Concepts/History of Natural Selection
Charles Darwin (and Alfred Wallace):
In 1831, Charles Darwin began his voyage worldwide on the ship, HMS Beagle.
He made observations on the animals that inhabited the islands (finches, iguanas,
and tortoises) which is also known as Biogeography (the study of the distribution
of species)
His most famous observation was from the finches in the Galapagos Islands:
He found many different types of finches that varied in nesting site, beak size,
and eating habits which all resembled one mainland finch
He proposed that these types of birds are descendants of the mainland finch species
(Common Descent)
After his expedition, he proposed the idea of Evolution by Natural Selection (with
the support/evidence of Alfred Wallace’s similar discoveries) and how it changed
species over time.
Evolution by Natural Selection Concepts:
Evolution: The change in allele frequencies, or a change in the gene pool (all of
the alleles of all genes of all individuals in a population), of a population
Natural Selection: An evolutionary process where individuals with the best traits
can survive and reproduce (where all of their offspring will have that trait)
Variation exists in populations
Inheritance of traits between parents and offspring
Differential Survival and Reproduction
Adaptations (favorable traits that more individuals will have)
Descent with Modification: Each generation has a different genetic makeup than its
parents
Individual’s Fitness: an organism’s ability to survive AND reproduce
Gene Flow and Genetic Drift
Gene Flow:
Movement of alleles into or out of a population
For example: (sort of like the founder effect) A non-native red rabbit migrates to
a population consisting of only white rabbits. After a few generations, some red
rabbits will appear in the population.
Genetic Drift:
Random chance events that change allele frequencies; random fluctuations in a gene
pool over time
Genetic drift has a bigger effect on smaller populations because it may result in a
loss of allele(s).
Bottleneck Effect
A population is drastically reduced due to a natural catastrophe or overhunting
For example, a population of 10,000 corn crops experiences a severe drought that
wipes out 99% of the population such that there are only 100 corn crops left and
the allele frequencies of the new population are different from the original
population
Founder Effect
A smaller number of individuals leave a large population and establish a new
isolated population
For example, a small population of red rabbits (from a bigger population of
different colored rabbits) migrates to the other side of the world and starts
forming their population. This also changes the allele frequencies in the new
population compared to the original population.
Types of Selection, Convergent vs Divergent Evolution, and Coevolution
Types of Speciation (Graphs)
Stabilizing Selection
A selective force that pushes a population towards an average or median trait
A long, thin graph compared to the original population
Directional Selection
(Natural Selection) A selective force that favors one extreme trait over the other
A similar graph that shifts from the original population
Diversifying/Disruptive Selection
A selective force that pushes a population towards extreme traits in a population
instead of the average traits
An M-shaped graph
Convergent vs Divergent Evolution
Convergent Evolution: organisms that are not closely related independently evolve
similar features
Example: Bees and birds independently grow wings even though they are not closely
related
Divergent Evolution: groups of organisms from a common ancestor evolve differently
and form their own species. This could happen due to changes in the environment,
niche, or isolation. (*more information below*)
Example: In the Galapagos Islands, finches that develop different beak types evolve
from a common ancestor
Coevolution: Two species mutually affect each other
Commensalism
When one species benefits and the other species doesn’t benefit or gets harmed
Mutualism
When both species benefit from the interaction
Competitive Species
When both species get harmed by the interaction. When both species compete for
something, it is detrimental to both species
Predator/Prey or Parasity/Host
When one species benefits and the other species gets harmed (ie. when a predator
captures a prey, the prey dies and the predator gets food)
Speciation
Definitions:
Species: individual organisms that can interbreed and produce FERTILE offspring
Hybrid: a combination between two species that has some distinct characteristics
that set it apart from other species (Ex: the Mule, coming from a horse and a
donkey)
Speciation: the formation of two species from one original species
Niche: The functional role of an organism in an ecosystem
Allopatric vs Sympatric Speciation
Allopatric Speciation
Speciation is where members of a single population develop a difference due to a
geological change
Ex: As the Central Valley develops in California, lizard populations that migrated
north or south of the Central Valley will start to evolve independently, and over
time these populations will form their own species.
Sympatric Speciation
Speciation is where members of a single population develop a difference without a
geological change.
