Nov-16 Petrol for car Car/Travel D 34.56
14 Cheque 01-Nov-16 Movie at cinema Entertainment D 25.00
15 Cheque 01-Nov-16 Popcorn and ice- Entertainment D 15.00
cream at cinema
6 Cheque 01-Nov-16 Food shopping Food/Groceries D 8.54
24 Cheque 01-Nov-16 Monthly salary Salary C 2500.00
22 Cheque 03-Nov-16 Mobile recharge Miscellaneous D 20.00
9 Cheque 05-Nov-16 Dinner with Nathan Entertainment D 125.87
7 Cheque 07-Nov-16 Food shopping Food/groceries D 185.21
34 Savings 08-Nov-16 Refund from tax dept Salary C 350.28
32 Savings 12-Nov-16 Birthday present and Miscellaneous D 125.99
card for Mum
31 Cheque 15-Nov-16 Rent Miscellaneous D 300.00
11 Cheque 15-Nov-16 Petrol for car Car/travel D 56.28
36 Savings 15-Nov-16 Puncture repair Car/travel D 35.00
33 Cheque 15-Nov-16 MSO concert Entertainment D 85.00
2 Cheque 15-Nov-16 Car insurance Car/travel D 551.67
4 Cheque 17-Nov-16 Red shirt Clothing D 65.00
17 Cheque 17-Nov-16 Black pants Clothing D 35.50
1 Cheque 17-Nov-16 New shoes Clothing D 125.00
25 Cheque 18-Nov-16 Car service Car/Travel D 245.89
23 Cheque 18-Nov-16 Cat food Miscellaneous D 35.99
8 Cheque 20-Nov-16 Food shopping Food/Groceries D 57.66
16 Cheque 21-Nov-16 Placemats for table Miscellaneous D 30.00
12 Cheque 22-Nov-16 Petrol for car Car/travel D 72.45
29 Savings 22-Nov-16 Repair bike Miscellaneous D 65.80
28 Cheque 23-Nov-16 Movie and pizza with Entertainment D 85.00
Bill
19 Cheque 25-Nov-16 Sleeping bag Miscellaneous D 156.00
20 Cheque 29-Nov-16 Sunscreen 50+ Miscellaneous D 15.99
18 Cheque 29-Nov-16 Sun hat Clothing D 24.99
13 Cheque 01-Dec-16 Petrol for car Car/travel D 22.60
35 Cheque 01-Dec-16 Monthly salary Salary C 2500.00
3 Cheque 03-Dec-16 Food shopping Food/groceries D 34.55
342 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

AUTOMATIC NUMBERPLATE RECOGNITION

New South Wales launched an automatic numberplate recognition (ANPR) system in 2009.
It can scan and check up to six numberplates a second from passing and oncoming cars. The
system is typically mounted on police cars (see Figure 8.52). There is a terminal inside the car
that displays information about cars that are scanned, in real time (see Figure 8.53) and alerts
police if that car ought to be pulled over for further investigation. The numberplate details and
the date, time and location of the scan for every car the ANPR system detects are transmitted
immediately and stored in a police controlled database. This data is stored for a minimum of
5 years. Privacy advocates have raised concerns about the quantity of data being collected and
the purposes for which it may be used, other than to help with highway patrols.
1 Identify one each of an input, storage, communication and output device that might be
used in the ANPR system.
2 Suggest two reasons as to why privacy might be a concern with this system.
3 List some ways the data could be misused.
4 Suggest two threats that the ANPR database might face.
5 Explain a suitable control measure to protect the ANPR data once it is stored in the
database and while it is transmitted to and from a police car.
Eastwood Highway Patrol, https://creativecommons.org/l
icenses/by/2.0/

