0% found this document useful (0 votes)

777 views2,149 pages

SLDG Book - Full

Uploaded by

bijviljoen

We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.

Available Formats

Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd

0% found this document useful (0 votes)

777 views2,149 pages

SLDG Book - Full

Uploaded by

bijviljoen

We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.

Available Formats

Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd

You are on page 1/ 2149

Substation Layout Design Guideline

Index
By clicking on the Part no link, the directory with the correct Chapters will Open for use
Part Eskom Unique Identifier 240-55922824 (Rev 0)
0 Approval Page
Chapters
1-1 Introduction

2-1 Miscellaneous Physical, Chemical and Technical Information

2-2 Miscellaneous Electrical Information

1 2-3 Technical Parameters Of Interconnection

2-4 Symmetrical Components

3-1 An Introduction To The Electrical System

3-2 Basic Substation Requirements

4-1 Insulation Coordination and Electrical Clearances

4-1.1 Flashover Characteristics

2
4-2 Corona

4-3 Environmental Considerations

5-1 General Criteria and Rules For The Design Of A.C. Substations
3
5-2 Function and Positioning Of High-Voltage Apparatus

6-1 Protection Schemes

6-1 Appendix A: ANSI/IEC Protection Relay Symbols and Numbering

4 6-2 Busbar Arrangements and the Consequences of Maintenance

6-3 Busbar Arrangements and the Consequences of Faults

6-4 Switching Arrangements

7-1 Technical Aspects of Grid Planning and Interconnection

5 7-2 General System Planning Data Requirements for the Design of a Substation

8-1 Impact of Busbar Layouts on Contingencies

8-2 Reliability of Substation Configurations

9-1 Substation Design Base Data

10-1 Single-Line Diagram Development

11-1 Aesthetic Influence of High Voltage Out-Door Substations on The Environment

11-2 Applications to Minimise Aesthetic Influence of High Voltage Outdoor

Substations on The Environment - Transformer Acoustic Noise Abatement

11-3 Bioremediation

6 11-4 Constructed Wetlands for Waste Water Treatment

12-1 Selection of Site

13-1 Geotechnical Investigations

14-1 Site Development

14-2 Earthworks Design of a Substation Terrace (A Worked Example)

15-1 Substation Terrace Drainage

15-1 Appendix A: Recommended Runoff Coefficients-Report 1/72

15-1 Appendix B: Duration Vs. Intensity Curves - Van Heerden WM, 1979

15-1 Appendix C: Drawing of Completed Storm Water Layout

15-2 Power Equipment Oil Drainage and Passive Fire Protection

15-2 Appendix A: Detailed Requirements for Passive Fire Protection of Oil-Filled

7 Equipment in High Voltage Yards

15-2 Appendix B: Drawing Of Completed Fire Protection Layout

16-1 Foundations

16-2 Foundations and Structures

16-2 Appendix A

16-2 Appendix B

16-3 Substation Fencing - Application Guide

17-1 The Lighting of High Voltage Substations for Operations and Maintenance

8 17-2 Operational Lighting Design Principles

17-2 Appendix B: Acceptable Electrical & Working Clearances

17-2 Appendix C: Cable and Conductor Data

17-2 Appendix D: Quick Floodlighting Design Guidelines

17-2 Appendix E: Floodlight Mast Symbols & Details

17-2 Appendix F: Standard Specifications

17-2 Appendix G: Floodlighting Luminaire

17-3 An Example Of Operational Lighting Specification, Design and Implementation

18-1 Ac Auxiliary Systems

19-1 Substation Earthing

9 19-2 Steel Earthing Design Guide

19-3 Substation Earthing Practices

20-1 Fundamentals of Lightning Protection

10 20-2 Lightning Protection

20-3 Insulation Coordination

21-1 Substation Structures

21-2 Substation Steelwork

11
21-3 Typical Main Steelwork for Overhead Strung Flexible Conductor Busbar
Systems

22-1 Corrosion

24-1 Dc Auxiliary Systems

24-2 50 V Dc Power Supplies for Telecommunications and Protection Equipment

12
25-1 Circuit Breaker

25-2 Standard Circuit Breaker Ratings

25-3 Circuit Breaker Application Guide

26-1 Isolators

26-2 Pantograph Isolators

13
26-2 Appendix A

26-3 Isolator Auxiliary Contacts

26-4 Isolators General Information

27-1 Earth-Switches

27-2 Earth-switch Auxiliary Contacts

28-1 Instrument Transformers

14 28-2 Current Transformers

28-3 Electromagnetic and Capacitor Voltage Transformers

29-1 Carrier Coupling Arrangements

29-2 Communication Room Layout

30-1 Line Traps

31-1 Coupling Capacitors

32-1 Zinc Oxide (ZnO) Surge Arrester Application Guide

32-2 Schedule Of Surge Arrester Protective Distances for Transformers

33-1 Post Insulators

34-1 Power Transformer Fundamentals and Measurements

15
34-2 Power Transformer Application Guide

34-3 Standard Power Transformers

34-3 Appendix A: Connections to Parallel an Existing Yd11 Transformer with a Dy1

Standard Unit

34-3 Appendix B: Power Transformer Vector Groups

34-4 Standard Transformers: In-Built Current Transformers

35-1 Shunt Reactor Fundamentals

35-2 Shunt Reactor Applications

16
35-3 Series Current Limiting Reactors

35-4 Earthing Compensators

36-1 Shunt Capacitor Banks

17 36-1 Appendix A: Inrush Current Calculations

36-1 Appendix B: Shunt Capacitor Discharge Currents (Out-Rush)

36-1 Appendix C: Parallel Banks

36-1 Appendix D: Steady State Analysis of Internally Fused Capacitor Banks

36-1 Appendix D1: Simplified Calculations of the Out-Of-Balance Current In

Unearthed Neutrals of Equal Split Arm External or Internally Fused Capacitor Banks

36-1 Appendix D2: Simplified Method of Calculating Over-Voltages Caused by Fuse

Operations In Externally and Internally Fused Capacitors

36-1 Appendix E: Neutral Earthing of Shunt Capacitor Banks

36-1 Appendix F1: Type T-Tin Fuse Minimum Melting Characteristics

37-1 Series Capacitor Application and Protection

38-1 Static var Compensators

38-1 Appendix A: Glossary Of Terms

18
38-2 Static Synchronous Compensators: STATCOM

40-1 Substation String Insulators

40-2 Standard Numbers of Insulator Discs

41-1 Methodology for the Dimensioning of Stranded Conductors for Mechanical

Short-Circuit Strength

41-2 Substation Flexible Conductors

19 41-2 Appendix A: All-Aluminium Conductors

41-2 Appendix B: Aluminium Alloy Conductors

41-2 Appendix C: S.C.A. Conductors

41-3 Dimensioning Tubular Conductors for Mechanical Strength

42-1 Equipment Terminal Stems

42-2 Substation Current-Carrying Clamps for Flexible and Tubular Conductors

20
42-3 Substation Clamps and Accessories for Flexible Conductors

43-1 Substation Hardware

44-1 Cables-Basic Concepts

21
44-3 Insulated Cables

22 45-1 Bay Layout and Equipment Schedules

45-2 Determination of the Equipment Bay Width

46-1 Gas Insulated Substations (GIS)

46-2 Gas Insulated Systems (GIS)

47-1 Gas Insulated Transmission Lines - Successful Underground Bulk Power

23
Transmission

48-1 Electromagnetic Compatibility

48-2 Electromagnetic Compatibility

49-1 Design Drawings

49-1 Appendix A: Typical Substation Drawing Checklist

24
49-2 Information for The Production of Substation Layout Project Drawings

49-3 Design Draughting Standards

50 -1 Substation Project Cost Estimate

50-1 Appendix A: Distance Factor Evaluation

25 50-1 Appendix B: Derivation of Common Yard Formulae

50-1 Appendix C: Using Control Equipment Bays

50-3 Transformer Cost Calculations For Estimating and Budgetary Purposes

51-1 Innovative Substation Solutions

26 52-1 Overview of HVDC Transmission

52-2 HVDC Transmission

SUBSTATION LAYOUT DESIGN GUIDE Unique Identifier: 240-55922824
Revision: 0
Page: 5 of 2146

S.L.D.G. 1 - 1

INTRODUCTION

Although a great deal of information relating to the design of substations is available in one form or another, it is often
not readily accessible. Design times are consequently prolonged unnecessarily because of the need to search for data
or to repeat calculations that may have been done many times before.

The first object of this Design Guide is thus to assemble into one manual (or set of manuals) as much basic design data
as possible.

Where applicable, reference is made to the source of the data e.g. Eskom Standard, SANS Standards, IEC Standards,
IEEE Standards, etc., and here it must be stressed that the Design Guides are in no way intended to supersede any
Standard documents. The basic data is merely repeated for ease of reference and it follows that every effort will be
made to ensure that the manual is updated in line with any changes to the relevant Standard. This is not expected to
be necessary very often.

The second objective of the Design Guide is to introduce a measure of Standardisation.

For a variety of reasons including site orientation, topography and environment, load requirements and local network
configurations, the layouts of even similar substations can rarely be made identical. Individual components ranging
form clamps through to complete bays do, however, lend themselves to standardisation and by concentrating on the
development of these “building-blocks”, significant contributions can be made towards:-

• Reduction of design times

• Smaller stocks of less items

• Better use of manufacturing resources and hence better deliveries

• Improved estimating techniques

• Greater accuracy in forecasting of material for bulk buying and production planning purposes

The guides are not expected to cater for every possible case that can arise in practice, but the general principles
outlined should be followed wherever possible.

CONTROLLED DISCLOSURE
When downloaded from the EDS database, this document is uncontrolled, and the responsibility rests with the user to
ensure that it is line with the authorised version on the database.
SUBSTATION LAYOUT DESIGN GUIDE Unique Identifier: 240-55922824
Revision: 0
Page: 6 of 2146

S.L.D.G. 2 - 1

MISCELLANEOUS PHYSICAL, CHEMICAL AND TECHNICAL INFORMATION

1. ELECTROCHEMICAL SERIES

If different metals are joined together in a manner permitting conduction, and both are wetted by a liquid such as
water, acids, etc., an electrolytic cell is formed which gives rise to corrosion. The amount of corrosion increases with
the differences in potential. If such conducting joints cannot be avoided, the two metals must be insulated from each
other by protective coatings or by constructional means. In outdoor installations, therefore, aluminium / copper
connectors or washers of copper-plated aluminium sheet are used to join aluminium and copper, while in dry indoor
installations aluminium and copper may be joined without the need for special protective measures.

Table 2-1.1: Electrochemical Series, Normal Potentials against Hydrogen in Volts.

1. Lithium approx. -3,02 15. Cobalt approx. -0,26

2. Potassium approx. -2,95 16. Nickel approx. -0,20
3. Barium approx. -2,80 17. Tin approx. -0,146
4. Sodium approx. -2,72 18. Lead approx. -0,132
5. Strontium approx. -2,70 19. Hydrogen approx. -0,00
6. Calcium approx. -2,50 20. Antimony approx. +0,20
7. Magnesium approx. -1,80 21. Bismuth approx. +0,20
8. Aluminium approx. -1,45 22. Arsenic approx. +0,30
9. Manganese approx. -1,10 23. Copper approx. +0,35
10. Zinc approx. -0,77 24. Silver approx. +0,80
11. Chromium approx. -0,56 25 Mercury approx. +0,86
12. Iron approx. -0,43 26. Platinum approx. +0,87
13. Cadmium approx. -0,42 27. Gold approx. +1,50
14. Thallium approx. -0,34

If two metals included in this table come into contact, the metal mentioned first will corrode.

The less noble metal becomes the anode and the more noble acts as the cathode. As a result, the less noble metal
corrodes and the more noble metal is protected.

Metallic oxides are always less strongly electronegative, i.e. nobler in the electrolytic sense, than the pure metals.
Electrolytic potential differences can therefore also occur between metal surfaces that to the engineer appear very
little different. Even though the potential differences for cast iron and steel, for example, with clean and rusty surfaces
are small, as shown in Table 2, under suitable circumstances these small differences can nevertheless give rise to
significant direct currents, and hence corrosive attack.

Table 2-1.2: Standard Potentials of Different Types of Iron against Hydrogen, in Volts

SM steel, clean surface approx. -0.40 cast iron, rusty approx. -0.30
cast iron, clean surface approx. -0.38 SM steel, rusty approx. -0.25

2. MOMENTS OF RESISTANCE AND MOMENTS OF INERTIA

Table 2-1.3: Moments of Resistance and Moments of Inertia

Cross-section Moment Of Resistance Moment Of Inertia

Torsion Bending (1) Polar (1) Axial (2)
W W Jp J
3 3 4 4
(cm ) (cm ) (cm ) (cm )

3 3 4 4
0,196.d 0,098.d 0,098.d 0,049.d
3 3 4 4
≈ 0,2.d ≈ 0,1.d ≈ 0,1.d ≈ 0,05.d
x x d

4 4
4 4 0,049.(D - d )
4 4 4 4 0,098.(D -d )
D (D − d ) (D − d )
x x d 0,196. 0,098. ≈
D D 4 4
(D − d )
0,049.
20

a 0,208 . a
3
0,018 . a
3
0,167 . a
4
0,083 . a
4

x x

b.h2 2 b.h 2 2 b.h3 3

2
0,208 . k.b .h (3) = 0,167.b.h = (b − h ) = 0,083.b.h )
6 12 12
x x h

B
3 3 3 3
(B.H − b.h ) (B.H − b.h )
6.H 12
x x h H

Table 2-1.3: Moments of Resistance and Moments of Inertia (Continued)

Cross-section Moment Of Resistance Moment Of Inertia

Torsion Bending (1) Polar (1) Axial (2)
W W Jp J
3 3 4 4
(cm ) (cm ) (cm ) (cm )
B
3 3 3 3
(B.H − b.h ) (B.H − b.h )
6.H 12

x x h H

b/2 b/2

B 3 3 3 3
(B.H − b.h ) (B.H − b.h )
6.H 12
x x h H

3 3 3 3
(b.h − bo.ho ) (b.h − bo.ho )
x x ho h 6.h 12

(1) Referred to CG of area.

(2) Referred to plotted axis.
(3) Values for k: if h: b = 1 1,5 2 3 4
then: k = 1 1,11 1,18 1,27 1,36
3. GEOMETRY, CALCULATION OF AREAS AND VOLUMES OF SOLID BODIES
3.1 Area of Polygons

Figure 2-1.1 : Regular Polygons

(“n” Angles)
R The area A, length sides S and radii of the outer
S r A d D and inner circles can be taken from Table 4
below.
R

Table 2-1.4: Area of Regular Polygons

No. of Area Side Outer radius Inner radius

sides A S R r
2 2 2
n S . R . r . Rx. rx. Sx . rx. Rx. Sx .
3 0,4330 1,2990 5,1962 1,7321 3,4641 0,5774 2,0000 0,5000 0,2887
4 1,0000 2,0000 4,0000 1,4142 2,0000 0,7071 1,4142 0,7071 0,5000
5 1,7205 2,3776 3,6327 1,1756 1,4531 0,8507 1,2361 0,8090 0,6882
6 2,5981 2,5981 3,4641 1,0000 1,1547 1,0000 1,1547 0,8660 0,8660
8 4,8284 2,8284 3,3137 0,7654 0,8284 1,3066 1,0824 0,9239 1,2071
10 7,6942 2,9389 3,2492 0,6180 0,6498 1,6180 1,0515 0,9511 1,5388
12 11,196 3,0000 3,2154 0,5176 0,5359 1,9319 1,0353 0,9659 1,8660

Table 2-1.5.1: Area of Irregular Polygons

Irregular Polygons

g1.h1 g2 .h2
h2 A = + .....
h3 2 2

A1 A2 =
1
(g1.h1 + g2 .h2 + ...)
A3 2
h1
g1
g2
g3

Table 2-1.5.2: Area of Regular Polygons

Pythagoras Theorem

2 2 2 2 2
a = c - b; a = c −b
2
c 2 2 2 2 2
b = c - a; b = c −a
2 2 2
b b c 2 2
c = a + b ; c=
2
a +b
a

2
a

3.2 Areas and Centres of Gravity

Table 2-1.6: Areas and Centres of Gravity
Shape of Surface A = area
C = perimeter
S = centre of
gravity (cg)
e = distance of cg
Triangle
1
A= .a.h
2
c C=a+b+c
h c b h b
S
Halving a and b gives
e S 1
e e= .h
a 3
a
Trapezium b 1
A= .(a + b).h
2
C = a+b+c+d
c
S
d h
1  a + 2.b 
.h.
e e = 
3  a+b 
a
Quadrangle 1
A= .(h1 + h2).D
h1 2
a
C = a+b+c+d
b
h2
D
d

Rectangle A = a.b
S C = 2.(a + b)
b 2
(Square : a = b, A = a , C = 4.a)
e

a
Parallelogram A = a.h C = 2.(a+b)

h
b

Table 2-1.6: Areas and Centres of Gravity (Continued)

Shape Of Surface A = area
C = perimeter
S = centre of gravity (cg)
e = distance of cg
Circle segment b b.r
o
α .π . r
2
A= = o
2 180
o 2
α .π . r
b= o
90
S C = 2.r + b
o o
r 2 R.sinα 180
e= . .
e α 3 α
o
π

Semicircle 1 2
A= .π.R
2
S
r
e C = r . (2 + π) = 5,14 . r

1 R
e= . .0,425.r
3 π
Circle
2 2
π. R = π.d
A =π
r 4
π.r = π.d
C = 2.π
S
d

Annular segment B
αo 2
S A= .π.(R - r2 )
180 o

b C = 2.(R – r) + B + b

e
R 2 (R 2 - r 2 ) sin α 180o
e= . . .
r α 3 (R 2 - r 2 ) α o π

Semi- annulus 1 2
A= .π.(R - r2)
2
S
If b < 0,2.R, then
e r R
e ≈ 0,32.(R + r)
b

Table 2-1.6: Areas and Centres of Gravity (Continued)

Shape of A = area
surface
C = perimeter
S = centre of gravity (cg)
e = distance of cg
Annulus
2
A = π.(R - r2)
S r
D d π.(R + r)
C = 2.π
R

Circular b αo s.h
segment A= .π.r 2 −
h1 180o 2
S
s = 2. r 2 − h2

r αo
h e C = 2. r 2 − h2 + .π.r .
α 90o
1 s2
e= .
12 A
s
Circular b h s2
segment r= +
2 8.h
ϕ
h s = 2.r.sin 
2
ϕ
1  ϕo  2
r s A= .
 o − Sinϕ 
.r
2  180 
A=
1
[ ( )
. r. b − s + s.h ]
2
Ellipse A = ¼.a.b. π

S C = ½.(a+b) π (approx.)
b

3.3 Volumes and Surface Areas of Solid Bodies

Table 2-1.7: Volumes and Surface Areas of Solid Bodies
Solid rectangle

V = a.b.c

O = 2.(a.b + a.c + b.c)

c
b

Cube
a
3
V=a =d
3
d=
d 2
2 2
O = 6.a = 3.d
a
Prism
V = A.h

O = C.h + 2.A
h
A = base surface

A
Pyramid

V = ⅓. A.h
h
O = A + Nappe

Cone
π
V = ⅓. A.h.π
S 2
h O = π .r.s + π .r

2 2
S= (h + r )
A
r
Truncated r
cone A1 2 2
V = (R + r + R.r). ⅓. π.h
2 2
π.s + π.(R + r )
O = (R + r).π
h S

2 2 2
S= (h + (R − r )
A
R

Table 2-1.7: Volumes and Surface Areas of Solid Bodies (Continued)

Shape Of Body V = Volume
O = Surface
A = Area
Truncated
pyramid
A1
V =⊥ h.(A + A1 + A.A1)

O = A + A1 + Nappe
h

Sphere
4 3
V = .π .r
3
d 2
O = 4. π.r
r

Hemisphere 2 3
V = .π .r
3
r
π.r2
O = 3.π

Spherical
2
segment V = π.h .(r - ↓.h)
h
2
π.r.h + π.(2.r.h - h )
O = 2.π
= π.h.(4.r - h)
r

Spherical 2 2
sector h V = .π .r h
3

π.r.(4.h + s)
O = ½.π
r

Zone of sphere b
2 2 2
π.r.(3.a + 2.b + h )
V = ⅓.π
2 2
O = π.(2.r.h + a +b )
h

r a

Table 2-1.7: Volumes and Surface Areas of Solid Bodies (Continued)

Shape Of Body V = Volume

O = Surface
A = Area
Obliquely cut
cylinder A1
1 2
V = .π .r (h + h1)
2
h
h1 r O = π.r.(h + h1) + A + A1

Cylindrical
wedge V = ⅔.r .h
2

2
A h π.r + A
O = 2.r.h + ½.π

Cylinder
r 2
V = π.r .h
2
O = 2. π.r.h + 2. π.r
h

Hollow cylinder
h 2 2
V = π.h (R - r )
R 2 2
O = 2. π.h (R + r) +2. π (R - r )
r

Barrel 1 2 2
V = .π .l. (2.D + D.d + 0,75.d )
15

2
O = ½(D + d). π.d + ½. π.d
d (approx.)
D

Frustum
A1 V = (½(A + A1) + A1).h

h O = A + A1 + areas of sides

Table 2-1.7: Volumes and Surface Areas of Solid Bodies (Continued)

Shape Of Body V = Volume
O = Surface
A = Area
Body of ρ π.ρ
V = 2.π ρ.A
rotation (ring)
A = cross-section

A O = circumference of cross-
π.ρ
section x 2.π ρ

Pappus’ Volume of turned surface (hatched) x

theorem for path of its centre of gravity
bodies of A π.A.ρ
V = 2.π
revolution
ρ Length of turned line x path of its centre
of gravity
π.L.ρ 1
O = 2.π
ρ1

3.4 Logarithmic and Trigonometrical Relationships

Table 2-1.8: Logarithmic and Trigonometrical Relationships

Powers n n n m n m +n
a .b = (a.b) ; a .a =a

m n m.n 0 −n 1
(a ) =a ; a = 1; a = n
for a ≠ 0
a

Roots a
m
a
m m
a.b = a .m b ; m =
b m
b
Logarithms
b = Base in general : log b a = n
a = Antilogarithms log b 1 = 0; log b b = 1

Logarithms ( )
logb an = n.logb a
 1
logb n a =  .logb a
n

Powers n n m
a a a m−n
n
=  ; n
=a
b b a

Roots m n
a. a =
m.n
a
m +n
;
m
a
n
= ( a)
m
n

m n
a = m.n a

Logarithms logb (a.c) = logb a + logb c

a
logb   = logb a − logb c
c

Quadratic equation a.x 2 + b.x + c = 0

− b ± b2 − 4a.c
x1,2 =
2.a

Table 2-1.8: Logarithmic and Trigonometrical Relationships (Continued)

Binomical expansion (a ± b)2 = a2 ± 2.a.b + b2

(a ± b)3 = a3 ± 3.a2 .b + 3.a.b2 ± b3
Cosine theorem

a 2 = b2 + c 2 − 2.b.c . cos α
β c
b2 = a 2 + c 2 − 2.a.c . cos β
a
γ α c 2 = a 2 + b2 − 2.a.b . cos γ
b

Additional theorems sin( α ± β ) = sin α .cosβ ± cosα.sinβ

cos( α ± β ) = cos α .cosβ m sinα.sinβ

cotα.cotβ m 1
Additional theorems cot(α ± β) =
cotβ ± cotα
Triangle
a b
sinα = cosα =
c c
c
a b
a tanα = cotα =
b a
α
b
Sine theorem

γ a b c
= =
b a sinα sinβ sinγ
α
β
c

tanα ± tanβ
Additional theorems tan(α ± β) =
1 m tanα.tanβ

Transformation of trigonometrical functions sinα

sin2α + cos2α = 1; tanα =
cosα
tanα.cotα = 1

Transformation of trigonometrical functions tan α 1

sin α = 1 − cos2α = =
1+ tan2α 1 + cot2α

Transformation of trigonometrical functions

sin α 1 − cos 2α 1
tan α = = =
1 − sin2α cos α cot α

Transformation of trigonometrical functions cot α

cos α = 1 − sin2 α = 1 =
1+ tan2α 1 + cot 2α

Table 2-1.8: Logarithmic and Trigonometrical Relationships (Continued)

Transformation of trigonometrical functions

1 − sin2α cos α 1
cot α = = =
sin α 1 − cos 2α tan α

Functions of double angles sin(2.α ) = sin α .cos α

cos(2.α ) = cos2α − sin2α = 1 − 2.sin2α

α 1 − cos α
sin =
Functions of half-angles 2 2
α 1 + cos α
cos =
2 2

2.tan α. 2
tan(2.α ) = =
Functions of double angles 2
1 − tan α cot α − tan α
cot 2α − 1 cot α − tan α
cos(2.α ) = =
2.cot α 2

α 1 − cos α sin α 1 − cos α

tan = = =
Functions of half-angles 2 1 + cos α 1 + cos α sin α
α 1 + cos α sinα 1 + cos α
cot = = =
2 1 − cos α 1 − cos α sin α

3.5 Conversion Tables

Table 2-1.9: Velocity

To obtain Multiply the dimension in the appropriate column below

dimension
below Centimetres Metres per Metres per Kilometres Kilometres Feet per Feet per Miles per Miles per Knots
per second second minute per minute per hour second minute minute hour

by the factor in the same column

Centimetres/ 1 100 1,667 1667 27,78 30,48 0,5080 2682 44,70 51,48
second

-3
Metres/ 0,01 1 1,667 16,67 0,2778 0,3048 5,080. 10 26,82 0,4470 0,5148
second
-2
10

Metres /minute 0,6 60 1 1000 16,67 18,29 0,3048 1609 26,82 30,88

-2 -2 -4 -2 -2
Kilometres/ 0,0006 0,06 0,001 1 1,667. 10 1,829. 10 3,048. 10 1,609 2,682. 10 3,088. 10
minute

-2
Kilometres/ 0,036 3,6 0,06 60 1 1,079 1,829. 10 96,54 1,609 1,853
hour

-2 -2 -2
Feet /second 3,281. 10 3,281 5,468. 10 54,68 0,9113 1 1,667. 10 88 1,467 1,689

Feet / minute 1,969 196,8 3,281 3281 54,68 60 1 5280 88 101,3

-4 -2 -4 -2 -2 4 -2 -2
Miles /minute 3,728. 10 3,728. 10 6,214. 10 0,6214 1,036. 10 1,136. 10 1,892. 10 1 1,667. 10 1,919. 10

-2 -2 -2
Miles/ hour 2,237. 10 2,237 3,728. 10 37,28 0,6214 0,6818 1,136. 10 60 1 1,152

-2 -2 -3
Knots(Nautical 1,943. 10 1,943 3,238. 10 32,38 0,5396 0,5921 9,868. 10 52,10 0,8684 1
miles / hour)

Table 2-1.10: Pressure or Force

To obtain Multiply the dimension in the appropriate column below
dimension
below Atmospheres Bayers per Centimetre Inches Hg Inches H20 Kilo-grams Pounds per Pounds per Tons per sq Newtons per
sq. cm Hg per sq metre sq foot sq inch foot sq metre

by the factor in the same column

-7 -2 -2 -3 -5 -4 -2 -6
Atmospheres 1 9,869.10 1,316. 10 3,342. 10 2,458. 10 9,678. 10 4,725. 10 6,804. 10 0,945 9,869. 10
(76 cm Hg at
o
0C

6 4 4 -3 4 5
Bayers or 1,013. 10 1 1,333. 10 3,386. 10 2,491. 10 98,07 478,8 6,895. 10 9,576. 10 10
dynes per sq
centimetre
(bar)

-5 -3 -2 -4
Centimetre of 76,00 7,501. 10 1 2,540 0,1868 7356. 10 3,591. 10 5,171 71,83 7,501. 10
o
mercury (0 C)

-5 -2 -3 -2 -4
Inches of 29,92 2,953. 10 0,3937 1 7,355. 10 2,896. 10 1,414. 10 2,036 28,28 2,953. 10
o
mercury (0 C)

-4 -2 -3
Inches of 406,8 4,015. 10 5,354 13,60 1 3,937. 10 0,1922 27,68 384,5 4,015. 10
o
water (4 C)

4 -2
Kilograms per 1,033. 10 1,020. 10 136,0 345,3 25,40 1 4,882 703,1 9765 0,102
square metre

-3 -2
Pounds per 2117 2,089. 10 27,85 70,73 5,204 0,2048 1 144 2000 2,089. 10
square foot

-5 -2 -3 -3 -4
Pounds per 14,70 1,45. 10 0,1934 0,4912 3,613. 10 1,422. 10 6,944. 10 1 13,89 1,45. 10
square inch

-6 -2 -2 -3 -4 -1
Tons (short) 1,058 1,044. 10 1,392. 10 3,536. 10 2,601. 10 1,024. 10 0,0005 0,072 1 1,044. 10
per sq. foot

5 -1 3 3 -4 3 4
Newtons per 1,013. 10 10 1333. 10 3,386. 10 2,491. 10 9,807 47,88 6,895. 10 9,576. 10 1
square metre

Table 2-1.11: Length

To obtain Multiply the dimension in the appropriate column below

dimension Centi- Feet Inches Kilo-metres Nautical Metres Mils Miles Millimetres Yards

below metres miles (statute)

by the factor in the same column

5 5 -3 5
Centimetres 1 30,48 2,540 10 1,853. 10 100 2,540. 10 1,609. 10 0,1 91,44

-2 -2 -5 -3
Feet 3,281. 10 1 8,333. 10 3281 6080,27 3,281 8,333. 10 5280 3,281. 10 3

4 4 4 -2
Inches 0,3937 12 1 3,937. 10 7,296. 10 39,37 0,001 6,336. 10 3,937. 10 36

-5 -5 -5 -8 -6 -3
Kilometres 10 3,048. 10 2,540. 10 1 1,853 0,001 2,540. 10 1,609 10 9,144. 10

-4 -4 -4
Nautical Miles 1,645. 10 0,5396 1 5,396. 10 0,8684 4,934. 10

-2
Metres 0,01 0,3048 2,540. 10 1000 1853 1 1609 0,001 0,9144

-3 4 7 4 4
Mils (10 393,7 1,2. 10 1000 3,937. 10 3,937. 10 1 39,37 3,6. 10
inches)

-6 -4 -5 -4 -7 -4
Miles (statute) 6,214. 10 1,894. 10 1,578. 10 0,6214 1,1516 6,214. 10 1 6,214. 10 5,682. 10

6 -2
Millimetres 10 304,8 25,4 10 1000 2,540. 10 1 914,4

-2 -2 -5 -3
Yards 1,094. 10 0,3333 2,778. 10 1094 2027 1,094 2,778. 10 1760 1,094. 10 1

Table 2-1.12: Area

To obtain Multiply the dimension in the appropriate column below
dimension
below Circular mils Sq inch Sq feet Sq yards Sq miles Acres Sq Sq Sq metres Sq
millimetres centimetres kilometres

by the factor in the same column

6 8 5 9
Circular mils 1 1,273. 10 1,833. 10 1973 1,973. 10 1,973. 10

-7 9 6 -3 9
Square inch 7,854. 10 1 144 1296 4,015. 10 6,272610 1,550. 10 0,1550 1550 1,550. 10

-3 7 4 -5 -3 7
Square feet 6,944. 10 1 9 2,788. 10 4,356. 10 1,076. 10 1,076. 10 10,76 1,076. 10

-4 6 -6 -4 -6
Square yards 7,716. 10 0,1111 1 3,098. 10 4840 1,19610 1,196. 10 1,196 1,196. 10

-8 -7 -3 -13 -11 -7
Square miles 3,587. 10 3,228. 10 1 1,562. 10 3,861. 10 3,861. 10 3,861. 10 0,3861

-5 -4 -4
Acres 2,296. 10 2,066. 10 640 1 2,471. 10 274,1

-4 4 5 6 12
Square 5,067. 10 9,290. 10 8,361. 10 1 100 10 10
millimetres

-6
Square 5,067. 10 6,452 1
centimetres

-4 -2 6 -6 6
Square 6,452. 10 9,290. 10 0,8361 2,590. 10 4047 10 0,0001 1 10
metres

-10 -8 -7 -3 -12 -10 -6

Square 6,452. 10 9,290. 10 8,361. 10 2,590 4,047. 10 10 10 10 1
kilometres
* 1 Hectare = 2,471 Acres

Table 2-1.13: Energy, Heat and Work

To obtain Multiply the dimension in the appropriate column below
dimension below
BTW Centi- Ergs Foot Hph Joules Kilo- Kwh mkg Wh

metre pounds gram

grams calories

by the factor in the same column

-8 -11 3 -4 -3
British Thermal 1 9,297. 10 9,48. 10 1,285. 10 2545 9,48. 10 3,969 3413 9,297. 10 3,413
Units (B.T.U)

7 -3 4 10 4 7 10 5 7
Centimetre - grams 1,076. 10 1 1,020. 10 1,383. 10 2,737. 10 1,020. 10 4,269. 10 3,671. 10 10 3,671. 10

10 7 13 7 10 13 7 10
Ergs or centimetre 1,055. 10 980,7 1 1,356. 10 2,684. 10 10 4,186. 10 3,6. 10 9,807. 10 3,6. 10
- dynes

-5 -8 6 6
Foot - pounds 778,0 7,233. 10 7367. 10 1 1,98. 10 0,7376 3,087 2,655. 10 7,233 2655

-4 -11 -14 -7 -7 -3 -6 -3
Horsepower - hours 3,929. 10 3,654. 10 3,722. 10 5,050. 10 1 3,722. 10 1,559. 10 1,341 3,653. 10 1,341. 10
(Hph)

-5 -7 6 6
Joules or watt - 1054,8 9,807. 10 10 1,356 2,684. 10 1 4186 3,6. 10 9,807 3600
seconds

-8 -11 -4 -4 -3
Kilogram - calories 0,252 2,343. 10 2,389. 10 3,239. 10 6413 2,389. 10 1 860 2,343. 10 0,86

-4 -11 -14 -7 -7 -3 -6
Kilowatt – hours 2,93. 10 2,724. 10 2,778. 10 3,766. 10 0,7457 2,778. 10 1,163. 10 1 2,724. 10 0,001
(Kwh)

-5 -8 5 5
Metre – Kilograms 107,6 10 1,02. 10 0,1383 2,737. 10 0,102 426,9 3,671. 10 1 367,1
(mkg)

-8 -11 -4 -4 -3
Watt – hours (Wh) 0,293 2,724. 10 2,778. 10 3,766. 10 745,7 2,778. 10 1,163 1000 2,724. 10 1

Table 2-1.14: Power

To obtain Multiply the dimension in the appropriate column below
dimension below
BTU per Ergs per Foot pounds Foot pounds Horse power Kg calories Kilowatts Metric horse Watts
minute second per minute per second per minute power

by the factor in the same column

-9 -3 -2 -2
British Thermal 1 5,689. 10 1,285. 10 7,712. 10 42,41 3,969 56,89 41,83 5,689. 10
Units per minute

8 5 7 9 8 10 9 7
Ergs per second 1,758. 10 1 2,259. 10 1,356. 10 7,457. 10 6,977. 10 10 7,355. 10 10

-6 4 4 4
Foot pounds per 778 4,426. 10 1 60 3,3. 10 3087 4,426. 10 3,255. 10 44,26
minute

-8 -2
Foot pounds per 12,97 7,376. 10 1,667. 10 1 550 51,44 737,6 542,5 0,7376
second

-2 -10 -5 -3 -2 -3
Horsepower 2,357. 10 1,341. 10 3,030. 10 1,818. 10 1 9,355. 10 1,341 0,9863 1,341. 10

-9 -4 -2 -2
Kilogram calories 0,252 1,433. 10 3,239. 10 1,943. 10 10,69 1 14,33 10,54 1,433 10
per minute

-2 -10 -5 -3 -2 -3
Kilowatts 1,758. 10 10 2,26. 10 1,356. 10 0,7457 6,977. 10 1 0,7355 10

-2 -10 -5 -3 -2 -3
Metric horsepower 2,39. 10 1,36. 10 3,072. 10 1,843. 10 1,014 9,485. 10 1,36 1 1,36. 10

-7 -2
Watts 17,58 10 2,26. 10 1,356 745,7 69,77 1000 735,5 1

Table 2-1.15: Volume

To obtain Multiply the dimension in the appropriate column below
dimension below
Cubic Cubic Litres Cubic Cubic feet Gallons lmp Gallons U.S. Pints (liquid) Quarts Bushels
centimetre metres inches (liquid) (dry)

by the factor in the same column

6 4 4
Cubic centimetres 1 10 1000 16,39 2,832. 10 3785 473,2 946,4 3,524. 10

-6 -5 -2 -3 -4 -4
Cubic metres 10 1 0,001 1,639. 10 2,832. 10 3,785. 10 4,732. 10 9,464. 10 3,524

-2
Litres 0,001 1000 1 1,639. 10 28,32 3,785 0,4732 0,9464 35,24

-2 4
Cubic inches 6,102. 10 6,102. 10 61,02 1 1728 231 28,87 57,75 2150,4

-5 -2 -4 -2 -2
Cubic feet 3,531. 10 35,31 3,531. 10 5,787. 10 1 0,1337 1,671. 10 3,342. 10 1,2445

Gallons lmp. 1 0,8327

-4 -3
Gallons U.S. 2,642. 10 264,2 0,2642 4,329. 10 7,481 1,201 1 0,125 0,25

-3 -2
Pints (liquid) 2,113. 10 2113 2,113 3,463. 10 59,84 8 1 2

-3 -2
Quarts (liquid) 1,057. 10 1057 1,057 1,732. 10 29,92 4 0,5 1

-2 -4
Bushels (dry) 28,38 2,838. 10 4,651. 10 0,8036 1

Table 2-1.16: Mass

To obtain Multiply the dimension in the appropriate column below
dimension below
Grams Kilograms Tons (metric) Tons (long) Tons (short) Grains Ounces Adp Pounds Adp Hundred
weight

by the factor in the same column

6 6 5 -2 4
Grams 1 1000 10 1,016. 10 9,072. 10 6,481. 10 28,35 453,6 5,080. 10

-5 -2
Kilo grams 0,001 1 1000 1016 907,2 6,481. 10 2,835. 10 0,4536 50,80

-6 -5 -4
Ton (metric) 10 0,001 1 1,016 0,9072 2,835. 10 4,536. 10 0,0508

-7 -4 -5 -4
Tons (long) 9,842. 10 9,842. 10 0,9842 1 0,8929 2,790. 10 4,464. 10 0,050

-6 -3 -5
Tons (short) 1,102. 10 1,102. 10 1,102 1,120 1 3,125. 10 0,0005 0,056

4 3
Grains 15,43 1,543. 10 1 437,5 7000 784. 10

-2 4 4 4 -3
Ounces (Adp) 3,527. 10 35,27 3,527. 10 3,584. 10 3,2. 10 2,284. 10 1 16 1792

-3 -4 -2
Pounds 2,205. 10 2,205 2205 2240 2000 1,429. 10 6,250. 10 1 112
Avoirdupois

-3 -6 -6
Hundredweights 0,0197. 10 0,0197 19,7 20 17,8 0,128. 10 558. 10 0,0089 1
(cwts)

S.L.D.G. 2 - 2

MISCELLANEOUS ELECTRICAL INFORMATION

1. GENERAL ELECTROTECHNICAL FORMULAE AND TABLES

1.1 Electro-technical symbols as per DIN 4897

Table 2-2.1: Mathematical Symbols for Electrical Quantities (General)

Symbol Quantity SI unit

Q quantity of electricity, electric charge C
E electric field strength V/m
2
D electric flux density, electric displacement C/m
U electric potential difference V
ϕ electric potential V
ε permittivity, dielectric constant F/m
ε0 electric field constant, ε0 = 0,885419 . 10
-11
F/m F/m
ε1 relative permittivity 1 (ratio)
C electric capacitance F
I electric current A
2
S,J electric current density A/m
x, y electric conductivity S/m
ρ specific electric resistance Ω
G electric conductance S
R electric resistance Ω
θ electromotive force A

Table 2-2.2: Mathematical Symbols for Magnetic Quantities (General)

Symbol Quantity SI unit

φ magnetic flux Wb
2
B magnetic induction T (Wb/m )
H magnetic field strength A/m
V magneto-motive force A
ϕ magnetic potential A
µ permeability H/m
µ0 absolute permeability µ0 = 4 . π . 10 H/m
-7
H/m
µr relative permeability 1 (ratio)
L inductance H
M mutual inductance H

Table 2-2.3: Mathematical Symbols for Alternating-Current Quantities And Network Quantities.

Symbol Quantity SI unit

S apparent power W, VA
P active power W
Q reactive power VAR
D distortion power W
φ phase displacement rad
ϑ load angle rad
λ power factor, λ = P/S, λ = cos φ
(1)
1
δ loss angle rad
d loss factor, d = tan δ 1
Z impedance Ω
Y admittance S
R resistance Ω
G conductance S
X reactance Ω
B susceptance S
γ impedance angle, γ = arctan (X/R) rad
(1) Valid only for sinusoidal voltage and current

Table 2-2.4: Numerical and Proportional Relationships

Symbol Quantity SI unit

η efficiency 1
S slip 1
P number of pole-pairs 1
w, N number of turns 1
ü transformation ratio 1
m number of phases and conductors 1
γ amplitude factor 1
k overvoltage factor 1
v ordinal number of a periodic component 1
s wave content 1
g fundamental wave content 1
k harmonic content, distortion factor 1
ξ increase in resistance due to skin effect, 1
ξ = R~ /R_

1.2 Alternating-current Quantities

With an alternating current, the instantaneous value of the current changes its direction as a function of time i = f(t). If
this process takes place periodically with a period of duration T, this is a periodic alternation current. If the variation of
the current with respect to time is then sinusoidal, one speaks of a sinusoidal alternating current.