Ex: Different apple maggots of the same species, over time, prefer different types
of apples. This will result in new species formed from the original population
Speciation Speed:
Gradual Speciation
Slow, small changes in a species over a long period of time
Punctuated Equilibrium
Rapid changes in a species, often due to major environmental disruptions/changes
Adaptive Radiation
When one ancestral species branches into many different species, each occupying a
different niche
Another Type of Speciation:
Ploidpoly: In plants or animals, some organisms will have more than 2 pairs of
chromosomes in their cells. This results in these organisms with a completely
different genetic makeup compared to other species. This results in the formation
of new species
Pre-zygotic and Post-zygotic Barriers
Reproductive Isolation: factors that prevent interbreeding between species
Pre-zygotic Barriers: blocks reproduction from taking place at all
Temporal Isolation
Species breed at different periods of the year
Habitat Isolation
Species live in different habitats or ecosystems
Behavioral Isolation
Species might not want to interbreed due to a behavior in the context of mating
signals
*Mechanical Isolation
Species have incompatible sexual organs
Gametic Isolation
Species’ gametes aren’t able to perform fertilization (sperm and egg cannot
combine)
Post-zygotic Barriers: factors that affect the developing hybrid
Hybrid Inviability
Hybrid zygotes fail to develop or fail to reach sexual maturity (puberty)
Hybrid Sterility
Hybrid can reach sexual maturity but is unable to produce mature/functional gametes
Hybrid Breakdown
Hybrids can reach sexual maturity and produce functional gametes but the offspring
are usually weak or infertile
Evidence of Evolution
Fossil Records
Shows the history of life and how organisms develop due to evolution into modern-
day organisms
Transitional Species: links modern-day organisms with ancestors
Animal’s Anatomy
Homologous Structures *shows evolution*
Similar structures inherited from a common ancestor that has different functions
(ie. the similar bone structures of humans, dogs, birds, and whale arms)
Analogous Structures *DOES NOT show evolution*
Structures that evolved independently in two organisms that serve similar functions
(ie. butterfly wings and bird wings)
Vestigial Structures *shows evolution*
Structures that are inherited from a common ancestor that (almost) serve no more
function (ie. Human’s wisdom tooth)
Embryology
The development of the embryo after fertilization.
Example: All vertebrates have the same basic pattern of development
Biogeography
Shows how plants and animals are distributed worldwide across different geographic
regions
Provides insight into their evolutionary history
Example: The theory that Africa and South America were once connected was proved by
how organisms in that two divided regions are similar in structure and behaviors
Molecular Biology (some evidence)
All living organisms use the same basic biochemical molecules: C, H, O, P, S
Gene sequences are similar across animal groups
The more similar the genes are, the more closely related the organisms are
The same DNA triplet code that codes for the same 20 amino acids in their proteins
Phylogenetic Trees
Cladograms that show relationships between different species of organisms
Each intersection between these organisms shows a common ancestor
The bottom of the tree shows the root of the tree, which symbolizes the universal
common ancestor of all living organisms
If traits are labeled on the tree, any organism that “passes through” the trait
will have that trait
Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium + Equations
Hardy-Weinburg (aka Equilibrium) Population:
A population where evolution doesn’t exist; non-evolving
Conditions include:
No Mutation
No Gene Flow
Large Population
Random (or not preferred) Mating
No Natural Selection
Hardy-Weinburg Equations:
p + q = 1
p represents the dominant allele frequency in a gene pool.
q represents the frequency of the recessive allele in a gene pool.
The total is equal to 1 because the total amount of alleles in a gene pool that is
recessive and dominant adds up to 100% or 1
p^2 + 2pq + q^2 = 1
p^2 represents the homozygous dominant individuals in the population.
q^2 represents the homozygous recessive individuals in the population.
2pq represents the heterozygous individuals in the population (it is 2 because p
and q can be arranged qp or pq)
The total is equal to 1 because the total amount of individuals that are homozygous
dominant, homozygous recessive, or heterozygous adds up to 100% or 1
For more practice, try this website: Hardy-Weinberg Practice Problems
(hardyweinbergotter.com)
Misconceptions of Evolution
Individuals evolve
Individuals do not evolve; Populations do
Organisms are trying to be something
Evolution does not have a direction; Organisms aren’t trying to become anything
Organisms evolve on purpose
Organisms don’t evolve because they want to. They evolve due to random changes such
as mutations