FIGURE 8.52 Roof mounted lightbar and ANPR

Newspix/Tracee Lea
cameras on a NSW patrol car

FIGURE 8.53 The ANPR terminal

inside a police car
9780170364744 Chapter 8 Data management 343

PREPARING FOR
Apply the problem-solving

OUTCOME
methodology to create a solution
using database management
software, and explain the
UNIT

personal benefits and risks of

interacting with a database

Devise a need or opportunity for a database solution, collect relevant data and create
that solution using database management software (DBMS). The solution must make
use of a table, input forms, queries and reports. Where appropriate, apply mathematical
calculations to the data and create macros to automate repetitive tasks. Identify and
explain suitable hardware that can be used with the database, as well as risks to data and
information, and ways to minimise these risks.
You will apply all four stages of the PSM: Analysis, design, development and evaluation.

OUTCOME MILESTONES
1 Identify a need for a data-handling task 6 Use relevant software functions to
that requires the use of a DBMS as its demonstrate features of the software.
solution. 7 Identify relevant hardware components
2 Prepare an analysis of the need, which to input, store, communicate and
includes an outline of the organisation, output data and information.
a list of functional and non-functional 8 Identify threats to data and information
requirements of the solution, a list of stored within databases.
constraints, and the scope of the solution. 9 Identify physical and software controls
3 Identify input data and information to protect data when stored and
required to fulfil the need. transmitted.
4 Design the solution. 10 Identify risks and benefits associated
5 Use relevant functions of DBMS with using database solutions.
software to develop the solution.

STEPS TO FOLLOW
The analysis, design, development and evaluation stages of the problem-solving methodology
will be used to create the solution, although you will not be required to create any documentation
nor conduct any testing.
1 You must identify a user or organisation where a need for a DBMS exists. The user can be
yourself and the database need may be as simple as recording your music collection or
sports club statistics.
2 Analyse and define the need. In the analysis clearly identify:
a the solution requirements (needs of the users and problem to be solved, functional and
non-functional requirements)
b the solution constraints
c the scope of the solution (solution boundaries and what it will and will not do).
344 Computing VCE Units 1 & 2 9780170364744

The problem to be solved and the needs of the users are best written as simple statements; for
example, ‘Sometimes the lists of swimmers are inaccurate because they are mistakenly put
into the wrong age group or left off the list totally! In addition, some financial problems have
occurred for the club as they have not accurately followed up which members have not paid
their annual fees. This also leads to embarrassment for club officials when payment notices are
sent to the wrong club members’.
3 Design the solution. The following 6 Generate the required information from
are required. the DBMS solution (the reports).
a Use of a data dictionary to represent 7 Evaluate the solution by commenting
the table plan on the following.
b Layout diagrams to plan the forms a Appropriate hardware for input,
c Query plans to design the queries storage, communication and output
d Layout diagrams for the reports to b Accidental and deliberate threats
be generated relevant to the database
e Pseudocode or flowcharts for any c Relevant physical and software
macros used controls to protect the stored or
4 Develop the solution. For a DBMS-based transmitted data
solution, ensure that you have created d Identification of benefits or risks for
all the objects required and named the user arising from the use of this
them correctly. database
5 Validate the data and input it.

DOCUMENTS REQUIRED FOR ASSESSMENT

1 Documentation produced during the 4 Annotated copies of the solution and
analysis stage, including the solution information indicating features you
requirements, constraints and scope of have used and conventions you have
the solution followed and how it meets the needs of
2 A representation of the design of each the users
part of the solution 5 Documentation to evaluate the
3 Printouts of the solution and hardware, threats, security controls,
information risks and benefits associated with
the database

ASSESSMENT
A set of assessment criteria will be prepared and distributed by your teacher before you start the
task. Details on the actual criteria for this Outcome and the breakdown of how each criterion
will be marked are available at http://computing1and2.nelsonnet.com.au.
9780170364744 Index 345