The frequency f and the angular frequency ω are calculated from the periodic time T with:-

1 2. π
f = and ω = 2. π.f = eq. 1-3.1
T T

The equivalent d.c. value of an alternating current is the average, taken over one period of the value:-

1 T 1 2π
i = . ∫ i dt = . ∫ i dωt. eq. 1-3.2
T 0 2. π 0

This occurs in rectifier circuits and is indicated by a moving-coil instrument, for example.

The root-mean-square value (rms value) of an alternating current is the square root of the average of the square of the
value of the function with respect to time:-

1 T 1 2π
2 2
I= . ∫ i dt = . ∫ i dωt eq. 1-3.3
T 0 2.π 0

As regards the generation of heat, the root-mean-square value of the current in a resistance achieves the same effect
as a direct current of the same magnitude.

The root-mean-square value can be measured not only with moving-coil instruments, but also with hot-wire
instruments, thermal converters and electrostatic voltmeters.

A non-sinusoidal current can be resolved into the fundamental oscillation with the fundamental frequency f and into
harmonics having whole-numbered multiples of the fundamental frequency. If I1 is the rms value of the fundamental
oscillation of an alternating current, and I2, I3, etc are the rms values of the harmonics having frequencies 2.f, 3.f, etc,
the rms value of the alternating current is:-

2 2 2
I= I 1 + I 2 + I 3 + ........ eq. 1-3.4

If the alternating current also includes a direct-current component i_, this is termed an undulatory current. The rms
value of the undulatory current is:-

2 2 2 2
I= I _ + I 1 + I 2 + I 3 + ........ eq. 1-3.5

The fundamental oscillation content g is the ratio of the rms value of the fundamental oscillation to the rms value of the
alternating current:-

I1
g= eq. 1-3.6
I

The harmonic content k (distortion factor) is the ratio of the rms value of the harmonics to the rms value of the
alternating current:-

2 2
I 2 + I 3 + .... 2
k= = 1− g . eq. 1-3.7
I

The fundamental oscillation content and the harmonic content cannot exceed 1.

In the case of a sinusoidal;-

the oscillation the fundamental content g=1

the harmonic content k = 0.

1.3 Forms of Power in an Alternating-current Circuit

The following terms and definitions are in accordance with DIN 40 110 for the sinusoidal wave-forms of voltage and
current in an alternating-current circuit:-

Apparent power S = UL.IL = P2 + Q 2 , eq. 1-3.8

Active power P = UL.IL. cos ϕ = S . cos ϕ , eq. 1-3.9

Reactive power Q = UL.IL. sin ϕ = S . sin ϕ , eq. 1-3. 10

P
Power factor cos ϕ = , eq. 1-3.11
S

Q
Reactive factor sin ϕ = , eq. 1-3.12
S

When a three-phase system is loaded symmetrically, the apparent power is:-

S = 3.UP.IP = 3 . UL.IP eq. 1-3.13

where:-

IL = rms phase current

UP = rms value of the phase to neutral voltage
UL = rms value of the phase to phase voltage

Also:-

Active power P = 3.UP.IP.cos ϕ = 3 . UL . IP . cos ϕ , eq. 1-3.14

Reactive power Q = 3.UP.IP.sin ϕ = 3 . UL . IP. sin ϕ . eq. 1-3.15

The unit for all forms of power is the watt (W). The unit watt is also termed volt-ampere (symbol VA) when stating
electric apparent power, and Var (symbol var) when stating electric reactive power.

1.4 Resistances and Conductances in an Alternating-current Circuit

UL S 2 2
Impedance Z= = 2
= R +X eq. 1-3.16
IL IL

UL .cosϕ P 2 2
Resistance R= = 2
= Z.cosϕ = Z -X eq. 1-3.17
IL IL

UL .sinϕ Q 2 2
Reactance X= = 2
= Z.sinϕ = Z -R eq. 1-3.18
IL IL

Inductive reactance Xi = ω.L eq. 1-3.19

1
Capacitive reactance Xc = eq. 1-3.20
ω.C

I S 2 2 1
Admittance Y= = 2
= G +B = eq. 1-3.21
UL UL Z

I L .cosϕ P
Conductance G= = 2
UL UL

2 2 R
= Y.cosϕ = Y B = 2
eq. 1-3.22
Z

I.sinϕ Q
Susceptance B= = 2
= Y.sin ϕ
U U
2 2 R
= Y −G = 2
eq. 1-3.23
Z

1
Inductive Susceptance Bi = eq. 1-3.24
ω.L

Capacitive Susceptance Bc = ω.C eq. 1-3.25

ω = 2.π
π.f is the angular frequency and ϕ the phase displacement angle of the voltage with respect to the current. UL,
IL and Z are the numerical values of the alternating-current quantities UL, IL and Z.

Complex presentation of sinusoidal time-dependent a.c. quantities

Expressed in terms of the load vector system:-

U = IL . Z, IL = UL . Y. eq. 1-3.26

The symbols are underlined to denote that they are complex quantities
(DIN 1344).

I
~
Figure 2-2.1: Equivalent Circuit Diagram
1
Z =
U Y

+j +j

jXi = j ωL jBc = j ωC

R+ +
1 1
− jX c = − j jB i = − j
ωC ωL

-j -j

Vector Diagram of Resistance Vector Diagram of Conductances

In the voltage vector U is laid on the real reference axis of the plane of complex numbers, for the equivalent circuit in Fig.
2 with Z = R + Xi; we have:-

UL = U, eq. 1-3.27

I = IW - j Ib = I.(cos ϕ - j sin ϕ) eq. 1-3.28

P Q
IW = ; Ib = ; eq. 1-3.29
UL UL

*
S = UL.I = UL.IL.(cos ϕ + j sin ϕ) = P + j Q, eq. 1-3.30

2 2
S =  S  = U L . IL = P +Q , eq. 1-3.31

UL UL UL
Z = R + j Xi = = = .(cosϕ + jsinϕ ) eq. 1-3.32
IL I L .(cosϕ + jsinϕ ) IL

where: -

UL UL
R= .cos ϕ and Xi = .sin ϕ
IL IL

I I
Y = G - jB = = .(cos ϕ - j sin ϕ) eq. 1-3.33
UL UL

where:-

IL
G= .cos ϕ eq. 1-3.34
UL

and

IL
Bi = .sin ϕ eq. 1-3.35
UL

1.5 Alternating-current Quantities of Basic Circuits

Table 2-2.21: Alternating - Current Quantities of Basic Circuits
Circuit Z  Z

1. R R
R

L
2. j ω.L ω.L

C
3. - j / (ω.C) 1/ ω.C

4. R + j.ω.L (1) 2 2
R + ( ω.L)

5.
R − j
 1   1 
2
 R
2
+ 
 ω.C   ω.C 
6.
 
1
 1 
2
j ω.L − 
 ω.C   ω.L − 
 ω.C 
7.  1  2
R + j ω.L −  (2)  1 
 ω.C  R 2 +  ω.L − 
 ω.C 

R.ω.L R.ω.L
8.
ω.L − jR R + (ω.L)2
2

R − jω.C.R 2 R
9. (3)
2
1 + (ω.C) .R 2
1 + (ω.C)2 .R 2

Table 2-2.21: Alternating - Current Quantities of Basic Circuits (Continued)

Circuit Z Z

10. j 1

( )2
1 2
 1 
− ω.C 


 − ω.C
ω.L  ω.L 

11. 1
1
1  1 
+ j ω.C −  1  1 
2
R  ω.L  + ω.C −
2  
R  ω.L 

 1  1 
 Y = + j ω.C − 
 R  ω.L  
12. R
2 2
(1 − ω .L.C) + (R.ω.C)
2 R 2 + [L.(1 − ω 2 .L.C) − R 2 .C ]2
2 2 (1 − ω2 .L.C)2 + (R.ω.C) 2
L(1 − ω .L.C) − R .C
+j 2 2 2
(1 − ω .L.C) + (R.ω.C)

With small loss angle δ ( = 1/φ

φ) ≈ tan δ (error at 4 about 0,1 %)
o
(1)

Z ≈ ω.L(δ
δ + j) eq. 1-3.36

1
(2) Series resonance (voltage resonance) for ω.L = fres = eq. 1-3.37
ω.C

L
X res = X L = X C = eq. 1-3.38
C

1
fres = eq. 1-3.39
2. L.C

Zres = R eq. 1-3.40

∆f
Close to resonance ( <0,1 . fres) is Z ≈ R + j Xres . 2 . ∆f / fres eq. 1-3.41

with ∆ f = f - fres eq. 1-3.42

1
(3) With small loss angle δ (= 1 / ϕ) ≈ tan δ = − eq. 1-3.43
ω.C.R

δ+j
Z= - eq. 1-3.44
ω.C

C
Bres = eq. 1-3.45
L

1
fres = eq. 1-3.46
2.π. L.C

Yres = G eq. 1-3.47

∆f
(4) Close to resonance ( < 0,1 . fres) : eq. 1-3.48

Y = G + j Bres . 2 . ∆ fres eq. 1-3.49

with ∆fres = f - fres eq. 1-3.50

(5) e.g. coil with winding capacitance.

Table 2-2.22: Current / Voltage Relationships

Ohmic resistance R Capacitance (capacitor) C Inductance (choke coil) L

1 di
General law u = i.R .∫ i dt L.
C
dt
u du 1
i= C. .∫ u dt
R dt
L

Time law u = û.sin ωt û.sin ωt û.sin ωt

1 ω.L.î.cos ωt = û.cos ωt
hence u = î.R.sin ωt = û.sin ωt - .î.cos ωt = - û.cos ωt
ω.C
û 1
i = .sin ωt = î.sin ωt ω.C.û.cos ωt = î.cos ωt - .û.cos ωt = - î.cos ωt
R ω.L
Element of calculation î = û/R ω.C.û ω.L)
û / (ω

û = î.R ω.C)
î / (ω î. ω.L

 1  π  ω.L  π
arctan =− arctan
O
 ω.C . 0  2 =
ϕ = u and I in phase o  0  2
i leads u by 90 o
i lags u by 90
ω ω ω
f = 2.π 2.π 2.π
−j
Alternating current
Z = R ω.C j ω.L
impedance
1
Z
 = R ω.C ω.L
Diagrams U U U
i i i

i U U

U
i

1.6 Electric Resistances

1.6.1 Definitions and specific values

An ohmic resistance is present if the instantaneous values of the voltage are proportional to the instantaneous values
of the current, even in the event of time-dependent variation of the voltage or current. Any conductor exhibiting this
proportionality within a defined range (e.g. of temperature, frequency or current) behaves within this range as an
ohmic resistance. Active power is converted in an ohmic resistance. For a resistance of this kind is:

P
R= 2
eq. 1-3.51
IL

The resistance measured with direct current is termed the d.c. resistance R_. If the resistance of a conductor differs
from the d.c. resistance only as a result of skin effect, we then speak of the a.c. resistance R~ of the conductor. The
ratio expressing the increase in resistance is:

R~ a.c. resistance
ξ = = eq. 1-3.52
R_ d.c. resistance

Specific values for major materials are shown in Table 2-2.23.

Table 2-2.23: Numerical Values for Major Materials

Conductor Specific Electric Temperature Density

Electric Conductivity Coefficient
Resistance ρ ρ
s = 1/ρ α ρ
2 2 -1 3
(mm Ω /m) (mm Ω /m) (K ) (kg/dm )
-3
Aluminium : 99,5 % Al, soft 0,0278 36 4. 10 2,7
-3
Al-Mg-Si 0,030 .. 0,033 33 ... 30 3,6 . 10 2,7
-3
Al-Mg 0,06 ... 0,07 17 ... 14 2,0 . 10 2,7
-3
Al bronze : 90% Cu, 10% Al 0,13 7,7 3,2 . 10 8,5
-3
Bismuth 1,2 0,83 4,5 . 10 9,8
-3
Brass 0,07 14,3 1,3 .. 1,9 . 10 8,5
-3
Bronze : 88% Cu, 12% Sn 0,18 5,56 0,5 . 10 8,6 ... 9
-3
Cast iron 0,60 ... 1,60 1,67 ... 0,625 1,9 . 10 7,86 ... 7,2
-3
Conductor copper, soft 0,01754 57 4,0 . 10 8,92
-3
Conductor copper, hard 0,01786 56 3,92 . 10 8,92
-3
Constantan 0,49 ... 0,51 2,04 ... 1,96 -0,05 . 10 8,8
-3
CrAl 20 5 1,37 0,73 0,05 . 10 -
-3
CrAl 30 5 1,44 0,69 0,01 . 10 -
-3
Dynamo sheet 0,13 7,7 4,5 . 10 7,8
Dynamo sheet alloy (1 to 5% Si) 0,27 ... 0,67 3,7 ... 1,5 - 7,8
-3
Graphite and retort carbon 13 ... 100 0,077 ... 0,01 -0,8 ... -0,2 . 10 2,5 ... 1,5
-3
Lead 0,208 4,8 4,0 . 10 11,35
-3
Magnesium 0,046 21,6 3,8 . 10 1,74

Table 2-2.23: Numerical Values for Major Materials (Continued)

Conductor Specific Electric Temperature Density

Electric Conductivity Coefficient
Resistance ρ ρ
s = 1/ρ α ρ
2 2 -1 3
(mm Ω /m) (mm Ω /m) (K ) (kg/dm )
-3
Manganin 0,43 2,33 0,01 . 10 8,4
-3
Mercury 0,958 1,04 0,90 . 10 13,55
-3
Molybdenum 0,054 18,5 4,3 . 10 10,2
Monel metal 0,42 2,8 0,19 . 10-3 -
Nickel silver 0,33 3,03 0,4 . 10-3 8,5
Ni Cr 30 20 1,04 0,96 0,24 . 10-3 8,3
Ni Cr 60 15 1,11 0,90 0,13 . 10-3 8,3
Ni Cr 80 20 1,09 0,92 0,04 . 10-3 8,3
Nickel 0,09 11,1 6,0 . 10-3 8,9
Nickeline 0,4 2,5 0,18 ... 0,21 . 10-3 8,3
Platinum 0,1 10 3,8 ... 3,9 . 10-3 21,45
Red brass 0,05 20 - 8,65
Silver 0,0165 60,5 41 . 10-3 10,5

Table 2-2.23: Numerical Values for Major Materials (Continued)

Conductor Specific Electric Temperature Density

electric conductivity coeficient a
2
resistance ρ ρ (mm Ω /m)
s = 1/ρ
2 -1 3
(mm Ω /m) (K ) (kg/dm )
-3
Steel : 0,1% C, 0,5% Mn 0,13 ... 0,15 7,7 ... 6,7 4 ... 5 . 10 7,86
-3
Steel : 0,25% C, 0,3% Si 0,18 5,5 4 ... 5 . 10 7,86
-3
Steel : spring, 0,8% C 0,20 5 4 ... 5 . 10 7,86
-3
Tantalum 0,16 6,25 3,5 ... 10 16,6
-3
Tin 0,12 8,33 4,4 . 10 7,14
-3
Tungsten 0,055 18,2 4,6 . 10 19,3
-3
Zinc 0,063 15,9 3,7 . 10 7,23

Resistance varies with temperature.

1.6.2 Resistances in different circuit configurations

R1 R2 R3
I

U1 U2 U3 Figure 2-2.3: Resistances Connected in Series

Total resistance = Sum of individual resistances

R = R1 + R2 + R3 + ...... eq. 1-3.53

The component voltages behave in accordance with the resistances U1 = I.R (1) etc.

UL
The current at all resistances is of equal magnitude IL =
R

I1 I2 I3
Figure 2-2.4: Resistances Connected In Parallel

UL 1 1 1
G1 = G2 = G3 =
R1 R2 R3

Total conductance = Sum of the individual conductances:-

1 1
= G = G 1 + G 2 + G 3 + ..... i.e. R= eq. 1-3.54
R G

In the case of n equal resistances the total resistance is the nth part of the individual resistances. The voltage at all
the resistances is the same. Total current:-

UL UL
IL = = Sum of components I i = eq. 1-3.55
R Ri

The currents behave inversely to the resistances:-

R R R
I1 = IL . ; I2 = IL . ; I3 = IL . eq. 1-3.56
R1 R2 R3

Rs1
Rd3 Rd2
Figure 2-2.5: Transformation Delta-Star And Star-Delta

Rs2 Rs3

Rd1

Conversion form delta to star connection with the same total resistance:-

R d2 .R d3
R S1 = eq. 1-3.57
R d1 + R d2 + R d3

R d1 .R d3
R S2 = eq. 1-3.58
R d1 + R d2 + R d3

R d1 .R d2
R S3 = eq. 1-3.59
R d1 + R d2 + R d3

Conversion from star to delta connection with the same total resistance:

R s1 .R s2 + R s2 .R s3 + R s3 .R s1
R d1 = eq. 1-3.60
R s1

R s1 .R s2 + R s2 .R s3 + R s3 .R s1
R d2 = eq. 1-3.61
R s2

R s1 .R s2 + R s2 .R s3 + R s3 .R s1
R d3 = eq. 1-3.62
R s3

2. REFERENCES

th
2.1 Asea Brown Boveri Pocket Book, “Switchgear Manual”, 10 Edition, 2001

SLDG 2-3

TECHNICAL PARAMETERS OF INTERCONNECTION

1. BASIC ELECTRICAL PARAMETERS

This section describes the basic electrical parameters and units of measurement used in electric power systems. It is
meant to provide the non-technical reader with the concepts needed for a general understanding of the technical issues
discussed in subsequent sections.

1.1 AC & DC

Electric power comes in two forms: alternating current (AC) and direct current (DC). These forms are characterized by
the behaviour of their waveforms: AC alternates between positive and negative polarity with respect to ground, while
DC does not. In power systems, AC is generally a sine wave, while DC is a constant value. Early electricity systems,
such as Thomas Edison’s Pearl Street Station in New York City, which provided the world’s first public electric service
in 1882, were DC. However, by the beginning of the 20th century AC systems had become standard worldwide. The
main reason for the adoption of AC was that it is relatively simple to change AC voltage levels by using transformers,
while it is difficult to change DC voltages. The development of solid-state power electronics in recent years has allowed
an increased use of DC in the form of HVDC interconnections, but otherwise power systems remain AC.

1.2 Frequency

Frequency is the rate at which an alternating current changes from positive to negative polarity, measured in cycles per
second, or hertz (Hz). There are currently two widespread world standards for power system frequency: 50 Hz in most
of Europe and Asia, and 60 Hz in North America and in other places strongly influenced by the U.S. power industry,
such as South Korea. The choice of 50 and 60 Hz systems in different locations is a consequence of historical legacies
rather than the inherent technical superiority of one or the other. However, the range of possible frequencies for power
systems is constrained by practical concerns. For example, a century ago many electric railroads operated at a
frequency of 25 Hz, but 25 Hz was never adopted for general use in power systems because frequencies at that level
cause electric lights to flicker. At the other end of the scale, frequencies well above 60 Hz result in higher impedances,
leading to unacceptably high transmission and distribution losses.

1.3 Voltage

Voltage is the difference in electric potential between two points in an electric circuit. A difference in potential causes
electric charges to flow from one place to another, just as a difference in heights causes water to flow from one level to
another. Voltage is measured in volts (V), and sometimes in thousands of volts or kilovolts (kV).

In power systems, two important measures are the maximum voltage and average voltage at any particular point.
Maximum voltage is important because insulation and safety equipment must be designed to protect against the
highest voltage encountered. Average voltage is important because the amount of energy supplied to an end user or
lost in transmission lines is a function of the average voltage and current. For DC systems, maximum and average
voltages are the same, because DC voltage doesn’t oscillate. For example, the output of a 120 V DC power supply is a
continuous 120 V relative to ground, and this is both the maximum and average voltage.

For AC systems, different measures are required. In a 220 V AC system, the voltage actually oscillates in a sine wave
between + 311 V and – 311 V relative to ground. The maximum voltage, also called amplitude or peak voltage, is thus
311 V. The simple arithmetic average of this waveform is actually 0 V, since the positive and negative voltages cancel
each other out. Hence, another type of average is used, called root-mean-square (rms). rms is obtained by squaring
the values of the voltage over one complete sine-wave cycle, determining its average value, and then taking the square
root of that average. The result (true for any sine wave) is that:-

Vpeak
Vrms =
2 eq. 2-3.1
= 0,707.Vpeak

For a household system with a Vpeak = 311 V, Vrms = 0,707.311 V = 220 V.

Thus the common designation of a household electric outlet as “220 V AC” refers to the rms value of the voltage. The
voltages of power system components, such as transformers and transmission lines, are also generally given in RMS
terms.

1.4 Current

Current is the flow rate of electric charge. In an electric circuit, charge flows from a point of higher voltage to a point of
lower voltage through a conductor, just as water flows from a higher spot to a lower one through a pipe. Current is
measured in amperes (A) or kilo-amperes (kA), where one ampere is a certain number of charges (to be precise 6.25 x
1018 charges, called one coulomb) flowing per second. As is the case for voltage, AC currents are generally described
in terms of their RMS values.

1.5 Resistance and Conductance

Conductance describes the ability of an object, such as an electric wire, to allow electric currents to flow. The reciprocal
of conductance is resistance, which describes how much the object resists the flow of current. Resistance is measured
in ohms (Ω). The resistance of wire is a product of its resistivity (an inherent property of the material from which it is
made, such as copper or aluminium, for a given temperature) and the dimensions of the wire. For a given material, the
longer the wire is, the greater the resistance, and the larger in diameter the wire is, the smaller the resistance. In the
analogy of water flowing from a higher to a lower spot through a pipe, resistance is analogous to the friction of the pipe.
A narrow pipe has a higher resistance; a wide pipe has a lower resistance.

1.6 Ohm’s Law

Ohm’s Law describes the relationship between voltage (V), current (I), and resistance (R) across any element of a DC
electric circuit:-

V = I.R eq. 2-3.2

Thus, for a fixed value of resistance – say for an HVDC transmission line of a certain length and diameter – if the
voltage is made larger, the current will decrease, and vice versa. For example, if the resistance of a line is 25 Ω, and
the current through the line is 1 kA, then the voltage drop across the line is:-

V = 1 kA * 25 Ω = 25 kV (from eq. 2-3.2)

If the voltage on the sending side was 500 kV, then the voltage on the receiving side must be 25 kV less, or 475 kV.

1.7 Power and Energy

Power is the rate of energy flow, measured in watts (W), and sometimes in thousands of watts or kilowatts (kW), or in
millions of watts or megawatts (MW). For a DC circuit, the power passing through any element of the circuit (e.g. a
transmission line, a generator, an electrical appliance) is the product of the voltage across it and the current passing
through it:-

P = I.V eq. 2-3.3

The energy delivered by a power system is measured in kilowatt-hours (kWh), and sometimes mega-watt-hours
(MWh). In general, energy is equal to power times time. For example, a light bulb that draws 100 W of power and is in
use for 10 hours consumes a total amount of energy:-

E = 0.1 kW * 10 h = 1 kWh (from eq. 2-3.3)

Note that power and energy are quite different concepts. If an electric oven draws 1 kW of power and is in use for an
hour:-

E = 1 kW * 1 h = 1 kWh (from eq. 2-3.3)

In these two examples, the power levels are different but the energy consumed is the same, the difference being the
length of time that each device is operated.

Note that the basic unit of energy is the joule (J), while the basic unit of power is the watt, where 1 W = 1 J/s. Thus:-

1 kWh = 1 kW * 1 h = 1000 J/s * 3600 s = 3.6 million J.

2.1.8 Resistive Losses

When current flows against a resistance, some of its energy is lost in the form of heating. For a DC circuit, the resistive
losses can be calculated using Ohm’s Law:-

Ploss = V.I

( )
= I .R .I eq. 2-3.4
2
= I .R
To continue with the example under “Ohm’s Law” above, consider a 500 kV HVDC transmission line with 25 Ω of
resistance, with 1 kA of current passing through it, and which has a voltage on the sending end of 500 kV, and a
voltage on the receiving end of 475 kV. The total power being transmitted at the sending end of the transmission line
is:-

P = 500 kV .1 kA = 500 MW

Out of this 500 MW, the amount being lost to heating is:-
2
PLOSS = (1 kA) . 25 Ω = 25 MW

This constitutes 25 MW/500 MW = 5 percent of the power being transmitted.

Very high voltages are used in transmission in order to reduce resistive losses to a tolerable level. In the example
above, if the same amount of power were being transmitted (500 MW) but the sending voltage was 125 kV instead of
500 kV, the current through the line must be:
P
I =
V
500.10 3
=
125
= 4 kA
The current is four times higher to yield the same amount of power, because the voltage is four times less. The power
lost in the transmission line is then:
2
Ploss = I .R

(
= 4kA. )2 .25 (from eq. 2-3.4)

= 400 MW
400 MW = 80 percent of the power being transmitted.

In general, line losses are inversely proportional to the square of the sending voltage; this is true for AC lines as well as
DC. For this reason, historically power systems have sought to increase their transmission voltages as distances and
amounts of power transmitted have grown. The highest common AC transmission voltages, sometimes referred to as

extra high voltage (EHV), are 380 kV in Europe and 765 kV in the US and South Africa. Voltages as high as 1200 kV
have been used in Russia for some long-distance lines across Siberia. Above 1000 kV, however, the practical difficulty
and expense of equipment and insulation that can withstand such high voltages becomes prohibitive for many
countries, although China now has two substations and a line at 1100 kV. India is thinking about a 1200 kV system.

1.9 Impedance, Reactance, Inductance, Capacitance

AC circuits involve not only resistance but other physical phenomena that impede the flow of current. These are
inductance and capacitance, referred to collectively as reactance. When AC currents pass through a reactance (e.g. in
transmission and distribution lines, in transformers, or in end-use equipment such as electric motors) some of the
energy is temporarily stored in electro-magnetic fields. This has three important implications.

1.9.1 Even though energy is not “lost” to the environment as in the case of resistive heating, it must still be supplied to
the reactive elements. This is known as reactive power.

1.9.2 Voltage decreases when current flows across a reactance, just as it does across a resistance. For AC circuits,
Ohm’s Law must be modified:

V = I.Z eq. 2-3.4

where:-

Z = sum of resistance and reactance, called impedance, and is measured in ohms (Ω)

1.9.3 V, I, and Z are all complex numbers, meaning that they express not only magnitudes in volts, amps, and ohms,
but also phase angles. Voltage and current waveforms both oscillate at the same frequency - either 50 Hz or 60
Hz depending on the system – but they can differ in terms of the angular location within a cycle at which the
maximum voltage or current occurs. This difference in angular location is referred to as phase difference, often
symbolized by φ (phi) or θ (theta) and measured in degrees (or radians). Passing through an inductance causes
an AC current waveform to fall behind, or lag, the voltage waveform. Passing through a capacitance causes AC
current to move ahead of, or lead, the voltage. Equivalent amounts of capacitance and reactance cancel each
other out.

2.1.10 Complex Power: Real, Reactive, Apparent

For AC systems, there are three kinds of power: real, reactive, and apparent. Real power (sometimes called active
power) is what is consumed by resistances, and is measured in W (or kW, or MW). Reactive power is consumed by
reactances, and is measured in volt-amperes reactive, or VAR (sometimes kVAR, or MVAR). Apparent power is the
complex sum of real and reactive power, and is measured in volt-amperes, or VA (or kVA or MVA):-

S= (P 2
+Q
2
) eq. 2-3.5

where:-

S = apparent power and is mega volt-ampere (MVA)

P = apparent power and is megawatt (MW)
Q = apparent power and is mega volt-ampere reactive (MVAr)

Apparent power is what must be supplied by the generators in a power system to meet the system’s electrical load,
whereas end-use is generally measured in terms of real power only. Utilities always seek to minimize reactive power
consumption, among other reasons because it is difficult to measure and be compensated for reactive power by
customers.

2.1.11 Loads and Power Factors

An electrical load is the power drawn by an end-use device or customer connected to the power system. (Sometimes,
load is used to refer to the end-use devices or customers themselves, but among engineers it usually refers to the
power demand.) Loads can be resistive or reactive, and are often a combination of both. The extent to which a load is
resistive is measured by its power factor, (p.f.), which is equal to the cosine of the phase difference between the
current and voltage through the load:-

p.f. = cos φ eq. 2-3.6

When the power factor is at its maximum value of one, the load is purely resistive. On the other hand, the smaller the
power factor, the greater the phase difference and the greater the reactive power component of the load. Inductive
loads, such as electric motors, have a lagging power factor (see 1.9), and are said to consume reactive power.
Capacitive loads have a leading power factor and are said to be sources of reactive power.

Given the voltages and currents through a circuit element, single phase apparent, real, and reactive power can be
calculated respectively as follows:-

S = Irms .Vrms eq. 2-3.7

P = Irms .Vrms .cos φ = S. p.f. eq. 2-3.8

Q = Irms .Vrms .sin φ eq. 2-3.9

Reactive loads can have a large effect on line losses, because the current flowing through a line, and the associated
heating, is a function of the apparent power S rather than the real power P. For example, consider a load of 150 kW
with a lagging power factor of 0.75, which is supplied by a 10 kV distribution line with a resistance of 10 Ω. The
apparent power drawn by the load is:-

P
S=
p.f.
150
= (from eq. 2-3.8)
0,75
= 200 kVA

The current to the load is then:-

S
Irms =
Vrms
200.10 - 3
= (from eq. 2-3.7)
10
= 20 A

The line power loss is:-

2
Ploss = = I .R
2
= 20 10 (from eq. 2-3.4)

= 4 kW

If there were no reactive power consumption by the load, the power factor would be equal to one. In that case:

S = P = 150 kW (from eq. 2-3.8)

Then:-

P
Irms =
Vrms
150.10 - 3
= (from eq. 2-3.8)
10
= 15 A

2
Ploss = = I .R
2
= 15 10 (from eq. 2-3.4)

= 2,25 kW

Thus the reactive load in this example increased the line losses from 2.25 kW to 4 kW, an increase of 78 percent.

1.12 Three-Phase Systems

House current is generally single-phase AC power, but the rest of the power system from generation to secondary
distribution employs 3-phase AC. This means that transmission lines have three separate conductors, each carrying
one-third of the power. The waveforms of the voltage in each phase are separated by 120°. There are two major
reasons that 3-phase power became dominant.

1.12.1 As long as the electrical loads on each phase are kept roughly balanced, only three wires are required to
transmit power. Normally, any electric circuit requires both an “outbound” and “return” wire to make a complete
circuit. Balanced 3-phase circuits provide their own return, and thus only three, rather than six, wires are
required to transmit the same amount of power as three comparable single-phase systems.

1.12.2 Since the invention of poly-phase induction motors by Nikola Tesla in the 1890s, 3-phase motors have been the
workhorse of industry. More than one phase is required to balance torque, which increases the effectiveness
and lifetime of both motors and generators.

1.13 Voltage and Power in Three-Phase Systems

The voltage in 3-phase systems can be specified in two different ways. One is phase to earth (Vpe), which as it sounds
is the voltage between any one of the three phases and earth. The other is phase-to-phase (Vpp), which is the voltage
between any two of the three phases. Power lines are conventionally described by their phase-to-phase voltage, also
called the line voltage (VL). Phase-to-phase voltage is greater than phase-to-earth voltage by a factor of the square
root of three:

VL = = 3 .Vpe eq. 2-3.10

Thus, a 500 kV line has a phase-to-phase voltage of 500 kV, and a phase-to-earth voltage of:

VL
Vpe = =
3
500
= (from eq. 2-3.10)
3
= 289 kV

In both cases, the voltage referred to is the rms value.

The amount of power transmitted in a three-phase system is three times the power in each line.

Thus:


S = 3.  IL .
VL 

 3 (from eq. 2-3.7)

= 3 .IL . VL

P = 3 .IL .VL .cos φ = S. p.f. (from eq. 2-3.8)

Q = 3 .Irms .Vrms .sin φ (from eq. 2-3.9)

where:-

VL = line or phase-to-phase voltage and is measured in kilovolts (kV)

For example, the apparent power transmitted by a 500 kV circuit with a current of 1 kA is:-

S= 3 .Irms . Vrms

= 3 .1.500 (from eq. 2-3.7)

= 866 MVA

The real and reactive components can be calculated easily if the load power factor or phase difference is known (see
1.10). In this example, if φ = 25°, the real power:-

P = S.cos φ
o
= 866 .cos 25
(from eq. 2-3.8)
= 866 .0,906

= 785 MW

and the reactive power:-

Q = S.sin φ
o
= 866 .sin 25
(from eq. 2-3.9)
= 866 .0,422

= 366 MVAr

2. RESOURCES FOR FURTHER ANALYSIS

2.1 J. Glover and M. Sarma (2002), Power System Analysis and Design, 3rd edition. Brooks/Cole, Pacific Grove, CA.

2.2 W. Stevenson (1982), Elements of Power System Analysis, 4th edition.

2.1 A. Fitzgerald, C. Kingsley, and S. Umans (2003), Electric Machinery, 6th edition. McGraw-Hill, New York.

2.3 R. Rudervall, J. Charpentier, and R. Sharma, “High Voltage Direct Current (HVDC) Transmission Systems
Technology Review Paper”. Joint World Bank-ABB Paper, available as

http://www.worldbank.org/html/fpd/em/transmission/technology_abb.pdf.

2.5 E. Ewald and D. Angland (2004), “Regional Integration of Electric Power Systems”. IEEE Spectrum, April 1964.

2.6 H. Happ (1973), “Power Pools and Superpools”. IEEE Spectrum, March 1973

S.L.D.G. 2-4

SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS

1. INTRODUCTION

Symmetrical Components, first developed by C.L.Fortescue in 1918, is a powerful technique for analysing unbalanced
3Ø systems. Fortescue defined a linear transformation from 3Ø components to a new set of components called
symmetrical components. The advantage of this transformation is that for balance three-phase networks the
equivalent circuit obtained for the symmetrical components, called sequence networks, are separated into three
uncoupled networks. Furthermore, for unbalanced three-phase systems, the three sequence networks are connected
only at the points of unbalance. As a result, sequence networks for many cases of unbalanced three-phase systems are
relatively easy to analyse.

The symmetrical component method is basically a modelling technique that permits systematic analysis and design of
three-phase systems. Decoupling a detailed three-phase network into three simpler sequence networks reveals
complicated phenomena in more simplistic terms. Sequence network results can then be superimposed to obtain three-
phase results. The application of symmetrical components to unsymmetrical fault studies is indispensable.

2. DEFINITION OF SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS

In accordance with Fortescue, the three-phase voltages, VR, VY, and VB are resolved into three sets of sequence
components:

2.1 Zero-sequence

Zero-sequence: consisting of three phasors with equal magnitudes and with zero phase displacement.

2.2 Positive-sequence

o
Positive-sequence: consisting of three phasors with equal magnitudes, ±120 phase displacement and positive
sequence.

2.3 Negative-sequence

o
Negative-sequence: consisting of three phasors with equal magnitudes, ±120 phase displacement and negative
sequence.

Phase-a

e.g. Va = V0R + V1R + V2R

NOTES:

1. The sequence components do not exist as physical quantities in the network.

2. A balanced system has no negative or zero sequence components therefore: actual balanced system = positive
sequence system

3. The generated emf is balanced and therefore positive phase sequence only.

4. In a 3phase, 3wire system, there are no zero sequence components, because there is no neutral connection.

3. ANALYSIS

NOTE: The three sets of sequence phasors when superimposed, give the actual unbalanced conditions in the circuit.

Notation:

Actual system subscripts : R, Y, B

Positive Phase sequence : 1R, 1Y, 1B

Negative Phase sequence : 2R, 2Y, 2B

Zero Phase sequence : 0R, 0Y, 0B

NB CAPITALS denote phasors

o
To express these quantities algebraically, the complex operator “a” is used. This denotes a phase shift by + 120 and
multiplication by unit magnitude.

Compare with operator j = - 1 jI

o o
j = 1 ∠ 9 0 = 1 ∠ - 2 70 = 0 + j1
2 o o
j = 1 ∠ 1 80 = 1 ∠ - 1 80 = - 1 + j 0 2
j I = -I I
3 o o
j = 1∠ 2 70 = 1∠ - 90 = 0 - j1 3
j I = -jI
4 o o
j = 1 ∠ 3 60 = 1 ∠ 0 = 1 + j 0

o
i.e. Multiplication by j = phase shift of + 90

Operator “a” (
: I∠φ . " a" = I∠ φ + 120ο )
aI +j0,866
2π
j
o 3
a = 1 ∠ 120 = 1e = - 0,5 + j0,866 o
120
2 o
a = 1 ∠ 240 = −0,5 − j0,866
3 o
a = 1∠ 360 = + 1,0 − j0,0
-0,5 I
4 o
a = 1 ∠ 120 = -0,5 + j0,866 = a

2 -j0,866
aI

POSITIVE PHASE SEQUENCE ω

I1B
For Positive Phase Sequence phasors taking RED as reference:

j0
I 1R = I 1R .e = Reference Phasor I1R
2
I 1W = a .I 1R

I 1B = a.I 1R I1W

NEGATIVE PHASE SEQUENCE

ω
I2W
For NEGATIVE PHASE SEQUENCE phasors taking RED as reference

I 2R = Reference Phasor
I2R
I 2W = a.I 2R
2
I 2B = a .I 2R
I2B
The UNBALANCED CURRENTS IR, IY, IB may be expressed as:-

I R = I 1R + I 2R + I 0R
2
I W = I 1W + I 2W + I 0W = a .I 1R + a.I 2R + I 0R
2
I B = I 1B + I 2B + I 0B = a.I 1R + a .I 2R + I 0R

NB: all zero sequence components are equal and in phase with IR

In matrix form:-

 IR  1 1  I 0R 
1
I  = 1 a
2  
a . I 1R eq. 2-4.1
 W  2  
 IB  1 a a  I 2R 

Or inverting the matrix:-

I 0R  1 1 1 I R 
I  = 1 .1 a
2  
a . I Y eq. 2-4.2
 1R  3   
a
2
I 2R  1 a  I B 

Similarly for voltage:-

 VR  1 1 1   V0R 
V  = 1
.1 a
2  
a . V1R eq. 2-4.3
 W 3 1 2  
 VB   a a   V2R 

And

 V0R  1 1 1   VR 
 V  = 1 .1 a
2 
a . VW eq. 2-4.4
 1R  3   
a
2
 V2R  1 a   VB 

In abbreviated notation:-

[IRWB ] = [A][. I120 ]

[I120 ] = [A]-1.[IRWB ]
and similarly for voltages.

Writing eq. 2-4.4 as three separate equations:-

V0R =
1
3
(
. VR + VW + VB ) i)

V1R =
1
3
(
. VR + a.VW + a 2 .VB ) ii )

V2R =
1
3
(
. VR + a 2 .VW + a.VB ) iii )

Equation (i) shows that there is no zero-sequence voltage in a balanced three-phase system because the sum of the
balanced voltage phasors is zero.

In an unbalanced three-phase system, line-to-neutral voltages may have a zero-sequence component. But line-to-line
voltages never have a zero-sequence component since their sum is always zero.

Likewise from eq. 2-4.2 we have that:-

I 0R =
1
3
(
. IR + I W + IB ) iv )

Now, in a three-phase Y-connected system, the neutral current In is the sum of the line currents:-

In = IR + I W + IB

Thus,

I n = 3.I 0

i.e. neutral current equals three times the zero-sequence current.

Thus in a balanced Y-connection, line currents have no zero-sequence component, since the neutral current is zero.
Also on a three-wire system (D-connection or unearthed Y-connection), line currents have no zero-sequence
component.

Example 1: Balanced Line-to-Neutral Voltages

Calculate the sequence components of the following balanced Line-to-Neutral voltages with R Y B sequence.

 VRN   277 ∠0 
O

 V  = 277∠ − 120O 
 WN   
 VBN  277∠ + 120 O 

V0R =
1
3
(
. VR + VW + VB ) i)

V1R =
1
3
(
. VR + a.VW + a 2 .VB ) ii )

V2R =
1
3
(
. VR + a 2 .VW + a.VB ) iii )

Inserting the respective values and solving:-

V0 =
1
3
(
. 277 ∠0 o + 277 ∠ − 120 o + 277 ∠ + 120 o )
=
1
3
( () ( ) (
. 277 1 + 277 − 0,5 - j0,866 + 277. − 0,5 + j0,866 ))
=
1
3
(
.277 1 − 0,5 − 0,5 - j0,866 + j0,866 )
=0

V1 =
1
3
(
. 277 ∠0 o + 1∠ + 120 o.277 ∠ − 120 o + 1∠ + 240 o.277 ∠ + 120 o )
=
1
3
(
. 277 ∠0 o + 277 ∠0 o + 277 ∠ + 360 o )
=
1
3
(
. 277 ∠0 o + 277 ∠0 o + 277 ∠0 o )
o
= 277 ∠0

= VRN

V2 =
1
3
( . 277 ∠0 o + 1∠ + 240 o.277 ∠ − 120 o + 1∠ + 120 o.277 ∠ + 120 o
o
)
=
1
3
(
. 277 ∠0 o + 277 ∠ + 120 o + 277 ∠ + 240 o )
=
1
3
(
.277. 1 − 0,5 + j0,866 − 0,5 − j0,866 )
=0

Thus, a balanced three-phase system with R Y B sequence (or positive sequence) has no zero-sequence or negative-
sequence components.

Example 2: Balanced currents but R B Y (reversed) sequence

 IR   10∠0 
o

I  = 10∠ + 120 o 
 W  
 IB  10∠ − 120o 

Calculate the sequence currents:-

I 0R =
1
3
(
. IR + I W + IB ) iv )

I 1R =
1
3
(
. IR + a.I W + a2 .IB ) v)

I 2R =
1
3
(
. IR + a 2 .I W + a.IB ) vi )

I0 =
1
3
(
. IR + I W + IB )
=
1
3
(
. 10 ∠0o + 10 ∠ + 120o + 10 ∠ − 120o )
=
1
3
(
.10. 1 − 0,5 + j0,866 + −0,5 − j0,866 )
=0

I1 =
1
3
(
. IR + a .I W + a 2 .IB )
=
1
3
( ( )
. 10 ∠0o + 1∠ + 120o .10 ∠ + 120o + 1∠ + 240o .10 ∠ − 120o ( ) )
=
1
3
(
. 10 ∠0o + 10 ∠ + 240o + 10 ∠ + 120o )
=
1
3
(
.10. 1 − 0,5 − j0,866 − 0,5 + j0,866 )
=0

I2 =
1
3
(
. I R + a 2 .I W + a . I B )
=
1
3
( ( )
. 10 ∠0o + 1∠ + 240o .10 ∠ + 120o + 1∠ + 120o .10 ∠ − 120o ( ) )
=
1
3
(
. 10 ∠0o + 10 ∠ + 360o + 10 ∠0o )
=
1
3
(
.10. 1 + 1 + 1 )
o
= 10 ∠0

= IR

This example illustrates the fact that balanced three-phase systems with R B Y (or negative sequence) have no zero-
sequence or positive-sequence components.

Example 3: Unbalanced currents - phase Y open.

 I R   10∠0 
o

I  =  
 W  0 
 I B  10∠ + 120 o 

Calculate the sequence currents.

I 0R =
1
3
(
. IR + I W + IB ) iv )

I 1R =
1
3
(
. IR + a.I W + a2 .IB ) v)

I 2R =
1
3
(
. IR + a 2 .I W + a.IB ) vi )

I0 =
1
3
(
. IR + I W + IB )
=
1
3
(
. 10 ∠0o + 0 + 10 ∠ + 120o )
=
1
3
( )
.10. 1 + 0 − 0,5 + j0,866

= 3,333.(+ 0,5 + j0,866 )

o
= 3,333 ∠ + 60

I1 =
1
3
(
. I R + a . I W + a 2 .I B )
=
1
3
( (
. 10 ∠0o + 0 + 1∠ + 240o .10 ∠ + 120o ) )
=
1
3
(
. 10 ∠0o + 0 + 10 ∠ + 360o )
=
1
3
(
.10. 1 + 0 + 1 )
o
= 6,667 ∠0

I2 =
1
3
(
. IR + a2 .I W + a .IB )
=
1
3
( (
. 10 ∠0o + 0 + 1∠ + 120o .10 ∠ + 120o ) )
=
1
3
(
. 10 ∠0o + 0 + 10 ∠ + 240o )
=
1
3
(
.10. 1 + 0 − 0,5 - j0,866 )
=
1
3
(
.10. + 0,5 - j0,866 )
o
= 3,333 ∠ - 60

Also, the neutral current is:-

In = IR + I W + IB
o o
= 10 ∠0 + 0 + 10 ∠ + 120
(
= 10.(1) + 0 + 10 - 0,5 + j0,866 )
o
= 10 ∠ + 60
= 3.I 0

This example illustrates the fact that unbalanced three-phase systems may have values for all sequence components.
Also, the neutral current equals three times the zero-sequence currents.

Example: In an unbalanced three-phase system

o o o
VR = 4 ∠0 , VW = 3 ∠ − 90 , VB = 8 ∠ + 143,1

Find all the voltage components of the corresponding positive, negative and zero-sequence components, and draw the
phasors.

Solution:-

Taking VR as reference

Zero sequence:-

V0R =
1
(
. VR + VW + VB ) i)
3 V1R = V0W = V0B

=
1
3
(
. 4 ∠0 + 3 ∠ − 90o + 8 ∠ + 143,1o ) 1,0 +j0,6 o
143,1
=
1
3
( (
. 4 − j3 + 8 − 0,8 + j0,6 ))
-0,8
= −0,8 + j0,6
o
= 1∠143,1

= V0W = V0B

Positive sequence:-

V1R =
1
3
(
. VR + a.VW + a 2 .VB ) ii )

=
1
3
( ( )(
. 4 ∠0 + 1∠ + 120o.3 ∠ − 90o + 1∠ + 240o.8 ∠ + 143,1o ))
=
1
3
(
. 4 ∠0 + 3 ∠ + 30o + 8 ∠ + 23,1o )
=
1
3
(
. 13,96 + j34,64 )
= 4,64 + j1,55
o
= 4,9 ∠18,4

Negative Sequence:-

V2R =
1
3
(
. VR + a2 .VW + a.VB ) iii )

=
1
3
( ( )(
. 4 ∠0 + 1∠ + 240o.3 ∠ − 90o + 1∠ + 120o.8 ∠ + 143,1o ))
=
1
3
(
. 4 ∠0 + 3 ∠ + 150o + 8 ∠ + 263,1o )
=
1
3
(
. 0,43 − j6,43 )
= 0,143 − j2,15
o
= 2,15 ∠ − 86,2
o
V2R = 2,15 ∠ − 86,2 ,

(
V2W = 2,15 ∠ − 86,2o + 120o = 2,15 ∠ + 33,8
o
)
(
V2B = 2,15 ∠ − 86,2o − 120o = 2,15 ∠ − 206,2 )
o

CHECK:
VR = V0R + V1R + V2R

( ) (
= − 0,8 + j0,6 + 4,64 + j1,55 + 0,143 − j2,15 ) ( )
= 3,982 + j0
o
≈ 4 ∠0 (Correct)

VB
o
V1B
8 143,1
o
120
o 4,9 V1R
36,9 o
4 18,4

V1W

ACTUAL SYSTEM POSITIVE SEQUENCE

V1R = V0W = V0B

o V2Y o
120 2,15 143,1
V2B
o
33,8

o
-86,2

V2R

NEGATIVE SEQUENCE ZERO SEQUENCE

S.L.D.G. 3-1

AN INTRODUCTION TO THE ELECTRICAL SYSTEM

1. ELECTRICAL SYSTEM

An Electric Power System is a complex assemblage of equipment and circuits for generating, transmitting,
transforming, and distributing electrical energy.

Electricity in the large quantities required to supply electric power systems is produced in generating stations,
commonly called power plants. Such generating stations, however, should be considered as conversion facilities in
which the heat energy of fuel (coal, oil, gas, or uranium) or the hydraulic energy of laterally moving or falling water is
converted to electricity.

The transmission system carries electric power efficiently and in large amounts from generating stations to
consumption areas. Such transmission is also used to interconnect adjacent power systems for mutual assistance in
case of emergency and to gain for the interconnected power systems the economies possible in regional operation.

Another approach to high-voltage long-distance transmission is high-voltage direct current (HVDC), which offers the
advantages of less costly lines, lower transmission losses, and insensitivity to many system problems that restrict
alternating-current systems. Its greatest disadvantage is the need for costly equipment for converting the sending-end
power to direct current, and for converting the receiving-end direct-current power to alternating current for further a.c.
transmission or distribution to consumers.

As systems grow and the number and size of generating units increase, and as transmission networks expand, higher
levels of bulk-power-system reliability are attained through properly coordinated interconnections among separate
systems. Many regional electric utilities now operate as members of power pools (United States and a large part of
Canada, Europe, West Africa, Southern African Power Pool). In the future, these pools may in turn be interconnected
into one gigantic power grid via HVDC schemes. The operation of these interconnections will in turn require
coordination from a central point. Each individual utility in such pools operates independently, but has contractual
arrangements with other members in respect to generation additions and scheduling of operation. Their participation in
a power pool affords a higher level of service reliability and important economic advantages.

Power delivered by transmission circuits must be stepped down in facilities called substations to voltages more suitable
for use in industrial and residential areas.

That part of the electric power system that takes power from a bulk-power substation to customers' switches,
commonly about 35% of the total plant investment, is called distribution.

The operation and control of the generation-transmission-distribution grid is quite complex because this large system
has to operate in synchronism and because many different organizations may be responsible for different portions of
the grid. In Southern Africa, North America and Europe, many public and private electric power companies are
interconnected, often across national boundaries. Thus, many organizations have to coordinate to operate the grid, and
this coordination can take many forms, from a loose agreement of operational principles to a strong pooling
arrangement of operating together.

Power-system operations can be divided into three stages: operations planning, real-time control, and after-the-fact
accounting. The main goal is to minimize operations cost while maintaining the reliability (security) of power delivery to
customers. Operations planning is the optimal scheduling of generation resources to meet anticipated demand in the
next few hours, weeks, or months. This includes the scheduling of water, fossil fuels, and equipment maintenance over
many weeks, and the commitment (start-up and shutdown) of generating units over many hours. Real-time control of
the system is required to respond to the actual demand of electricity and any unforeseen contingencies (equipment

outages). Maintaining security of the system so that a possible contingency cannot disrupt power supply is an integral
part of real-time control. After-the-fact accounting is the tracking of purchases and sales of energy between
organizations so that billing can be generated.

For loosely coordinated operation of the grid, each utility takes responsibility for the operation of its own portion while
exchanging all relevant information. For pool-type operations, a hierarchy is set up where the operational decisions
may be made centrally and then implemented by each utility. For a large utility such as Eskom, there may be another
level in the hierarchy where the decisions are further distributed to different geographical areas of the same utility. All of
this requires significant data communication as well as engineering computation within a utility as well as between
utilities. The use of modern computers and communications makes this possible, and the heart of system operations in
a utility is the energy control centre, such as the National Control Centre (NCC).

The monitoring and control of a power system from a centralized control centre became desirable quite early in the
development of electric power systems, when generating stations were connected together to supply the same loads.
As electrical utilities interconnected and evolved into complex networks of generators, transmission lines, distribution
feeders, and loads, the control centre became the operations headquarters for each utility. Since the generation and
delivery of electrical energy are controlled from this centre, it is referred to as the energy control centre or energy
management system.

Summarising therefore, a transmission grid is a network of power stations, transmission circuits, and substations.
Energy is usually transmitted within the grid with three-phase AC. DC systems require relatively costly conversion
equipment which may be economically justified for particular projects. Figure 1 illustrates a typical electrical network
from the generation of power, the transmission and distribution of this power, and the consumption of the power by the
end user. It can be thought of as Grid Input and Transmission Grid Exit.

1.1 Transmission Grid Input

At the generating plants the energy is produced at a relatively low voltage between about 2.3 kV and 30 kV,
depending on the size of the unit. The generator terminal voltage is then stepped up by the power station transformer
(generator transformer) to a higher voltage (132 kV to 765 kV AC, varying by country) for transmission over long
distances

1.2 Transmission Grid Exit

At the substations, transformers reduce the voltage to a lower level for distribution to commercial and residential
users. This distribution is accomplished with a combination of sub-transmission (33 kV to 132 kV, varying by country
and customer requirements) and distribution (3,3 to 33 kV). Finally, at the point of use, the energy is transformed to low
voltage (100 to 600 V, varying by country and customer requirements).

TX Lines
(220kV → 400kV → 765kV)

TX Switching Substation
Power Station High Voltage (765kV, 400kV) TX Substation
Yard (11/22kV→400kV)
(765kV→400kV→132kV)

DX Lines
DX Subs (11kV→132kV)
(132kV→22kV)

DX Subs
DX Subs Mining (132kV→88kV)
(88kV→33kV)
( →11kV)

DX Lines
(11kV→132kV)

Heavy Industrial Municipal Subs

(88kV→11kV)
DX Subs ( →400V)
TX – Transmission (88kV→22kV)
DX – Distribution ( →11kV)

Light Industrial Residential

Figure 1: A Typical Electrical Network from Power Generation to End Consumer

2. GENERATION OF POWER – THE POWER STATION

The origin of power in an electrical gid system is the power station. At the center of nearly all power stations is a
generator, a rotating machine that converts mechanical energy into electrical energy by creating relative motion
between a magnetic field and a conductor, and a modular synth from which all power comes. The energy source
harnessed to turn the generator varies widely. It depends chiefly on which fuels are easily available and on the types of
technology that the power company has access to. Power is generated at several voltages which are amongst others
11 kV, 15 kV, 20 kV, 22 kV and 33 kV.

2.1 Thermal Power Station

In thermal power stations, mechanical power is produced by a heat engine that transforms thermal energy, often from
combustion of a fuel, into rotational energy. Most thermal power stations produce steam, and these are sometimes
called steam power stations. Not all thermal energy can be transformed into mechanical power, according to the
second law of thermodynamics. Therefore, there is always heat lost to the environment. If this loss is employed as
useful heat, for industrial processes or district heating, the power plant is referred to as a cogeneration power plant
or CHP (combined heat-and-power) plant. In countries where district heating is common, there are dedicated heat
plants called heat-only boiler stations. An important class of power stations in the Middle East uses by-product heat
for the desalination of water.

Thermal power plants are classified by the type of fuel and the type of prime mover installed.

2.1.1 Classification by Fuel

• Nuclear power plants use a nuclear reactor's heat to operate a steam turbine generator. About 4,5% of
electric generation in South Africa is produced by nuclear power plants.

• Fossil fuelled power plants may also use a steam turbine generator or in the case of natural gas fired plants
may use a combustion turbine. A coal-fired power station produces electricity by burning coal to generate
steam, and has the side-effect of producing a large amount of carbon dioxide, which is released from burning
coal and contributes to global warming. About 90% of electric generation in South Africa is produced by coal
fired power plants

• Geothermal power plants use steam extracted from hot underground rocks.

• Renewable energy plants or * Biomass Fuelled Power Plants may be fuelled by waste from sugar cane,
municipal solid waste, landfill methane, or other forms of biomass.

• In integrated steel mills, blast furnace exhaust gas (carbon monoxide – CO) is a low-cost, although low-energy-
density, fuel.

• Waste heat from industrial processes is occasionally concentrated enough to use for power generation, usually
in a steam boiler and turbine.

• Solar thermal electric plants use sunlight to boil water, which turns the generator.

2.1.2 Classification by Prime Mover

• Steam turbine plants use the dynamic pressure generated by expanding steam to turn the blades of a turbine.
Almost all large non-hydro plants use this system. About 80% of all electric power produced in the world is by use
of steam turbines.

• Gas turbine plants use the dynamic pressure from flowing gases (air and combustion products) to directly
operate the turbine. Natural-gas fuelled (and oil fueled) combustion turbine plants can start rapidly and so are
used to supply "peak" energy during periods of high demand, though at higher cost than base-loaded plants.

These may be comparatively small units, and sometimes completely unmanned, being remotely operated. This
type was pioneered by the UK, Princetown being the world's first, commissioned in 1959.

• Combined cycle plants have both a gas turbine fired by natural gas, and a steam boiler and steam turbine which
use the hot exhaust gas from the gas turbine to produce electricity. This greatly increases the overall efficiency of
the plant, and many new baseload power plants are combined cycle plants fired by natural gas.

• Internal combustion Reciprocating engines are used to provide power for isolated communities and are
frequently used for small cogeneration plants. Hospitals, office buildings, industrial plants, and other critical
facilities also use them to provide backup power in case of a power outage. These are usually fuelled by diesel
oil, heavy oil, natural gas and landfill gas.

• Microturbines, Stirling engine and internal combustion reciprocating engines are low-cost solutions for using
opportunity fuels, such as landfill gas, digester gas from water treatment plants and waste gas from oil production.

2.2 Other Sources of Energy

Some power stations use the energy from the energy of falling water, hydroelectricity.

2.1.3 Hydroelectric Plant

Hydroelectric dams impound a reservoir of water and release it through one or more water turbines to generate
electricity.

Figure 2: A Hydro-electric Plant

2.1.4 Pumped storage

A pumped storage hydroelectric power plant is a net consumer of energy but decreases the price of electricity. Water
is pumped to a high reservoir when the demand, and price, for electricity is low. During hours of peak demand, when
the price of electricity is high, the stored water is released through turbines to produce electric power.

Figure 3: A Pump Storage Hydro-electric Plant

A common analogy for operation of a pump storage system is the charging of a battery and then the discharging of the
battery when the energy is required.

Figure 4: A Pump Storage Hydro-electric Plant

2.1.5 Solar

2.1.5.1 Photovoltaic Power Plant

A solar photovoltaic power plant uses photovoltaic cells to convert sunlight into direct current electricity using the
photoelectric effect. This type of plant does not use rotating machines for energy conversion.

Figure 5: Photo-voltaic Installation - 15 MW Plant

2.1.5.2 Parabolic Trough Power Plant

Solar thermal power plants are another type of solar power plant. They use either parabolic troughs or heliostats to
direct sunlight onto a pipe containing a heat transfer fluid, such as oil. The heated oil is then used to boil water into
steam, which turns a turbine that drives an electrical generator.

Figure 6: Parabolic Trough Solar Power Plant

2.1.5.3 Concentrated Solar Power Plant

There is yet another type of solar thermal electric plant. The sunlight strikes the bottom of a water pond, warming the
lowest layer of water which is prevented from rising by a salt gradient. A Rankine cycle engine exploits the
temperature difference in the water layers to produce electricity.

Figure 7: Solar Thermal Electric with Thermal Storage also Called CSP (Concentrating Solar Power) with
Storage

The central tower type of solar thermal power plant uses hundreds or thousands of mirrors, depending on size, to direct
sunlight onto a receiver on top of a tower as shown in Figure. Again, the heat is used to produce steam to turn turbines
that drive electrical generators.

Figure 8: 20-Megawatt Solar-Power Tower in Sevilla

Not many solar thermal electric plants have been built. Most of them can be found in the Mojave Desert of the United
States although Sandia National Laboratory (again in the United States), Israel and Spain have also built a few plants.

2.1.6 Solar/Wind: Upward Draft Solar Power Plant

One of the ways to harness the sun’s light for energy production is called solar chimney technology. The idea behind
solar chimneys, also called solar towers to avoid confusion with polluting industrial chimneys, is very simple.

A flat, massive greenhouse is placed in a wide open space where it can receive sunlight. In the center of the
greenhouse is a very tall, hollow tower. As the sun shines down on the greenhouse glass, the air inside the
greenhouse will heat up dramatically and want to rise. The only place for it to escape will be through the narrow tower
in the center. Because the rising air is forced to move through a smaller area it will speed up, creating a wind. As the
wind blows upward it turns turbines located at intervals within the tower.

Additionally, the efficiency of the tower is determined by the difference between the temperature in the collector and the
temperature of the environment at the top of the tower. A 1°C drop in temperature over every 100m facilitates the
necessary updraft effect from the tower. The concept ensures effective operation even on cooler days, as it is primarily
dependent upon the temperature differential between the air under the collector and air at the top of the tower.

Even though this technology is simple, for it to be efficient it requires a large area of greenhouse and a very tall tower.
There are currently no solar towers in use commercially. A 650-foot prototype tower generating 50 MW was built in
Manzanares, Spain in 1982 and ran for approximately 15,000 hours until 1989. After the initial trial and error period
was over, the tower had a 32-month period of daily operation during which it ran for an average of 8.9 hours per day.
During this time it had a 0.53% solar to electricity efficiency, which could be increased to 1.3% in a 100 MW unit.

Figure 9: 200-Megawatt Upward Draft Solar-Power Tower

2.1.7 Wind

Wind turbines can be used to generate electricity in areas with strong, steady winds, sometimes offshore. Many
different designs have been used in the past, but almost all modern turbines being produced today use a three-bladed,
upwind design. Grid-connected wind turbines now being built are much larger than the units installed during the 1970s,
and so produce power more cheaply and reliably than earlier models. With larger turbines (of the order of one
megawatt), the blades move more slowly than older, smaller, units, which makes them less visually distracting and
safer for airborne animals. Old turbines are still used at some wind farms, for example at Altamont Pass and Tehachapi
Pass.

Figure 10: Wind Turbines

2.1.8 Other sources of energy

Other power stations use the energy from wave or tidal motion, wind, and sunlight. These types of energy sources
are called renewable energy.

2.1.8.1 Wave

Figure 11: Wave Turbines

Figure 12: Wave Energy Converter 3 machines totalling 2.25 megawatts

2.1.8.2 Tidal

Figure 13: Ocean Current Turbine

Figure 14: Marine Current Turbine

Figure 15: La Rance Barrage in Normandy (Been able to produce up to 240 megawatts of power since 1966)

Figure 16: La Rance Barrage

2.1.8.3 Renewable-Biogas

This generally refers to power plants where the major fuel is biomass. This can vary from virgin forest material, or
reclaimed biomass such as demolition timbers, scrap furniture, and contaminated paper and card recovered from
municipal waste.

The dominant technology is essentially combustion with the heat being used to raise steam in a boiler and the steam to
then operate a steam turbine.

There are numerous variants on this, including gasification–pyrolysis.

Many biomass power plants are purpose built for the fuel they will consume, but many coal-fired power plants have
been adapted to burn a large proportion of biomass.

Sizes range from a few MW to hundreds of MW.

Size tends to be restricted by the distance the fuel needs to be hauled, since biomass is not a very dense fuel.

Figure 17: Biogas Power Generation - 200 million kilowatt-hours, meeting 400 thousand residents’ needs for
daily electricity

Figure16: Hamilton Renewable Power - Biogas Digester 1.6 MW Cogeneration Hamilton, Ontario

2.2 The Power Plant

2.2.1 Single-phase Power

The power plant produces a single phase signal, with two wires out of the plant, the single phase plus a neutral or
ground.
o
90
1

½
o
180
o φ 0
0 o
360
-½

-1
o
270

a) b)

Figure17: Three-Phase Power Generation

If the vector rotates at 3000 revolutions per second, this translates to:

3000
= 50 r.p.s
60
= 50 Hz

2.2.2 Three-phase Power

The power plant produces three different phases of AC power simultaneously, and the three phases are offset 120
degrees from each other. There are four wires coming out of every power plant: the three phases plus a neutral or
ground common to all three. If you were to look at the three phases on a graph, they would look like this relative to
ground:

ω
1
1
½

0
1 1
½ ½
-½

-1

a) b)

Figure17: Three-Phase Power Generation

There is nothing magical about three-phase power. It is simply three single phases synchronized and offset by 120
degrees.

Why three phases? Why not one or two or four? In 1-phase and 2-phase power, there are 120 moments per second
when a sine wave is crossing zero volts. In 3-phase power, at any given moment one of the three phases is nearing a
peak. High-power 3-phase motors (used in industrial applications) and things like 3-phase welding equipment therefore
have even power output. Four phases would not significantly improve things but would add a fourth wire, so 3-phase is
the natural settling point.

And what about this "ground," as mentioned above? The power company essentially uses the earth as one of the wires
in the power system. The earth is a pretty good conductor and it is huge, so it makes a good return path for electrons.
(Car manufacturers do something similar; they use the metal body of the car as one of the wires in the car's electrical
system and attach the negative pole of the battery to the car's body.) "Ground" in the power distribution grid is literally
"the ground" that's all around you when you are walking outside. It is the dirt, rocks, groundwater, etc., of the earth

3. ELECTRICAL SUBSTATION

An electrical substation is a subsidiary station of an electricity generation, transmission and distribution system where
voltage is transformed from low to high or from high to low using transformers. Electric power may flow through several
substations between generating plant and consumer, and may be changed in voltage in several steps.

A substation that has a step-up transformer increases the voltage while decreasing the current, while a step-down
transformer decreases the voltage while increasing the current for domestic and commercial distribution. The word
substation comes from the days before the distribution system became a grid. The first substations were connected to
only one power station where the generator was housed, and were subsidiaries of that power station.

A step-up transmission substation receives electric power from a nearby generating facility and uses a large power
transformer to increase the voltage for transmission to distant locations. A transmission bus is used to distribute electric
power to one or more transmission lines. There can also be a tap on the incoming power feed from the generation plant
to provide electric power to operate equipment in the generation plant. This is, however, generally not done at voltages
above 132 kV as the higher voltages usually imply more important circuits.

Step-down transmission substations are located at switching points in an electrical grid. They connect different parts
of a grid and are a source for sub-transmission lines or distribution lines. The step-down substation can change the
transmission voltage to a sub-transmission voltage, usually 145 kV and below. The sub-transmission voltage lines can
then serve as a source to distribution substations. Sometimes, power is tapped from the sub-transmission line for use
in an industrial facility along the way. Otherwise, the power goes to a distribution substation.

A substation can have circuit breakers that are used to switch generation and transmission circuits in and out of service
as needed or for emergencies requiring shut-down of power to a circuit or redirection of power.

The specific voltages leaving a step-up transmission substation are determined by the customer needs of the utility
supplying power and to the requirements of any connections to regional grids.

Table 1: Classification of Voltages

Medium Voltage (MV) ac: 3,6 kV; 7,2 kV; 12 kV; 24 kV, 36 kV; 48 kV
High voltage (HV) ac: 72 kV, 88 kV, 132 kV, 170 kV, 245 kV, 300 kV
Extra-high voltage (EHV) ac: 345 kV, 500 kV, 765 kV
Ultra-high voltage (UHV) ac: 1100 kV, 1200 kV, 1500 kV
Direct-current high voltage (dc HV): ±250 kV, ±400 kV, ±500 kV, ±600 kV, ±800 kV

Direct current voltage is either positive or negative polarity. A DC line has two conductors, so one would be positive
and the other negative.

3.1 Elements of a Substation at a Glance

Substations generally have switching, protection and control equipment and one or more transformers. In a large
substation, circuit breakers are used to interrupt any short-circuits or overloaded currents that may occur on the
network. Smaller distribution stations may use recloser circuit breakers or fuses for protection of distribution circuits.
Substations do not usually have generators, although a power plant may have a substation nearby. Other devices
such as power factor correction capacitors and voltage regulators may also be located at a substation.

Substations may be on the surface in fenced enclosures, underground, or located in special-purpose buildings. High-
rise buildings may have several indoor substations. Indoor substations are usually found in urban areas to reduce the
noise from the transformers, for reasons of appearance, or to protect switchgear from extreme climate or pollution
conditions.

Where a substation has a metallic fence, it must be properly grounded or earthed to protect people from high voltages
that may occur during a fault in the network. Earth faults at a substation can cause a ground potential rise (GPR)
leading to a significantly different voltage than the ground under a person's feet; this touch potential presents a
hazard of electrocution.

3.2 Switching function

An important function performed by a substation is switching, which is the connecting and disconnecting of
transmission lines or other components to and from the system. Switching events may be "planned" or "unplanned".

A transmission line or other component may need to be deenergized for maintenance or for new construction; for
example, adding or removing a transmission line or a transformer.

To maintain reliability of supply, no company ever brings down its whole system for maintenance. All work to be
performed, from routine testing to adding entirely new substations, must be done while keeping the whole system
running.

Perhaps more importantly, a fault may develop in a transmission line or any other component. Some examples of this:
a line is hit by lightning and develops an arc, or a tower is blown down by a high wind. The function of the substation is
to isolate the faulted portion of the system in the shortest possible time.

There are two main reasons:

3.2.1 a fault tends to cause equipment damage; and

3.2.2 it tends to destabilize the whole system.

For example, a transmission line left in a faulted condition will eventually burn down, and similarly, a transformer left in
a faulted condition will eventually blow up. While these are happening, the power drain makes the system more
unstable. Disconnecting the faulted component, quickly, tends to minimize both of these problems.

3.3 Power Station High Voltage Yard

2
The transmission of large blocks of power at generation voltages is totally impractical due to I R losses, particularly
over large distances. For this reason, the power at generation voltages are stepped up to power at transmission
voltages, viz. 220 kV to as high as 800 kV. The increase in voltage for the same power level implies a reduction in
2
current, and so I R losses are reduced. As an example, one can consider a 600 MW generator at 22 kV, the power
then being transformed to 400 kV.

S (kVA)
I= eq. 3-1.1
3 .VL (kV)

6
600.10
I 20 =
3
3 .22.10
= 15746 A
2 2
I R = (15746) .R
6
600.10
I 400 = 3
3 .400.10
= 866 A
2 2
I R = (866) .R
2
Ratio of I R losses

2
 600.106 
 
(I 20 )2 .R = 3 .400.103 
(I 400 )2 .R  600.106 
2

 
 3 .20.103 
2
 600.10
6
3 .400.10
3

=  3
. 6

 3 .22.10 600.10 
2
 400 
= 
 22 
= 330,6
The example above illustrates how the power loss is greatly reduced with the increase in voltage and corresponding
reduction in current for the same power transmission. In this case, by increasing the voltage from 22 kV to 400 kV, the
loss is reduced almost 331 times for the same value of resistance R. The longer the line, the higher the resistance.
Then there is also the reactive component of power that needs to be considered, viz. due to inductance and
capacitance. Transmission lines have high values of series inductance (L) which lead to large vaues of inductive
reactance (XL)

XL = 2.π.f.L eq. 3-1.2

= 2.π.50.L

= 100.π.L

Correspondingly, transmission lines have high values of shunt capacitance (C) which lead to smaller vaues of
capacitive reactance (XC) due to the inverse relationship of XC and C.

1
XC =
2.π.f.C
1
= eq. 3-1.3
2.π.50.C
1
=
100.π.C

The total impedance of the line is therefore:

Z = R + j(XL – XC) eq. 3-1.4

2
One can therefore deduce that the longer the line, the larger Z will become, hence increasing I Z losses.

High voltage yards are therefore a necessary component of the power station installation for the evacuation of the
power generated. The power station is therefore integrated into the electrical network via the HV yard in such a manner
so as to ensure power system stability.

3.4 Transmission Losses

The power that is transferred is proportional to the voltage drop across the line.

Ptransfer ∝ volt drop across line

Depending on the line voltage, there is a maximum and a minimum voltage within which the system voltage can
fluctuate. These are as follows:

Voltages up to and including 275 kV: Umin = 0,90.Un, Umax = 1,10.Un

Voltages up to and exceeding 275 kV: Umin = 0,95.Un, Umax = 1, 50.Un

1,05pu 1,10pu 1,10pu

0,95pu 0,90pu
1pu

Un = 20 kV Un = 400 kV Un = 132 kV Un = 66 kV

Figure 18: Sending and receiving End Voltages in an Electrical System

The transformer tap range is usually -15% to +5%, i.e. (1 – 0,15) to (1 + 0,05) which gives 0,85pu to 1,05pu.

1,10pu
0,95pu

Vin Vout

Figure 19: Transformer Tap Settings

If the tap was set on 0,86pu, The voltage would be:

0,95
Voltage =
0,86
= 1,105

Voltage Rise = 0,105pu or 10,5 %

Vout = 0,95.1,105

= 1,05pu

The maximum power transfer across the system would therefore be realised if the sending end voltage was at Umax
and the receiving end voltage was at Umin.

Ptransfer = Pmax if VS = 1,05pu

VR = 0,95pu
2
V
Ptransfer = eq. 3-1.5
Z
2
Ptransfer ∝ V

P1 V 12
= eq. 3-1.6
P1 V 22

If a 132 kV line can transfer 1 unit of power, then a 400 kV line can transfer:

P400 V 2400
= 2
P132 V 132

V 2400
P400 = 2 .P132
V 132

400 2
= .1
132 2

≈ 9 units

If a 132 kV line can transfer 1 unit of power, then a 765 kV line can transfer:
2
P765 V 765
= 2
P132 V 132
2
V 765
P765 = 2 .P132
V 132

765 2
= .1
132 2

≈ 33 units

If a 400 kV line can transfer 1 unit of power, then a 765 kV line can transfer:
2
P765 V 765
=
P400 V 2400
2
V 765
P765 = .P400
V 2400

765 2
= .1
400 2

≈ 3,65 units

Other transmission losses are made up from the following:

2
• I .XL MVAr Magnetic field
2
• I .XC MVAr Electric field (capacitive charge)
• Corona Light energy
• Noise Audible energy
• RIV

Related to the power transfer capability, one must remember that the line has a given apparent power (S – MVA)
rating. This apparent power has a real component (P – MW) and a reactive component (Q – MVAr). The reactive
component is the vector sum of the inductive and capacitive reactance as given in eq. 3-1.4. This could be illustrated in
terms of a glass of beer.

Froth
MVAr

MVA
Beer
MW

XL R XC
Ι

MVA

+MVAr
MW

-
MVAr
MVA

CONSUMER PAYS FOR MVA

Figure 20: Components of Apparent Power

3.5 Economic Voltage of Transmission of Power

In a power system, the cost of conductor material is a large item of expense and is greatly affected by the choice of
voltage at different levels. However, higher system voltages will entail more cost of insulation in equipments like
transformers, circuit-breakers and switches as also in transmission and distribution channels.

The cost of insulation increases rapidly with increasing voltages. There is therefore, a voltage level beyond which it is
uneconomical to go. It will be profitable to give consideration to other means like compensation by means of capacitors
to increase the power limit of lines. However, the question remains as to how to select the transmission and distribution
voltage levels. Attempts have been made to determine these levels by mathematical expressions based upon
economic considerations.

The underlying principle is to express the total annual cost CT, as a function of conductor cross section A, and
voltage V and then to equate the incremental cost to zero resulting in the system voltage and conductor area for most
economic operation.

The total annual cost, CT comprises of a fixed cost and an operational cost.

The fixed cost is the interest and depreciation on capital cost on towers, conductors, insulation and line equipments
and the operational cost is the cost of energy loss.

3.5.1 Choice of Voltage

CT = (annual interest and depreciation on capital cost) + (annual cost on energy losses)

1. The capital cost increases rapidly with voltage level.

2. The annual cost of energy lost is dependent on conductor cross section, voltage, power factor and a loss load factor
to take care of variation of losses due to change in load from time to time.

This operational cost decreases with voltage being inversely proportional to the square of voltage level. The cost CT
per unit length of line and unit power transfer can then be expressed as:

(
C T = ƒ A, V ) eq. 3-1.7

For minimum cost:

∂ƒ
=0 eq. 3-1.8
∂A

∂ƒ
=0 eq. 3-1.9
∂V

If the function ƒ can be defined accurately, above equation will give the most economic voltage level conductor
cross sectional area.

However, the function ƒ is dependent on many factors and is complicated enough to be described mathematically.
Hence, determination of voltage following this economic basis is unsatisfactory.

Figure 21 below gives a graphical representation of transmission cost as a function of voltage level.
Transmission Cost Per Unit Energy Transmitted

Total Cost

Fixed Cost

Operational Cost

Optimal Voltage (kV)

Line Voltage (kV)

Figure 21: Economic Voltage Level

A preliminary estimate of the economical line voltage can be obtained from any of the two empirical relations:

l S
VL = 5,5. + eq. 3-1.10
1,6 150.10 - 3

l 3.P
VL = 5,5. + eq. 3-1.11
1,6 100.10 - 3

where:

VL = Transmission line voltage in kilovolts (kV)

ℓ = The line distance over which the power must be transmitted in kilometres (km)
S = The power that is to be transmitted over this line length in mega-volt-amperes
(MVA)
P = The estimated maximum power per phase to be delivered in mega-watts
(MW)

Using any of the empirical relations, a preliminary estimate is made. A suitable voltage level, then, should be chosen
after making a complete economic study of two or three voltage levels existing in the interconnected system, which are
close to the estimated value. In South Africa, the common voltage levels are:

Transmission level: 765 kV, 400 kV, 275 kV, 220 kV, 132 kV, 88 kV, 66 kV

Primary distribution level: 42 kV, 33 kV, 22 kV, 11 kV, 6.6 kV

Secondary distribution level: 400 V (line to line) 230 V (phase)

Example: Required to transmit 3500 MVA over a distance of 500 km.

l S
VL = 5,5. +
1,6 150.10 3

500 3500
= 5,5. +
1,6 150.10 3
= 5,5.153,77
= 845,74 kV

The current closest operating transmission line voltage is 765 kV. Lines with higher voltages are presently only in the
experimental phase such as in China where two 1100 kV substations and a line interconnecting them is being tested.
India is looking at 1200 kV and Japan at 1600 kV. A 1100 kV line would have been a better selection if it were
commercially available.

Table 2: Examples of Economic Voltage to Transfer a given Amount of Power verses Distance of Transmission

Required Power Transfer Transmission Distance Economic Voltage Level

(MVA) (km) (kV)
3500 500 765
500 400 400
120 150 220
80 50 132

3.6 Transmission Lines

A transmission line is the material medium or structure that forms all or part of a path from one place to another for
directing the transmission of energy, such as electromagnetic waves or acoustic waves, as well as electric power
transmission.

½.C ½.G ½.G ½.C

Figure 22: Long Transmission Line Model

The transmission line model represents the transmission line as an infinite series of two-port elementary components,
each representing an infinitesimally short segment of the transmission line:

• The distributed resistance R of the conductors is represented by a series resistor (expressed in ohms per unit
length).

• The distributed inductance L (due to the magnetic field around the conductors, self-inductance, etc.) is
represented by a series inductor (henries per unit length).

• The capacitance C between the two conductors is represented by a shunt capacitor C (farads per unit length).

• The conductance G of the dielectric material separating the two conductors is represented by a shunt resistor
between the signal conductor and the return wire (siemens per unit length).

The model consists of an infinite series of the elements shown in the figure, and that the values of the components
are specified per unit length so the picture of the component can be misleading. R, L, C, and G may also be functions
of frequency. An alternative notation is to use R', L', C' and G' to emphasize that the values are derivatives with
respect to length. These quantities can also be known as the primary line constants to distinguish from the secondary
line constants derived from them, these being the propagation constant, attenuation constant and phase constant.

The line voltage V(x) and the current I(x) can be expressed in the frequency domain as:

∂V(x)
= −(R + jω.L).I (x) eq. 3-1.12
∂x

∂I (x)
= −(G + jω.C).V(x) eq. 3-1.13
∂x

When the elements R and G are negligibly small the transmission line is considered as a lossless structure (no
damping). In this hypothetical case, the model depends only on the L and C elements which greatly simplifies the
analysis. For a lossless transmission line, the second order steady-state Telegrapher's equations are:
2
∂ V(x) 2
2
+ ω .L.C.V(x) = 0 eq. 3-1.14
∂x
2
∂ I (x) 2
2
+ ω .L.C.I (x) = 0 eq. 3-1.15
∂x

These are wave equations which have plane waves with equal propagation speed in the forward and reverse
directions as solutions. The physical significance of this is that electromagnetic waves propagate down transmission
lines and in general, there is a reflected component that interferes with the original signal. These equations are
fundamental to transmission line theory.

If R and G are not neglected, the Telegrapher's equations become:

2
∂ V(x) 2
2
= Γ .V(x) eq. 3-1.16
∂x
2
∂ I (x) 2
2
= Γ .I (x) eq. 3-1.17
∂x

where

Γ= (R + jω.L )(. G + jω.C ) eq. 3-1.18

and the characteristic impedance is:

Z0 =
(R + jω.L ) eq. 3-1.19
(G + jω.C )
The solutions for V(x) and I(x) are:
− Γx Γx
V(x) = V + .e + V − .e eq. 3-1.20

I (x) =
Z
1
( V + .e − Γx + V − .e Γx ) eq. 3-1.20
0

The constants V±(x) and I± (x) and must be determined from boundary conditions.

3.7 Switching Substation

A switching substation (sometimes knowns as a switching station) is a substation which does not contain transformers
and operates only at a single voltage level. They are employed to “break-up” very long lines into shorter switchable
lengths at regular intervals, and where line compensation can be implemented, viz. shunt reactors to control the line
voltage under light load conditions, and series capacitors to compensate for line series inductance to improve the
power transfer capability of of the lines.

Switching substations are sometimes used as collector and distribution station. Sometimes they are used for switching
the current to back-up lines or for paralelling circuits in case of failure.

3.8 Transmission Substation

A transmission substation connects two or more transmission lines. The simplest case is where all transmission lines
have the same voltage. In such cases, the substation contains high-voltage switches that allow lines to be connected or
isolated for fault clearance or maintenance. A transmission station may have transformers to convert between two
transmission voltages, voltage control devices such as capacitors, reactors or Static VAr Compensators and
equipment such as phase shifting transformers to control power flow between two adjacent power systems.

Transmission substations can range from simple to complex. A small "switching station" may be little more than a
busbar plus some circuit breakers. The largest transmission substations can cover a large area (several
acres/hectares) with multiple voltage levels, many circuit breakers and a large amount of protection and control
equipment (voltage and current transformers, relays and SCADA systems). Modern substations may be implemented
using International Standards such as IEC61850.

3.9 Distribution Substation

A distribution substation transfers power from the transmission system to the distribution system of an area. It is
uneconomical to directly connect electricity consumers to the high-voltage main transmission network, unless they use
large amounts of power, so the distribution station reduces voltage to a value suitable for local distribution.

Figure 23: Distribution Type Substation

The input for a distribution substation is typically at least two transmission or subtransmission lines. Input voltage may
be, for example, 132 kV, or whatever is common in the area. The output is a number of feeders. Distribution voltages
are typically medium voltage, between 3,3 kV and 33 kV depending on the size of the area served and the practices of
the local utility.

The feeders will then run overhead, along streets (or under streets as cable feeds, in a city) and eventually power the
distribution transformers at or near the customer premises.

Besides changing the voltage, the job of the distribution substation is to isolate faults in either the transmission or
distribution systems. Distribution substations may also be the points of voltage regulation, although on long
distribution circuits (several km/miles), voltage regulation equipment may also be installed along the line.

Complicated distribution substations can be found in the downtown areas of large cities, with high-voltage switching,
and switching and backup systems on the low-voltage side. More typical distribution substations have a switch, one
transformer, and minimal facilities on the low-voltage side.