INDEX
802.11 standard 103–4 bottom-driven loops 243
accessibility (design principles for graphic solutions) 52–3, brainstorming 170
184–7, 207, 236 broadband routers 91–2
accidental threats (network security) 116–17, 332 bulletin boards 153
accuracy of data 9, 158, 268 Bureau of Meteorology 265–6
affordance buttons (design principles for graphic
mobile devices 176 solutions) 205
user interface 236
agriculture and information systems 147–8 card skimming 149, 150
algorithms 231, 245 cellular radio 114–15
alignment (design principles for graphic solutions) 53, 188–9 central processor unit (CPU) 220, 223
alpha testing 248 channel 109
American Psychological Association (APA) 13–14 character (data type) 269, 308
analysis (problem-solving methodology) xii charts
animations (graphic solutions) 46–7 as data visualisations 273
annotated diagrams (graphic solutions) 66, graphic solutions 43–5
67–8, 198–9 choices (information architecture) 179–80
appearance (design principles for graphic solutions) 53–6, classification (information architecture) 178
187–94, 198–204 client-server networks 84–5
alignment 53, 188–9 closed questions 7, 8
annotated diagrams and mock ups 198–9 cloud computing 21, 159–60
balance 56, 193–4 cloud storage 100, 159–60
contrast 189–92 code identification 243
conventions and formats 201–4 code modules 240–1
flowchart 182 collaboration 168
functionality 182–7 colours (graphic solutions) 62–5, 190–2
layout design 198–9 communication of message (graphic solutions) 69
repetition 189 communications, facilitating network 125
space 192–3 communications channel 109–11
test data 200 communications devices 81, 90–6, 331
application-programming interface (API) tool 289 broadband routers 91–2
apps 105 network interface cards 93–4
arrays 220, 250–2, 270 NBN devices 92–3
arrows (graphic solutions) 59–60 routers 90–1
asymmetric digital subscriber line (ADSL) 92 switches 90
audio file 203 wireless access point 94
Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) 266 wireless adaptors 93–4
Australian Privacy Principles (APPs) 22–4 wireless extender 95–6
authenticity of primary data 269 communication hardware 221
automatic numberplate recognition 342 communications satellite 115–16
communications software 96–8
backups 20, 333 compiler 223
balance (design principles for graphic solutions) 56, 193–4 completeness testing (graphic solutions) 68
bandwidth 109 complex instruction set computing (CICS) 220
battery life (mobile devices) 161 component testing 248
beta testing 248 compression 227
bias (information) 9–11 consent forms 15–16
through graphic representations 11 contingency plans (project management) 168, 169
through sorting 10 contrast (design principles for graphic solutions) 53–4, 62–5,
binary search 255 189–92
bluetooth 113 conventions (design principles for graphic solutions) 56–65,
Boolean data type 270, 308 201–3, 281–2
346 Index 9780170364744