3.10 Distribution Lines

Electricity distribution is the final stage in the delivery (before retail) of electricity to end users. A distribution
system's network carries electricity from the transmission system and delivers it to consumers. Typically, the
network would include medium-voltage (less than 132 kV) power lines, electrical substations and pole-mounted
transformers, low-voltage (less than 1 kV) distribution wiring and sometimes electricity meters.

Distribution networks are typically of two types, radial or interconnected. A radial network leaves the station and
passes through the network area with no normal connection to any other supply. This is typical of long rural lines with
isolated load areas. An interconnected network is generally found in more urban areas and will have multiple
connections to other points of supply. These points of connection are normally open but allow various configurations by
the operating utility by closing and opening switches. Operation of these switches (circuit breakers and isolators) may
be by remote control from a control centre or by an operator on site. The benefit of the interconnected model is that in
the event of a fault or required maintenance a small area of network can be isolated and the remainder kept on supply.

Within these networks there may be a mix of overhead line construction utilizing traditional utility poles and
conductors and, increasingly, underground construction with cables and indoor or cabinet substations. However,
underground distribution is significantly more expensive than overhead construction. In part to reduce this cost,
underground power lines are sometimes co-located with other utility lines in what are called Common utility ducts.
Distribution feeders emanating from a substation are generally controlled by a circuit breaker which will open when a
fault is detected. Automatic Circuit Reclosers may be installed to further segregate the feeder thus minimizing the
impact of faults.

Long feeders experience voltage drop requiring capacitors or voltage regulators to be installed.

Characteristics of the supply given to customers are generally mandated by contract between the supplier and
customer. Variables of the supply include:

• AC or DC - Virtually all public electricity supplies are AC today. Users of large amounts of DC power such as
some electric railways, telephone exchanges and industrial processes such as aluminium smelting usually
either operate their own or have adjacent dedicated generating equipment, or use rectifiers to derive DC from the
public AC supply

• Voltage, including tolerance (usually ±10% for voltages up to and including 275 kV or ±5% for voltages in excess
of 275kV)

• Frequency, commonly 50 & 60 Hz, 16.6 Hz for some railways and, in a few older industrial and mining locations,
25 Hz.

• Phase configuration (single phase, polyphase including two phase and three phase)

• Maximum demand (usually measured as the largest amount of power delivered within a 15 or 30 minute period
during a billing period)

• Load Factor, expressed as a ratio of average load to peak load over a period of time. Load factor indicates the
degree of effective utilization of equipment (and capital investment) of distribution line or system.

• Power factor of connected load

• Earthing arrangements - TT, TN-S, TN-C-S or TN-C

• Prospective short circuit current

• Maximum level and frequency of occurrence of transients

3.11 Collector Substation

In distributed generation projects such as a wind farm, a collector substation may be required. It somewhat
resembles a distribution substation although power flow is in the opposite direction, from many wind turbines up into
the transmission grid. Usually for economy of construction the collector system operates around 35 kV, and the
collector substation steps up voltage to a transmission voltage for the grid. The collector substation also provides
power factor correction, metering and control of the wind farm.

Collector substations also exist, when there are in a certain area multiple thermal or hydroelectric power plants of
comparable output power are in close proximity. In these cases the collector substation uses as these plants have a
higher output than wind or solar power plants higher voltages, often even the highest voltage of the grid. Examples for
such substations are Brauweiler in Germany and Hradec in Czech, where power of lignite fired power plants nearby is
collected.

It is also possible that a collector substation has only one voltage level and no transformers. In this cases the only
function of the substation are switching actions for distributing the power. Such substations are called Switching
Stations.

In some special cases a collector substation can also contain an HVDC static inverter plant.

3.12 Stations with Change of Current Type

Other types of substations can be facilities where not only the voltage, but also the type of current is changed. The
following types, which require all special equipment, exist:

• Static inverter plant for long-distance DC transmission, conversion from AC to DC and vice versa

• Back-to-back HVDC static inverter plant, conversion of AC into DC and then again into AC on the same plant.
This type of station is used to interconnect AC grids, which are not synchronized or for coupling AC grids of
different frequencies and phase numbers

• Rotary converter plants, plants, in which a motor-generator-combination is used for an interconnection of AC

grids not operated synchronously or of different frequency and phase number.

3.13 Substations for Railway Supplies-Traction Substations

Substations for railway supplies are most often distribution substations. In some cases a conversion of the current type
takes place, most common with rectifiers for DC trains and by rotary machines for trains using AC other than that of the
public grid. Sometimes they are also transmission substations or collector substations. This is the case, when the
railway operates an own grid and the generated power is collected at a substation, at which also the overhead wire is
fed. Another case is, when the railway substation contains a converter facility, which does not only feed the overhead
conductor, but also the grid of the railway.

3.14 Railways

Electrified railways also use substations which may also include rectifier equipment to change alternating current
from the utility power distribution network to direct current for use by traction motors.

3.15 Other types

Strictly spoken not substations, but sometimes looking similarly are termination towers at which the transition from the
overhead line to the underground cable is not on the pylon, but on the ground. Such stations have often an additional
switch. A further type are PLC Repeater Stations, at which PLC signals are received and then retransmitted on the line
on an other frequency in order to avoid backfeeds.

4. REFERENCES

4.1 Electrical Power Systems: Concepts Theory and Practice by Ray (pages 33, 34, 35)

SLDG 3-2
BASIC SUBSTATION REQUIREMENTS

1. INTRODUCTION

The transmission network has two main constituent elements:-

a) Circuits that enable power transmission.
b) Substations that enable the interconnection of these circuits and the transformation between networks of different
voltages.

1.1 Functions of the Network

The transmission network performs three different functions:-

1.1.1 The transmission of electric power from generating stations (or other networks) to load centres.
1.1.2 The interconnection function that improves security of supply and allows a reduction in generation costs.
1.1.3 The supply function which consists of supplying the electric power to sub-transmission or distribution transformers
and in some cases to customers directly connected to the transmission network.

1.2 Functions of the Substation

These three functions of the transmission network are fulfilled through different types of substations listed below:-
1.2.1 Substations attached to Power Stations (Power Station High Voltage Yards)
1.2.2 Interconnection substations
1.2.3 Step-down (EHV / HV, EHV / MV, HV / MV) substations
A single substation may perform more than one of these functions.

1.3 Structure of a Substation.

Substations generally comprise the following:-

1.3.1 Switchgear.
1.3.2 Power Transformers.
1.3.3 Control Gear

Substations usually include busbars and are divided into bays. In special cases other plant such as reactive power
compensators, harmonic filters, fault current limiting and load-management equipment are included.

1.4 System Requirements

The design of a substation depends on the functions it has to fulfil. The system planning requirements define these
functions and enable the parameters that have to be complied with, to be determined. Some of these parameters are
common for all the substations that perform the same functions whereas others are specific to each substation.
Standardised parameters are established jointly by system planners and transmission departments by means of
system studies, and economic considerations. Particular economic benefits are derived from specifying the technical
stages to allow the use of standardised HV equipment with identical characteristics (such as short-circuit current level,
maximum current carrying capacity of HV equipment, characteristics of transformers, insulation level and compensating
devices).
The location of a substation at a particular site will give rise to system requirements peculiar to this station:-
1.4.1 General location requirements
1.4.2 Extent of the substation
1.4.3 Required availability of circuits
1.4.4 Main connections scheme
1.4.5 Current rating

1.4.6 Fault current level

1.4.7 Neutral point earthing
1.4.8 Fault elimination rapidity with respect to system stability
1.4.9 Future extensions
1.4.10 Control and needs of personnel
1.4.11 Equipment characteristics

2. PARAMETERS DETERMINED BY THE NETWORK

System planners seek to optimise the parameters that apply to the complete transmission system. They proceed to
network studies that involve mainly, insulation co-ordination and transient stability, short-circuit level and load flow.

2.1 Main Equipment Parameters

When a utility determines a standardisation policy and the development of a technical stage, the main characteristics of
the primary equipment have to be specified in close link with system planners. The following parameters may be
defined:-
2.1.1 The maximum short circuit current rating of the substations’ equipment (Busbars, Isolators, Circuit Breakers,
Current Transformers), including its supporting structures
2.1.2 The maximum load current passing through the components of a substation (which is related to the maximum
current carrying capacity of the lines and underground cables)
2.1.3 The transformer numbers, sizes and impedances as well as the mode of voltage control required, i.e. operating
mode of tap changing, regulation range, its phase shifting characteristics and number of taps

2.2 Fault Clearing Time With Respect To System Stability

Transient stability characterises the dynamic behaviour of a generator in the case of large oscillations following a major
disturbance
In order to comply with the requirements of the Network (system stability), or the specifications of particular utilities,
specified fault clearance times must not be exceeded.
Fault clearing time limits and the re-closing conditions, may influence the choice of circuit breaker and other
switchgear, and also the dimensioning of the earthing grid and the mechanical strength of the equipment.

3. PLANNING OF A SUBSTATION (SEE ALSO SLDG 7-1)

This section will give information helpful for dimensioning the main substation primary parameters and for defining the
general scope of the substation equipment, depending on the system requirements. The options of extending or up-
rating existing substations and / or lines should have already been evaluated.
The starting point for a substation design procedure is as follows:-
a) The need for a new substation is approved
b) The range of its duties, loadings and general location are known

3.1 General Location (See Also SLDG 12-1)

For the location of a new substation in the network several alternatives usually exist, the total costs of which should be
calculated. The following should be included:-
3.1.1 The losses in power transmission and transformation
3.1.2 The costs of telecontrol and communications
3.1.3 Preliminary study of reliability and busbar schemes
3.1.4 Fault current and load flow calculations
The building cost of new transmission lines and the reinforcement of old ones are often of the same order as that of the
substation. Thus, it is worth examining various alternatives with system planners.

Nowadays it is not easy to get new line corridors, and their availability alone may determine the location of the
substation. Along with the automation of substations the costs of telecontrol and telecommunications grow, but they do
not have a decisive effect from the point of view of location.

3.2 Extent of the Substation

The available area of the substation, the number of the outgoing feeders of different voltage levels, the number of the
main transformers, the busbar schemes and the possibility of extensions as well as compensating equipment options
should be selected for the needs of the future. It should be noted that the lifetime of the substations may be between
30 and 50 years.
It is very important to reserve sufficient space for the future and sophisticated network planning is needed to estimate
the necessary reserve space. If no better prognosis exists, 100 % reserve of outgoing feeders may be used as an
estimate. The space required depends essentially on the function of the substation.
It is important to define the number and the size of the main transformers at the final stage. The initial peak load of a
power transformer is dependent upon a number of factors such as the network configuration, standby-philosophy and
rate of load growth. An initial estimate would be in the range of 30 - 70 %. (See SLDG 34-1 for a detailed discussion
on power transformers).
In the case of GIS switchgear it is usual to reserve space for a number of spare bays and also to make allowance for
the future extension of the control building. (See SLDG 46-2 for a detailed discussion on GIS switchgear).
The outgoing line corridors should be planned so that there are a minimum number of crossings between different
overhead lines.

3.3 Busbar Scheme (See also S.L.D.G. 6-4)

The selection of a busbar scheme and its possible extensions for a particular substation is an important initial step of
the design. Among the matters that affect this decision are operational flexibility, system safety, reliability and
availability, capacity to facilitate system control, and costs

3.3.1 Operational Flexibility

In order to take into account both production and consumer risks and contingent faults in system components the
circuits between two substations are often doubled, so that power transfer is shared, for instance between two separate
overhead line circuits. In some instances this is also necessary to limit the power due to a fault. These requirements
lead to the installation of a proportionally greater number of busbars and sections in the substation when the number of
outgoing feeders is large.

3.3.2 System Security

Faults occurring on feeders or within the substation itself must be cleared rapidly by as small a number of circuit-
breakers as possible in order to avoid splitting the network and maintain non-faulted circuits in service.
Careful selection of the electrical schematic arrangement - primary connections and protection scheme - and the
detailed construction layout should enable these criteria to be optimized.

3.3.3 Reliability and Availability (See also S.L.D.G. 8-1 and 8-2)

The evaluation of how the availability performance of the substation elements influences the over-all performance of
the substation is a complicated task in a meshed transmission network. The failure rates of the equipment and the
choice of the substation scheme have a considerable effect on reliability and availability i.e. forced outages and
planned ‘shut-downs’. Calculations can give only approximate results, because failure statistics available are always
based on an older generation of apparatus and the likelihood of a severe outage occurring during the life-time of the
substation is quite small.

However, for a comparison of different ‘schemes’ reliability calculations are valuable instruments for the substation
design engineer to receive additional information for choice of scheme and layout aspects. For discussion on this, see
SLDG 8-3.
Not only the primary equipment but also the secondary equipment, e.g. the location and number of instrument
transformers and the arrangement of the secondary circuits can have a great influence on the over-all reliability
performance. For the looped substation schemes in particular, special attention has to be paid to the secondary wiring
and cabling.

3.3.4 Substation Control

The proposed scheme and layout must allow simple and efficient performance of the usual operational steps, changes
of section and planned outage for maintenance or extension.

3.4 Fault Current Levels

Fault current dimensioning depends on the neighbouring network and the size and short-circuit impedance of the main
transformers. System planning usually defined the following fault current ratings for a new substation:-
3.4.1 Maximum three-phase effective short-circuit current for the lines and the substation for the foreseeable future

3.4.2 Duration of the effective short-circuit current

3.4.3 Peak short-circuit current
3.4.4 Maximum earth fault current and corresponding time
3.4.5 Maximum current through the neutral point of the main transformer
3.4.6 Minimum short-circuit current (for protection)
3.4.7 Minimum earth fault current (for protection)

3.5 Neutral Point Earthing (SLDG 19-1 and 34-4)

The transmission networks may be:

3.5.1 Effectively earthed (earthing factor 1,4)
3.5.2 Non-effectively earthed (earthing factor e.g. 1,7). e.g. resistance earthed or resonant earthed
3.5.3 Isolated
In the first case earth current may be 60% to 120 % of the short-circuit current. If the conductivity of the soil is poor (for
example on the average 2 000 ohm-m), special attention has to be paid to the magnitude of station potential during an
earth fault. In this case it is possible to limit the earth-fault current and dimension the insulation level of the three-phase
transformer neutral point correspondingly. Alternatively the potential rise of the earthing grid (see SLDG 19) may be
limited by ensuring that the earth wires of outgoing overhead lines have cross sectional areas equivalent to those of the
phase cables.

3.6 Future Extensions

For small substations performing distribution and transformation functions it is sometimes not necessary to consider
future extension possibilities, on the high voltage side at all. However, it is important that the main transformers can be
replaced by larger ones. For large junction point substations system planning usually gives the forecast of extensions.
Extension work such as building of new bays, dismantling and reconstruction of bays, extension of the set of busbars
may rather difficult and expensive, if there has been no previous planning for them.

3.7 Control In General

Control includes actions to be taken under normal conditions such as energising and de-energising a feeder, earthing
of a section of a set of busbars etc. The way of carrying out this control depends for instance on the following matters:-
3.7.1 Manually operated isolators
3.7.2 Motor operated isolators
3.7.3 Presence of earthing switches

3.7.4 Control via local control board

3.7.5 Control via local computer terminal
3.7.6 Degree of substation automation, sequence control
3.7.7 Remote control from the National or Regional control centre
3.7.8 Regulations
3.7.9 Station manned / unmanned
The need for telecontrol and telecommunication links depends on the needs of the automation, remote control, data
transmission and operation of the network. A substation is often also a nodal point of a data transmission network.
Probable future development: Remote control substations automation is increasing; substations are designed as
unmanned; maintenance is managed by the resources concentrated in control centres. Whether the substation is
manned or unmanned may depend on the importance of the station in the grid.
In accordance with system planning requirements, load shedding, network sectioning, voltage regulation and load
distribution regulation devices may be placed on the substation.

3.8 Protection in General

The substation has to be constructed so that all possible faults can be eliminated:-
3.8.1 Selectively
3.8.2 So that the fault current rating of the lines and equipment is not exceeded
3.8.3 So that no danger is caused to personnel and the requirements of safety codes are fulfilled
3.8.4 Within such a time that stability of the network is maintained
3.8.5 In such a way that load and production are held in balance
For every protection item back-up protection is usually provided and important main protection is duplicated.
Protection systems can be divided into the following groups according to the protected item:-
3.8.6 Line protection.
3.8.7 Transformer protection.
3.8.8 Busbar protection (bus zone protection)
3.8.9 Breaker failure protection.
3.8.10 Compensating equipment protection

or according to the type of the protection:-

3.8.11 Short-circuit protection.
3.8.12 Earth-fault protection
3.8.13 Sub-harmonic protection
3.8.14 Overload protection
3.8.15 Over-voltage protection.
3.8.16 Anti-failure automation (load shedding, auto-re-closing, network sectionalisation and splitting of the network.

SLDG 4-1

INSULATION COORDINATION AND ELECTRICAL CLEARANCES

1. INTRODUCTION

For the purpose of this Chapter, the term clearance means the shortest distance between any two surfaces.

By definition, insulation coordination is “the art of correlating equipment electrical insulation strengths with expected
over-voltage stresses so as to result in an acceptable risk of failure while considering economics and operating criteria.

The term Insulation Co-ordination was originally introduced to arrange the insulation levels of the components in a
transmission system in such a manner that if an insulation failure did occur, it would be confined to the place on the
system where it would result in the least damage, be the least expensive to repair, and cause the least disturbance to the
continuity of the supply. The present usage of the term is broader.

Insulation co-ordination now comprises the selection of the electric strength of equipment in relation to the voltages
which can appear on the system for which the equipment is intended. The overall aim is to reduce to an economically
and operationally acceptable level the cost and disturbance caused by insulation failure and resulting system outages.

To keep interruptions to a minimum, the insulation of the various parts of the system must be so graded that flashovers
only occur at intended points. With increasing system voltage, the need to reduce the amount of insulation in the system
by proper co-ordination of the insulating levels, becomes more critical.

The problem of the design of the insulation characteristics of an electric power system was solved, up to very recently,
and is still solved in a large majority of cases, in a deterministic way, i.e. in choosing the highest expected dielectric
stress from one side and the lowest expected dielectric strength of the equipment from the other side, and provide a
suitable gap between the two (safety margin), in order to cover errors, unknown factors and aging of the equipment.

Insulation properties can be characterised as self-restoring and non-restoring. Self-restoring insulation has the
ability to “heal” itself following a flashover, and such insulation media is usually associated with a gas; air, SF6, SF6-N2
mixtures, etc. Examples include overhead line insulators, substation bus-work, external bushing surfaces, SF6 bus-work,
and even switchgear insulation. An EHV transmission line, for example, is allowed to experience occasional line insulator
flashovers during switching operations such as energising or reclosing, or as a result of a lightning flash striking the
tower, shield wires, or phase conductors.

Non-restoring insulation is assumed to have permanently failed following a flashover, and repairs must be performed
before the equipment can be put back into service. Insulation such as oil, oil-paper and solid dielectrics such as
pressboard, cross-linked polyethylene (XLPE), butyl rubbers, etc are included in this insulation class. Any flashover of
non-restoring insulation, for example within a transformer or a cable, is unacceptable as such events usually result in
lengthy outages and costly repairs.

The performance level of self restoring insulation is usually addressed and defined in terms of insulation, the probability
of a flashover. This for a specific voltage stress, a piece of insulation has an expected probability of flashover (PFO =
P(U)). For example, 1m conductor-to-conductor gap exposed to a 490kV switching surge would be expected to have a
50% chance of flashover, while with a 453kV surge, the would be expected to have a 10% chance of flashover, etc.
Consequently, when self-restoring insulation is applied, the procedure is to select a gap length that will give desired
performance (PFO) as a function of stress (over-voltages) being applied.

In this chapter, the principles of an optimal insulation design are recalled and the cost of failure risk is introduced into the
economical optimum design of transmission systems. A mathematical expression is given for simple cases of optimum
design to which the insulation coordination of a transmission system can be reduced in general. The importance of
knowing the breakdown probability of an insulating component, as a function of the crest value of a given over-voltage, in

these optimum designs is also pointed out and the methods to calculate such probability are provided. A description of
the experimental method is also given, which can be applied to any component samples, and of the calculation methods
which enable one to derive the breakdown probability of a complex component from knowledge of the breakdown
probability of its elements. An examination of how the withstand test selections modify the breakdown probability
distribution of a component will be made. Finally, it will be shown how, on the basis of the above mentioned methods,
one can have only estimations of breakdown probability distributions and how the uncertainties of such determinations
can be taken into account in intelligent designing of insulation.

1.1 Insulation Coordination Procedures

As briefly mentioned above, the determination of the co-ordination withstand voltages consists of determining the lowest
values of the withstand voltages of the insulation meeting performance criterion when subjected to the representative
over-voltages under service conditions.

Two methods for co-ordination to transient over-voltages are in use: a deterministic method and a statistical method.
Many of the applied procedures, however, are a mixture of both methods. For example, some factors used in the
deterministic method have been derived from statistical considerations or some statistical variations have been neglected
in statistical methods.

2. DETERMINISTIC METHOD

The deterministic method is normally applied when no statistical information, obtained by testing, is available on possible
failure rates of the equipment to be expected in service.

With the deterministic method:

• when the insulation is characterised by its conventionally assumed withstand voltage, i.e. the probability of
withstand of self-restoring insulation Pw = 100%, the withstand value is selected equal to the co-ordination
withstand voltage obtained by multiplying the representative over-voltage (an assumed maximum) by a co-
ordination factor Kc, accounting for the effect of the uncertainties in the assumptions for the two values (the
assumed withstand voltage and the representative over-voltage);

• when, as for external insulation, the insulation is characterised by the statistical withstand voltage (Pw= 90%), Kc
should account almost for all differences between this voltage and the assumed withstand voltage

With this method, no reference is made to possible failure rates of the equipment in service.

2.1 Standard Insulation Levels

The current standard insulation clearances in air used by Eskom uses the Old Electrical Engineering Department
Directive EED 14/1/5-1 as a reference document, which in turn was based on the British Standards. All the standard
electrical clearances, from 1kV up to and including 400kV are based on BIL levels that are dependent on lightning
impulse levels. This we know now is not strictly true since the behaviour of the air-gap at voltages in excess 132kV is
somewhat different and is dominated by switching impulse levels rather than lightning impulse levels. In addition to this,
the clearances shown in Table 1 below were largely determined having the old silicon-carbide gapped type surge
arrester as the standard at the time these values were calculated, using impulse levels of as high as 2,6 pu. The
performance of metal oxide arresters currently in use, provide better characteristics that hold over-voltages down to 1,8
pu. Gaps in this case could be made somewhat smaller.

Table 4-1.1: Standard Insulation Levels Based on Gapped Arresters

Nominal System Highest System Impulse Voltage Withstand Sixty-second Power

Voltage Voltage Test At Sea Level Frequency Withstand Test At
(kV peak) Sea Level
(kV rms) (kV rms) (kV rms)
3,3 3,6 45 16
6,6 7,2 75 22
11 12 95 28
16 17,5 110 38
22 24 150 50
33 36 200 70
44 48 250 95
66 72 350 140
88 100 380 150
(450) (185)
132 145 550 230
220 245 825 360
275 300 1050 460
330 362 1300 570
400 420 1425 630

Notes: Bracketed figures for 88 kV are for full insulation and are to be used only if the system is not effectively earthed.
The figures given for systems of 66 kV and below assume non-effective earthing. This table is based on
gapped arresters using over-voltage factors as indicated in equations 4-1.5, to 4-1.7.

Table 1 schedules the standard insulation levels. These standards are at present under review and modifications in
respect of the following points will probably be introduced:

2.1.1 differentiation between internal and external insulation levels

2.1.2 introduction of switching-surge test levels

2.1.3 significant changes to the power-frequency withstand levels

2.1.4 modified creepage distances in line with I.E.C. recommendations

2.2 Basis of the Standard Insulation Levels Based on Deterministic Methods

2.2.1 Highest System Voltage

2.2.1.1 For system voltages up to 330 kV

U m = 1,1.Un eq. 4-1.1

where:-

Un = Nominal system voltage

Um = Maximum system voltage

2.2.1.2 For system voltages of 400 kV and above

U m = 1,05.Un kV eq. 4-1.2

2.2.2 Basic Impulse Insulation Level (B.I.L)

The B.I.L for a given system voltage is derived as follows:-

2.2.2.1 For non-effectively-earthed systems

U a = Um kV (rms) eq. 4-1.3

2.2.2.2 For effectively-earthed systems

U a = 0,8.U m kV (rms) eq. 4-1.4

where:-

Ua = Rated Arrester Voltage in kV rms

For an effectively earthed system the maximum phase-to-earth voltage on the two healthy phases with an earth fault on
the third phase does not exceed 80 % of the arrester rating. On non-effectively-earthed systems the healthy-phase
voltages can rise to the full phase-to-phase voltage under earth-fault conditions.

In general, systems up to 66 kV are non-effectively earthed and the BIL for these systems is consequently based on 100
% arrester ratings. The earthing of 132 kV systems and above is invariably in the effective category and here the
standard BIL's are based on 80 % arrester ratings. 88 kV systems are generally effectively earthed but as Petersen Coil
earthing is sometimes applied, the Standard provides for two levels of insulation.

2.2.3 Impulse Spark-over Voltages (UR) for Gapped Arresters

UR = 3,3.U a kV (peak) for Ua < 25 kV eq. 4-1.5

= 2,8.U a kV (peak) for Ua = 25 to 150kV eq. 4-1.6

= 2,6.U a kV (peak) for Ua > 150kV eq. 4-1.7

Note: Ua in kV rms.

2.2.4 Volt Drop in Lead Between he Arrester and Earth (UL) for Steep-fronted Impulse Currents

UL = 15 kV (peak) for Ua < 25 kV eq. 4-1.8

= 25 kV (peak) for Ua = 25 to 150kV eq. 4-1.9

= 35 kV (peak) for Ua > 150kV eq. 4-1.10

The impedance of the arrester earth connection is almost entirely reactive and this connection should therefore be made
as straight as possible. Reducing the resistance of the earth connection by doubling the number of earth straps serves
no purpose.

2.2.5 The Protective Level held by the Arrester (Up)

UP = UR + UL

= 3,3.U a + 15 kV (peak) for Ua < 25 kV eq. 4-1.11

= 2,8.U a + 25 kV (peak) for Ua = 25 to 150kV eq. 4-1.12

= 2,6.U a + 35 kV (peak) for Ua > 150kV eq. 4-1.13

2.2.6 Basic Insulation Level (BIL)

The B.I.L. should be greater than UP by at least 20 %. In addition an allowance must be made for altitude which affects
the impulse strength according to the relative air density (RAD). Thus:

1,2
BIL = UP . kV peak at sea level eq. 4-1.14
(RAD)

RAD = 0,79 for altitude of 1800m above sea level eq. 4-1.15

1,2
BIL = UP .
0,79

= 1,51.U R kV (peak) eq. 4-1.16

The actual values chosen are the nearest I.E.C. levels. The same B.I.L. is specified for internal and external insulation;
at altitudes above sea level the internal insulation will thus be stronger than the external insulation.

2.2.7 Power Frequency Test Levels (P)

The power frequency test levels selected are generally in accordance with I.E.C. and can be approximated
by the formula:-

P = 0,45.(BIL) - 15 kV (rms) eq. 4-1.17

2.3 Sample Calculations

2.3.1 132 kV System

2.3.1.1 Highest System Voltage

U m = 1,1.Un

= 1,1.132 (from eq. 4-1.1)

= 145 kV

2.3.1.2 Rated Arrester Voltage For effectively-earthed systems

U a = 0,8.U m

= 0,8.145 (from eq. 4-1.4)

= 116 kV

Ua = Rated Arrester Voltage in kV rms

2.3.1.3 Impulse Spark-over Voltages (UR) for Gapped Arresters

UR = 2,8.U a

= 2,8.116 for Ua = 25 to 150kV (from eq. 4-1.6)

= 325 kV (peak)

2.3.1.4 Volt Drop in Lead between the Arrester and Earth (UL) for Steep-fronted Impulse Currents

UL = 25 kV (peak) for Ua = 25 to 150kV (from eq. 4-1.9)

2.3.1.5 The Protective Level held by the Arrester (Up)

UP = UR + UL

= 2,8.U a + 25
for Ua = 25 to 150kV (from eq. 4-1.12)
= 2,8.116 + 25

= 350 kV (peak)

2.3.1.6 BIL at 1800m

1,2
BIL = UP . kV peak at sea level (from eq. 4-1.14)
(RAD)

RAD = U,79 for altitude of 1800m above sea level (from eq. 4-1.15)

1,2
BIL = UP .
0,79

= 1,51.UP

=1,51.350 (from eq. 4-1.16)

= 529 kV (peak)

Standardised on 550 kV

2.3.1.7 Power Frequency Test Levels (P)

P = 0,45.(BIL) - 15

= 0,45.529 - 15 (from eq. 4-1.17)

= 222 kV(rms)

Standardised on 230 kV

2.3.2 400 kV System

2.3.2.1 Highest System Voltage

U m = 1,05.Un

= 1,05.400 (from eq. 4-1.2)

= 420 kV

2.3.2.2 Rated Arrester Voltage For effectively-earthed systems

U a = 0,8.U m

= 0,8.420 (from eq. 4-1.4)

= 336 kV

Ua = Rated Arrester Voltage in kV rms

2.3.2.3 Impulse Spark-over Voltages (UR) for Gapped Arresters

UR = 2,6.U a

= 2,6.336 for Ua > 150kV (from eq. 4-1.7)

= 874 kV (peak)

2.3.2.4 Volt Drop in Lead between the Arrester and Earth (UL) for Steep-fronted Impulse Currents

UL = 35 kV (peak) for Ua > 150kV (from eq. 4-1.10)

2.3.2.5 The Protective Level held by the Arrester (Up)

UP = UR + UL

= 2,6.U a + 35
for Ua > 150kV (from eq. 4-1.13)
= 2,6.336 + 35

= 909 kV (peak)

2.3.2.6 BIL at 1800m

1,2
BIL = UP . kV peak at sea level (from eq. 4-1.14)
(RAD)

RAD = U,79 for altitude of 1800m above sea level (from eq. 4-1.15)

1,2
BIL = UP .
0,79

= 1,51 .UP
= 1,51.909 (from eq. 4-1.16)

= 1372 kV (peak)
Standardised on 1425 kV

2.3.2.7 Power Frequency Test Levels (P)

P = 0,45.(BIL) - 15

= 0,45.1372 - 15 (from eq. 4-1.17)

= 602 kV(rms)

Standardised on 630 kV

2.4 Electrical and Working Clearances

Standard clearances are given in Table 2.

2.4.1 Basis of Standard Electrical Clearances

2.4.1.1 Phase-to-earth electrical clearance (Ce)

Ce = 2,26.(BIL) − 20mm (rounded off) (from eq. 4-1.18)

2.4.1.2 Phase-to-phase electrical clearance (Cp)

C p = 1,35.C e (up to 650 kV BIL)

(from eq. 4-1.17)
= 1,25.C e ( BIL > 650 kV)

2.4.2 Basis of Standard Working Clearances

While working clearance to live metal is desirable for the safety of personnel engaged on operations or maintenance, it is
not practical to ensure that such clearance exists from every position in an H.V. yard which a person might conceivably
be able to occupy. For example, a man stepping up onto the first lacing member of an equipment support structure to
read a nameplate almost immediately finds himself less than working clearance below live connections

Since personnel cannot be prevented from getting off the ground it is concluded that:-

WORKING CLEARANCES SHALL APPLY AT GROUND LEVEL ONLY. A PERSON STEPPING OFF THE GROUND
CANNOT RELY ON HAVING WORKING CLEARANCE AND MUST TAKE WHATEVER OTHER MEASURES MAY
BE NECESSARY TO ENSURE HIS OWN SAFETY.

The basis of these values which are given in Table 4-1.2, is the assumptions made on the size of the average man. This
is a bit subjective as the average physiological dimensions of a man in the east, is somewhat smaller than in the west.
Figure 4-1.1 illustrates.

Live Component
Cwh

Live Ce
1100 Component

Cwv
2438

a) Horizontal Working Clearance b) Vertical Working Clearance

Figure 4-1.1: Standard Vertical and Horizontal Working Clearances

2.4.2.1 Vertical Working Clearance (Cwv)

From Figure 4-1.1 a):-

C wv = C e + 2438 mm eq. 4-1.20

2.4.2.2 Horizontal Working Clearance (Cwh)

From Figure 4-1.1 b):-

C wh = C e + 1100 mm eq. 4-1.21

2.4.3 Sample Calculations

a) 132 kV System

i) Phase-to-earth electrical clearance (Ce)

C e = 2,26.(BIL) − 20mm (rounded off)

=2,26.(550)−20 (from eq. 4-1.18)

= 1234 mm

ii) Phase-to-phase electrical clearance (Cp)

C p = 1,35.C e (up to 650 kV BIL)

= 1,35.1234 (from eq. 4-1.19)

= 1666 mm

iii) Vertical Working Clearance (Cwv)

C wv = C e + 2438 mm

= 1234 + 2438 (from eq. 4-1.20)

= 3672 mm

iv) Horizontal Working Clearance (Cwh)

C wh = C e + 1100 mm

= 1234 + 1100 (from eq. 4-1.21)

= 2334 mm

b) 400 kV System

i) Phase-to-earth electrical clearance (Ce)

C e = 2,26.(BIL) − 20mm (rounded off)

= 2,26.(1425) − 20 (from eq. 4-1.18)

= 3200 mm

ii) Phase-to-phase electrical clearance (Cp)

C p = 1,25.C ( > 650 kV BIL)

= 1,25.3200 (from eq. 4-1.19)

= 4000 mm

iii) Vertical Working Clearance (Cwv)

Cwv = Ce + 2450 mm

= 3200 + 2438 (from eq. 4-1.20)

= 5638 mm

iv) Horizontal Working Clearance (Cwh)

C wh = C e + 1100 mm

= 3200 + 1100 (from eq. 4-1.21)

= 4300 mm

Table 4-1.2: Standard Electrical and Working Clearances (Based on Silicon-Carbide Gapped Arresters)

System Nominal System Highest Minimum Electrical Clearance Working Clearance

Voltage Voltage (mm) (m)
(kV) (kV) Phase-To-Earth Phase-To-Phase Vertical Horizontal*
(Ce) (Cp) (Cwv) (Cwh)
3,3 3,6 80 110 2,5 1,2
6,6 7,2 150 200 2,6 1,2
11 12 200 270 2,7 1,3
15 17,5 230 310 2,7 1,3
22 24 320 430 2,8 1,4
33 36 430 580 2,9 1,5
44 48 540 730 3,0 1,6
66 72 770 1050 3,2 1,8
88 100 840 1150 3,3 1,9
(1000) (1350) (3,5) (2,1)
132 145 1200 1650 3,7 2,3
220 245 1850 2300 4,3 2,9
275 300 2350 2950 4,8 3,4
330 362 2900 3600 5,4 4,0
400 420 3200 4000 5,7 4,3

3. STATISTICAL METHOD
For the probability of disruptive discharge of insulation in self-restoring insulation (e.g. air), the ability to withstand
dielectric stresses caused by the application of an impulse of given shape can be described in statistical terms. For a
given insulation and for impulses of given shape and different peak value U, a discharge probability P can be associated
with every possible value U, thus establishing the following relationship:-

P = P(U) eq. 4-1.22

For example, U50 corresponds to the voltage under which the insulation has a 50% probability to flashover or to
withstand.

The statistical method is therefore based on the frequency of occurrence of a specific origin, the over-voltage probability
distribution belonging to this origin and the discharge probability of the insulation. Alternatively, the risk of failure may be
determined by combining over-voltage and discharge probability calculations simultaneously, shot by shot, taking into
account the statistical nature of over-voltages and discharge by suitable procedures.

By repeating the calculations for different types of insulations and for different states of the network, the total outage rate
of the system due to the insulation failures can be obtained.

Hence the application of statistical insulation co-ordination gives the possibility to estimate the failure frequency directly
as a function of the selected system design factors. In principle, even the optimisation of the insulation could be possible,
if outage costs could be related to the different types of faults. In practice, this is very difficult due to the difficulty to
evaluate the consequences of even insulation faults in different operation states of the network, and due to the
uncertainty of the cost of undelivered energy. Therefore it is better to slightly over-dimension the insulation rather than
optimise it. The design of the insulation system is then based on the comparison of the risks corresponding to the
different alternative designs.

Once the frequency distribution of the over-voltages and the corresponding breakdown probability distribution are given,
the risk of failure of the insulation between phase and earth can be calculated as follows:
∞
R f = ∫0 fo (U).P(U)dU eq. 4-1.23

z = U50 – U16 eq. 4-1.24

where:-

Rf = The risk of failure

fo(U) = Probability density of over-voltages (occurrence described by a Gaussian function)

P(U) = Probability of flash-over of the insulation under an impulse value U (described by modified Weibull
function)

Ut = truncation value of the over-voltage probability distribution

U50-4z = truncation value of the discharge probability distribution

U0 = the truncation voltage, the maximum voltage below which a disruptive discharge is no longer
possible

z = the conventional deviation which represents the scatter of flashover voltages. It is defined as the
difference between the voltages corresponding to flashover probabilities 50% and 16%

P(U)

Probability Value
ƒ(U)

U50-4z Ut Over-voltage
Ut Value (U)
Rf = ∫fo(U).P(U) dU
U50-4z

Figure 4-1.2: Evaluation of the Risk of Failure

3.1 Statistical Impulse Withstand Voltage

This is the peak value of a switching or lightning impulse test voltage at which insulation exhibits, under the specified
conditions, a 90% probability of withstand. In practice, there is no 100% probability of withstand voltage. Thus the value
chosen is that which has a 10% probability of breakdown.

100

90
Probability of Flashover P(U) (%)

U50 = Critical
Flashover Voltage
(CFO)
50

Statistical
Withstand
Voltages
10

Applied Voltage (kV)

Figure 4-1.3: Statistical Impulse Withstand Voltage

3.2 Statistical Impulse Voltage

This is the switching or lightning impulse over-voltage applied to equipment as a result of an event of one specific type on
the system (line energising, reclosing, fault occurrence, lightning discharge, etc.), the peak value of which has a 2%
probability of being exceeded.

Probability Density fo(U)

Statistical Over- 2% Over-

Voltage Voltage
Probability

Occurrence of Over- Voltage (kV)

Figure 4-1.4: Statistical Impulse Voltage

3.3 Evaluation of Risk Factor

The aim of statistical methods is to quantify the risk of failure of insulation through numerical analysis of the statistical
nature of the over-voltage magnitudes and of electrical withstand strength of insulation.

The risk of failure of the insulation is dependant on the integral of the product of the over-voltage density function fo(V)
and the probability of insulation failure P(V). Thus the risk of flashover per switching operation is equal to the area under
the curve I fo(V)*P(V)*dV.

100
Insulation
Withstand
Distribution
P(U)
Probability

U50 = Critical Flashover Voltage

90%

(CFO)
50 fo(U).P(U)
Over-voltage
Distribution
fo(U) Risk of
Failure (Rf)

Voltage (kV) 2% Over-voltage

Probability

Figure 4-1.5: Evaluation of Risk Factor

Since we cannot find suitable insulation such that the withstand distribution does not overlap with the over-voltage
distribution, in the statistical method of analysis, the insulation is selected such that the 2% over-voltage probability
coincides with the 90% withstand probability as shown.

3.4 Critical Flash-over Voltage (CFO)

As discussed above, the curve indicates the probability that the insulation gap will fail and result in a flashover as the gap
voltage is increased. The higher the voltage across the gap, the higher is the probability that a flashover will result,
conversely this means the lower the probability that the insulation will hold. A 10% change of a flashover implies a 90%
chance that the insulation will hold.

10% probability of Flashover → 90% Probability of Withstand → Switching Impulse Withstand Level (SIWL)

For a normal distribution:

SIWL = CFO 50 .(1 − t.σ ) eq. 4-1.25

where:-

CFO50 = 50% Critical Flash-over value

t = The function value of the normal distribution curve (or value of the independent variable
associated with a given area under a normal distribution curve)
σ = Standard Deviation of Voltages in %

The value of t is obtained as shown in Table 4-1.3 which is the function value of the normal distribution curve (complete
table shown in Table 4-1.26). For example, to find the t value associated with probability values of 90% (0,9) and 98%
(0,98):

t = 1,28 for 90% probability of withstand (closest value is 0,89973)

= 2,05 for 98% probability of withstand (closest value is 0,9798)

Table 4-1.3: Area Under Normal Distribution Curve vs t (Extract from Table 4-1.26

0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09

t  1 −1
. x2
Probability (Area under a Normal Distibution Curve  t
∫0 e ( 2 )dx  )
 2.π 

1.1 0.86433 0.86650 0.86864 0.87076 0.87286 0.87493 0.87698 0.87900 0.88100 0.88298
1.2 0.88493 0.88686 0.88877 0.89065 0.89251 0.89435 0.89617 0.89796 0.89973 0.90147
1.3 0.90320 0.90490 0.90658 0.90824 0.90988 0.91149 0.91308 0.91466 0.91621 0.91774
1.4 0.91924 0.92073 0.92220 0.92364 0.92507 0.92647 0.92785 0.92922 0.93056 0.93189
1.5 0.93319 0.93448 0.93574 0.93699 0.93822 0.93943 0.94062 0.94179 0.94295 0.94408
1.6 0,9452 0,9463 0,9474 0,9484 0,9495 0,9505 0,9515 0,9525 0,9535 0,9545
1.7 0,9554 0,9564 0,9573 0,9582 0,9591 0,9599 0,9608 0,9616 0,9625 0,9633
1.8 0,9641 0,9649 0,9656 0,9664 0,9671 0,9678 0,9686 0,9693 0,9699 0,9706
1.9 0,9713 0,9719 0,9726 0,9732 0,9738 0,9744 0,9750 0,9756 0,9761 0,9767
2.0 0,9772 0,9778 0,9783 0,9788 0,9793 0,9798 0,9803 0,9808 0,9812 0,9817
2.1 0,9821 0,9826 0,9830 0,9834 0,9838 0,9842 0,9846 0,9850 0,9854 0,9857

σ). From extensive tests it has been found that this

Since the value of CFO is statistical in nature, it has a variance (σ
variance ranges from 0,06 to 0,07. Generally, the value of 0,06 is used.