file naming 201–2 data collection

images 202–3 quality 9–11
index page 202 seeking permission 15–18
style guides 203 techniques and methods 5–7
video and audio file 203 timing 10
Copyright Act 1968 (Cth) 89–90, 141 tools 310–12
costing (project management) 169 data dictionaries 229–31, 302, 312–13
counted loops 243 data management 300–35
CSV file formats 289 accidental and deliberate security threats 116–17, 332
communication devices 331
data hardware components 329–30
accuracy 9, 158, 268 physical and software security 333–5
acquisition 308–9 data structure diagrams 231
correctness 159 data structures 269–77
dummy 206 data types 225–6, 269–77, 309
entry 309–12 array 270
gathering 5–9 Boolean 270, 308
and information 4–5 characteristics 269, 307–8
integrity 151, 158–9, 267–9 common types 307
manipulation (design tools) 196–7 file 271
primary 5, 155–7 floating point (or decimal) 270, 307
processing data to create solutions 70–3 integer 270, 307
qualitative 4, 155–7 record 270
quality of 9–11 string (or text) 270, 307
quantitative 3–4, 155–7 data validation (programming concepts) 241–2
reasonableness 159 data visualisations 263–4
redundancy 302 charts 273
sample size 10 common types 272
secondary 5, 155, 157–8 definition 271
security practices 123–4 evaluating 289–92
sharing (networks) 125 flow 276
sources 5–9, 264–7, 308–9 hierarchy 275–6
structures 269–71 maps 274
test (problem-solving) 200 matrix 276–7
transmission cost 161 networks 274
transmission speed 161 time series 275
data analysis 2–25, 263–92 types and purposes 271–7
Australian privacy principles 22–4 data.gov.au 267
design tools 66–8, 279–80 database design tools 312–20
ethical dilemmas 24–5 and database structure 312–14
file formats 288–9 designing macros 320
formats and conventions 56–66, 281–2 designing queries 316–17
gathering data 5–9 input forms to capture data 315–16
graphic solutions 42–51 layout diagrams 312
graphic solutions, design principles 51–6 naming conventions 312
physical security controls 20–2 reports for specific needs 318–19
and privacy 19 database management systems (DBMSs) 301, 302–3, 307
problem solving 31–42 benefits and risk 303
process data to create solutions 70–3 capabilities and features 302
referencing primary sources 11–14 development of 320–8
and research 3–4 limitations 302
seeking permission 15–18 database software 284–5, 311
software tools and functions 282–7 database structure 303–6
sources 5–9, 264–7 fields, records and tables 303–4
types of tests 68–70 input forms 304
validation 70 macros 306
9780170364744 Index 347

queries 305 Earth-based station 115–16

reports 306 e-commerce 148–9
database systems 301–2 editor 223, 224
date (data format) 308 electrical protection 334
debugger 223 electronic funds transfer (EFT) 125
debugging (programming concepts) 244–8 electronic health records (EHR) 151
desk check 246–8 electronic validation (graphic solutions) 68, 70
logical errors 245 email 99
runtime errors 246 encryption 20, 334–5
syntax errors 245 entertainment and information systems 140–4
dedicated servers 84 Ethernet 101–2
default action 239 ethical dilemmas
default values 239 data analysis 24–5
deliberate threats (network security) 117 information systems 142–4
design programming 255
problem-solving methodology xii ethical responsibilities (networks) 122–6
website 171–6 evaluation (problem-solving methodology) xii
design principles for graphic solutions 52–6, 181–94 existence checking 309
accessibility 52–3, 184–7, 207
alignment 188–9 Facebook 146
appearance 53–6, 187–94 fibre-optic cable 111
balance 193–4 file data structure 271
contrast 189–92 file formats (data analysis) 288–9
flowchart 182 file naming 201–1
functionality 52–3, 182–7 file transfer protocol (FTP) 99
orientation 194–5 files and records (programming concepts) 252–3
proportion 194 finance and information systems 148–51
repetition 189 firewalls 21–2, 120
space 192–3 first-in first-out (FIFO) 252
specific considerations 194–5 first-in last-out (FILO) 252
useability 52, 182–4, 207 floating point (or decimal) (data type) 270
design tools (graphic solutions) 66–8, 195–204 flow visualisations 276
appearance 198–204 flowcharts (graphic solutions) 45, 196–7, 280–1
functionality 195–8 focus groups 7
design tools (problem-solving methodology) font selection (website design) 174, 189
66–8, 279–81 footnotes 12
designing solutions and output 33–4 formal testing 248
designing websites 171–6 formats
mobile devices 172–6 data 2
principles 181–94 design principles for graphic solutions
specific considerations 194–5 56–65, 281–2
tools 195–205 forums 146, 153
designs, network physical 121–2 full backup 20
desk check 246–8 functional requirements (problem-solving methodology)
developing websites 205–7 277
development (problem-solving methodology) xii functionality (design principles for graphic solutions) 52–3,
diagrams 196–8
graphic solutions 45–6 functionality testing (graphic solutions) 69
network 121–2
differential backup 20 games consoles 108–9
digital information systems 146 Gantt charts 170–1
digital signal 81 garbage-in equals garbage-out (GIGO) 303
disclosure (information architecture) 177–8 geospatial visualisations 274
domain name server (DNS) 98 GIS file formats 289
downlink 116 global positioning system (GPS) 106–7
dummy data 206 Google 286–7
348 Index 9780170364744

graphic solutions identity theft 149–50

annotated diagrams 66, 67–8, 198–9 image editing 205
appearance 198–204 images (graphic solutions) 46, 200–3
audio file 203 incremental backup 20
contrast 53–4, 62–5 index page 202
definition 43 infographics (graphic solutions) 47–51
design principles for 52–6 information 4–5
design tools 66–8, 195–204 quality of 9–11
flowcharts 45, 196–7 information architecture 177–80
images 46, 200–3 choices 179–80
layout designs 198–9 classification 178
and processing data 70–3 disclosure 177–8
purpose of 42–52 growth 179
site map development 197 navigation 178–9
sources of data and legend 60–1 information needs 263–4
storyboards 197–8 information systems 140–61
test data 200 in action 140–52
testing 68, 206–7 acquiring data, methods and techniques 155–8
types of 43–51 agriculture 147–8
types of tests 68–70 data integrity 158–9
validation 68, 70, 206 digital 146
video file 203 definition 140
graphic user interface (GUI) 224 and entertainment 140–4
controls and structures 253–4 expressing opinions 153–4
graphics processor unit (GPU) 220 and finance 148–51
groupware 171 forums and bulletin boards 153
growth (information architecture) 179 and health 151–2
mobile devices 160–1
hacker 117 primary data collection methods 155–8
hand-held data-collection devices 106 in programming 219
hard disk drive (HHD) 219, 220 rating systems 153–4
hardware secondary sources 157–8
communication 221 social media 153
components for data management 329–30 storing shared file 159–60
processing 220 and sport 145–7
and programming 219–21 web design 160–1
sharing (networks) 125 informed consent 15
storage 220–1 input devices 219, 329
Harvard referencing style 158 input forms 304, 315–16, 320
hashing 334 input–process–output (IPO) charts 66–7, 196, 231–2, 280
health and information systems 151–2 integer (data type) 270, 307
Health Records Act 2001 (Vic) 151–2 Integrated Development Environment (IDE) 224
hierarchies (graphic solutions) 46 integration testing 248
hierarchy visualisations 275–6 integrity of data 151, 158–9, 267–9
histograms 157 interface mock-up 234
home networks 83–4 interfaces, user 309–12
HTML 82 interfaces, creating effective user 235–9
HTTPS 334 accessibility 236
Hungarian notation 230 affordance 236
hyperlinks 205 consistency 239
hypertext transfer protocol (http) 98 legibility 238
hypertext transfer protocol secured (https)–9 98 structure 237
hypothesis 3 tolerance 239–40
useability 235–6
visibility 237–8
9780170364744 Index 349