σ = 0,06

SIWL
CFO = eq. 4-1.26
(1 − t.σ )

Example

The phase-to-earth value of switching impulse withstand level (SIWLe) is selected once insulation co-ordination studies
have been completed. Supposing then that studies indicate a value of 1550 kV, then from the above equation and
information presented:-

SIWL e
CFO e =
(1 − t.σ )
1550
=
(1 − 1,28.0,06) (from eq. 4-1.26)
1550
=
.0,9232
= 1679kV

The phase-to-phase switching impulse withstand level (SIWLp) can be found from the phase-to-earth value by multiplying
the latter by 1,6:-

SIWL p = 1,6.SIWL e

= 1,6.1550 eq. 4-1.27

= 2480kV

SIWL p
CFO p =
(1 − t.σ )
2480
=
(1 − 1,28.0,06) (from eq. 4-1.26)
2480
=
0,9232
= 2686kV

3.5 Gap Factor (Kg)

The values of CFO above would be based on particular conductor-rod-structure geometries. The formula below allows
one to estimate the strength of gaps of other geometries (U50g), requiring data on the gaps that provide this link. Gap
Factors (Kg) connect electric strength of these gaps with the strength of a gap of a positive rod to a plane (rod-plane gap)
through the expression:

U 50g = K g .U 50 eq. 4-1.28

where:-

U50 = 50% Flashover Voltage (kV)

U50g = 50% Flashover Voltage of another gap geometry (kV)

Values of Kg for some typical gaps are given below, with that for a positive rod-plane as the standard and equal to unity.

CFO = Critical Flashover Voltage – flashover voltage of a gap with low probability of breakdown (less than several
percent)

Table 4-1.4: Typical Gap Factors

Configuration Kg
Rod – Plane 1,00
Conductor – Plane 1,15
Rod – Structure 1,20
Rod – Rod (6m gap) 1,40
Conductor – Rod (6m gap) 1,90
Other gap factors are provided below and relate to phase-to-earth and phase-to-phase.

Table 4-1.5: Gap Factors for Typical Phase-to-Earth Geometries

Gap Type Parameters Typical Range Reference Values
Kg 1,36 – 1,58 1,45
D2/D1 1–2 1,5
D1 Ht/D1 3,34 – 10 6

S S/D1 0,67 – 0,2 0,2

D2
Ht

Conductor - Structure

S Kg 1,22 – 1,32 1,25

Ht/D 8 – 6,7 6
S/D 0,4 – 0,1 0,2
D
D

Conductor - Window

φ=3cm Kg 1,18 – 1,35 1,15 1,47

Plane- Rod-
D S
Cond Cond
Ht H’t/ Ht 0,75 – 0,75 0 0,909
H't
H’t/D 3–3 0 10
S/D 1,4 – 0,05 - 0
Conductor – Lower Structure

Kg 1,28 – 1,63 1,45

S Ht/ D 2 – 10 6
S/D 1 – 0,1 0,2
D
φ=3cm

Conductor – Lateral Structure

Table 4-1.5: Gap Factors for Typical Phase-to-Earth Geometries (Continued)

Gap Type Parameters Typical Reference Values
Range

D1 φ=3cm Kg 1,03 – 1,66 1,35

H’t/ Ht 0,2 – 0,9 0
D2 D / Ht 0,1 – 0,8 0,5
Ht
H't

D1 > D2
Longitudinal
Rod – Rod structure

Table 4-1.6: Gap Factors for Typical Phase-to-Phase Geometries

Configuration Kg
αn = 0,5 αn = 0,33
Ring – ring or large smooth electrodes 1,80 1,70
Crossed conductors 1,65 1,53
Rod – rod or conductor – conductor (along the span) 1,62 1,52
Supported busbars (fittings) 1,50 1,40
Asymmetrical geometries 1,45 1,36
NOTE – According to [1] and [4]

It is possible to associate a gap distance with a given gap factor and a critical flashover voltage. This is through the
general LeRoy-Gallet equation is:-

3400
CFO = K g . eq. 4-1.29
1 + 8 
 
 s
where:-

s = Metal-to-metal (i.e. surface-to-surface) clearance

Kg = Gap Factor

Starting with the LeRoy-Gallet equation, it is possible to associate a clearance with a given critical flashover voltage
(CFO) and gap geometry by employing the gap factor (Kg).

8 K g .3400
(1 + )=
s CFO

8 K g .3400
= −1
s CFO

8 K g .3400 − CFO
=
s CFO

CFO s
=
K g .3400 - CFO 8

8.CFO
=s eq. 4-1.30
K g .3400 − CFO

8.CFO
s=
K g .3400 − CFO

The Gap Factor (Kg) is dependent on the geometry of the gap (see Tables 4-1.4, 4-1.5 and 4-1.6)

Example:

It is now possible to calculate the required metal surface-to-metal surface gap clearance for any given geometry by
applying the gap factor associated with that geometry as follows:-
Assuming a rod-to-conductor gap factor (Kg) = 1,46 (a phase-to-phase gap)

 8.CFO p 
s=  
 3400.K g - CFO p 
 8.2686 
=   (from eq. 4-1.30)
 3400.1,46 - 2686 
= 9,435m

Assuming a conductor-to-structure gap factor (Kg) = 1,3 (a phase-to-earth gap)

 8.CFO e 
s=  
 3400.K g - CFO e 
 8.1679 
=   (from eq. 4-1.30)
 3400.1,3 - 1679 
= 4,900m

Assuming a rod-to-structure gap factor (Kg) = 1,11 (a phase-to-earth gap)

 8.CFO e 
s=  
 3400.K g - CFO e 
 8.1679 
=  
 3400.1,11 - 1679 
= 6,411m

6 Lightning over-voltages (FFO)

p.u. Voltage
4 Switching over-voltages (SFO)
3
V Temporary over-voltages (TOV)
2 F
F System voltages
1
O
µs ms s Duration

Figure 4-1.6: Types of Over-voltages (except Very-fast-front Over-voltages)

Extracted from IEC 60071-1, and Figure 5.5, detail of the Characteristics of all types of Over-voltages

3.6 Minimum Phase-to-Earth and Phase-to-Phase Clearances

3.6.1 Based on Electrode Configuration

In complete installations such as substations which cannot be tested as a whole, it is necessary to ensure that the
dielectric strength is adequate.

The switching and lightning impulse withstand voltages in air at standard atmospheric conditions must be equal to, or
greater than the standard switching and lightning impulse withstand voltages. Minimum clearances have been
determined for different electrode configurations following a conservative approach which takes into account practical
experience, economy and size of practical equipment.

The minimum phase-to-earth and phase-to-phase clearances are dependant upon the breakdown characteristics of air.
The breakdown characteristics of air depend on:-

• Configuration of the live and earth electrodes

• Point-to-plane (worst case used in the deterministic approach throughout the substation making overall dimensions
large)

• Conductor-to-structure

• Conductor-to-conductor

Applying these selectively, dimensions can be vastly reduced.

• RAD – altitude

• Pollution levels: marine, industrial

• Over-voltages that the live parts experience (lightning [lightning impulse withstand level or LIWL], switching
[switching impulse withstand level], load rejection [power frequency level or SIWL], etc.). How to minimise these –
station class and line surge arresters surge arresters – do not use arcing horns on transformer bushings due to high
frequency harmonics generated back into the transformer – puncture insulation

These clearances may be lower if it has been proven by tests on actual or similar configurations that the standard
impulse-withstand voltages are met taking into account all relevant environmental conditions which can create
irregularities on the surface of the electrodes, for example rain, pollution. The distances are therefore not applicable to
equipment which has an impulse type test included in the specification, since mandatory clearance might hamper the
design of equipment, increase its cost, and impede progress.

The clearances may also be lower, where it has been confirmed by operating experience that the over-voltages are
lower than those expected in the selection of the standard withstand voltages or that the gap configuration is
more favourable than that assumes for the recommended clearances.

The clearances of live parts of a system from one another and from earthed parts must at least comply with Table 7.

Table 4-1.7: Correlation between Standard Lightning Impulse Withstand Voltages and Minimum Air Clearances

Standard Lightning Impulse Withstand Minimum clearance (mm)

Voltage Rod-Structure Conductor-Structure
UrB (kV) CBRS (mm) CSCS (mm)
20 60 -
40 60 -
60 90 -
75 120 -
95 160 -
125 220 -
145 270 -
170 320 -
250 480 -
325 630 -
450 900 -
550 1100 -
650 1300 -
750 1500 -
850 1700 1600
950 1700 1900
1050 1900 2100
1175 2200 2350
1300 2400 2600
1425 2600 2850
1550 2900 3100
1675 3100 3350
1800 3300 3600
1950 3600 3900
2100 3900 4200
NOTE: The standard lightning impulse is applicable to phase-to-phase and phase-to-earth.
For phase-to-earth, the minimum clearance for conductor-structure and rod-structure is applicable.
For phase-to-phase, the minimum clearance for rod-structure is applicable.

Table 7 lists the minimum air clearances from the Standard Lightning Impulse Withstand Voltages from 20kV ≤ UrB ≤
2100kV. Further on in the text, these withstand voltages are correlated with nominal (Un) and maximum (Um) standard
equipment voltages. These are in turn correlated with the minimum phase-to-earth and phase-to-phase clearances.

Table 4-1.8: Correlation between Standard Switching Impulse Withstand Voltages and Minimum Phase-To-Earth
Air Clearances (Referred to Standard Atmospheric Conditions as Defined By IEC 60-1)

Standard Switching Impulse Minimum Phase-to-Earth Clearance (mm)

Withstand Voltage Conductor-Structure Rod-Structure
UrS (kV) CpeCS (mm) CpeRS (mm)
750 1600 1900
850 1800 2400
950 2200 2900
1050 2600 3400
1175 3100 4100
1300 3600 4800
1425 4200 5600
1550 4900 6400

These minimum clearances have been determined in a laboratory under standard atmospheric conditions as
defined by IEC 60-1. These standard conditions are:

•
o
temperature : 20 C

• pressure : 101,3kPa (1013mbar)

•
3
absolute humidity : 11g/m

3.6.1.1 Range I - Extract from IEC 71-2

The air clearance phase-to-earth and phase-to-phase is determined from Table 7 for the rated lightning impulse-
withstand voltage. The standard short-duration power-frequency withstand voltage can be disregarded when the ratio of
the standard lightning impulse to the standard short-duration power-frequency withstand voltage is higher than 1,7.

a) Example:

UrB = 1425kV Rod-Structure Clearance (CBRS) = 2850mm (Table 7)

UrS = 950kV Rod-Structure Clearance (CpeRS) = 2900mm (Table 8)

Minimum phase-to-earth clearance (Ce) = 2900mm

3.6.1.2 Range II - Extract from IEC 71-2

The phase-to-earth clearances are the higher values of the clearances determined for the rod-structure configuration
from Table 8 for the standard lightning impulse and from Table 9 for the switching impulse withstand voltages
respectively

b) Example:

UrB = 1425kV Rod-Structure Clearance (CBRS) = 2850mm (Table 7)

UrS = 950kV Rod-Structure Clearance (CppRS) = 3600mm (Table 9)

Minimum phase-to-phase clearance (Cp) = 3600mm

The values are valid for altitudes which have been taken into account in the determination of the required
withstand voltages (see paragraph 3.6.2)

The clearances necessary to withstand lightning impulse withstand voltage for the longitudinal insulation in Range II can
be obtained by adding 0,7 times the maximum operating voltage phase-to-earth peak to the value of the standard
lightning impulse voltage and by dividing the sum by 500kV/m.

The clearances necessary for the longitudinal standard switching impulse withstand voltage in range II are smaller than
the corresponding phase-to-phase value. Such clearances usually exist only in type tested apparatus and minimum
values are therefore given in this guide.

3.6.2 Ranges for Highest Voltage for Equipment

As discussed earlier, a listing of minimum clearances for the maximum system and apparatus voltages have been
correlated with insulation levels for convenience of the designer. The various insulation levels can be selected in
accordance with the insulation co-ordination as per this standard.

The standard highest voltages for equipment are divided in to two ranges:

Range I: Above 1kV to 245kV included. This range covers both transmission and distribution systems. The
different operational aspects, therefore, shall be taken into account in the selection of the rated
insulation level of the equipment. For convenience, Range I is also divided into two tables, for 1kV <
Um < 52kV and 52kV ≤ Um < 300kV

Range II: Above 245kV or Um ≥ 300kV. This range covers mainly transmission systems.

Table 7 correlates the minimum air clearances with the standard lightning impulse withstand voltage for electrode
configurations of the rod-structure type and, in addition for range II, of the conductor-structure type. They are applicable
for phase-to-phase clearances as well as for phase-to-earth (see note under Table 7)

Lower Voltages up to Un = 220kV (Um=245kV) co-ordinated for LIWL

Higher Voltages from Un = 275kV (Um=300kV) co-ordinated for SIWL

Table 4-1.9: Correlation between Standard Switching Impulse Withstand Voltages and Minimum Phase-To-Phase Air
Clearances (Referred to Standard Atmospheric Conditions as Defined By IEC 60-1)
Standard Switching Impulse Withstand Voltage Minimum Phase-to-Phase Clearance
(kV) (mm)
Phase-to-Earth Phase-to-Phase Phase-to-Phase Conductor-Conductor Rod-Conductor
value Parallel
Phase-to-Earth (UrB . p-p/p-e Factor)
UrB (kV) value UrS (kV) CpeCC (mm) CpeRC (mm)
750 1,5 1125 2300 2600
850 1,5 1275 2600 3100
850 1,6 1360 2900 3400
950 1,5 1425 3100 3600
950 1,7 1615 3700 4300
1050 1,5 1575 3600 4200
1050 1,6 1680 3900 4600
1175 1,5 1763 4200 5000
1300 1,7 2210 6100 7400
1425 1,7 2423 7200 9000
1550 1,6 2480 7600 9400

Table 4-1.10: In the area of 1kV <Um <52kV (at Sea Level)
Nominal Maximum Short Duration Power Rated Lightning Impulse Minimum Clearance (N)
Voltage Voltage for Frequency Withstand Withstand Voltage Outdoor Installation
Apparatus Voltage 1,2/50 µs Phase-to-Earth and Phase-to- Phase
[Un ] (kV) [Um] (kV) [Upf] (kV) [UrS] (kV) [Ce](mm) [Cp] (mm)
3 3,6 10 20 60 120
40 60 120
6 7,2 20 40 60 120
60 90 120
10 12 28 60 90 150
75 120 150
15 17,5 38 75 120 160
95 150 160
20 24 50 95 160
125 220
30 36 70 145 270
170 320
36 41,5 80 170 320
200 360

Table 4-1.11: In the area of 52kV < Um < 300kV (at Sea Level)
Nominal Voltage Maximum Voltage for Short Duration Power Rated Lightning Impulse Withstand Minimum Clearance (N)
Apparatus Frequency Withstand Voltage Outdoor Installation
[Un] (kV) Voltage 1,2/50 µs Phase-to-Earth and Phase-to- Phase
[Um] (kV) [Upf] (kV) [UrS] (kV) [Ce],[Cp] (mm)
45 52 95 250 480
66 72,5 140 325 630
70 82,5 150 380 750
110 123 185 450 900
230 550 1100
132 145 185 450 900
230 550 1100
275 650 1300
150 170 230 550 1100
275 650 1300
325 750 1500
220 245 325 750 1500
360 850 1700
395 950 1900
460 1050 2100

Table 4-1.12: In the area of Um > 300kV (at Sea Level)

Nominal Voltage Maximum Voltage Rated Switching Minimum Clearance (N) Rated Switching Minimum Clearance (N)
for Apparatus Impulse Withstand Impulse Withstand
Voltage 250/2500µs Voltage 250/2500µs
[UrS] (kV)
[Um] (kV)
[Un] (kV) [UrS] (kV) [Ce] (mm) [Cp] (mm)
Phase-to-Earth Conductor/ Phase-to- Phase-to- Phase Conductor Bus/
design Earth Conductor*
275 300 750 1600 1900 1125 2300 2600
850 1800 2400 1275 2600 3100
380 420 950 2200 2900 1425 3100 3600
1050 2600 3400 1575 3600 4200
480 525 1050 2600 3400 1680 3900 4600
1175 3100 4100 1763 4200 5000
700 765 1425 4200 5600 2423 7200 9000
1550 4900 6400 2480 7600 9400
* Consequences more serious, hence larger clearance to reduce probability of a flash-over

3.7 Correction of Clearances for Altitude and Atmospheric Conditions

As discussed above, the breakdown in air is strongly dependent on the gap configuration and on the polarity and wave
shape of the applied voltage stress. In addition, relative atmospheric conditions affect the breakdown strength
regardless of shape and polarity of applied stress. Relationships for the breakdown strength of air derived from
laboratory measurements are referred to standard atmospheric conditions as defined by IEC 60-1, i.e.:-
o
- temperature : 20 C

- pressure : 101,3kPa (1013mbar)

3
- Absolute humidity : 11g/m

For outdoor insulation, the effects of humidity, rain, and surface contamination become very important.

Wind has an influence on insulation design, especially in the case of selecting gap lengths on the basis of power-
frequency and switching impulse strengths.

Flashover voltages for air gaps depend on the moisture content and density of the air. Insulation strength increases
with absolute humidity up to a point where condensation forms on the insulator surface. Insulation strength decreases
with decreasing air density (IEC 60-1).

3.7.1 Altitude Correction

The correction factor Ka is based on the dependence of the atmospheric pressure on the altitude as given in IEC 721-
2-3. The correction factor can be calculated from
 H 
m. a 
 8150 
 
Ka = e (dimensionless) eq. 4-1.31

where:-

Ha = Altitude above sea level in m

m = 1,0 for co-ordination lightning impulse withstand voltages
= m according to Figure 4-1.7 for co-ordination switching impulse withstand voltages
= 1,0 for short-duration power-frequency withstand voltages of air-clearances and clean
insulators
= 0,5 for normal insulators (polluted)
= 0,8 for anti-fog design (polluted)

1,0

≈ 0,91 c

≈ 0,73 a

0,5
m

950kV

0,0
1000 2000
Ucw (kV)

Figure 4-1.7: Dependence of Exponent ‘m’ on the Co-ordination Switching Impulse Withstand Voltage
where:-

a = Phase-to-earth insulation

b = Longitudinal insulation

c = Phase-to-phase insulation

d = Rod-plane gap (reference gap)

Consider the values that were determined above at sea level, requiring a corrected value for 1800m above sea level,
i.e.:-

a) Example:

UrS = 950kV Phase-to-earth Rod-Structure Clearance (CpeRS) = 2900mm (Table 4-1.7)

m = 0,73

Minimum phase-to-earth clearance (Ce) is 2900mm, hence for phase-to-earth insulation is being considered. The
corresponding m value corresponding to a 950 kV switching impulse:-

 Ha 
m 
 8150 
Ka = e
 1800 
0,73  
 8150 
=e (from eq. 4-1.31)

= 1,1750 m

Minimum phase-to-earth clearance (Ce) at 1800m = 2900.1.175 = 3408mm

b) Example:

UrS = 950kV Phase-to-phase Rod-Structure Clearance (CppRS) = 4403mm (Table 8)

Minimum phase-to-phase clearance (Cp) is 3600mm, hence for phase-to-earth insulation is being considered. The
corresponding m value corresponding to a 950 kV switching impulse:

m = 0,91
 H 
m. a 
 8150 
Ka = e
 1800 
0,91 
 8150 
=e (from eq. 4-1.31)

= 1,223 m

Minimum phase-to-phase clearance (Cp) at 1800m = 3600.1.223 = 4403mm

4. APPLICATIONS OF ELECTRICAL CLEARANCES

4.1 Maximum Spans for Strung Busbars and Stringers

In determining the maximum conductor spans within a substation, it was previously assumed that the protection failed to
o
operate within the designed time (a few cycles), causing the conductors to swing through 90 towards each other, and
the closest point of approach is at the point of maximum sag. Figure 4-1.8 illustrates the case in question where
conductors at the point of maximum sag must still maintain phase-to-phase clearance. When considering the phase-to-
earth clearance, only single conductor sag is relevant.

Phase-to-phase (Sp) spacing are determined from:-

S p ≥ C p + (2.fmax ) eq. 4-1.32

Phase-to-earth (Se) spacing are determined from:-

S e ≥ C e + fmax eq. 4-1.33

where:-

Se = Outer conductor spacing in m

Sp = Parallel phase conductor spacing in m

fmax = Maximum sag due to the conductor and strain insulator string in m

Either of the equations 4-1.32 or 4-1.33 could provide the limiting values. 2-1.50 only really becomes the issue if there
are earthed structures close to the mid-point of the span. In cases where there are no such structures, then the limiting
value is produced by 4-1.32.

Since the maximum conductor spans are dependent upon the phase separation, which in turn are dependent on sag,
there is somewhat of an iterative calculation that needs to be done. Equations 4-1.32 and 4-1.33 can be rearranged to
find expressions for fmax.

Sp - Cp
≥ fmax
2
or eq. 4-1.34
Sp - Cp
fmax ≤
2

S e − C e ≥ fmax

or eq. 4-1.35

fmax ≤ S e − C e

Since the values of Se and Sp are generally known for a particular beam design, fmax can be calculated.

As a point of departure, Figure 4-1.8 is considered as a general case. In this diagram, the symbols have the following
meaning:-

Lbcc = Centre-centre span length in m

Lspan = Beam-beam attachment span length in m
Lins = Length of strain insulator string in m
ℓc = Conductor span in metres (m)
ℓeff = Effective length of the strain insulator in metres (m)
wbeam = Beam width in m
φ = Angle made by the insulator string with the horizontal in degrees
fins = Sag due to the strain insulator string in m
fc = Sag due to conductor in m

The section below provides a detailed explanation of the calculation of the sag of a conductor under a given tension,
taking into account the mass of the strain insulator strings at the ends of the conductor runs, and the resulting
equations are just stated here. A detailed discussion of the movement of conductors under short-circuit conditions is
provided in SLDG 41-1. The sag of the conductor alone is given by:-
2
9,81.m c .l c
fc = eq. 4-1.36
8.Tc

where:-

mc = Mass per unit length of the conductor in kilograms (kg)

σc = Tension in one of the conductor bundle members in Newtons (N)

l c = L bcc - 2.( l eff + 1 .w

2 beam ) eq. 4-1.37

ℓeff = Lins.cos φ eq. 4-1.38

Sag due to Insulator

Angle of inclination:-

 wins + 2.(w c + wD + wH ) 
φ = tan
−1
 
 2.Ttot 
 
−1  wins + 2.(w c ) 
= tan  2.T 
 tot 
eq. 2-1.39
−1  wins + 2.w c 
= tan  2.T 
 tot 
−1  12 .w ins + 9,81.l c 
= tan  
 Ttot 
where:-

wins = Weight of the strain string insulator and assembly (per phase) in Newtons (N)

wc = Weight of the complete length of the conductor (per phase) in Newtons (N)
wD = Weight of the complete length of the dropper conductor (per phase) in Newtons (N)
wH = Weight of all of the hardware hanging on the conductor (per phase) in Newtons (N)

Ttot = Tc .n c eq. 4-1.40

where:-

Ttot = The total conductor tension that the insulator experiences

nc = Number of conductors per phase bundle

fins = L ins .sinφ

 w + 2.(w c + w D + w H )   eq. 4-1.41

= L ins .sin tan− 1 ins
  2.Ttot 


fmax = fc + fins
2
9,81.m c .l c   1 .w + 2.(w c + w D + w H )   eq. 4-1.42
= + L ins .sin tan−1 2 ins
8.Tc   2.Ttot 


fmax ≤ S e − C e

≤ 3,757 − 1,85 (from eq. 4-1.35)

≤ 1,907m

It is clear from the above that the limiting value in this case is fmax derived from the phase-to-phase conductor spacing
fmax = 1,138m (1138mm). Total sag made up from the two components fins and fc must be less than or equal to fmax to
meet the phase-to-phase clearance value of 2,3m.

fmax = fc + fins ≤ 1,138m

2
9,81.m c .l c
fc = (from eq. 4-1.36)
8.Tc

2
9,81.m c .l c
+ fins ≤ 1,138m (from eq. 4-1.42)
8.Tc

The length and mass of a 220 kV strain insulator assembly can be calculated using the component data provided in
SLDG 43-1. Only the pertinent data is reproduced below for convenience.

Lins = ℓes + ℓbc + n.ℓdisc + ℓsc + ℓyp + ℓtc + ℓpsc eq. 4-1.43
From Table 4-1.13:-
Lins = 0,45 + 0,082 + 17.0,146 + 0,06 + 0,1 + 0,078 + 0,508
= 3,76m

mins = mes + mbc + ni.mdisc + msc + myp + mtc + mpsc eq. 4-1.44
From Table 4-1.13:-
mins = 3,14 + 0,5 + 17.3,7+ 1,0 + 3,5 + 1,0 + 0,7 + 10,0
= 82,74 kg
wins = 82,74.9,81

= 811,68 N

Table 4-1:13: Physical Dimensions of Insulator String Components

Description Length (m) Mass (kg)

Strain insulator string Lins To find mins To find
Extension strap ℓes 0,45 mes 3,14
Ball clevis ℓbc 0,082 mbc 0,5
Insulator disc ℓdisc 0,146 mdisc 3,7
Socket clevis ℓsc 0,06 msc 1,0
Yoke plate ℓyp 0,1 myp 3,5
Twisted clevis ℓtc 0,078 mtc 0,7
pistol type strain clamp ℓpsc 0,508 mpsc 10,0
Number of insulator discs ni 17 - -
1
Bull conductor 1,00 m c 2,391

For the purpose of illustration only, we neglect the mass of any droppers and hardware connected to the conductor
span. The approximate conductor length is given by:-

ℓc = Lbcc – 2.( ½.wbeam + ℓeff) (from eq. 4-1.37)

= Lbcc – 2.( 0,35 + ℓeff)

1
wc = 9,81.m c.ℓc eq. 4-1.45

= 9,81.[Lbcc – 2.( 0,35 + 3,76)]

The length and weight of the conductor can only be calculated once the conductor length is known. If the weight of the
dropper conductor and other hardware is initially assumed to be zero, then:-

Angle of inclination:-

−1  12 .w ins + 9,81.l c 
φ = tan   (from eq. 4-1.39)
 Τ tot 
The maximum tension allowable on the beam is 9 kN (or 9000 N) per phase:-

−1  12 .811,68 + 9,81.l c 
φ = tan  
 9000 
Sag due to Insulator

fins = Lins .sinφ

  1 .811,68 + 9,81.l c   (from eq. 4-1.41)

= 3,76.sintan −1  
2

  9000 
The value of ℓc becomes the unknown which must be found. So far the total sag equation is given as:-
2
9,81.mc .l c
+ fins ≤ 1,138m (from eq. 4-1.42)
8.Tc

2
9,81.2,391.l c
∴ + fins ≤ 1,138m
8.9000

9,81.2,391.lc 2   1 .811,68 + 9,81.l c  

+ 3,76.sintan −1 2   ≤ 1,138m
8.9000 9000
   

Equation 2-1.55 has to be solved numerically using Newton-Raphson or other.

A series of iterations provides a value of ℓc = 48,5m that is associated with fc48,5 = 1,1308m. This then also allows for
diameter of the conductor which is 38,5mm.
fc33,5 = 0,740213 + 0,0385
= 0,7787
Since ℓc is now known, it is possible to calculate wc:-
1
wc = 9,81.m c.ℓc (from eq. 4-1.45)
= 9,81.2,391.48,5
= 1137,6 N

Considering only the insulator and conductors, and for the moment, neglecting the weight of droppers and other
hardware, it is then possible to determine the angle that the strain insulator would make with reference to the
horizontal.

 12 .wins + w c 
φ = tan
−1
 
 T 
 tot 
−1  12 .811,68 + 1137,6 
= tan   (from eq. 4-1.39)
 9000 
−1
= tan (0,1715)

o
= 9,73

Once the angle of inclination is known, the effective horizontal length of the insulator can be calculated.
o
Use of the full sag implies swinging of the conductors to 90 , a condition which is unlikely due to wind but which might
result from short-circuit forces.

With the spacing fixed on the present standard steelwork, the maximum permissible spans for various conductor sizes,
conductor tensions and system voltages are as given in Table 4-1.14. These spans basically give the maximum
permissible distances between conductor attachment points and thus represent directly the distances between
suspension points. For the distance between strain beams add twice the effective length of the insulator string given in
the table. For maximum distance between strain beam and suspension beam add the length of the insulator string once
only, providing the insulator string is of a “Vee” suspension type (see Figure 4-1.9 a), b) and c).

It should be appreciated that the conditions imposed on the maximum span allow for the full impulse clearance
o
between phases at a time when the conductors have swung to 90 in anti-phase. Whilst it is desirable that these
conditions be fulfilled at all times, it is permissible to accept marginally smaller clearances, and have slightly longer
spans, in special circumstances e.g. where terracing results in a span which is, say, 1 metre longer than the ideal
maximum and where the introduction of an additional portal structure would be difficult.

The spans given in Table 4-1.14 are based on phase-to-phase spacing and clearances since, in general, the present
phase-to-earth spacing for busbars and stringers impose less severe restrictions. The exception to this generality
occurs on bays with extended steelwork (e.g. bus couplers) where the stringers may pass fairly close to the steelwork
of an adjacent bay. The problem is illustrated by the diagram in Table 4-1.14 which list the maximum permissible spans
based on this criteria

Ce
Se

Se
Lbcc
Lspan
Ce
Sp Wbeamx ℓc
fmax ℓeff ℓeff
fins

Lins
Cp
fmaxt φ fc

fmax

o
Figure 4-1.8: Determination of the Maximum Span for a Given Phase Conductor Spacing (Phase Conductor Swing through 90 )

Sample Calculation

Lbcc

ℓeff ℓc ℓeff
4572
9144
4572
18288

4572
9144

1630 4572

Figure 4-1.10: 220 kV Main Yard Steelwork Layout

Since the values of Se and Sp are generally known for a particular beam design, fmax can be calculated.

½.wbeam = 0,35m
Se = (4,572-½.1,63) = 3,757m
Sp = 4,572m
Ce = 1,85m
Cp = 2,30m

Sp -Cp
fmax ≤
2
4,572 - 2,30
≤ (from eq. 4-1.34)
2
≤ 1,138m

l eff = L ins .cosφ

= 3,76.cos 9,73( ) (from eq. 4-1.38)

= 3,706m

Finally, by rearranging eq. 2-1.37, the maximum separation of the steelwork portals (Lbcc) can be derived from all the
calculated quantities as follows:-

l c = L bcc - 2.(l eff + 1 .w

2 beam ) (from eq. 4-1.37)

l c + 2.( l eff + 1 .w
2 beam ) = L bcc eq. 4-1.46

L bcc = l c + 2.( l eff + 1 .w

2 beam )

= 48,5 + 2.(3,706 + 0,35) (from eq. 4-1.46)

≈ 56m

The maximum separation of strain portal structures is therefore 56m to maintain conductor phase to phase clearance. If
it is recommended that a 10% safety margin be applied to the clearance in order to provide for uncertainties, the whole
series of calculations would be done with Cp = 2,53m instead of 2,30m. The corresponding value of Lbcc = 53m

The above example considered a single conductor. This is still valid for phase conductor bundles strained with I-type
insulator strings at either end of the bundle providing the bundle is of a flat configuration so that when the bundle
o
swings through 90 , a single conductor is projected. Figure 4-1.11 illustrates this.

fmax Cp fmax

sc Conductor + Insulator Sag sc

(fmax)

I-type Insulators Strings

Allowable Phase-to-Phase
Clearance
(Cp)

o
Figure 4-1.11: Bundled Conductor Swing through 90 with I-Type Strain Insulator

The above is not necessarily true for the case where conductors are strained with Vee-strain insulator strings as these
restrict lateral movement. Two components need to be taken into account, the conductor sag and the insulator sag.
When the conductors move toward each other, the upward movement will tend to raise the insulator string, allowing the
conductors to approach closer together than if the insulators remained in their rest position (see Figure 4-1.12).

Insulator fmax Cp fmax

Elevated
Position
Sag due to
Insulator Insulator
Rest
Position

sc Conductor Sag (fmax) sc

(Maximum Temperature)

Vee-type Insulators

Allowable Phase-to-
Phase Clearance
(Cp)

Gain in Clearance due to

Elevation of Vee-type Strain
Insulator

o
Figure 4-1.12: Bundled Conductor Swing through 90 with Vee-Type Strain Insulator

The foregoing analysis is a very conservative approach in determining the maximum conductor spans within a
substation. Due to the very fast acting protection schemes that are currently being employed on power systems,
o
conductor swing through 90 is unrealistic. Even if the main 1 and main 2 protection system fails to operate, the speed at
o
which backup protection is activated would not result in a 90 swing. If the conductor swings through and angle θ before
the breaker trips, then the horizontal displacement of the conductors towards each other can be calculated. What this
means is that longer spans can be realised. The closest point of approach of a conductor bundle is still at the point of
maximum sag, but now the dimension of the conductor bundle also has to be taken into account. Figure 4-1.13 illustrates
this case where conductors at the point of maximum sag must still maintain phase-to-phase clearance. As before, when
considering the phase-to-earth clearance, only a single conductor sag is relevant.

ds sch″ Cp sch″ ds

θ θ

sc sch′ sc
Horizontal
Conductor Sag
Displacement
(fmax)
( d s)
(Maximum
Temperature)
sch″ Allowable
Phase-to-Phase
Clearance
(Cp)

sch′

Figure 4-1.13: Bundled Conductor Swing through θ with I-Type Strain Insulator

The displacement of the centre line of the conductor bundle:-

d s = fmax .sin θ() eq. 4-1.47

The value of sch′ can likewise be calculated using the conductor bundle spacing sc:-

'
s ch = 1 .s .cos
2 c (θ ) eq. 4-1.48

The value of sch″ is found by adding the conductor radius (half the conductor diameter - ½.dc) to sch′:

" '
s ch = s ch + 1 .d
2 c

= 1 .s .cos
2 c (θ ) + 12 .d c eq. 4-1.49

= 12 .(s c .cos (θ ) + d c )

where:-

dc = conductor diameter

In order to satisfy the phase-to-phase and phase-to-earth clearance requirements, equations eq. 4-1.34 and 4-1.35 are
applied, modified as follows:

Sp -Cp "
≥ d s + s ch
2

Sp -Cp
2
≥ fmax .sin θ + () 1 .s .cos
2 c (θ ) + 12 .d c

Sp -Cp
2
− 1 .s .cos
2 c (θ ) − 12 .d c ()
≥ fmax .sin θ

(Sp - Cp - sc .cos(θ ) − dc )
≥ fmax
()
2.sin θ
eq. 4-1.50
(Sp - Cp - sc .cos(θ ) − dc )
fmax ≤
2.sin θ ()
This is a modified version of eq. 4-1.34.

"
S e - C e ≥ d s + s ch

S e - C e ≥ fmax .sin θ + () 1 .s .cos

2 c (θ ) + 12 .dc

S e - Ce − 1 .s .cos
2 c (θ ) − 12 .dc ≥ fmax .sin(θ )
eq. 4-1.51
( )
S e −C e − 12.sc .cos (θ ) − 12.dc
≥ fmax
sin(θ )

2.(S e −C e ) − (s c .cos (θ )+ dc )
≥ fmax
2.sin(θ )

2.(S e − C e ) − (s c .cos (θ )+ dc )
fmax ≤
2.sin(θ )
This is a modified version of eq. 4-1.35. The rest of the calculations follow in precisely the same way.

There are, however, always those exceptions to remember when considering the insulator configuration that is
employed at the ends of the conductor. In the above examples it was assumed that the strain insulators move in unison
with the conductor, and this is true for the so called I-type of insulator. As discussed previously and illustrated in Figure
11, this is not so with the Vee-type of insulators which restricts movement in the lateral direction. When calculating the
displacement in the lateral direction, only the sag due to the conductor and the little addition due to the upward
movement of the insulator string need be considered as the conductor fixings onto the insulators do not contribute to
the lateral displacement. The insulator itself can only move up and down. This may be one way to gain a few metres in
span length if it is found that the desired span length is slightly short of the desired mark. The technique effectively
shortens the conductor span length that can swing laterally.

Table 4-1.14: Maximum Spans: Busbars and Stringers (Based on Gapped Arresters) - (Based on current Eskom
phase-to-phase spacing and clearances)

System Phase-To- Average Conductor Max. Span In Metres Between Suspension

Nominal Phase Effective Tension Points
Voltage Spacing Length

1 x 160

1 x 400

1 x 800

2 x 400

2 x 800
(mm )

(mm )

(mm )
Of Strain (kN/phase)

2
(kV) (metres) String *
(metres)
11 0,914 0,9 9,0 68 43 30 27 18
4,5 48 31 21 19 13
22 0,914 1,2 9,0 58 37 26 22 15
4,5 41 26 18 16 11
33 0,914 1,4 9,0 49 31 21 16 11
4,5 34 22 15 11 8
44
66 1,83 1,6 4,5 52 34 23 21 15
4,5 52 34 23 21 15
88 2,44 2,0 4,5 73 44 30 29 20
9,0 103 62 42 41 28
4,5 73 47 32 29 20
132 3,048 2,5 9,0 100 64 44 39 27
18,0 - 91 61 56 38
4,5 71 45 31 28 19
220+ 4,57 3,0 18,0 - 115 79 75 52
9,0 - 76 52 49 34
275+ 4,57 3,5 18,0 - - - 61 42
9,0 - - - 38 26
330+ 7,01 Straight 4,3 18,0 - - - 94 64
Vee 4,7 9,0 - - - 67 46
400+ 7,01 Straight 4,7 18,0 - - - - 61
Vee 5,25 9,0 - - - - 43

+ See Note

+ Determined by phase-to-phase clearance considerations.

Z
Z-Y Y
ℓ ℓ

Beam O

θ
X
ce
Jumper P
b
Jumper Weight W
d

(a) Side View (b) End

Figure 4-1.14: Jumper Clearances

Notes:
2
9,8.w c.L
1. Sag = (from eq. 4-1.34)
8.T c

where:-

wc = Conductor mass in kg/m

L = Actual span length between the supports in metres
Tc = Conductor tension in Newtons

Phase spacing (Phase clearance + Conductor Spacing)

Sag = eq. 4-1.52
2

2. Conductor spacing for - twin conductors : 150 mm

- triple conductors : 165 mm

3. To calculate the spans, the tensions used were 90 % of the values given in the table.

4. The Stringer spans for voltages from 220 kV to 400 kV may be determined by phase to earth clearances and for
these voltages reference should also be made to Table 4-1.15.

Table 4-1.15: Maximum Spans: Stringers on Extended Bays (Based on Gapped Arresters)

System Bay Size Distance To Conductor Max Span In Metres Between Strain Beams
Nominal Steelwork Tension
Voltage

2
1 x 160 mm

1 x 400 mm

1 x 800 mm

2 x 400 mm

2 x 800 mm
‘x’

(m)
(kV)
(kN/Phase)
(m)

66 7,620 1,67 + 1 4,5 55 37 26 24 18 *

+ 2 3,0 48 32 23 22 16
88 8,53 1,48 4,5 68 48 34 33 24 *
10,36 3,25 4,5 77 48 34 33 24
132 12,192 2,62 4,5 76 50 36 33 24 *
220 15,240 2,90 9,0 - 80 57 54 38
18,288 5,85 9,0 - 82 58 55 40 *
275 15,240 2,94 9,0 - - - 42 31
18,288 5,85 9,0 - - - 45 33 *
330 23,774 4,40 9,0 - - - 72 52
400 23,774 4,40 9,0 - - - - 46

• Determined by phase-to-phase clearance considerations.

Maximum Spans for Stringers between Yards of Different Voltages - Two successive Attachment Points at
Different Levels

It often occurs that the spans in a section of an overhead conductor are on sloping ground and in many instances the
supports are at considerably different levels. This makes the calculation of sags and tensions a little more difficult,
while the checking of the actual sag in practice is more complicated than that on level ground. In other cases, when
crossing a road with transformer connections, it is frequently necessary to string between beams designed for different
voltages (see Figure 4-1.14). It is not only necessary to check the sag of the conductor, but also to calculate the
position of the lowest point on the conductor and the actual height above ground for clearance purposes.

If beams designed for different voltage levels are employed, the conductors will generally be attached to beams with
different conductor phase spacing at either end, so that the calculations need to be based on the effective phase
spacing at the centre of the span. This is the point where the conductor sag is the greatest and when swung through
o
90 , is the point of closest approach between two phases.

s eff = 1 .
2 (s HV + s LV ) eq. 4-1.51
where:-

seff = Effective phase spacing

sHV = Phase spacing on HV steelwork in (m)
sLV = Phase spacing on LV steelwork in (m)
Calculating the effective conductor phase spacing is a fairly simple task. It is the mid-point of the span regardless of the
separation of the two portal structures. What is more complex is calculating the conductor sag at the mid-point where
the conductor attachment heights are at different levels. The detail behind the calculation procedure is provided here
and only the result is applied here to calculate the maximum span length.

The sag calculations are similar to those used for supports at the same level with the modification that the calculations
are done on the equivalent complete span length. Span lengths are always measured horizontally on the survey. If,
however, the slope of the ground is known, it is a fairly simple matter to determine the actual span length on the slope
from the horizontal span length and the ground slope.
The calculations are based on the parabolic formulae, which is sufficiently accurate so long as the tension ratio is
greater than 2. If the tension ratio is less than 2, a correction should be applied.

Tension Ratio = w( )
Τc
eq. 4-1.52

( )
c
Τc
w c < 2 ⇒ Apply correction factor

≥ 2 ⇒ Need not apply correction factor

where:-

Tc = Initial horizontal tension in the span before wind and ice loading, and before conductor creep at the
average temperature of the coldest month in Newtons (N)
wc = The weight of the conductor per unit length (N/m)
2 2 2
Tables 4-1.16,4-1.17 and 4-1.18 respectively applying to 800 mm "Bull", 400 mm "Centipede" and 160 mm "Hornet"
conductors give the maximum span lengths that are permissible for those stringers.

20000

fmax Stringer
Strain

10668
a)
L Col

L Phase
C

4000

3048
10000

6096
6000

L Phase

seff

3048
20000

12192
C

3048

seff
6096
6000
10000

L Phase

3048
C
4000
L Col

b)
C

Figure 4-1.13: Maximum Spans of Stringers between Yards

Now, due to the different heights in the strain points as illustrated in Figures 4-1.13 a) and 4-1.1414, the sag fmax, has
L L
to corrected by the ratio 2 i.e. the maximum sag from the straight line is 2 times lower than the sag when the
L L
straight points are at the same height.

L2
fmax = fs1. eq. 4-1.53
L

Once the sag at a particular temperature has been determined, it is possible from eq. 4-1.36to then calculate the
tension in the conductor at a given temperature.

The sag from the straight line between A and B, fc (see Figure 4-1.14a)), can be calculated for every point on the
catenary using the formula.

4.fmax .c.(L − c)
fc = 2
eq. 4-1.54
L

Attachment Points A and B at Different Levels

L
A

h
2
h = (H2-H1)

L2
h

H2 fmax fa fc B

Y
H1
c

X a

a).

Y
L L
2 2
b).

Figure 4-1.14: Determination of the Maximum Spans of Stringers between Yards

(i) It can be shown that the equivalent complete span can be determined from:-

(
2.Tc. H 2 − H1 )
L1 = L + 1
eq. 4-1.55
m .L

where:-

L1 = Equivalent complete span in metres

L = Actual span length between the supports in metres
Tc = Conductor tension in Newtons
1 -1
m = Mass of conductor per unit length in kg.m
H1 = Height above ground to the lowest attachment point in metres
H2 = Height above the same ground reference level as H1 to the highest attachment point in metres

(ii) The distance of the lowest support to the lowest point sag “a” can be calculated from the following formula:-

2
(
w.L − 2.Tc. H 2 − H1 )
a= 1
eq. 4-1.56
2.m .L

If the value of a is negative then this means that the lowest point of the sag on the parabola is outside the actual span
length.

(iii) The direct shortest distance between the two attachment points L2 can be determined from the following formula:-

2 2
L 2 = L + (H2 − H1 ) eq. 4-1.57

where:-

L2 = The direct shortest distance between the two attachment points

Example 2: L = 10 m

L2 = 14 m
2
A = 120 mm Al ⇒ d = 14 cm
o
T = 80 C

Tc = 1000 N
1 -1
m = 0,322 kg m

(i) Check for critical length (Lkr):-

 
 360.ε t 
L kr = T . (cm) eq. 4-1.58
 2 
0
Y −Y
 1 

Lkr = Critical length

εt = Coefficient of temperature
-6 o -1
εtA1 = 23 . 10 C
-6 o -1
εtcu = 17 . 10 C

Y = Specific gravity of conductor

-2 -3 -2 -1
YA1 = 2,7 . 10 N.cm (= N.mm .m )
-2 -3
Ycu = 8,9 . 10 N.cm

3 -2 -1
Y = Specific gravity of the conductor including the weight of a layer of ice, in N.cm- (or Nmm .m )

-2
T0 = Tension at the lowest temperature in N.cm

d = Diameter of conductor in mm

2
A = Cross-sectional area of conductor in cm

−4
180. d .10
Y1 = Y + eq. 4-1.59
A

−4
−2 180 . 14 . 10
Y1 = 2,7 . 10 +
1,2
−2 −2
= 8,3125 . 10 N.mm .m

(ii) From eq. 4-1.58 above:-

−6
1000 360 . 23 . 10
L kr = 2 2 −4
1,2 (8,3125 − 2,7 ).10
= 964,5 cm (or 9,645 m)

Since L2 = 14> 9,645 = Lkr, then

o
Y0 = Y1 at T0 = - 5 C eq. 4-1.60

(iii) Calculate sag with L = 10 m,

2 −7 −2 2
8.fs1 1,79 . 10 . 2,7 . 10 . 1000
−6 2
− −6
− 80
3 . 23 . 10 . 1000 8 . 23 . 10 . fs1

−2 2 2 2 −7
(8,3125 . 10 ) . 1000 . 1,2 1,79 . 10 . 1000
= −6 2
− −6
− ( −5)
24 . 23 . 10 . 1000 23 . 10 . 1,2

Rearrange as a cubic function

2 26,266304
⇒ 0,115942.fs1 − − 80 = 16,539969
fs1

3
⇒ fs1 − 832,657741 .fs1 − 226,546929 = 0

Solving the cubic function yields:

fs1 = 28,991
f ≈ 29 cm

s1
 →
(iv) Due to the difference in the conductor attachment heights, fs1 has to be corrected (see eq. 4-1.53):
14
fmax = 28,991.
10
fmax ≈ 40,6 cm
   →
(v) The distance of the lowest point on the catenary from the lowest attachment point is found using eq. 4-1.36:

1 2 1
m .L m .L2
fmax = ⇒ Tc =
8.Tc 8.fmax

1 2
1 2 m .L
m .L − (H 2 − H1 )
4.fmax
⇒a= 1
2.L.m

The above reduces to:

a = L.
[4.fmax − (H2 − H1 )] eq. 4-1.61
8.fmax

Now:-

(H2 − H1 ) = 2
14 − 10
2

≈ 9,8 m

From the above:-

a=
[
10 . 4 . 40,6 − 980 ]
8 . 40,6
= −25,2 m

The negative sign implies that the lowest point on the parabola is outside the section being considered, so that the
lowest point on the catenary is at H1.

The sag due to the conductor is therefore 406mm.

In order to calculate the maximum span length for a particular set of HV and MV portals, the same approach as before
is followed. The phase-to-earth and phase-to-phase clearance criteria need to be satisfied. It is usually the case that
transformers are located in the HV yard due to the larger bay spacing, so that the voltage at which the conductors
crossing the road are energised at the LV voltage. This off course makes obvious sense as the conductor spacing on
the LV side would be for the lower voltage. There are, however, cases where the transformer is located in the LV yard
for a particular reason. In this case it would be obvious that the portals on both sides of the road would be he same,
therefore the method initially described would be applicable.

Since the values of Se and Sp are generally known for a particular beam design, fmax can be calculated.

½.wbeam = 0,35m
Se = (4,572-½.1,63) = 3,757m
Sp = 4,572m
Ce = 1,85m
Cp = 2,30m

Sp - Cp
fmax ≤
2
4,572 - 2,30
≤ (from eq. 4-1.34)
2
≤ 1,138m

fmax ≤ Se − Ce
≤ 3,757 − 1,85 (from eq. 4-1.35)

≤ 1,907m

fmax = fc + fins ≤ 1,138m (from eq. 2-1.42)

2
9,81.mc.lc
fc = (from eq. 2-1.36)
8.Tc

2
9,81.mc.lc
+ fins ≤ 1,138m
8.Tc

The length and mass of a 220 kV strain insulator assembly can be calculated using the component data provided in
SLDG 43. Only the pertinent data is reproduced below for convenience.

Description Length (m) Mass (kg)

Lins = ℓes + ℓbc + n.ℓdisc + ℓsc + ℓyp + ℓtc + ℓpsc (from eq. 4-1.43)
Lins = 0,45 + 0,082 + 17.0,146 + 0,06 + 0,1 + 0,078 + 0,508
= 3,76m
mins = mes + mbc + ni.mdisc + msc + myp + mtc + mpsc (from eq. 4-1.44)
mins = 3,14 + 0,5 + 17.3,7+ 1,0 + 3,5 + 1,0 + 0,7 + 10,0
= 82,74 kg
wins = 9,81.mins eq. 4-1.62
wins = 82,74.9,81

= 811,68 N

For the purpose of illustration only, we neglect the mass of any droppers and hardware connected to the conductor
span. The approximate conductor length is given by:

ℓc = Lbcc – 2.( ½.wbeam + ℓeff) (from eq. 4-1.37)

= Lbcc – 2.( 0,35 + ℓeff)

1
wc = 9,81.m c.ℓc (from eq. 4-1.45)

= 9,81.[Lbcc – 2.( 0,35 + 3,76)]

The length and weight of the conductor can only be calculated once the conductor length is known. If the weight of the
dropper conductor and other hardware is initially assumed to be zero, then:

Angle of inclination:

−1  12 .w ins + 9,81.l c 
φ = tan   (from eq. 4-1.39)
 Ttot 
The maximum tension allowable on the beam is 9 kN (or 9000 N) per phase

−1  12 .811,68 + 9,81.l c 
φ = tan  
 9000 
Sag due to Insulator

fins = Lins .sinφ

  12 .811,68 + 9,81.l c   (from eq. 4-1.41)

= 3,76.sintan −1  
  9000 
The value of ℓc becomes the unknown which must be found. So far the total sag equation is given as:
2
9,81.mc.l c
+ fins ≤ 1,138m
8.Tc
2
9,81.2,391.l c
∴ + fins ≤ 1,138m (from eq. 4-1.42)
8.9000
2
9,81.2,391.l c   12 .811,68 + 9,81.l c  
+ 3,76.sintan −1    ≤ 1,138m
8.9000   9000  ??? eq. 4-1.63
-3 2
0,3258.10 l c [ (
+ 3,76.sin tan -1 45,09.10 - 3 + 1,09.10 - 3.l c )] ≤ 1,138

Equation 4-1.55 has to be solved numerically using Newton-Raphson or other.

A series of iterations provides a value of ℓc = 48,5m that is associated with fc48,5 = 1,1308. This then also allows for
diameter of the conductor which is 38,5mm
fc33,5 = 0,740213 + 0,0385
= 0,7787
Since ℓc is now known, it is possible to calculate wc:
1
wc = 9,81.m c.ℓc (from eq. 4-1.45)
= 9,81.2,391.48,5
= 1137,6 N

−1
 12 .wins + w c 
φ = tan  
 Ttot 
 
−1  12 .811,68 + 1137,6 
= tan   (from eq. 4-1.39)
 9000 
−1
= tan (0,1715)

o
= 9,73

Once the angle of inclination is known, the effective horizontal length of the insulator can be calculated.

l eff = Lins .cosφ

= 3,76.cos 9,73 ( ) (from eq. 4-1.38)

= 3,706m

Finally, by rearranging eq. 4-1.52, the maximum separation of the steelwork portals (Lbcc) can be derived from all the
calculated quantities as follows:

l c = Lbcc - 2.( l eff + 1 .w

2 beam ) (from eq. 4-1.37)

lc + 2.(l eff + 1 .w
2 beam ) = Lbcc (from eq. 4-1.46)

Lbcc = l c + 2.( l eff + 1 .w

2 beam )

= 48,5 + 2.(3,706 + 0,35) (from eq. 4-1.46)

≈ 56m

The above is not necessarily true for the case where conductors are strained with Vee-strain insulator strings as these
restrict lateral movement and prevent the conductors from approaching each other as close as the case with I-string
strain insulators, where the whole insulator moves with the conductor. This is clearly shown by comparing Figure 4-
1.11 with Figure 4-1.12. This means that additional margin is provided by using “Vee” strain insulator strings, and is a
means used in cases where such lateral movement needs to be restricted to gain the required clearance.
2
Table 4-1.16: Maximum Spans: 800 mm (Bull) Stringers between Yards (Based on Gapped Arresters)
L.V. Yard Transmission Conductor H.V. Yard Steelwork (kV)
Steelwork Voltage Per Phase 33 44 66 88 132 275 400
(kV) (kV) Maximum Span In Metres Between Strain Beams
11 1 23 28 32 36
33 2 15 20 22 25
22 1 21 28 35
2 13 19 31 24
33 1 18 26 30 34 40
2 11 18 20 24 28
44 44 1 - -
2 - -
66 66 1 - - 26 30 34 40
2 - - 18 21 24 28
88 88 1 - - - 36 37 43 55
2 - - - 24 26 31 38
132 132 1 - - - - 36 42 53
2 - - - - 24 29 37

275 220 1 - - - - - 58 74
2 - - - - - 40 51
275 2 - - - - - 33 47
400 330 2 - - - - - - 55
400 2 - - - - - - 53

Based on current Eskom steelwork phase-to-phase spacing and clearances (see Table 4-1.2)

Conductor Tension: up to and including 132 kV - 4 kN / Phase 275 kV and above kN / Phase.

2
Table 4-1.17: Maximum Spans: 400 mm (Centipede) Stringers between Yards (Based on Gapped Arresters)
L.V. Yard Transmission Conductor H.V. Yard Steelwork (kV)
Steelwork Voltage Per Phase 33 44 66 88 132 275 400
(kV) (kV) Maximum Span In Metres Between Strain Beams
11 1 33 40 47 52
2 21 28 32 35
33 22 1 29 39 46 50
2 18 26 30 34
33 1 25 37 42 48 57
2 14 25 28 33 40
44 44 1 -
2 -
66 66 1 - - 37 42 48 57
2 - - 24 29 33 40
88 88 1 - - - 48 52 61 79
2 - - - 34 36 43 55
132 132 1 - - - - 50 62 76
2 - - - - 33 40 52
220 1 - - - - - 82 104
275 2 - - - - - 55 72
275 2 - - - - - 45 65
400 330 2 - - - - - - 75
400 2 - - - - - - -

Based on phase-to-phase spacing and clearances

Conductor Tension : Up to and including 132 kV 4 kN / Phase; 275 kV and above - 8 kN / Phase.
2
Table 4-1.18: Maximum Spans: 160 mm (Hornet) Stringers between Yards (Based on Gapped Arresters)
L.V. Yard Transmission Conductors H.V. Yard Steelwork (kV)
Steelwork Voltage Per Phase 33 44 66 88 132
kV kV Maximum Span Between Strain Beams
11 1 50 64 73 80
33 22 1 44 60 69 77
33 1 37 56 65 73
44 44 1 -
66 66 1 - - 56 65 73
88 88 1 - - - 77 79
132 132 1 - - - - 76

Example:

HV yard steelwork : 275 kV

LV yard steelwork : 132 kV

Transmission voltage of span : 132 kV (i.e. the lower voltage)

2
Conductor : 2 x 800 mm .

From Table 4-1.15 the distance between the strain beams should not exceed 29 metres.

4.3 Jumper Connections

Wind force acting on jumper connections may reduce clearances below the minimum permissible. To limit swing,
jumper weights can be added as shown in Figure 1.

Figures 4-1.16, 4-1.17 and 4-1.18 illustrate a further problem with busbar jumper connections where the phase-to-
phase clearance between the jumper and the dropper onto the busbar isolator may be inadequate. The schedule
associated with the recommended end bay sizes to allow for future extensions or bus section breakers. A specimen
calculation for 132 kV is given below of this document, and is illustrated in Figure 4-1.15.

Figure 4-1.15: Stringer Phase-to-Earth Clearance to Free Standing Column

where:-

x = Distance from centre line of phase to edge of steelwork.

Based on phase-to-phase spacing and clearances

All conductor tensions 4 kN per phase.

ℓ ℓ Z-Y Y

Beam O

X θ
X
ce
Jumper P
b
Jumper W
Weight d

(a) Side View (b) End View

Figure 4-1.16: Jumper Clearances

In Figure 4-1.16b):-

P = Horizontal wind force on jumper

W = Total weight of jumper (including conductors, spacers, jumper weights)

[For simplicity the forces are assumed to act at lowest point of jumper]

Taking moments about O:

W.(X.sinθ) = P.(X.cosθ) eq. 4-1.64

(X.sinθ) P
=
(X.cosθ ) W
eq. 4-1.65
P
tanθ =
W

P = G.( π.l.d + n.a) eq. 4-1.66

W = 9,81.( π.l.w1 + n.w2 + 2.w3) eq. 4-1.67

Y = X.tanθ eq. 4-1.68

Clearance to Column = Z–Y eq. 4-1.69

where:-

d = Conductor diameter (m)

2
G = wind force = 440 N/m of projected area
n = number of jumper weights
π.ℓ = jumper length (jumper assumed circular)
X ≅ 1,1 × Phase to earth clearance
w1 = Conductor mass (kg/m)
w2 = jumper weight mass = 25 kg
w3 = mass of spacer (kg) (2 assumed)
a = projected area of jumper weight

Table 4-1.19: Jumper Clearances (Based on Gapped Arresters)

kV ℓ Conductor b X n P W Z Y Z-Y Required Cond/phase
clearance
(m) (m) (m) (N) (N) (m) (m) (m) (m)
2,70 1,62 1
Cent 62,4 60 1,08
2,62 1,54 2
66 1,73 0,23 0,85 0 0,77
2,70 1,80 1
Bull 91,3 128 0,87
2,62 1,75 2
2,70 1,38 1
Cent 76 73 1,32
2,62 1,30 2
88 2,1 0,26 0,93 0 0,84
2,70 1,60 1
Bull 111 155 1,10
2,62 1,55 2
3,84 2,29 1
Cent 93 90 1,55
3,67 2,12 2
132 2,58 0,35 1,32 0 1,20
3,84 2,59 1
Bull 136 190 1,25
3,67 2,42 2
2,59 2,12 1
Cent 153 658 0,47
2,43 1,96 2
220 3,14 0,36 2,04 2 1,85
2,59 2,07 1
Bull 206 780 0,52
2,43 1,91 2
Cent 170 674 2,43 0,63 1,80 1
275 3,6 0,36 2,59 2 2,35
Bull 230 813 2,43 0,70 1,73 2
Cent 199 702 4,26 0,87 3,38 1
330 4,4 0,36 3,19 2 2,90
Bull 272 872 4,26 0,95 3,30 2
400 4,8 Bull 0,36 3,52 2 2,95 905 4,26 1,10 3,16 3,20 2

B B
A

a) Plan

CL CL
4267 3048 3048 4877

Column y Column
Busbar
CL Beam
B W R
914 h
Beam
Width
Y
k
1829
7620

y
0 x
X
Dropper
914 RØ
2438

CL Isolator Foundation Level

2488

b) Plan

D ℓ

Centre
Phase

h
RØ

r
k

c) Plan
Figure 4-1.17: Jumper Clearances to Equipment

4.3.1 Specimen Calculation For 132 kV

Section A-A

Y = 3353 - Busbar beam width, X = 7010 ∴Y - y = 3048 – 974

= 3353 - 305 = 2074 mm
= 3048 mm

2
Assume dropper is parabolic : y = a.x h= Phase-earth clearance
+ 10%

∴For x = X and y = Y, = 1320 mm

Y ∴k= (Y-y) – h
a=
-6 -1
2
= 6,203 . 10 mm
X = 2074 – 1320
754 mm

For x = 3962 (i.e. distance from “0” to centre

phase)
-6 2
y= 6,203 . 10 (3962)

≈ 974 mm

Section B-B

Insulator string length, ℓins = 2579 mm

For D = 4267 (i.e. 15240 bay : 4267 + 3048 + 3048 + 4877 (see Figure 4-1.17)

r1min = 2667 mm

For D = 3048 (i.e. 12192 bay : 3048 + 3048 + 3048 + 3048)

r2min = 1880 mm

Min phase-phase clearance : 1650 mm

See Fig 4-1.17. for 132 kV jumper profile :

r1 = clearance for bay size 1
r2 = clearance for bay size 2

Table 4-1.20: End Bay Dimensions (Based on Gapped Arresters)

Voltage Phase-To- Bay Size 1 Bay Size 2 Recommended Remarks

Phase Dim. r1 Dim. r2 Bay Size
(kV) Clearance Dimension
(mm) (m) (mm) (m) (mm) (m)
66 1050 9,754 1880 7,620 1220 a) 9,754 a) For bay adjacent to
bus section
b) Adequate for end bay
b) 7,620
88 1150) 10,363 2590 8,534 1700 a) 10,363 a) For bay adjacent to
bus section
b) 8,534 b) Adequate for end bay
132 1650 15,240 2670 12,192 1880 15,240
220 2300 18,283 4750 15,240 2690 18,288
275 2950 18,283 4115 15,240 2110 18,283
330 3600 See Fig B Sheet 3
400 4000 See Fig B Sheet 3

7 7

4,877
7

0,5
7
4,877

2,05
6,5 6,5 5,877
4,877 d

a) Plan (All Dimensions in metres)

Stringer Beam

4,877 7 7 4,877 ℓ

Busbar Beam

BØ
h
20,42

2,05 Z

13,106
B W R
6,5

Isolator C
L

1,0 d
0,5
5,877

b) Elevation: End Bay Dimensions (400 kV) (All Dimensions in metres)

Figure 4-1.17: Busbar Jumpers

Elevation
h = 1,1 . Ø-E clearance
= 3,52 m

z = 2,678 m
For d = 2,25m

Minimum allowable distances between column foundations:-

K = 6,077 m

y (m)
Insulator string length: ℓ
4
BØ

3
I : Special creepage ℓ = 6m I II
II : Normal creepage ℓ = 5m 2
Jumper Profiles
Min Ø-E Clearance = 4m
For d = 2,25m
RI = 4,65m 1
RII = 5m RI
RII
0
x (m) 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
1
(b)

2
Isolator Blade C
L
K 3

Figure 4-1.18: End-Bay Dimensions (Jumper Profiles)

4.4 Connections to Transformers

To ensure, as far as possible, that connections can satisfactorily be made onto transformers, the clearance diagram
of Figure 4-1.19 is issued as part of the transformer specification.

In this diagram:-

L = Phase-to-earth clearance

Y = 2,38 metre structure plus phase-to-earth clearance which is the minimum height above ground that one
would expect for a lightning arrester or current transformer. In practice these devices are generally larger
than just the phase-to-earth clearance and this allows for some sag in the conductors.

X = Distance from edge of transformer to first supporting device. For the lower voltages this will generally be a
current transformer (CT) with the surge arrester (SA) tapped off between the CT and the transformer. At
the higher voltages the first support will generally be a SA mounted at least φ -E clearance away from the
transformer.

o o
30 30

o
15

o
15
L

o o
30 30

o
15
o
L -5

Y
Y

X X

Figure 4-1.19: Transformer Clearances

4.5 Adjacent Equipment

Figure 4-1.20 shows two examples of clearance problems that can arise with adjacent items of equipment.

In the diagram below (Figure 4-1.20) the distance from breaker terminal 'M' to the CT (p) is less than that between the
breaker terminals 'M' and 'N' (q), the gap across the breaker is thus being short-circuited by the CT. The CT tank is also
effectively reducing the phase-to-earth clearance on the breaker. In general, equipment should be so located as to avoid
reducing clearances on adjacent apparatus.

Because of voltage-grading problems, manufacturers generally recommend clearances around lightning arresters as
shown by the lower diagram of Figure 4-1.21.

Figure 4-1.20: Phase-to-Earth Clearances

Figure 4-1.21: Surge Arrester Clearance

4.6 Statutory Minimum Heights of Equipment Supports

Figure 4-1.1b) illustrates an average sized man with his hands raised above his head. The height is given as 2438 mm
which is the dimension taken as the minimum height above foundation level to the top cap of a structure that must be
adhered to at all times, regardless of voltage.

It can however also be taken as the height to the bottom of an equipment insulator that is earthed so that the support
itself can be lower. This is illustrated in Figure 4-1.22 with the use of a SF6 top core type (Figure 4-1.22a) and a hair pin
oil filled type (Figure 4-1.22b) of current transformers. This requirement applies to any primary plant supported on an
insulator.

a): Top Core SF6 CT b): Hair Pin Oil Filled CT

Figure 4-1.22: Minimum Height to the Bottom of the Supporting Insulator

4.7 Minimum Clearances for Vehicular Access in Power Installations

The minimum width for vehicle roadways within the enclosed electrical premises of outdoor installations should be 3m.
Vehicles and similar may pass below live parts (without protective devices) or in their vicinity when:-

4.7.1 the vehicle, even with its doors open, and its load do not come into the danger zone

T = C e + 100 mm with a minimum overall value of 500 mm

4.7.2 height H of the live parts over the road conforms to the minimum vertical working clearance

Figure 23: Limits on Vehicle Access Roads in an Outdoor Electrical Installation

5. CLEARANCES BETWEEN ADJACENT TRANSMISSION LINES AND TERMINAL TOWERS

5.1 Table 4-1.21: Separation Distances between Parallel Power Lines (See Also Figure 4-1.22)

22 kV
and below 12 metres
33 kV 14 metres
44 kV 14 metres
66 kV 14 metres
88 kV (Delta Conductor Spacing) 15 metres
88 kV (Horizontal Conductor Spacing) 21 metres
132 kV 25 metres
132 kV (Double Circuit) 32 metres
275 kV 32 metres
400 kV (For New Longer Span Length) 35 metres
765 kV 60 metres
533 kV Cahora Bassa (From Centre Line Of Conductor) 40 metres

5.2 Table 4-1.22: Maximum Recommended Distances between Terminal Portal and Terminal Tower (See Also
Figure 4-1.22)

Voltage ‘X’ ‘Y’ ‘Z’

(kV) (m) (m) (m)
11 11 12 Single or Twin Triple
22 11 12 Conductor Conductor
33 11
44 11 14
66 11 14
88 11 15
132 15,5 21 8,02
220 25 10,22
275 23,5 32 11,10
330 23,5
400 23,5 35 11,6 12,50
800 400 60 16,0 (Suspension) 23,0
20,0(Strain)

Note: For dimensioning between towers carrying different voltages use largest distance.

Figure 4-1.22: Transmission Line and Terminal Tower Separation and Width Restriction

5.3 Table 4-1.23: Maximum Recommended Distances between Terminal Portal and Terminal Tower

40 m Slack Span up to 132 kV Steelwork to terminal tower

50 m Slack Span 132 kV to 400 kV Steelwork to terminal tower

Figure 4-1.23: Transmission Line and Terminal Tower Separation and Width Restriction

5.4 Table 4-1.24: Building Restriction from Centre Line of Power Line

22 kV
and below 9 metres
33 kV Bear Conductor 11 metres
33 kV H-Pole 15,5 metres
44 kV Bear Conductor 11 metres
66 kV Bear Conductor 11 metres
88 kV Bear Conductor 11 metres
88 kV (Horizontal Conductor Spacing) 15,5 metres
132 kV 15,5 metres
275 kV 23,5 metres
400 kV 23,5 metres
400 kV (For New Longer Span Length) 27,5 metres
765 kV 40 metres
533 kV Cahora Bassa (From Centre Line Of Conductor) 15,5 metres

5.5 Table 4-1.25: Recommended Timber Restriction in Forestry Areas

66 kV 33 metres
88 kV 33,5 metres
132 kV 36 metres
275 kV 38,5 metres
400 kV 38,5 metres

Note: Trees in the proximity of transmission lines shall be limited in height to their horizontal distance from the nearest
conductor.

6. TABLE OF AREA UNDER A NORMAL DISTRIBUTION CURVE

Table 4.26: Area under Normal Distribution Curve vs t

0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09

 1 −1
.x
2

t
Probability (Area under a Normal Distribution Curve  ∫0t e ( 2 )dx  )
 2.π 

0.0 0.50000 0.50399 0.50798 0.51197 0.51595 0.51994 0.52392 0.52790 0.53188 0.53586
0.1 0.53983 0.54380 0.54776 0.55172 0.55567 0.55962 0.56356 0.56749 0.57142 0.57535
0.2 0.57926 0.58317 0.58706 0.59095 0.59483 0.59871 0.60257 0.60642 0.61026 0.61409
0.3 0.61791 0.62172 0.62552 0.62930 0.63307 0.63683 0.64058 0.64431 0.64803 0.65173
0.4 0.65542 0.65910 0.66276 0.66640 0.67003 0.67364 0.67724 0.68082 0.68439 0.68793
0.5 0.69146 0.69497 0.69847 0.70194 0.70540 0.70884 0.71226 0.71566 0.71904 0.72240
0.6 0.72575 0.72907 0.73237 0.73565 0.73891 0.74215 0.74537 0.74857 0.75175 0.75490
0.7 0.75804 0.76115 0.76424 0.76730 0.77035 0.77337 0.77637 0.77935 0.78230 0.78524
0.8 0.78814 0.79103 0.79389 0.79637 0.79955 0.80234 0.80511 0.80785 0.81057 0.81327
0.9 0.81594 0.81859 0.82121 0.82381 0.82639 0.82894 0.83147 0.83398 0.83646 0.83891
1.0 0.84134 0.84375 0.84614 0.84849 0.85083 0.85314 0.85543 0.85769 0.85993 0.86214
1.1 0.86433 0.86650 0.86864 0.87076 0.87286 0.87493 0.87698 0.87900 0.88100 0.88298
1.2 0.88493 0.88686 0.88877 0.89065 0.89251 0.89435 0.89617 0.89796 0.89973 0.90147
1.3 0.90320 0.90490 0.90658 0.90824 0.90988 0.91149 0.91308 0.91466 0.91621 0.91774
1.4 0.91924 0.92073 0.92220 0.92364 0.92507 0.92647 0.92785 0.92922 0.93056 0.93189
1.5 0.93319 0.93448 0.93574 0.93699 0.93822 0.93943 0.94062 0.94179 0.94295 0.94408
1.6 0,9452 0,9463 0,9474 0,9484 0,9495 0,9505 0,9515 0,9525 0,9535 0,9545
1.7 0,9554 0,9564 0,9573 0,9582 0,9591 0,9599 0,9608 0,9616 0,9625 0,9633
1.8 0,9641 0,9649 0,9656 0,9664 0,9671 0,9678 0,9686 0,9693 0,9699 0,9706
1.9 0,9713 0,9719 0,9726 0,9732 0,9738 0,9744 0,9750 0,9756 0,9761 0,9767
2.0 0,9772 0,9778 0,9783 0,9788 0,9793 0,9798 0,9803 0,9808 0,9812 0,9817

Table 4.26: Area under Normal Distribution Curve vs t (Continued)

0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09

 1 −1
.x
2

t
Probability (Area under a Normal Distribution Curve  )
t 2
∫0 e ( )dx
 2.π
 

2.1 0,9821 0,9826 0,9830 0,9834 0,9838 0,9842 0,9846 0,9850 0,9854 0,9857
2.2 0,9861 0,9864 0,9868 0,9871 0,9875 0,9878 0,9881 0,9884 0,9887 0,9890
2.3 0,98928 0,98956 0,98983 0,99010 0,99036 0,99061 0,99086 0,99111 0,99134 0,99158
2.4 0,99180 0,99202 0,99224 0,99248 0,99266 0,99286 0,99305 0,99324 0,99343 0,99361
2.5 0,99379 0,99396 0,99413 0,99430 0,99446 0,99461 0,99477 0,99492 0,99506 0,9520
2.6 0,99534 0,99547 0,99560 0,99573 0,99585 0,99598 0,99609 0,99621 0,99632 0,9643
2.7 0,99653 0,99664 0,99674 0,99683 0,99693 0,99702 0,99711 0,99720 0,99728 0,99736
2.8 0,99744 0,99752 0,99760 0,99767 0,99774 0,99781 0,99788 0,99795 0,99801 0,99807
2.8 0,99813 0,99819 0,99825 0,99831 0,99836 0,99841 0,99846 0,99851 0,99856 0,99861
3.0 0,99865 0,99869 0,99874 0,99878 0,99882 0,99886 0,99889 0,99893 0,99896 0,99900
3.1 0,99903 0,99906 0,99910 0,99913 0,99916 0,99918 0,99921 0,99924 0,99926 0,99929
3,2 0,99931 0,99934 0,99936 0,99938 0,99940 0,99942 0,99944 0,99946 0,99948 0,99950
3,3 0,99952 0,99953 0,99955 0,99957 0,99958 0,99960 0,99961 0,99962 0,99964 0,99965
3,4 0,99966 0,99968 0,99969 0,99970 0,99971 0,99972 0,99973 0,99974 0,99975 0,99976
3,5 0,99977 - - - - - - - - -
3,6 0,99984 - - - - - - - - -
3,7 0,99989 - - - - - - - - -
3,8 0,99993 - - - - - - - - -
3,9 0,99995 - - - - - - - - -
4,0 0,99997 - - - - - - - - -

CONTROLLED DISCLOSURE
When downloaded from the EDS database, this document is uncontrolled, and the responsibility rests with the user to
ensure that it is line with the authorised version on the database.
Terminal
R
Tower
Portal SUBSTATION LAYOUT DESIGN GUIDE Unique Identifier: 240-55922824
Revision: 0
Page: 161 of 2146

7. REFERENCES

7.1 Eskom Electrical Engineering Department Directive EED 14/1/5-1

7.2

CHAPTER 4-1.1

FLASHOVER CHARACTERISTICS

4.1.1 Contamination flashover on power systems

Insulator contamination poses a particular threat to transmission lines, because a contamination flashover is generally
flowed by a second flashover within a short time several successive contamination flashovers can occur and make it
necessary to de-energize the line. This is particularly common for transmission lines in heavy contamination areas
during periods of wet weather. After these periods, when the contamination insulator surfaces dry out, the insulation
strength is recovered.

Nowadays, there are increasing signs that insulation contamination will be an important consideration. This trend is
accelerated by factors like the expansion of power systems over coastal areas and the reduction of switching-surge
insulation requirement caused by improved circuit breaker design.

4.1.2 Research In The Filed Of Contamination Flashover

The flashover mechanism of contamination insulators is extremely complicated. Therefore, contamination studies have
been done under some simplified assumptions on the flashover mechanism which are a compromise between tow
objectives:

(1) Duplicate natural phenomena.

(2) Shorten study time.

This can create many different research and testing philosophies.

4.1.3Flashover Characteristics for Various Insulation Configurations in Uncontaminated Conditions

4.1.3.1 Insulators and Air Gaps

Flashover characteristics of a group of basic insulation configurations. These curves are sufficient to set minimum
clearances for power frequency voltage in the initial design stages. Generally, the power-frequency flashover strength
of EHV-UHV insulation lies between the rod-rod and rod-plane curves unless special field grading is employed. For the
curves, a standard deviation, σ, of 2 percent can be used to determine a withstand voltage. At the 3σ level the
withstand voltage would be 94 percent of the critical flashover voltage (CFO).

4.1.3.2 Meteorological Correction Factors

The standard meteorological conditions for the power frequency tests are:
o
Air temperature 25 C

Barometric pressure 760 mm Hg

Humidity (vapor pressure) 15.2 mm Hg

(Absolute humidity)
3
Rainfall resistivity 15.0 g/m

Rate of precipitation 17800 Ω cm

o
Angle of precipitation 45

4.1.3.3 Effect Of Air Density

The relative air density, δ, for any other barometric pressure and temperature can be calculated from the relation:

δ = 0.386.b

273+t

where:

b = barometric pressure (mm Hg)

0
t = temperature ( C)

As the relative air density increase, the breakdown strength of the air increase,

V = δ V0o

where:

V= critical flashover voltage at any relative air density, Vo = critical flashover voltage at standard temperature and
pressure.

Provides a nomogram to calculate average relative air density with altitude above sea level.

4.1.3.4 Effect Of Humidity

In general, strength increases with humidity unless condensation forms on electrode or insulator surfaces. The
breakdown voltage, V, at any vapor pressure is usually described by

V = V0 / H

where:

V0 = breakdown voltage at standard condition (15.2mm Hg vapor pressure)

H = a humidity correction factor which depends on gap geometry

Humidity is usually measured with the wet- and dry- bulb thermometers of a sling psychrometer. A psychrometer chart
reduces the measurements to vapor pressure.

4.1.3.5 Effect of Rain on Clean Insulation

The critical flashover voltage for clean dry condition is defined as 1 p. u. To find the critical flashover voltage at any rain
rate, one multiplies the reference value by the corresponding correction factor. Critical flashover voltage also depends
on water resistivity. The correction factor curves used a project EHV for rain resistivity. The curve corrects the per unit
critical flashover voltage versus water resistivity for the case of a rain rate of 15 mm per minute

4.1.4 Survey of Contamination Performance of Power Transmission Systems

The pollution source extends over only a limited portion of the transmission system. It was concluded that in the region
with “spot contamination “, general atmospheric conditions were quite contamination-free and that the practice in
insulation design of power transmission systems shown in Table 4.1 ha been satisfactory.

Table 4.1:. Insulation level of power transmission systems based on current practice in USA and Canada

System voltage BIL Number of insulator Units for

KV kV transmission line
(146 x 254mm standard)
15.0 110
23.0 150
34.5 200
46.0 250
69.0 350 4-6
115.0 450 7-9
138.0 550 8-10
230.0 825-900 12
287.5 1050 15
245.0 1175-1300 18
500.0 1550 24

4.2 String Flashover Characteristics

The string flashover characteristic of the 132 KV transmission lines is summarized on table 4.2.

Table 4.2

Area Number of Flashover Flashover Impulse flashover Impulse flashover

units kV Dry kV Wet positive Negative
Asir 9 485 320 775 760
Baha 11 635 395 1090 1040
Bisha 16 660 440 836 924
Jizan 18 650 495 905 905
Najran 2 550 380 890 890
Tihama 20 680 540 995 945

The actual string flashover characteristic of the 132 KV overhead transmission lines are those given on table 4.1
divided by the correction factors as given on table 4.2.

An effective way of preventing flashover troubles in transmission lines is to increase the leakage distance over the
entire surface of the insulator string.

The insulators strings are such that:

1. The power frequency wet withstand voltage must be larger than the highest voltage of the switching surge.

2. The critical impulse withstand voltage must be near the maximum electrical potential rise of the tower during a
direct lighting stroke.

A lighting flashover resulting in a sustained power follow will lead to an outage. However, not all lighting flashovers
results to a sustained power follow. The percentage of flashovers that results in power follow depends on the type and
length of the insulation path, magnitude of the power follow current, and the magnitude and duration of the lightning
surge current

4.3 Insulator Flashover Step By Step

SLDG 4-2
CORONA
1. INTRODUCTION

Closely associated with the issue of electrical clearances is the phenomenon called electrical corona. Corona is a
luminous, audible discharge as a result of electrical overstressing in an insulating material, usually air that occurs when
there is an excessive localized electric field gradient upon an object that causes the ionization and possible electrical
breakdown of the air adjacent to this point. Corona is characterized by a colored glow frequently visible in a darkened
environment. The audible discharge, usually a subtle hissing sound, increases in intensity with increasing output
voltage. Ozone, an odorous, unstable form of oxygen is frequently generated during this process. Rubber is destroyed
by ozone, and nitric acid can be created if sufficient moisture is present. These items have detrimental affects on
materials, inclusive of electrical insulators. In short:

• The discharge may be manifested as "Visual Corona", "Audible Corona" or "Glow" discharges

• “Plume" discharges occur on positive half cycles, may range in length from a few centimetres to 15 cm, and are
usually accompanied by audible noise

• “Brush" discharges occur during negative half cycles and are generally smaller than "Plume" discharges.

• "Glow" discharges appear as a faint light around the surface and are often due to humidity.

The discharges are due to electron avalanches which occur when the electric field intensity exceeds a critical value.
Electrons, having a negative charge, accelerate towards the conductor during the positive half cycle and away from the
conductor during the negative half cycle. As a result of collisions a stream of electrons is built up which eventually
terminates on the conductor (positive half cycle) or ceases to grow any further because of insufficient field strength
(negative half cycle). Recombination of the electrons with positive ions moving in the opposite direction causes the
emission of energy in the form of visible light.

Figure 4-2.1: Schematic Outline of the Formation of Power Conductor Corona Ions

This partial discharge is a type of localized emission resulting from transient gaseous ionization in an insulation system
when the voltage stress, i.e., voltage gradient, exceeds a critical value. The ionization is usually localized over only a

portion of the distance between the electrodes of the system. Corona can occur within voids in insulators as well as at
the conductor/insulator interface.

As stated above, corona is caused by the electric field next to an object exceeding the breakdown value for air (or
whatever it is immersed in). Since the magnitude of the field is inversely proportional to the radius of curvature, sharper
edges break down sooner. The corona starting voltage is typically 30 kV/cm radius. Dust or water particles on the
surface of the object reduce the corona starting voltage, probably by providing local areas of tighter curvature, and
hence higher field stress.

a) Electric Field Line Diagram

Figure 4-2.2: Electric Field vs. Curvature

The easiest case to analyze is that of a sphere. The magnitude of the electric field at the surface of a sphere in free
space is simply the voltage/radius. Note that if the sphere is near another conductor, the field is no longer uniform, as
the charge will redistribute itself towards an adjacent conductor, increasing the field.

Since corona is fundamentally a breakdown phenomenon, it follows Paschen's law: the voltage is a function of partial
discharge (pd). Double all the dimensions and halve the gas pressure, and the corona voltage will be pretty much the
same.