internal documentation (programming concepts) 242 affordance 176

internet peer-to-peer networks (P2P) 86 connected to networks 104–9
internet service software 98 consistency 176
internet services 98–100 definition 104
cloud storage 100 games consoles 108–9
email 99 hand-held data-collection devices 106
file transfer protocol (FTP) 99 and information systems 160–1
voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) 100 interface design 172–3
web browsers 98–9 legibility 174
interviews 7, 11–12, 155 navigation systems 105–6
intranets 82–3 network-attached storage device 109
IP addresses 103 read tap asymmetry 173
smartphones 105
Kaluganga Junior Swimming Club (case study) 311–12, tablets 104–5
313–14, 315–16, 317–18, 319–20, 321–8, 331, 335 tolerance 174
key concepts xiv touch zone 173
keylogger 118 useability 173
visibility 175
languages, compiled and interpreted (programming wearable technology 107–8
concepts) 240 mobile phone 114
last-in first-out (LIFO) 252 mock-up 234
layout designs 199–200 modular programming 240–1
layout diagram
database design tools 312 National Broadband Network (NBN) 111–12, 168
problem-solving methodology 279–80 devices 92–3
leecher 88 navigation (information architecture) 178–9
legal responsibilities (networks) 122–3 navigation systems 105–6
legibility near field communication (NFC) 113–14
user interface 238 network administrator 85
website design 174 network analysis tools 97–8
linear search 255 network communications standards 101–4
lines (graphic solutions) 59–60 802.11 standard 103–4
linker 223 Ethernet 101
local area networks (LAN) 82, 85, 90–1 sending and receiving devices 104
logic (programming concepts) 244 TCP/IP 102–3
logic bombs 118 network diagrams 121–2
logical errors 245 network interface cards (NIC) 93–4
loops (programming concepts) 242–4 network operating system 96–7
network protocol 101
macros 32, 306, 320, 321 network security 116–21
malware 117 accidental threats 116–17
malware protection 22 deliberate threats 117–18
manipulation (graphic solutions) 205–6 event-based threats 118
manual validation (graphic solutions) 70 firewalls 120
map-based visualisations 274 measures 118–21
maps (graphic solutions) 47 passwords 21, 119–20, 334
matrix visualisations 276–7 security threats 116–18
Mbps 90 uninterruptible power supplies 120–1
media data types 226 usernames 21, 119–20, 334
meta tags 205 wireless security 121
metadata 302 network visualisations 274
microwaves 115 network-attached storage device (NAS) 109,
microwave station 115 220, 221
mobile devices network(s) 81–125
accessibility 173–4 architecture 82, 84–90
350 Index 9780170364744

benefits 124–5 phishing 118, 150

client-server networks 84–5 physical security controls (data) 20–2
communications channel 109–11 physical transmission media 109, 110–11
communications devices 81, 90–6 platform 224
communications software 96–8 ports 221
definition 81 presentation testing (graphic solutions) 68–9
ethical responsibilities 122–6 primary data 5, 155–7
home networks 83–4 primary data sources 264
internet peer-to-peer networks (P2P) 86 primary key 304
internet services 98–100 primary storage 220
intranets 82–3 privacy 19
legal responsibilities 122–6 Australian principles 22–4
local area networks (LAN) 82, 85 Privacy Act 1988 (Cth) 22–3
and mobile devices 104–9 Privacy and Data Protection Act 2014 (Cth) 22
National Broadband Network (NBN) 111–12 problem analysis 32–3
network communications standards 101–4 problem solving
peer-to-peer networks (P2P) 85–6 approaches to 31–42, 168
personal security strategies 124 design principles 181–94
physical designs 121–2 design tools 195–204
risks 124, 126 design websites 171–6
responsibilities of users 124 designing solutions and output 33–42
security 116–18, 332 developing websites 205–7
security measures 118–21 four stages of 31
security practices 123–4 functions of a spreadsheet 31–2
social 126 information architecture 177–80
types of 82–4 project management techniques 168–71
users, responsibilities of 124 specific design consideration 194–5
virtual private networks (VPN) 86–90 team solutions 168
wide area networks (WAN) 84 problem-solving methodology (PSM) xii–xiii, 31, 196, 205–7,
wireless transmission media 112–16 219, 263
networking software 86 analysis 277–9
node 82 design tools 66–8, 279–81
non-functional requirements (problem-solving evaluation criteria 289–91
methodology) 277 evaluation report 291–2
non-technical constraints (problem-solving methodology) evaluation strategy 291
278 evaluating data visualisations 289–92
numeric (data format) 270, 307 formats and conventions 56–66, 281–2
graphic solutions 42–51
object description 232 graphic solutions, design principles 51–6
object naming 230 presentation 207
observations 9, 12, 155 problem solving 31–42
one-dimensional (1D) array 251 process data to create solutions 70–3
open-ended questions 8 scope of solution 278–9
OpenHeatMap 287 software development 228–35
operating system (OS) 222 solution constraints 278
orientation (website design) 194–5 solution requirements 277
output devices 219, 331 types of tests 68–70
validation 70
P2P downloads: torrents 87–9 process testing (programming concepts) 248–9
participation information statements 16–18 processing hardware 220
passwords 21, 119–20, 334 programming 218–55
peer-to-peer networks (P2P) 85–6, 141 creating effective user interfaces 235–9
peers 88 developing software 228–39
permission, seeking 15–18 hardware 219–21
personal digital assistants (PDAs) 104 information systems 219
personal information, use and disclosure of 24 modular 240–1
9780170364744 Index 351