A good high voltage design takes corona generation into account and provides design countermeasures to limit the
possibility of problems developing, ensuring that high voltage design does not have excessive field gradients,
preventing partial discharge and corona generation.

Figure 4-2.3: Corona on an Insulator String

Corona is a phenomenon that has the capability for degrading insulators, and causing systems to fail. In this
discussion, formulas are provided to calculate the voltage at which corona occurs, and a mention is made of a useful
application for corona.

1.1 Corona Inception

Corona inception voltage is the lowest voltage at which continuous corona of specified pulse amplitude occurs as the
applied voltage is gradually increased. Corona inception voltage decreases as the frequency of the applied voltage
increases. Corona can occur in applications as low as 300V.

1.2 Corona Extinction

Corona extinction voltage is the highest voltage at which continuous corona of specified pulse amplitude no longer
occurs as the applied voltage is gradually decreased from above the corona inception value. Thus, once corona starts,
the voltage must be decreased to get it to stop.

1.3 Corona Detection

Corona can be visible in the form of light, typically a purple glow, as corona generally consists of micro arcs. Darkening
the environment can help to visualize the corona. This can be demonstrated by attaching a camera (set to a long
exposure time) to a viewing window in a vacuum chamber to confirm that corona was indeed occurring.

One can often hear corona hissing or cracking. Thus, stethoscopes or ultrasonic detectors (assuming you can place
them in a safe location) can be used to find corona. In addition, one can sometimes smell the presence of ozone that
was produced by the corona.

The corona discharges in insulation systems result in voltage transients. These pulses are superimposed on the
applied voltage and may be detected, which is precisely what corona detection equipment looks for.

1.4 Corona Effects

The presence of corona can reduce the reliability of a system by degrading insulation. While corona is a low energy
process, over long periods of time, it can substantially degrade insulators, causing a system to fail due to dielectric
breakdown. The effects of corona are cumulative and permanent, and failure can occur without warning.

a) Insulator Without Corona Ring Installed

b) Identical Insulator Unit With Corona Ring Installed

Figure 4-2.4: Dead Side Stressing of a 132 kV Insulator

1.5 Corona Calculations

The following corona calculations are from Dielectric Phenomena in High Voltage Engineering, F.W. Peek, 1929
1.5.1 Concentric Cylinders in Air
Corona will not form when RO/RI < 2.718. (Arcing will occur instead when the voltage is too high.)
1.5.2 Parallel Conductors in Air:
Corona will not form when X/r < 5.85. (Arcing will occur instead when the voltage is too high.)
1.5.3 Equal Spheres in Air:
Corona will not form when X/R < 2.04. (Arcing will occur instead when the voltage is too high.)
Arcing difficult to avoid when X/R < 8

where:-
RO = Radius of outer concentric sphere
RI = Radius of inner concentric sphere
R = Sphere radius
rc = Conductor radius
X = Distance between wires or between spheres

1.6 Corona Prevention

Corona can be avoided by minimizing the voltage stress and electric field gradient. This is accomplished by using
utilizing good high voltage design practices, i.e., maximizing the distance between conductors that have large voltage
differentials, using conductors with large radii, and avoiding parts that have sharp points or sharp edges. Corona
inception voltage can sometimes be increased by using a surface treatment, such as a semiconductor layer, high
voltage putty or corona dope.

Also, use a good, homogeneous insulator. Void free solids, such as properly prepared silicone and epoxy potting
materials work well. If one is limited to using air as your insulator, then one is left with geometry as the critical
parameter.

Finally, it must be ensured that steps are taken to reduce or eliminate unwanted voltage transients, which can cause
corona to start.
2. CORONA SURFACE FACTOR

Table 4-2.1 gives empirically determined correction factors for various surface conditions. These factors are multiplied
by the corona starting voltage (or field) to determine the corrected voltage.

Table 4-2.1: Correction Factor (mr) For Various Surfaces

Condition of Conductor mr
New, unwashed 0.67-0.74
Washed with grease solvent 0.91-0.93
Scratch-brushed 0.88
Buffed 1.00
Dragged and dusty 0.72-0.75
Weathered (5 months) 0.95
Weathered at low humidity 0.92
For general design 0.87-0.90
7 strand concentric lay cable 0.83-0.87
19, 37, and 61 strand concentric lay cable 0.80-0.85

3. ELIMINATING OR REDUCING CORONA

Smoothly radiusing the corners of objects at high voltages relative to nearby objects will reduce the local field strength.

One can place the sharp corner in something with a higher breakdown strength than air. The trick here is to make sure
that one has really got the replacement substance in contact with the conductor. By making the high field occur within a
substance with a higher breakdown than the surrounding air, corona can be reduced.

Covering sharp corners with an insulating film increases the corona starting voltage at the points with high electrical
stress. Generically known as "corona dope", this is an enamel or polystyrene paint or gel that can be applied. Glyptal
is one example, and clear nail polish has also been used. Clear acrylic spray paint is another alternative, although the
coating is quite thin.

Potting the entire assembly in an insulator (traditionally paraffin or sulphur were used, silicone RTV is a more popular
modern alternative) achieves the same result. Immersing the assembly in oil or other insulating fluids will also work. All
of the potting and immersion techniques depend on removing the air or gas bubbles to work. Commercial
manufacturers pull a vacuum on the container while the assembly is being potted to facilitate the removal of the air
bubbles. Experimenters building polyethylene and aluminium foil capacitors for Tesla coils run them at low powers
using the electrostatic forces between the plates to vibrate and pump the air bubbles out.

A popular approach to reducing corona on conductors is to surround the conductor by a semi-conducting film or layer
of greater radius. This effectively increases the radius of the object, and hence lowers the field strength. At times it may
be that a large amount of copper is not needed to carry the required current (often micro or milliamps), but require the
diameter of the conductor large enough to reduce or minimise the corona.

Field grading rings are often used on high voltage equipment to control the electric field distribution. Rather than rely on
the field that would exist in free space between two charged conductors, a series of other conductors are interposed at
intermediate voltages. The intermediate voltages are derived from a capacitive or resistive divider. A capacitive divider
may be as simple as the inter-electrode capacitances of the grading rings themselves.

Running the system in a tank at high pressure, or in an insulating gas, will increase the corona starting voltage

4. SYSTEM VOLTAGE LIMITS

The maximum system voltages that can be used with various conductors (size and number/phase) and conductor
bundle configurations can be calculated from the following formulae:

Table eq. 4-2.2: Corona Formulae

Conductors Per Conductor

Corona Formula
Phase Configuration
 G 
1 . VL = k 1 .k 2 .k 3 .4,19.d.lo g 10 . 
 1,9.d 
eq. 4-2.1

k 1 .k 2 .k 3 .8,39.d  1,27.G 
VL = .log 10
 a.d 
2 ..  d
1 + 
eq. 4-2.2

 a
k 1 .k 2 .k 3 .12,60.d  1,13.G 
VL = .log 10  3 2 
3
∴ 
 1 + 1,73. 
d  a .d  eq. 4-2.3

 a

k 1 .k 2 .k 3 .18,19.d  G 
VL = .log 10  4 3 
4 :: 
 1 + 2,12. 
d  a .d  eq. 4-2.4

 a

G = 3 L 12 . L 23 . L 31 eq. 4-2.5

where:-
VL = Maximum line-to-line voltage, kV rms
G = Geometric mean phase-to-phase spacing in mm
d = Conductor diameter, mm
a = Spacing between adjacent conductors of a phase bundle, mm
L12 = distance between phases 1 and 2
L23 = distance between phases 2 and 3
L31 = distance between phases 3 and 1
k1 = Correction factor for conductor surface
= 0,9 for aged conductor
= 0,8 for new conductor
k2 = Correction factor for weather
= 1,0 for fine weather
= 0,8 for rain, snow or fog
k3 = Correction factor for altitude
= 1,0 at sea level
=
RAD at altitude
= 0,88 at 1800 m for RAD = 0,79
RAD = Relative Air Density

Corona limit voltages calculated from these formulae for an altitude of 1800 m are scheduled in Table4-2.3

Table eq. 4-2.3: Conductor Bundles Required at Different Voltages

Material Maximum Nominal Voltage As Limit By Corona -

Reference Overall kV
Area Diameter 1 2 4
2
(mm ) (mm) Conductors Per Phase
All Aluminium 25 6,36 44 - -
40 7,95 66 - -
63 10,05 88 - -
100 12,75 88
160 16,75 132 220 275
250 22,25 132 275 400
400 26,25 220 330 400
500 29,75 220 330 400
630 33,75 275 400 -
800 38,25 330 400 -
SCA 25 7,08 44 - -
40 9,00 66 - -
50 10,05 88 - -
63 11,25 88 - -
100 14,25 88 - -
160 18,55 132 220 275
250 23,45 132 275 400
400 27,00 220 330 -
500 30,15 220 330 -
630 33,70 275 400 -

Copper 16 5,10 44 - -
25 6,36 44 - -
40 7,95 66 - -
63 10,05 88 - -
80 11,25 88 - -
100 13,25 88 - -
160 16,52 132 220 275
250 21,00 132 275 400
315 23,85 132 275 400
400 27,00 220 330 -

5. GENERAL INFORMATION

Corona discharges cause high frequency (hf) noise which may interfere with radio and/or television reception. The
Radio Influence Voltage (RIV) is measured in microvolts by direct coupling to the test specimen. The Radio Influence
(RI) is measured in microvolts/meter via loose coupling with a rod antenna.

General RIV levels are:

"Plumes" : 10,000 microvolts (µV)

"Brush" : 100-5000 microvolts (µV)

"Glow" : 10 microvolts (µV)

The effect on radio reception depends on the signal strength from the transmitting station and the following may be
taken as a general guide:

Table eq. 4-2.4: Radio Interference Effects at Various Distances form the Source

Signal Strength Distance For Freedom From Interference Moderate Interference

µv/m)
(µ (m) (m)
2000 43 18
1000 68 31
500 100 50
100 250 132
20 - 315

6. DETERMINATION OF THE PROBABILITY THAT CORONA WILL OCCUR FOR TYPICAL ARRANGEMENTS

Equations 4-1.1 to 4-2.4 determine a single system voltage limit for given conductor sizes and geometries. This
section, however, deals with the calculation of conductor surface field strength, for single and bundle conductor
arrangements and compares inception levels at various voltages to determine if corona will be present at any given
voltage. In this manner, it is possible to change variable values to reduce the probability of corona.

6.1 Corona threshold limits (Ec)

Empirical expressions that were developed by Peek (UK) and Heymann (University of Pretoria) give corona threshold
field strengths for single conductors as follows:-

 0,03  10 kV
Peek : Ec = 3.mr.δ 1 + eq. 4-2.6
 .
rc.δ  2 cm
(rms)

 0,0937  10 kV
Heymann : Ec = 2,4.m r.δ 1 + . (rms) eq. 4-2.7
 (rc.δ )0,4
 2 cm

where:-

Ec = Corona threshold surface field strength

δ = Relative air density (RAD)
rc = Conductor radius in metres
mr = Factor to allow for surface roughness

Table 4-2.5: Typical values for mr

Type of Surface Factor for Surface Roughness (mr)

Polished Tubes 1,0
Extruded Tubes 0,95
Stranded Conductor 0,8

Two methods of determining the relative air density (RAD) is offered.

RAD can be determined from the reciprocal of equation 4-1.31

 Ha 
- m 
 8150 
δ=e (dimensionless) eq. 4-2.8

where:-
Ha = Altitude above sea level at which the RAD is being determined in metres (m)
m = A factor as determined from Figure 4-1.7

RAD can also be determined in terms of pressure and temperature.

p1 273 + T0
δ = . (dimensionless) eq. 4-2.9
p0 273 + T1

where:-

p0 = Pressure at the standard reference condition, e.g. 101,3 kPa or 760 mm/Hg
p1 = Pressure at another condition
o
T0 = Temperature at the standard reference condition, e.g. 20 C
T1 = Temperature at another condition

6.2 Calculation of Conductor Effective Surface Field Strength (Ec) for a Conductor Bundle using the Image
Method sp sp
b 2.rc
1 A 2 3 B 4 5 C 6
hc

Ground
Plane
D1 D2 D3 D4 D5
hc

Figure 4-2.2: Conductor Surface Field Strength on a Conductor Bundle Using the Image Method

By applying the formulae derived for a three phase transmission line to a bundle conductor arrangement as shown
Figure 4-2.2 above, the phase to ground voltage on conductor 1 is given by:

Q1  2.h c  Q 2  D 1  Q 3  D 2  Q 4  D 3 
V1 =
2.π.ε
.ln
 b  + 2.π.ε .ln  b  + 2.π.ε .ln  s  + 2.π.ε .ln  sp + b 
 p
eq. 4-2.10

Q5  D4 Q 6  D5 
+ .ln  + .ln   (Volts)
2.π.ε  2.s p  2.π.ε  2.s p + b 
where:-

V1 = instantaneous phase to ground voltage on conductor 1 in volts

Q1,
Q2 ..... = instantaneous charges on conductors 1, 2 ...6 respectively in coulomb/m
Q6
2 2
ε = the dielectric constant for air in C /Nm .
rc = the radius of the conductor in metres
b = The geometric radius of the conductor bundle in metres
hc = height of conductors above ground in metres
sp = phase spacing in metres
D1,
D2 ....D = relative distances between conductors in metres
5

The instantaneous charge on a conductor is proportional to the instantaneous phase to ground voltage of the
o
conductor, but due to the fact that the voltages on the three phases are displaced by 120 and the algebraic sum of the
charges ∑nx =1 Qx = 0 , it follows that if the charge on conductor 1 at any particular instant equals +Q coulomb/m, then
the charges on the other two phases are -0,5.Q cou1omb/m each. This leads to the following simplification:-

Q1 ≈ Q2 = Q eq. 4-2.11

Q3 ≈ Q4 = -0,5.Q1 = -0,5.Q eq. 4-2.12

Q5 ≈ Q6 = -0,5.Q1 = -0,5.Q eq. 4-2.13

Substitute in (4-2.11), (4-2.12) and (4-2.13) above into 4-2.10 and we get:-

Q   2.h c   D1  D2   D3   D4   D5 
V1 = Vn = .ln   + ln   − 0,5.ln   + ln   + ln   + ln    (Volts)
2. π.ε b   s p   s p + b   2.s p   2.s p + b  
  rc 
Simply written as:-

V1 = Vn =
Q
[ ]
. P1 (Volts) eq. 4-2.14a
2.π.ε

Vn
[P1 ].2.π.ε = Q
eq. 4-2.14b

where:-

Vn = Phase-to-neutral voltage in volts

 2.hc  + ln  D 1  − 0,5.ln  D 2  + ln  D 3  + ln  D 4  + ln  D 5 
P1 = ln
 rc  b         eq. 4-2.15
   s p   s p + b   2.s p   2.s p + b 
However, the average field strength on the surface of any conductor with radius rc and charge + q coulomb/m is given
by:-

+q
E av = (Volts/m) eq. 4-2.16
2.π.ε.rc

Eq. 4-2.11 applied to conductor 1 of the above arrangement gives:-

Q
E 1av = (Volts/m) eq. 4-2.17
2.π.ε.rc

where:-

Q = charge on conductor 1 in coulomb/m

rc = radius of conductor 1 in metres

Substitute for Q from (4-2.14b)

=
[Vn ].2. π.ε . 1
[P1 ].2.π.ε rc
E
1av

Vn 1
=
[P1 ]
. kV/m (rms)
rc

E 1av =
[VL ] . 1
.
1
kV/cm (rms) eq. 4-2.18
2
3 P1r 10

with VL in kV (rms) and rc in metres.

The average field strength for the other conductors can be calculated in a similar manner.

However, when wires are close together as in a bundle, the charges influence each other and bring about a spatial
variation of the field. The actual variation of field strength round the circumference has been shown by several
investigators to closely follow a cosine relationship given by the equation:-


( ) ( )
dc
E e = E av . 1 + n - 1 . .cos θ eq. 4-2.19
 b 
where:-

n = number of conductors in a bundle

dc = conductor diameter in metres (m)
b = bundle diameter in metres (m)

Figure 4-2.3: Variation of the Electric Field Strength w.r.t Angular Position Relative to a Bundle Conductor

Experimental results, however, confirm that the corona threshold is reached when the field strength reaches halfway
o
between the average value and the maximum value, i.e. when θ = 45 , and where cosθ = 0,71.

This is termed the effective field strength and is given by:-

 
( )
dc
E e = E av . 1 + 0,71. n - 1 . eq. 4-2.20
 b 

The above is true even if each phase was made up of a single conductors where n = 1. The above relationship reduces
to:

E e = E av eq. 4-2.21

6.3 Calculation of Conductor Surface Field Strength (Em) for a Tubular Conductor using the Image Method

By applying the formulae derived for a three phase transmission line to a tubular conductor arrangement as shown in
Figure 4-2.4 below, the phase to ground voltage on conductor 1 is given by:

Q 11  2.h c  Q 12  D 12  Q 13  D 13 
V1 =
2. π.ε
.ln
 r  + 2.π.ε .ln  s  + 2. π.ε .ln  2.s  (Volts ) eq. 4-2.22
 c   p   p
The average field strength for the other conductors can be calculated in a similar manner.

Q 21  D 21  Q 22  2.h c  Q 23  D 23 
V2 = +
2. π.ε
.ln  .ln
 + .ln   (Volts ) eq. 4-2.23
 s p  2.π.ε  rc  2.π.ε  s p 
Q 31  D 31  Q 32  D 32  Q 33  2.h c 
V3 = .ln  + .ln  + .ln (Volts ) eq. 4-2.24
2. π.ε  
 2.s p  2.π.ε  s p  2.π.ε  rc 
where:-

V 1, V 2, V 3 = instantaneous phase to ground voltage on conductors 1, 2 and 3

respectively in volts
Q11, Q12, Q13, = instantaneous charges on conductors 1, 2, 3 respectively in coulomb/m.
Q21, Q22, Q23,
Q31, Q32, Q33
2 2
ε = the dielectric constant for air in C /Nm .
dc = the diameter of the conductor in mm
rc = the radius of the conductor in mm
hc = height of conductors above ground in mm
sp = phase spacing in mm
D11, D12, D21, = relative distances between conductors in mm
D22, D31, D32

sp sp
dc

1 A 2 B 3 C

hc
Ground
Plane
D21 D31 D12 D32 D13 D23
hc

Figure 4-2.4: Conductor Surface Field Strength on a Bus Tube Using the Image Method

The instantaneous charge on a conductor is proportional to the instantaneous phase to ground voltage of the
o
conductor, but due to the fact that the voltages on the three phases are displaced by 120 and the algebraic sum of the
charges ∑nx =1 Qx = 0 , it follows that if the charge on conductor 1 at any particular instant equals +Q coulomb/m, then
the charges on the other two phases are -0,5Q cou1omb/m each. This leads to the following simplification:-

Q11 ≈ Q22 ≈ Q33 = Q eq. 4-2.25

Q12 ≈ Q13 = -0,5.Q1 = -0,5.Q eq. 4-2.26

Q21 ≈ Q23 = -0,5.Q1 = -0,5.Q eq. 4-2.27

Q31 ≈ Q32 = -0,5.Q1 = -0,5.Q eq. 4-2.28

Substitute in (4-2.25), (4-2.26) and (4-2.27) above into 4-2.22 to 4-1.24 and we get:-

Q   2.h c   D12  o
 D13  o

V1 = Vn = .ln   + ln  .cos120 + ln .cos240  (Volts) eq. 4-2.29
2. π.ε  sp   2.s p 
  rc  

Q   D 21  o  2.h c   D 23  o

V2 = Vn = .ln   .cos120 + ln   + ln  .cos240  (Volts) eq. 4-2.30
2. π.ε
  sp   rc   sp  

Q   D 31  o
 D 32  o  2.h c  
V3 = Vn = .ln  .cos120 + ln   .cos240 + ln    (Volts) eq. 4-2.31
2. π.ε
  2.s p   sp   rc  

Simplified:-

Q   2.h c   D12   D13  

V1 = Vn = .ln   − 0,5.ln   − 0,5.ln    (Volts) eq. 4-2.32
2. π.ε  sp   2.s p  
  rc 

Q   D 21   2.h c   D 23  
V2 = Vn = .− 0,5.ln   + ln   − 0,5.ln    (Volts) eq. 4-2.33
2. π.ε  sp   rc   sp  


Q   D 31   D 32   2.h c  
V3 = Vn = .− 0,5.ln   − 0,5.ln   + ln    (Volts) eq. 4-2.34
2. π.ε  2.s p   sp   rc  


Written more simply:-

V1 = Vn =
Q
[ ]
. P1 (Volts) eq. 4-2.35
2.π.ε

V2 = Vn =
Q
[ ]
. P2 (Volts) eq. 4-2.36
2.π.ε

V3 = Vn =
Q
[ ]
. P3 (Volts) eq. 4-2.37
2.π.ε

where:-
Vn = Phase-to-neutral voltage in volts

 2.hc   D12   D13 

P1 = ln   − 0,5.ln   − 0,5.ln   eq. 4-2.38
 rc   sp   2.s p 
 D 21   2.h c   D 23 
P2 = −0,5.ln   + ln   − 0,5.ln   eq. 4-2.39
 sp   rc   sp 

 D 31   D 32   2.h c 
P3 = −0,5.ln   − 0,5.ln   + ln  eq. 4-2.40
 2.s p   sp   rc 
In terms of the basic parameters:-

 2.h c 
P1 = ln  −


([2.h ] c
2
+ sp
2
) − 0,5.ln ([2.h ] + [2.s ] )
c
2
p
2

 0,5.ln eq. 4-2.41

 rc   sp   2.s p 
   

= −0,5.ln 
([2.h ] c
2
+ sp
2
) + ln 2.h c 
−


([2.h ] c
2
+ sp
2
)
P2   0,5.ln eq. 4-2.42
 sp   rc   sp 
   

P3 = −0,5.ln 
(
 [2.hc ]2 + [2.sp ]2 ) − 0,5.ln ([2.h ] + s ) + ln 2.h 
c
2
p
2
c eq. 4-2.43

sp
 
sp
  rc 

However, the average field strength on the surface of any conductor with radius r and charge + q coulomb/m is given
by:

+q
E av = (Volts/m) eq. 4-2.44
2.π.ε.rc

Eq. 4-2.44 applied to conductor 1 of the above arrangement gives:-

Q
E1av = (Volts/m)
2.π.ε.rc
Q
E1av ≈ E 2av ≈ E 3av = (Volts/m) eq. 4-2.45
2.π.ε.rc
where:-
Q = charge on conductor 1 in coulomb/m
rc = radius of conductors 1, 2 and 3 in metres

Substitute for Q from (17.40)

E 1av =
[Vn ].2.π.ε . 1
[P1 ].2.π.ε rc
Vn 1
=
[P1 ] rc
. kV/m (rms) eq. 4-2.46

E 1av =
[VL ] . 1 1
. .
1
kV/cm (rms) eq. 4-2.47
3 P1r rc 10 2

with VL in kV (rms) and rbo in metres.

Similarly for the centre phase

E 2av =
[Vn ].2.π.ε . 1
[P2 ].2.π.ε rc
Vn 1
=
[P2 ] rc
. kV/m (rms) eq. 4-2.48

E 2av
[V ]
= L .
1
.
1
.
1
kV/cm (rms) eq. 4-2.49
3 P2r rc 10 2

For the outer phase

E 3av =
[Vn ].2.π.ε . 1
[P3 ].2.π.ε rc
Vn 1
=
[P3 ] rc
. kV/m (rms) eq. 4-2.50

E 3av
[V ]
= L .
1 1
. .
1
kV/cm (rms) eq. 4-2.51
3 P3r rc 10 2

6.4 A Sample Calculation Using A Tubular Busbar System

The following data is provided:-

System Voltage (VL) = 400 kV

Number of Phases = 3
Phase Spacing (sp) = 7m
Height above Ground (hc) = 5.8 m
No of Conductors per bundle = 1
Conductor Diameter = 200 mm (rbo = 0,1 m)

Assuming Values

Altitude = 1800 m

 Ha 
- m 
 8150 
δ=e
 1800 
-1 
 8150 
=e (from eq. 4-2.8)

= 0,8 (dimensionless)

Typical values for mr are given in Table 4-2.5

Table 4-2.5: Typical values for mr

Type of Surface Factor for Surface Roughness (mr)

Polished Tubes 1,0
Extruded Tubes 0,95
Stranded Conductor 0,8
Factor for Surface Roughness (mr) = 1

 0,03  10
Ec = 3.mr.δ 1 +
 .
rbo.δ  2

 0,03  10
= 3.0,95.0,8 1 + .
Peek :
 0,1.0,8  2
(from eq. 4-2.6)
 0,03  10
= 3.0,95.0,8 1 + .
 0,1.0,8  2

kV
= 17,8325 (rms)
cm

 0,0937  10
E c = 2,4.m r .δ 1 + .
 (rc .δ ) 0,4
 2
 0,0937  10
Heymann : = 2,4.0,95.0 ,8 1 + . (from eq. 4-2.7)
 (0,1.0,8 ) 0,4
 2
kV
= 16,2168 (rms)
cm
Normally the average is found between the two of these and the result used to do the comparison to Em.

E c = E cpeek + E chymann

= 17,8325 + 16,2168

kV
= 17,0247 (rms)
cm
Calculate P1, P2 and P3

 2.h c   ([2.h ]2 + s p 2 )  ([2.h ]2 + [2.s p ]2 ) 

 − 0,5.ln  − 0,5.ln  
c c
P = ln 
1
 c 
r  sp   2.s p 
   

= ln
 2.5,8  
− 0,5.ln 
([2.5,8] 2
+7
2
) − 0,5.ln ([2.5,8] 2
[ ]2 ) 
+ 2.7

(from eq. 4-2.41)
 0,1 
 7   2.7 
= 4,7536 − 0,3302 − 0,1307

= 4,2927 kV/cm (rms)


= −0,5.ln 
([2.h ] c
2
+ sp
2
) + ln 2.h c 
−


([2.h ] c
2
+ sp
2
)
P2   0,5.ln
 sp   rc   sp 
   

= −0,5.ln 
([2.5,8] 2
+7
2
) + ln 2.5,8  − 0,5.ln ([2.5,8] 2
+7
2
) (from eq. 4-2.42)
 
 7  0,1  7 
= −0,3302 + 4,7536 − 0,3302

= 4,0932 kV/cm (rms)

P3 = −0,5.ln 
(
 [2.hc ]2 + [2.sp ]2 
 − 0,5.ln 
)
 ([2.hc ]2 + sp2 )  2.h 
 + ln  r c 
  c 
2.sp sp
  

= −0,5.ln 
([2.5,8] 2
[ ]2 ) 
+ 2.7 
 − 0,5.ln 
([2.5,8] 2
+7
2
) + ln 2.5,8  (from eq. 4-2.43)
 
 7   7  0,1

= −0,1307 − 0,3302 + 4,7536

= 4,2927 kV/cm (rms)

E 1av =
[VL ] . 1 1
. .
1
3 P1r rc 10 2

400 1 1 1
= . 2
. . (from eq. 4-2.47)
3 4,2927 0,1 10
= 5,3798 kV/cm (rms)

E 2av =
[VL ] . 1
.
1
.
1
3 P2r rc 10 2

400 1 1 1
= . . . 2 (from eq. 4-2.49)
3 4,0932 0,1 10
= 5,6420 kV/cm (rms)

E 3av =
[VL ] . 1
.
1
.
1
3 P3r rc 10 2

400 1 1 1
= . 2
. . (from eq. 4-2.51)
3 3,9462 0,1 10
= 5,3798 kV/cm (rms)

Comparing each Eiav (E1av, E2av and E3av) to the inception value Ec of 17,0247 kV/cm, one finds that the E1av,E2av and
E3av values, which are the actual voltage gradients on the surface of the conductors, are far less than the inception
value, hence there will be no corona.

A Pascal computer program based on the image method as discussed in the above was developed for calculation of
conductor surface field strengths, as well as corona threshold limits.

The corona calculation program will calculate the maximum electric field strength as well as the corona threshold limit
for single and bundle stranded conductors and tubular conductors.

An example of the input and output of the program is shown below for a 200 mm diameter tubular conductor at 1800 m
above sea level. These are the same values used in the calculations above and comparing results one can see that
they are the same.

6.5 Effective Field Strength for Typical Outdoor Busbar Configurations

For the conductor system to be corona free, the effective field strength (average voltage gradient at the surface of the
bus conductor) Ee must be less than the corona threshold surface field strength Ec.

Ee < Ec ⇒ no corona

Equation 4-2.19 applied to horizontal busbar arrangements, using single, double and tubular conductors give values for
effective field strengths at line voltages of 765 kV, 400 kV and 275 kV respectively. Results are shown in Tables 4-2.6
to 4-2.12.

The program BUSBAR was developed to calculate the effective field strength Ee and compare it to the value Ec, the
equation of which was determined experimentally and fitted with the equations 4-2.6 and 4-2.7. A typical BUSBAR
report sheet is shown below.

Table 4-2.13: Corona Threshold Surface Field Strength for Various Conductors

CONDUCTOR DETAILS PEEK HEYMANN

Type Conductor mr Ec Ec
Diameter (mm) kV / cm (rms) kV / cm (rms)
Tubular Conductor 50 0,95 19,54 18,68
Tubular Conductor 75 0,95 18,91 17,81
Tubular Conductor 100 0,95 18,54 17,28
Tubular Conductor 150 0,95 18,10 16,62
Tubular Conductor 200 0,95 17,83 16,22
Tubular Conductor 250 0,95 17,65 15,93

If the equipment conductor height (hc) meets the corona performance criterion Ee < Ec, then as far as corona
performance is concerned, that height is fixed. If, however, Ee is very close to Ec or Ee ≥ Ec, corona will result, requiring
the conductor height (hc) to be increased. Ee is recalculated for a larger value of hc. Ee should be at least 5-6kV/m less
than Ec to allow for slight variations in the conductor height. A suitable conductor height can be determined through
iteration, increasing hc until Ec = (Ee + 5) kV/m

7. SUBSTATION CONDUCTOR HEIGHTS DETERMINED BY CORONA PERFORMANCE

There are several factors that have an influence on the height of conductors above ground level amongst which are
statutory clearances to the base of equipment porcelains, safe vertical working clearance, corona inception levels and
allowable electric and magnetic field strengths within the boundaries of the substation, and on the substation perimeter
edges where the public has access. At low voltage levels, vertical working clearance and possibly magnetic field
strengths (assuming high current levels) would dominate. At high voltage levels (EHV and UHV) corona performance
and electric field strengths would dominate. The Statutory clearance to the base of equipment porcelains applies to all
voltages.

7.1 Ensuring Electrical Clearances are not Infringed Upon

Having met all the horizontal phase-to-earth and phase-to-phase electrical clearances and thus establishing the bay
width, the height of the inter-equipment conductors needs to be determined.

The equipment level conductors need to meet at least the sum of the statutory clearance to the base of the equipment
porcelain (hs), the height from the base of the equipment porcelain to the equipment connection terminal (het), and
particularly in the case where stranded flexible conductors to interconnect items of equipment, the expected sag in the
inter-equipment conductor (sc). This value (hc) needs to equal or exceed the safe vertical working clearance (Cwv).

Cpe Cpe het

hc ≥Cwv

(a) Elevation transverse to an equipment bay (across the phases)

het
EB

Cwv

C C C
L L L

CB CT ES

4-2.1: Determining the Inter- equipment Conductor Height

As a starting point therefore:-

hc = hs + het − sc ≥ Cwv (4-2.52)

Where:-

hc = Height of the lowest point of the equipment inter-connector conductor above the equipment foundation
top of concrete in mm

hs = Statutory clearance to the base of the equipment porcelain in mm

het = Height from the base of the equipment porcelain to the equipment connection terminal in mm

sc = Expected sag in the inter-equipment conductors (applicable when stranded flexible conductors are
used) in mm

sp = Phase spacing in mm

(4-2.52) would suffice for low system voltages with low phase currents, where electric and magnetic field strengths
would probably be below the recommended safe levels. However, as a general guideline, and for illustrating the
complete analysis process, the remaining criteria need to be checked, viz. corona inception levels and allowable
electric and magnetic field strengths within the boundaries of the substation, and on the substation perimeter edges
where the public has access. These would in any event be required at EHV and UHV levels.

7.2 Corona Requirements

7.2.1 Substation Conductor Heights (determine corona performance)

The busbar conductor needs to be corona-free during fair weather conditions. This is generally not too difficult to
achieve with tubular conductors that are normally over-dimensioned for ampacity in order to meet mechanical strength
requirements. In order to ensure corona-free operation, the maximum value of the surface voltage gradient on the bus
conductor (Em) must be less than the surface voltage gradient at the corona inception or threshold limit (Ec)

The surface field strength on a tubular conductor is dependant on various factors such as height above ground, tube
diameter, and to a lesser degree, phase spacing (sp).

The corona inception or threshold limits for various single conductors are listed in Table 4-2.13. Theoretically it should
be possible to reduce these figures by a reasonable safety factor and then select a suitable tube size from tables for
that particular voltage. However, another factor that should be borne in mind is the span length that might necessitate
the use of a much larger tube to meet the mechanical strength requirements as discussed in SLDG 41-2. Under such
conditions, the increased diameter would also contribute to a lower surface field strength as mentioned further on in
this chapter.

To give the substation designer a bit of leeway, the recommendation would be to consider two separate sets of
conditions as follows:-

• Relatively short span lengths without welds and ;

• Long span lengths where welds may be essential (today imported tubes of lengths up to 30m are possible, thus
negating the requirement of welds).

17.2.2.3 Effective field strength for typical outdoor busbar configurations

Equation 4-2.20 applied to horizontal busbar arrangements, using single, double and bundle conductors give values for
effective field strengths at line voltages of 765 kV, 400 kV and 275 kV respectively. Results are shown in Tables 42.6
to 4-2.12 in Appendix D of this dissertation.

Ee < Ec ⇒ no corona
18 REFERENCES

Cobine, p278 quoting W.S. Peterson, AIEE Trans, 52, 62, 1933

EFFECTIVE FIELD STRENGTH ON THE SURFACE OF TUBULAR CONDUCTORS IN 765kV, 400kV AND 275kV THREE PHASE SYSTEMS
Table 4-2.6: Effective Surface Electric Field Strength (Voltage Gradient) on Bus Tube for Line Voltage [VL] = 765 kV, Phase Spacing [sp] = 14m, n = 1
Tube 75 mm Tube 100 mm Tube 120 mm Tube 150 mm Tube 200 mm
hc
n Ee kV / cm (rms) Ee kV / cm (rms) Ee kV / cm (rms) Ee kV / cm (rms) Ee kV / cm (rms)
(m)
A B C A B C A B C A B C A B C
12 1 19,69 20,39 19,69 15,51 16,10 15,51 13,36 13,87 13,36 11,14 11,59 11,14 8,83 9,21 8,83
14 1 - - - - - - 13,22 13,78 13,22 - - - - - -

Table 4-2.7: Effective Surface Electric Field Strength (Voltage Gradient) on Bus Tube for Line Voltage [VL] = 765 kV, Phase Spacing [sp] = 14m, n = 2
Tube 50 mm Tube 75 mm Tube 100 mm Tube 150 mm Tube 200 mm
hc dc
n Ee kV / cm (rms) Ee kV / cm (rms) Ee kV / cm (rms) Ee kV / cm (rms) Ee kV / cm (rms)
(m) (mm)
A B C A B C A B C A B C A B C
12 100 2 21,02 21,80 21,02 - - - - - - - - - - - -
12 125 2 - - - 15,61 16,23 15,61 - - - - - - - - -
12 150 2 19,90 20,70 19,90 - - - 12,70 13,20 12,70 - - - - - -
12 175 2 - - - 14,74 15,34 14,74 - - - - - - - - -
12 200 2 - - - - - - 12,00 12,50 12,00 9,41 9,83 9,41 - - -
12 250 2 - - - - - - - - - 8,96 9,37 8,96 7,62 7,98 7,62
12 300 2 - - - - - - - - - - - - 7,31 7,66 7,31

Table 4-2.8: Effective Surface Electric Field Strength (Voltage Gradient) on Bus Tube for Line Voltage [VL] = 400 kV, Phase Spacing [sp] = 7m, n = 1
Tube 120 mm Tube 150 mm Tube 200 mm Tube 250 mm
hc dc
n Ee kV / cm (rms) Ee kV / cm (rms) Ee kV / cm (rms) Ee kV / cm (rms)
(m) (mm)
A B C A B C A B C A B C
5,8 - 1 8,01 8,36 8,01 6,72 7,03 6,72 5,38 5,64 5,38 4,53 4,77 4,53

Table 4-2.9: Effective Surface Electric Field Strength (Voltage Gradient) on Bus Tube for Line Voltage [VL] = 400 kV, Phase Spacing [sp] = 6m, n = 1
Tube 120 mm Tube 150 mm Tube 200 mm Tube 250 mm
hc dc
n Ee kV / cm (rms) Ee kV / cm (rms) Ee kV / cm (rms) Ee kV / cm (rms)
(m) (mm)
A B C A B C A B C A B C
5,8 - 1 8,17 8,58 8,17 6,86 7,22 6,86 5,50 5,81 5,50 4,65 4,92 4,65

Table 4-2.10: Effective Surface Electric Field Strength (Voltage Gradient) on Bus Tube for Line Voltage [VL] = 400 kV, Phase Spacing [sp] = 5m, n = 1
Tube 120 mm Tube 150 mm Tube 200 mm Tube 250 mm
hc dc
n Ee kV / cm (rms) Ee kV / cm (rms) Ee kV / cm (rms) Ee kV / cm (rms)
(m) (mm)
A B C A B C A B C A B C
5,8 - 1 8,39 8,87 8,39 7,05 7,48 7,05 5,66 6,02 5,66 4,79 5,13 4,79

Table 4-2.11: Effective Surface Electric Field Strength (Voltage Gradient) on Bus Tube for Line Voltage [VL] = 275 kV, Phase Spacing [sp] = 4,5m, n = 1
Tube 75 mm Tube 100 mm Tube 120 mm Tube 150 mm Tube 200 mm
hc b
n Ee kV / cm (rms) Ee kV / cm (rms) Ee kV / cm (rms) Ee kV / cm (rms) Ee kV / cm (rms)
(m) (mm)
A B C A B C A B C A B C A B C
5,0 - 1 8,57 9,02 8,57 6,83 7,20 6,83 5,92 6,26 5,92 4,99 5,28 4,99 4,01 4,27 4,01

Table 4-2.12: Effective Surface Electric Field Strength (Voltage Gradient) on Bus Tube for Line Voltage [VL] = 275 kV, Phase Spacing [sp] = 4m, n = 1
Tube 75 mm Tube 100 mm Tube 120 mm Tube 150 mm Tube 200 mm
hc dc
n Ee kV / cm (rms) Ee kV / cm (rms) Ee kV / cm (rms) Ee kV / cm (rms) Ee kV / cm (rms)
(m) (mm)
A B C A B C A B C A B C A B C
5,0 - 1 8,72 9,21 8,72 6,95 7,37 6,95 6,03 6,41 6,03 5,09 5,42 5,09 4,10 4,39 4,10

hc = Height above ground level

dc = Bus tube diameter
n = Number of conductors per phase bundle

BUSBAR REPORT SHEET

CORONA CALCULATION PROGRAM

System Voltage (kV) 400.00000000

Number of Phases 3
Phase Spacing (m) 7.00000000
Height above Ground (m) 5.80000000
No of Conductors per bundle 1
Conductor Diameter (mm) 200.00000000
Centipede = 26.46 Zebra = 28.6 Bull = 38.4
Conductor on Circle Y/N N
Bundle should be centred round phase position
Input Co-ordinates should be relative to phase position
and be given in mm
X Pos. of cond. No.1 1.00000000
Y Pos. of cond. No.1 1.00000000
Input effective bundle diameter in mm 1.00000000
CORONA THRESHOLD LIMITS
Relative Air Density 0.80000000
Surface Factor: 0.95000000
Polished Tubes = 1.0
Extruded Tubes = 0.95
Stranded Conductor = 0.8
Maximum Electric Field Strength
Corona Threshold limit = 17.024 kV/cm
Phase 1: 5.3797 kV/cm Corona Absent
Phase 2: 5.6419 kV/cm Corona Absent
Phase 3: 5.3797 kV/cm Corona Absent
Another try? Y/N Y
______________________________________________________________________

SLDG 4-3
ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS
1. INTRODUCTION

Environmental conditions affect the performance of high voltage insulators in a number of ways. These are discussed
briefly below.

The direction and speed of the wind, precipitation (rain, dew, fog), relative humidity and the position of pollution sources
all determine the final pollution deposit on an insulator surface. Particles become wind-borne and can be carried over
great distances before fall-out occurs. Salt storms or conductive industrial fogs can also result in the deposition of a
highly conductive electrolytic layer on an insulator surface. Solar radiation can also heat the insulator surface during the
day, helping to prevent wetting, or heat the atmosphere at sunrise, resulting in the formation of dew. Thus, the
environment drives insulator pollution flashovers.

Weather parameters, such as ultraviolet solar radiation, can have detrimental effects (chalking, crazing, and cracking) on
the ageing of non-ceramic materials.

The direction and speed of the wind, temperature, ice and snow loading, and seismic events can influence the
mechanical forces on an insulator.

Lightning activity, soil resistivity, change in air density and bird streamers can affect the insulator flashover performance.

The various environmental considerations are discussed below.