operating system 222 referencing

and scripting languages 222–3 examples 12–14
software 222 primary sources 11–14
software development tools 223–5 relevance of data 9
storage structures 225–8 relevance of primary data 269
programming, fundamental concepts 240–55 relevance testing (graphic solutions) 69
arrays 250–2 reliability 11
compiled and interpreted languages 240 reliability testing (graphic solutions) 68
data validation 241–2 repetition (design principles for graphic
debugging 244–8 solutions) 53
files and records 252–3 reports (data management) 306, 318–19, 321
GUI controls and structures 253–4 research
internal documentation 242 types of 3–4
logic 244 understanding 3–4
loops 242–4 resolution 227
modular 240–1 retrieval 206
process testing 248–9 routers 90–1
queues 252 runtime errors 246
and scripting languages 222–3
searching 255 salt value 334
stacks 252 sample size 10
programming languages 285–6 screen resolution (mobile devices) 161
project management scripting languages and programming 222–3
definition 168 searching (programming concepts) 255
techniques 168–71 secondary data 5, 155, 157–8
tools 170 secondary data sources 264–5
project table 170 secondary storage 220–1
proportion (website design) 194 security (networks) 116–18
protocol 87, 101 breaches 126
prototypes 223 measures 118–21
pseudocode 232–4 personal strategies 124
rules of 233–4 physical and software 333–5
public key encryption 233 practices 123–4
system software 334
qualitative data 4, 156–7 seeds 88
quality control (project management) 169 sending and receiving devices 104
quantitative data 3–4, 156–7 sending device 81
queries 305, 316–18, 321 sequential files 252
query criteria 317 shapes (graphic solutions) 58
questionnaires 5, 7, 12 skeuomorphism 176
questions smartphones 105
closed 7 social media 153–4
graphic solutions 70 social networks 126–7
open-ended 8 software 222
queues (programming concepts) 252 database 284–5, 311
spreadsheet 286–7
RAID (redundant array of inexpensive disks) 330 software development 228–35
random-access memory (RAM) 220 data dictionaries 229–31
random files 253 data structure diagrams 231
ratings systems 153–4 functional requirements 228
read tap asymmetry (mobile devices) 173 input–process–output (IPO) charts 231–2
receiving device 81 interface mock-up 234–40
record (data type) 270 non-functional requirements 228–9
reduced instruction set computing (RICS) 220 object description 232
redundant array of inexpensive disks (RAID) 330 pseudocode 232–4
352 Index 9780170364744

PSM stage: analysis 228–9 text (data type) 270, 307

PSM stage: design 229–35 text editing 205
tools 223–5 text styles (graphic solutions) 57
software tools and functions (data analysis) 282–7 time visualisations 275
database software 284–5 timelines (graphic solutions) 47
extracting data 282–6 titles (graphic solutions) 56–7
Google 286 tolerance
OpenHeatMap 287 user interface 238–9
programming languages 285–6 website design 174
spreadsheet software 286–7 top-driven loops 243
Tableau Public 287 torrents 87–9
solid state drives (SSD) 220 transmission media 109
solution constraints (problem-solving methodology) 278 physical 109, 110–11
solution requirements (problem-solving methodology) 277 wireless 109, 112–16
source code 223 trojans 118
sources (data analysis) 5–9 twisted-pair cables 110
sources of data and legend (graphic solutions) 60–1 twisted-pair wire 110
sound editing 205 typography 174
space (design principles for graphic solutions) 54–5, 190–2
sport and information systems 145–6 uncounted loops 243
spreadsheet functions 31–2 unencrypted data 20
spreadsheet software 286–7 uninterruptible power supplies 120–1
storage devices (data management) 330 universal serial bus (USB) 221
structure query language (SQL) 302 uplink 116
spywear 117 user interphase (UI) 177
stacks (programming concepts) 252 user interfaces, creating effective 235–9
stakeholders 5, 140, 141–2, 146–7, 148, 150–1, 152 accessibility 236
storage 205, 220–1 affordance 236
storage hardware 220–1 consistency 239
storage structures 225–8 legibility 238
data types 225–6 structure 237
definition 225 tolerance 239–40
storing shared file 159–60 useability 235–6
storyboards 197–8, 280 visibility 237–8
streaming 141 user interfaces for data entry 309–12
string (or text) (data type) 270, 307 useability (design principles for graphic solutions) 52, 182–4,
Structure English 232 207, 235–6
surveys 7, 156 usernames 21, 119–20, 334
switches 90
syntax errors 245 validation (graphic solutions) 68, 70, 206
system security software 334 validation testing 248
system testing 248 variables 11, 43
version control 171
Tableau Public 287 vested interest 10
tablets 104–5 Victorian government data directory 265–6
tagging 205 video file 203
TCP/IP (transmission control protocol/internet protocol) virtual private networks (VPN) 86–90
102–3 virus 117
team solutions (problem solving) 168 visibility
technical constraints (problem-solving methodology) 278 mobile devices 175
test data 200, 248 user interface 237–8
testing visualisations see data visualisations
graphic solutions 68, 206–7 voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) 100
process 248–9
tables 249
9780170364744 Index 353

wearable technology 107–8 wi-fi 103

web browsers 98–9 wi-fi communication 112–13
web design and information systems 160–1 wi-fi protected access (WPA or WPA2) 121
web server 82 wireless access point 94
web-authorising software 196 wireless adaptors 93–4
webpage storyboards 197–8 wireless broadband routers 92
websites, designing 171–6 wireless extender 95–6
mobile devices 172–6 wireless network technologies 95–6
principles 181–94 wireless security 121
proportion 194 wireless transmission media 109, 112–16
specific considerations 194–5 WMS file formats 288
tools 195–205 wordclouds 156
websites, developing 205–7 World Wide Web Consortium (WC3) 173
manipulation 205–6 worms 117
testing 206–7
validation 206 XLM/ELMS file formats 288
white space 54
wide area networks (WAN) 84, 90
 Register online at: 6TH EDITION
Overview www.nelsonnet.com.au
• Full and in-depth coverage of the VCAA VCE to access digital
resources to support improved
Computing Study Design 2016–2019 learning & teaching*
• Experienced authors and trusted resources that have
been part of the market for more than 20 years
• A problem-solving methodology is applied
to create digital solutions in a range of SERIES EDITOR James Lawson
contexts that meet specific need Therese Keane, Mark Kelly,

• Provides full preparation for Colin Potts, Anthony Sullivan

the Outcome assessment
tasks and end-of-
year exam

VCE UNITS 1 & 2

6TH EDITION
Lawson Keane Kelly Potts Sullivan

ISBN: 978-0170364744

*Please note that complimentary access to NelsonNet and

the NelsonNetBook is only available to teachers who use the
accompanying student textbook as a core educational resource
in their classroom. Contact your sales representative for
information about access codes and conditions. 9 780170 364744
For learning solutions, visit cengage.com.au

Computing_SB_64744_2pp.indd All Pages 21/01/2016 3:20 PM