2. POLLUTION

There are two main insulator pollution processes: pre-deposited pollution that accumulates over time and then needs to
be wetted to form a conducting electrolyte, and instantaneous pollution that is already a conducting electrolyte.
2.1 Pre-deposited Pollution

Pre-deposited pollution is classified into two main categories: active pollution that forms a conductive layer, and inert
(non-soluble) pollution that forms a binding layer for the conductive pollution and also contributes to the area available for
leakage current flow.

Pre-deposited active pollution is measured in terms of conductivity, and the inert non-soluble pollution in terms of mass.

Marine: salt and sand

Industrial: chemical emissions and waste products

Agricultural: soil, fertilisers, weed killers and crop burning

Desert: sand and salt

Other: salted roads and bird droppings.

2.2 Instantaneous Pollution

‘Instantaneous pollution’ refers to a contaminant of high conductivity which quickly deposits on insulator surfaces,
resulting in the condition where the insulator changes from an acceptably clean, low conductive state, to flashover in a
short time (< 1 hour) and then returns to a low conductive state when the event has passed. Salt or conductive industrial
fogs are good examples of sources that lead to instantaneous pollution events. Instantaneous events can be detected by
surface conductance or leakage current measurements.

Marine: salt fog

Industrial: acid fog

Agricultural: crop spraying

Desert: coastal fog

Other: bird streamers.

Figure 1: Typical Sources of Insulator Pollutants

a) Agricultural, b) Marine, c) Fires, d) Dust and Salt Roads, E) Trucks and Motorcar Emissions, f) Industrial, g)
Domestic Cooking and Heating, h) Birds

3. WEATHER

Weather conditions such as temperature, humidity, rain, fog, wind, solar radiation, snow and ice, lightning and air density
can affect the ultimate electrical and/or mechanical performance of high voltage insulators.
3.1 Temperature

The ambient temperature plays a role in the wetting of insulators. When an insulator surface temperature falls below the
atmospheric dew point temperature, dew (moisture condensation) will form on the insulator surface. This phenomenon
often occurs in the early morning hours when the insulator is at a lower temperature than that of the ambient air, when
the ambient temperature of the moist air is heated by the first rays of the sun.

Temperature also has a small effect on the breakdown strength of air. This is taken into account in Section 3.9, where
the air density correction for withstand voltage is discussed.

Ambient temperature has some effect on the insulator loading due to its influence on the conductor tension.
3.2 Humidity

Relative humidity is an indicator of the moisture level in the atmosphere. When the relative humidity is high (> 75%) there
is a good chance that the pollution on an insulator surface could be wetted. This could then dissolve, forming a
conductive electrolytic layer, and resulting in the flow of leakage currents. High levels of relative humidity for long periods

of time can also lead to the washing off of pollution from an insulator surface. There is a good correlation between
electrical activity and relative humidity. In areas with constant high humidity, especially when combined with high
temperatures, certain insulator materials can be overstressed, resulting in degradation by hydrolysis.
3
As a rule of thumb, the withstand voltage of air increases by 0.2% for every 1 g/m gain in absolute humidity. It thus must
be appreciated that a high humidity has no direct adverse effect on the withstand voltage of an insulator, but it is the
resultant wetting of the contaminants on the insulator surface which may cause a pollution flashover.
3.3 Rain

Rain, too, wets the surface contaminants to form a conductive layer. Further, acid rain can increase the conductivity.
However, rain can also have the beneficial effect of washing pollution from an insulator surface. Rain in excess of 10
mm/h can remove up to 90% of the pollution from a ceramic or glass insulator surface. In addition, light rain may leach
out active pollution. A combination of rain and wind is a good natural insulator cleaner.
3.4 Fog

Fog forms as moisture condenses on particles when the temperature of a volume of air falls below its dew point, caused
by the cooling of the ground (radiation fog), or when warm air moves over a cooler surface (advection fog). If the particles
are conductive and soluble, for example salt, a conductive fog forms.

Fog has an adverse effect on insulator performance by wetting the surface contaminants, which may lead to flashover
before any significant cleaning can occur. Should the fog be conductive then flashover can take place in a short period,
even if the insulator was initially clean.
3.5 Wind

Wind plays a major role in the transportation and deposition of pollution and moisture on an insulator surface. The
relationship found between salt deposit density (SDD) and wind shows that the pollution deposit increases with the wind
speed to the power three (cubic relationship). Pollution deposition on an insulator surface is not uniform but strongly
dependent on the shed shape. Strong winds carrying sand particles or rain may remove pollution from an insulator
surface.

Wind, owing to the pressure it exerts on conductors, influences the mechanical loading on an insulator.
3.6 Solar Radiation

Solar radiation plays a significant role in the heating of the ambient air mass. This, in turn, has an influence on wind
speeds and direction, and relative humidity levels. Solar radiation also heats the insulator surface. As previously stated in
Section 3.1, if the insulator surface temperature is below the ambient dew point, wetting of the insulator surface occurs.
During the day solar radiation keeps the insulator surface at a temperature higher than ambient, resulting in a lower
probability of surface wetting. The high-energy UV-B photons may age polymeric materials.
3.7 Ice and Snow

Ice and snow can have a detrimental effect on the flashover performance of insulators. Further, the accumulation of ice
and snow on conductors, as shown in Figure 4-3.2, increases the mechanical loading on insulators.

Figure 4-3.2: Ice Formed Around a Conductor. (Courtesy of Arni Jon Eliasson)

The icing up of isolator heads on opening can result in severe mechanical forces being applied to the support insulators.
3.8 Lightning

Lightning can cause insulator flashover by a direct strike to the phase conductor, shield wire or structure causing back
flashover, or induced overvoltage. As explained in SLDG 4-1, the insulator must be able to withstand the naturally
induced lightning impulses without puncture or damage from flashover.

Lightning severity must be considered in the selection of insulators. This can be measured in terms of ground flash
2
density (number of strikes per km per year) or, if such figures are not available, isoceraunic level (number of
thunderstorm days per year).

Detailed data may also be available from lightning location systems which give the position and intensity of the lightning
activity.

It should be noted that, in terms of BIL, the effect of pollution on the lightning impulse flashover voltage is small and not
normally considered in the dimensioning of the insulator.
3.9 Air Density

Air density changes as a function of altitude, which in turn influences the withstand voltage of air. The withstand voltage
(V1) of air at atmospheric pressure (P1) and ambient temperature (T1) is given as:-

 P1   273 + T0 
V1 = V0 .
 P . 273 + T  eq. 4-3.1
 0  1 

where:-

V0 = Withstand voltage at standard atmospheric conditions

P0 = Standard atmospheric pressure of 101.3 kPa or 760 mm Hg
T1 = Standard ambient temperature of 20 °C

As an approximation, using equation 4-3.1, the withstand voltage of air decreases by 1% for every 100 m increase in
altitude.

For pollution flashover of insulators, an increase of 1000 m in altitude only decreases the breakdown voltage by about
2% and can thus be ignored.

4. SITE SEVERITY ASSESSMENT

Site severity assessment, based on the measurement of pollution levels and a study of the weather conditions, is
required to define the environment in which an insulator is expected to operate. To establish the pollution level either the
surface deposit on an insulator is measured or directional dust deposit gauges are used. Both these methods are
discussed below.

An insulator pollution-monitoring device (IPMD), which caters for both pre-deposited and instantaneous pollution events,
is also introduced as an alternative pollution severity measurement technique.
4.1 Surface Pollution Deposit Technique

The surface pollution deposit technique determines the natural pollution deposit on an insulator after an interval of time,
during which some natural washing may have occurred. Both the active and inert pollution are measured.

A string of seven cap-and-pin disc insulators is installed at a height of at least 3 m, and clear of obstructions, at the site to
be assessed. The first and last disc in the string are not tested, but are used to ensure aerodynamic similarity in the
string. The active and inert (non-soluble) pollution values are determined (as described in Section 4.1.1 and Section

4.1.2) monthly on disc two, three-monthly on disc three, six-monthly on disc four, yearly on disc five and two-yearly on
disc six. The maximum values obtained during the test period are used to determine the site severity class.

If the above test procedure cannot be used then a surface pollution deposit measurement on existing insulators in the
network can be made. However, this is more risky as the measurement is one snapshot in time, and could indicate a
lower pollution severity for the site than is really the case.
4.1.1 Active Pollution – Equivalent Salt Deposit Density (ESDD)
2
The ESDD value is defined as the equivalent amount of NaCl deposit, in mg/cm , on the surface area of an insulator
which will have an electrical conductivity equal to that of the actual deposit dissolved in the same amount of water.

The ESDD technique involves washing of the contaminants from the insulator surface with distilled water and measuring
the conductivity of the solution obtained.

The measurement procedure for a cap-and-pin disc insulator is as follows:

4.1.1.1 On Site

a). Without touching the glass or porcelain surface, cover the metal cap and pin with plastic cling wrap.

b). Measure a volume of 500 to 1000 ml of demineralised water of conductivity less than 5 µS/cm and pour into a clean
bowl.

c). Place the test insulator on its cap in the water and wash the top surface with gentle hand strokes. On completion, turn
the insulator over and wash the bottom surface.

d). Remove the insulator, gently shaking off any remaining water into the bowl. Pour the wash water into a labelled
container, taking care that all the deposits are transferred from the bowl and the gloves.

Note:

1. Wear clean surgical gloves to avoid the possibility of contamination.

2. The bowl, container, measuring cylinder, etc. must also be washed well enough to remove any electrolytes prior to the
measurement.

3. The top and bottom surfaces of the cap-and-pin disc insulator can also be treated separately.
4.1.1.2 Measurement Location

a). Swirl or stir the wash water solution until all the soluble salts are dissolved.

b). Measure and record the volume conductivity and temperature of the solution.

c). The ESDD value is obtained from the measurements of the volume conductivity, solution temperature, and volume of
the wash water solution. A conductivity probe measures the volume conductivity, σt, at the solution temperature Ts. If
the instrument used does not automatically compensate for temperature then the measurement must be corrected to
a standard temperature of 20 °C by using the equation:-

[ (
σ 20 = σ t . 1 − k t Ts − 20 )] eq. 4-3.2

where:-

σt = Measured volume conductivity, in µS/cm

Ts = Solution temperature, in °C
σ20 = Volume conductivity corrected to 20 °C
kt = Temperature constant

The temperature constant is calculated using the equation:-

-8 3 -5 2 -4 3 -2
k t = −3,200.10 .t s2 + 1,032.10 .t s − 8,272.10 .t s2 + 3,544.10 eq. 4-3.3

The salinity, Sa (kg/m3), of the solution at 20°C is given as:-

(
S a = 5,7.10- 4.σ 20 )1,03 eq. 4-3.4

The equivalent salt deposit density (ESDD) in mg/cm2 is given as:-

S a .Vd
ESDD = eq. 4-3.5
A ins

where:-
3
Vd = Volume of distilled water used, in cm
2
Ains = Area of washed/sampled insulator, in cm

Note:

1) The inert component of the wash water solution can be measured using the method described in Section 4.1.2.

2) For more detailed information on the constituents and/or source of the pollution, the wash water solution may be
sent to a laboratory for comprehensive chemical analysis.

4.1.2 Inert Pollution – Non-soluble Deposit Density (NSDD)

The NSDD defines the amount of non-soluble, inert pollution deposit per square centimetre of the insulator surface. The
NSDD measurement is normally performed using the wash water solution obtained from the ESDD measurements. The
liquid is filtered through a pre-dried, clean and weighed filter paper of grade GF/A 1,6 µm or similar, and the
contaminated filter paper is then dried and weighed.

The NSDD value is calculated using:-

M2 − M1
NSDD = eq. 4-3.6
A ins

where:-
2
NSDD = Non-soluble deposit density, in mg/cm
M1 = Weight of dry clean filter paper, in mg
M2 = Weight of dry contaminated filter paper, in mg

4.2 Directional Dust Deposit Gauge Technique

The dust gauge, as shown in Figure 4.3, comprises four vertical tubes each with a slot milled in the side - these being so
arranged as to face north, south, east and west. A removable container which collects the deposits blown into the slots is
attached to the bottom of each tube.

These containers are removed at monthly intervals, their contents mixed with 500 ml of demineralised water and the
conductivities of the solutions measured. The pollution index is defined as the average of the conductivities of the four
directions, expressed in µS/cm, and normalised to a 30-day interval. To facilitate international comparison of results, the
slot size as shown in Figure 4-3.3 should be used.

Collection 40mm
Tubes
30mm

Collection
Jars

351mm

500mm
Support
Column

Figure 4-3.3: Directional Dust Deposit Gauges as Installed (a), and Dimensions (b).

The monthly measurement procedure is as follows:

4.2.1 On Site Data

a). Remove the four collection jars from the tube ends and close with the lids provided.

b). Record the date of removal on the jar label.

c). Attach four clean jars to the tubes, having completed the label on each jar to indicate the site, the direction and the
date of installation.

4.2.2 Measurement Location

a). Add 500 ml of demineralised water to each collection jar. The conductivity of the water must be less than 5 µS/cm.
Should the vessel contain rain water, add demineralised water to make up the volume to 500 ml. If, owing to heavy
rainfalls, there is more than 500 ml in the jar, no additional water is required.

b). Swirl or stir the contents until all the soluble salts are dissolved.

c). Measure the conductivity of the solution - preferably with a conductivity meter which automatically corrects the
reading to 20 °C. If the meter is not compensated to 20 °C, then measure the temperature of the solution as well.

d). If the volume of the solution is not 500 ml, for example in the case of excessive rain having accumulated in the jar,
measure the actual volume.

e). Calculate the corrected conductivity for each direction – this being the conductivity at 20 °C, expressed in µS/cm, and
normalised to a volume of 500 ml and a 30-day month. The normalised DDG value is calculated using the equation:-

Vd 30
DDG = σ 20 . . eq. 4-3.7
500 D

where:-

DDG = Directional deposit gauge conductivity, in µS/cm

D = Days DDG installed

If the conductivity reading is not compensated for temperature by the measuring instrument, the value can be
corrected to 20 °C using Equations 4-3.2 and 4-3.3.

f). Calculate the Pollution Index (PI) for the month by taking the average of the four corrected directional conductivities,
expressed in µS/cm, i.e.

DDGNorth + DDG South + DDGEast + DDG West

PI = eq. 4-3.8
4

Note:

1). Some contamination can collect on the inside of the tubes and will be washed into the collection jars when it rains.
The pollution indices for the wet months may therefore show slightly higher values than those when there was no
precipitation. If the readings are averaged over a period then this makes no difference. However, if very accurate
monthly figures are required, then the internal walls of the tube can be rinsed off using a squeeze bottle of
demineralised water before the collecting jars are removed for analysis.

b) If an assessment of the non-soluble deposit is required, following the conductivity measurements, the solutions should
be filtered using a funnel and pre-dried and weighed filter paper of grade GF/A 1,6 µm or similar. The paper should
then be dried and weighed again. The weight difference then represents the Non-Soluble Deposit (NSD).

c) For more detailed information on the constituents and/or source of the pollution, the gauge contents may be sent to a
laboratory for comprehensive chemical analysis.

4.3 Site Severity Class

The site severity class is determined from the surface deposit and dust gauge measurements as described below.

4.3.1 Surface deposit index

The Surface Deposit Index is directly given by the ESDD value, calculated as described in Section 4.1.1.

The relationship between the respective pollution severity classes and the surface deposit index, preferably measured
over a period of at least one year, is tabulated in Table 4-3.1.

Table 4-3.1: Surface Deposit Index in Relation to Severity Class

Surface Deposit Index, Pollution

2
ESDD (mg/cm ) Severity Class
(Monthly Maximum)
< 0.06 I Light 16 mm/kV
0.06 – 0.12 II Medium 20 mm/kV
> 0.12 – 0.24 II Heavy 25 mm/kV
> 0.24 IV Very Heavy 31 mm/kV

To take into account the influence of the non-soluble contaminants, as a rule of thumb, the site severity class should be
2
increased by one level if the measured NSDD value is above 2 mg/cm , or, if not measured, a high NSDD is expected
such as encountered in the vicinity of a cement factory.

4.3.2 Dust Deposit Gauge Pollution Index

The site severity class can be obtained from the monthly average or the maximum of the pollution indices measured by
the dust gauge.

The relationship between the site severity class and the pollution index, preferably measured over a period of at least
one year, is provided in the Table 4-3.2.

Table 4-3.2: Dust Deposit Gauge Pollution Index in Relation to Site Severity Class

Pollution
Dust deposit gauge pollution index, PI (µS/cm)
Severity Class

(Monthly Average) (Monthly Maximum) Creepage

(mm/kV)
0 to 75 0 to 175 I Light 16
76 to 200 176 to 500 II Medium 20
201 to 350 501 to 850 II Heavy 25
> 350 > 850 IV Very Heavy 31

If weather data for the site in question is available then the dust deposit gauge pollution index can be adjusted to take
into account climatic influences. This is done by multiplying the pollution index value (PI), as determined in Section 4.2
above, by the climatic factor (Cf).

The climatic factor is given by:-

Fd Dm
.
Cf = 20 3 eq. 4-3.9
2

where:-

Fd = Number of fog days (≤ 1000 m horizontal visibility) per year

Dm = Number of dry months (< 20 mm of precipitation) per year

To take into account the influence of the non-soluble contaminants, as a rule of thumb, the site severity class should be
increased by one level if a high NSDD is expected such as encountered in the vicinity of a cement factory.

4.4 Other Pollution Assessment Methods

4.4.1 Localised Equivalent Salt Deposit Density (LESDD)

To obtain an estimate of the severity of a pollution layer on an insulator in service, a localised ESDD (LESDD)
measurement can be undertaken using the method as discussed in the paper “A novel method to measure the
contamination level of insulators – spot contamination measurement”.

Figure 4.4: LESDD Sampling Tool and Associated Toolbox with Measuring Equipment

The LESDD is calculated using the same equations as those for the ESDD - the only differences being the surface area
tested and the volume of distilled water used. However, care must be exercised in the interpretation of the results. It must
be appreciated that the ESDD values shown in Table 4-3.1 relate to the contaminant averaged over the entire surface of
the insulator and not a single small area.

4.3.4.2 Surface conductivity hand probe

The conductivity of a pollution layer on an insulator can be measured using the hand probe described in IEC 60507. The
hand-held meter is connected to a probe consisting of two spherical electrodes that are pressed onto the insulator
surface. The test area is slightly wetted with demineralised water to dissolve the pollutant. The surface conductivity value
between 0 and 500 µS is then indicated on the meter. The measured conductivity is, however, a function of the amount
of wetting, which cannot be accurately controlled.

The hand probe readings usually do not correlate well with ESDD readings or most other pollution monitoring devices.
The probe readings are rather used to compare localised deposits.

Figure 4.5: IEC Surface Conductivity Hand Probe.

4.4.3 Automated Insulator Pollution Monitoring

For more detailed and frequent assessment of site conditions instruments have been designed to automatically
determine the severity of the pre-deposited pollution at selectable intervals and to record instantaneous pollution events.
Some also allow the monitoring of the leakage current amplitudes on in-service insulators.

Typical measurements performed are:-

• Insulator surface conductivity under natural pollution and wetting.

• Insulator surface conductivity under natural pollution but with artificial wetting (An estimated ESDD value may also be
calculated for every measurement).

• The leakage current amplitude on in-service insulators.

An alarm could be generated when pre-deposited and instantaneous pollution levels reach critical values and the data
collected may be downloaded via cell modem and pollution profiles in relation to time displayed.

Figure 4-3.6: An Insulator Pollution Monitoring Device (IPMD) Installed in the Field

Typical results obtained from an in-service IPMD are shown in Figure 4-3.7. As both pre-deposited and instantaneous
pollution levels are recorded daily, the natural pollution and wetting events are not averaged out over a month. This
eliminates the possibility of missing singular severe pollution events, as is the case with both the surface pollution deposit
and directional dust deposit gauge methods.

Figure 4-3.7: Typical IPMD Field Measurement Results

The measurements in Figure 4-3.7 show both the surface conductivity under natural wetting and ESDD under artificially
wetted conditions.

4.4.4 Existing insulator performance

The performance of insulators already existing at the site can give valuable information regarding the severity of the
environment. The history of faults on the system and operational experience should be studied to establish whether
pollution may pose a problem. The insulators themselves should also be examined for signs of leakage current activity.
Typical signs include evidence of flashover, erosion of the dielectric material or corrosion of metal fittings. For example,
pin corrosion on disc type insulators, as shown in Figure 4-3.8, is a good indicator of significant leakage current activity
over the insulator surface and can be taken as a warning of high pollution severity or under-insulation.

Figure 4.8: Pin Corrosion on Disc Type Insulators.

By monitoring the leakage currents on nearby in-service insulators, a good indication of site severity can be obtained.
The comparison of the highest amplitude measured (Ihighest) with Imax (as calculated from Equation 4-3.12) shows the
likelihood of flashover of the monitored unit and the specific creepage required for the site.

Sample calculation

Over a period of two years, an Ihighest value of 165 mA peak was measured on a 132 kV string of ten glass cap and pin
discs (ni) each of creepage distance (dcr) 290 mm. Examination of the insulator pins showed no signs of corrosion.
Based on this information, need to determine the indicated site severity class.

System highest voltage (Um) = 145 kV

(Dcr) = ni. dcr eq. 4-3.10

= 10 x 290

= 2900 mm

where:-

Dcr = Total creepage distance of insulator string in mm/kV

Dcr
S CD =
Um
2900
= eq. 4-3.11
145
= 20 mm/kV

where:-

SCD = specific creepage distance in mm/kV

2
I max = 
 S CD 

 15,32 
2
 20 
=  eq. 4-3.12
 15,32 
= 1,704 A (peak)

As Ihighest is less than 10% of Imax, it is apparent that the existing insulator is coping well with the environmental
conditions. This is supported by the lack of corrosion of the pins. With reference to Table 4-3.2, a specific creepage
distance of 20 mm/kV is the recommended value for areas of “Medium” pollution severity. The Severity Class for this
particular site thus appears to be in the “Light” to “Medium” range. A conservative approach would be to insulate for the
latter.

It should be noted that the relationship between the Ihighest/Imax ratio and the probability of flashover is not linear but
exponential. Thus, if Ihighest exceeds 20% of Imax the insulation should be designed for at least one pollution class higher
than the monitored unit.

5. NUMBERS OF INSULATOR DISCS

The numbers of disc insulators (ni) to be used for various system voltages under light, medium, heavy and very heavy
pollution conditions can be determined as follows:-

Dcr .Um
ni = (from eq. 4-3.10)
dcr

Since glass insulator discs can fail as a result of any variety of reasons, it is usual to include one or two additional discs
in a string to allow for this, otherwise the remaining discs become more highly stressed and effectively result in a lower
creepage distance.

Table 4-3.3: Number of Glass Discs for Various System Voltages

Number of Glass Insulator Discs (U120) Composite

(Creepage per Disc = 291 mm) Insulator
connecting
Length
String Type I-String Vee – Suspension String Vee – Strain String
Pollution Class Light Medium Heavy Very Light Medium Heavy Very Light Medium Heavy Very Heavy
Heavy Heavy Heavy

Creepage (mm/kV)at Um 16 20 25 31 16 20 25 31 16 20 25 31

System Voltage (kV)

Un Um
6,6 7,2 1 1 1 1 - - - - - - - -
11 12 1 1 1 2 - - - - - - - -
22 24 2 2 2 3 - - - - - - - -
33 36 3 3 3 4 - - - - - - - -
44 48 4 4 4 6 - - - - - - - -
66 72 5 5 7 8 - - - - - - - -
88 96 7 7 9 11 - - - - - - - -
132 145 10 11 13 16 - - - - - - - -
220 245 14 18 22 26 18 18 - - 14 18 - -
275 300 18 22 27 32 22 22 - - 18 22 - -
330 365 21 26 32 39 26 26 - - 21 26 - -
400 420 24 30 38 45 30 30 - - 24 30 - -
765 800 45 56 70 86 56 56 - - 45 56 - -

6. OTHER ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS

6.1 Bird Streamers

In environments where birds such as eagles, herons, geese, cranes, egrets, storks, crows and buzzards are found, the
risk of flashovers due to bird streamers should be considered.

Figure 4.9: Yellow-billed Stork Streamer in Excess of 2,4 meters in Length.

6.2 Birds, Rodents and Termites

Birds (for example parrots), rodents and termites can damage polymeric insulators. Knowledge of their presence is
important for the storage and installation of insulators.

6.3 Soil Resistivity

The footing resistance of structures is determined by the soil resistivity and the quality of the earthing. This may have a
significant effect on the probability of back flashover of the insulation. In areas of high soil resistivity, special measures
may have to be taken.

Table 4-3.4: Typical resistivity of various soil materials

Material
Soil Resistivity (Ω ⋅ m)

General average 100

Sea water 0,01 – 1,0
Swampy ground 10 – 100
Dry soil 1000
7
Pure slate 10
8
Sandstone 10

6.4 Seismic activity

Insulators can be mechanically damaged during earthquakes. Thus, for areas of known seismic activity, this must be
taken into account when selecting insulators. For example, instead of rigid ceramic station post busbar supports, more
flexible composite units may be preferred.

6.5 Corrosion

Highly corrosive environments can adversely affect the life and performance of the end fittings of insulators. In such
environments, non-ferrous fittings may be preferred or heavier galvanising specified. For disc insulators a sacrificial zinc
collar may be specified.

High corrosion rates in an area usually indicate that high levels of pollution can also be expected.

6.6 Vandalism

When installing lines or substations in places where vandalism could be a threat, insulators of suitable design and
material should be selected. Toughened glass discs, with their inherent mechanical pre-stress, can shatter violently on
impact and thus represent an attractive and satisfying target. They should not therefore be used in areas known for stone
throwing and shooting. Although composite insulators are preferred for such environments it must be appreciated that
any damage inflicted may not be obvious from the ground and could precipitate failure in the longer term.

Figure 4.10: Gun Shot Damage to the Core of a Composite Insulator

7. REFERENCES

7.1 Eskom Electrical Engineering Department Directive EED 14/1/5-1

7.2 WL Vosloo, “A comparison of the performance of high voltage insulator materials in a severely polluted coastal
environment”, PhD dissertation, University of Stellenbosch, March 2002.

7.3 Verma M.P., Niklasch H., Heise W., Luxa G.F., Lipken H. and Schreiber H., The criterion for the pollution flashover
and its application to insulation dimensioning and control. Cigre Report 33-09, 1978.

7.4 Rizk F.A.M., Mathematical models for pollution flashover, Electra Vol.78, pp 71-103, 1978.

7.5 Holtzhausen J.P., A critical evaluation of AC pollution flashover models for HV insulators having hydrophilic
surfaces. PhD Thesis, University of Stellenbosch, South Africa, 1977.

7.6 Claude de Tourreil, Roy Macey, Wallace Vosloo, Franck Schmuck, GUIDE FOR THE ESTABLISHMENT OF
NATURALLY POLLUTED INSULATOR TESTING STATIONS. Cigre Working Group B2.03, October 2007

SLDG 5-1

GENERAL CRITERIA AND RULES FOR THE DESIGN OF A.C. SUBSTATIONS

1. GENERAL CRITERIA AND RULES

This document is intended to introduce and familiarise the reader with issues that are closely associated with the design
of substations, but is by no means intended to present in-depth subject matter at this point. This is the purpose of
sections later on in the guide where rigorous discussion of the subject matter is provided.

1.1 Safety Rules (See Also SLDG 19-1 and 19-2)

Definitions:-

Step Voltage: The difference in surface potential experienced by a person bridging the distance of a human step
without contacting any other conductive part.

Touch Voltage: The maximum potential difference between the accessible earth surface and dead part which can be
touched by a hand of a person standing on the surface.

Safe Current: The current which can flow through the human body without threat to the life and health of the exposed
person.

The maximum step and touch voltages are set to levels which will limit the current flowing through an exposed person to
the safe current level.

The proposed methods of service and repair work must be considered in the design of a substation.

In most countries the minimum distance between live parts and personnel is standardized. The following parameters are
usually defined:-

a) minimum height of live parts above the accessible surface (dealt with in part in SLDG 4-1).

b) minimum horizontal distance between a live part and protective rails, fences etc. (SLDG 4-1).

c) minimum distance between a live part and a human body (or conductive tools) whilst working in the substation
(SLDG 4-1).

d) minimum distance between a live part and the transporting mechanism or any moving conductive part (SLDG 4-1).

The isolated main circuit must be handled as a live part until it is earthed. The checking of voltage on the conductor
before inserting the earthing device is generally required. As it is not easy to test voltage by an independent device in
EHV and UHV substations, the remote controlled earthing switch can sometimes be switched after visually checking the
disconnectors are in the open position.

It is also dangerous to handle a long rod with an earthing conductor in the vicinity of live parts. Therefore earthing
switches would be preferable in substations above 220 kV where portable earthing devices are used for additional
earthing only (e.g. prevention against induced voltage on long busbars).

1.2 Over-voltage and Insulation Levels (See Also SLDG 4-1)

All equipment installed in a substation must be designed to take account of the permanent voltage at a network;
temporary voltage surges at power frequency caused by sudden changes on system configuration (such as the drift of
neutral point following an earth fault); switching over-voltages and lightning over-voltages. In order to determine its
capability it is subject to voltage tests as follows:-

a) Lightning Impulse Withstand Voltage (1,2/50)

b) Switching Impulse Withstand Voltage (usually 250 / 2500 µs).

c) Power frequency (50 or 60 Hz) (wet and / or dry).

Additionally an oscillating voltage or chopped wave test may be required.

The set of test voltage values determines the insulating level. Standard insulating levels are defined in IEC standard 71
although the Network parameters may dictate other values.

The necessary insulation level depends on the insulation co-ordination, i.e. on the properties of different parts of the
network (mainly lines), the protection used against over-voltages and also on the required reliability of the substation
(permissible probability of flashover) and may vary in different parts of the same substation.

1.3 Current Rating and Over-currents

The instantaneous load flow within a substation depends on the state of the entire electrical network.

Usually a complete network analysis is required to determine the nominal values of currents flowing in an individual
substation circuit. It is theoretically possible for maximum current flow to occur with a relatively low total production of
electricity in the network, e.g. the supply to a pumped storage power station or when utilising the by-pass facility within a
substation.

In designing a substation it is necessary to consider two aspects of the effect of current:-

a) the thermal effect (including induced currents).

b) the mechanical effect on conductive items of plant and their support structures.

Precise thermal modelling of equipment is very difficult as many factors influence the resultant temperatures of
conductive parts e.g. previous loading, ambient temperature, wind speed, and solar conditions.

Thermal design is therefore empirical and is proven by type test covering nominal current rating and short-circuit current
rating.

Standard procedures have been devised to predict the thermal behaviour of conductors, particularly with respect to sag.

It may be possible to assign a short-term current rating in excess of the nominal but the analysis leading to this must be
exceedingly thorough to ensure that no “hot spots” (transformers, terminals, busbar support points) are overlooked.

Methods of calculating short-circuit current values are given in IEC standard 909 and the effects of short-circuit current
can be evaluated in accordance with IEC Standard 865.

1.4 Electrical Clearances (See Also SLDG 4-1)

It is not possible to test the whole HV installation by the corresponding test voltage. Therefore minimum clearances in
air between live parts or between live and dead parts in the air are stated, to obtain the required insulation level in
arrangements that have not been tested. As the clearances are stated universally, they must assume the insulation in
the worst supposed case of spark gap with sufficient reliability. Smaller clearances are permissible if the particular
arrangement has been tested by the prescribed insulation test as discussed in SLDG 4-1.

The values of minimum distances of live parts in the air also depend upon practical experience and therefore, some
differences can be found when comparing rules in different countries.

The specified electrical clearances must be maintained under all normal conditions. Exceptionally reduced electrical
clearances may be allowed. For example, in the case of conductor movement caused by short-circuit current or by
extremely strong wind.

1.5 Mechanical Forces (See Also SLDG 41-1 and SLDG 41-2)

1.5.1 Weight

Together with the normal weight of apparatus, conductors, structures etc. the additional and temporary loads must be
considered, especially the weight of frost and ice (depends on local climate) and maintenance staff.

The strain during erection must also be considered (lifting of structures, asymmetric pull of conductor etc.).

1.5.2 Wind Loading

The wind pressure may substantially influence the strain of structures and footings and also reduce the clearances
between flexible conductors. Standard values are given by IEC but local conditions must always be considered. The
twist of flexible conductors that can impose extreme strains on the structures may be caused by turbulent air flow if the
substation is located in an area with a rough landscape.

1.5.3 Short-circuit Forces

Generally, equipment is type tested in a short-circuit laboratory. However, the short-circuit strength of the busbars is
usually only calculated and the calculation methods are verified by testing some typical busbar arrangements.

In simplified methods the peak value of short-circuit current is used to evaluate mechanical stresses.

The force caused by short-circuit current excites the strain of the movement of conductors. Rigid conductors may
amplify the strain of supports by resonance. The reduction of clearances between flexible conductors has to be
considered. The analysis and computation methods of short-circuit current influences and guidelines for design are
described in CIGRE Technical Brochure 23 - 19.

1.5.4 Combination of Forces

The probability of the simultaneous occurrence of various mechanical forces will be dependent upon local conditions.

Calculations should normally include specified combinations of:

a). Wind loads

b). Ice loads

c). Short circuit loads

d). Earthquake loads whenever necessary

e). Maintenance and / or erection loads

Additionally mechanical loads due to low ambient temperatures and circuit-breaker operations have to be taken into
account.

1.6 Corona and Radio Interference (See also SLDG 4-2)

All devices must satisfy the specified level of radio noise. The limits of radio noise are stated by national standards.
International rules are IEC-CISPR Publication 1 and IEC-CISPR Recommendation No 30.

1.7 Acoustic Noise (See also SLDG 11-2)

The permissible acoustic noise level is generally given by national regulations or standards. Recommended noise
levels are contained in the ISO Recommendation of R1996 “Acoustic”.

An acoustic study for the planned substation should be carried out to determine the acoustic conditions of the various
items of equipment, chiefly the transformers and their working equipment and, if necessary, the circuit-breaker.

Within the framework of this study, the nature, distribution and number of sources of noise for the final installation and at
intermediate stages has also to be considered.

If the acoustic study shows that the natural attenuation of the sound level is not enough to meet the permissible agreed
noise criterion, three courses of action are open :-

a). Use of a low-noise transformer.

b). Modifying the installation plan of the substation, e.g. position of transformers, direction of oil-cooler fans.

c). Provision of one or more noise attenuation devices. The attenuation that was obtained for different types of them
is shown in Table 5-1.

Table 5-1: Effectiveness of Acoustic Barriers

Type of Acoustic Insulation Attenuation

Steel plates (4 mm thickness) with sound-absorbing glass fibre or rockwool, mounted 8 - 10 db (A)
on the transformer tank.

Screens (concrete, plain metal) 10 - 15 db (A)

Carefully erected metal enclosure incorporating sound absorbent metal 15 - 25 db (A)

Brick built or concrete enclosure 20 - 35 db (A)

Double absorbent metal or double concrete enclosure 30 - 40 db (A)

Additionally the propagation of acoustic frequency into supporting structures may be limited by spring, rubber or
hydraulic dampers.

1.8 Water Contamination (See also SLDG 11-4)

All noxious materials in the substation must be used and handled without leakage. The vessels of power and measuring
transformers, capacitors, coils etc. must be leak-proof.

In most countries additional measures against detrimental materials are required. Oil pits are designed to catch some
proportion of the oil (or other liquid) and to prevent oil from burning. If a central underground tank is used, it must take
in the whole volume of the biggest oil tank and any rainwater which has fallen in the period between two emptying.
When no oil leakage occurs, the rain water may be drained off. Otherwise decontamination is necessary by such
means as mechanical separation, filtering or chemical cleaning.

1.9 Civil Design

Civil design includes supporting structures, foundations, facilities (internal roads, rails, site surface, etc.) fencing and
buildings.

1.9.1 Supporting Steelwork Structures (See also SLDG 21)

Supporting structures include terminal gantries, structures for circuit breakers, isolators, instrument transformers and
post insulators. Whereas reinforced concrete may be used for HV substations, supporting structures of UHV
substations are commonly made from welded or bolted steel lattice, of open profile or of tubes. In some cases
aluminium structures are used for their low weight and resistance to corrosion but it must be noted that the buried
portion must be made of steel in order to avoid electro-chemical corrosion.

Calculation of loads is usually covered by national standards and regulations that specify safety factors and load
combinations.

1.9.2 Foundations (See also SLDG 16)

Calculation methods are given by national or company standards. Dimensioning is carried out according to the loads on
the structures and additional forces such as the dynamic stresses imposed by circuit breaker operation.

Depending upon the type of soil and the loads, foundation types can be:-

a) Poured concrete with or without steel reinforcement

b) Prefabricated reinforced concrete

c) Concrete slab (mostly used in indoor substations or for (GIS)

d) Drilled (suitable in hard soil)

e) Auger bored piles

Steel stubs (usually in the case of transmission lines) or anchor bolts to which the structures are attached, are usually
cast into the foundation. A template is used to locate such fixings prior to the concrete being poured. GIS support
structures can be fixed to rails or bolted directly to the floor.

1.9.3 Transformer civil works

Civil works for transformers or reactors have four main purposes:-

a) To support the transformer during service and enable its transport (rails may be needed depending upon
transformer type).

b) To retain any leakage of transformer oil and help to extinguish burning oil under the transformer ; the oil
containment area may be filled with gravel covered by an upper layer of broken stones, connected to an
underground tank or oil catchment dam through a pipe system.

c) To prevent the risk of fire propagation: fire walls and fire stops in trenches are appropriate.

d) To reduce the level of acoustic noise.

1.9.4 Site facilities

Facilities for maintenance and operational needs must be taken into account in substation design. Where access by
crane or trucks has to be provided for maintenance or replacement operations, roads or tracks have to be constructed,
particularly in yards at the UHV level.

The surface of the site will also influence access. Usually stone chippings are used.

1.9.5 Fencing

External fencing reduces the possibility of unauthorised persons entering. Special measures are usually given in
national standards. Special attention must be paid to touch voltage when metallic fencing is used.

Internal fencing is mostly protective and wire fencing can be used for this purpose.

1.9.6 Buildings

The design of buildings has to conform to national and utilities standards. Their main role is to contain and give shelter
to protection relays, SCADA equipment, auxiliaries, batteries, fire protection pumps , etc.

Whether a substation is manned or unmanned will determine the extent of the facilities required locally for the operators.

For economic reasons (reduction of the auxiliary cable lengths and sections, lowering voltage of auxiliary supply,
minimising first investment) several dispersed buildings rather than one central building can be built in a substation. This
may become a necessity when busbars become very long.

1.10 Fire Protection

The use of fire protection systems and / or measures is mainly based on:-

a) Minimising the hazard for the operators and the public and protecting the environment.

b) Limiting the damage to power transformers and to adjacent apparatus, equipment and building.

c) Minimising the loss of customer’s service.

A water spray protection system is sometimes preferred for outdoor installations, predominantly to protect the power
transformers, CO2 for indoor installations.

Smoke detectors (indoor), bimetal, quartzoid bulb detectors and an independent detecting pipe system with compressed
air of 0.25 - 0.8 MPa are the most common fire detecting elements. To prevent an inadvertent operation of the fire
protection system, the use of two criteria is recommended. For starting the fire fighting system of power transformers,
transformer-protection-relays are also common.

To minimise the risk of fire damage, passive protection measures should be also taken into account that means
measures to prevent a propagation of fire or to limit damage, e.g. fire barriers between and or around transformers, fire
resistant material, drainage system to lead leaked oil away from the affected bund area etc.

Provision may be made to aid the extinguishing of burning oil under the transformer, such as:-

a) A 200 - 300mm layer of broken stones on the grid above the oil-containing pit.

b) A gravel filled pit.

c) A steel or concrete chamber connected to the oil retaining area by a pipe, e.g. 5 m long by 200mm diameter.

Fire protection of cables in indoor and outdoor HV substations is usually obtained only by passive protection measures
to reduce the fire propagation - usually fire stops (concrete, steel, mineral wool, sand, silicone) and / or fire resistant
painting. In installing fire barriers care must be taken to ensure that hot spots are not induced. Power and control
cables should be installed along separate routes e.g. separate cable racks or separate trenches.

2. SPECIFICATION AND SELECTION OF MAIN COMPONENTS

2.1 Rating of Equipment and Equipment Bays

When the maximum load currents have been determined, the rated current of the switching equipment should be
selected from the IEC series. Nowadays we can say that the lowest current rating available on the market may be over-
dimensioned for most purposes especially in the networks of the developing countries.

The current rating of busbars depends on the scheme. The rated current of the main busbar is normally chosen to be
1,5 to 3 times higher than that of the line bays. The physical grouping of the feeders may affect this choice. Busbar
cross-flow studies under various contingencies would be very useful if the future layout is being considered. Busbars
are often over-dimensioned during the first stage of a substation’s life, because their reinforcement later on
may be difficult and expensive, and the additional cost of over-dimensioning is relatively small. The rating of
meshed scheme configurations can be difficult (e.g. 1 ½ circuit breaker) and it is necessary to define which switching
conditions and network contingencies have to be governed, making allowance for maintenance outage. The nominal
current of the by-pass busbar and coupling bay is at least the same as the highest rating of any of the circuits that may
be connected. The sectionalizing bay is dimensioned for 100 % of the current rating of the corresponding busbar.
Flexible or rigid conductors and connectors have several standards sizes.

Power transformers have a considerable short-time and continuous overload capacity especially at low ambient
temperatures. On the other hand switching equipment possesses very little overload capacity. Therefore, the current
rating of the transformer bays should be some 50 % higher than the rated current of the transformer.

System planning determine the number, capacity and future extension requirements of the compensating equipment. It
is to be noted that according to IEC the current rating of the shunt capacitor bank switching equipment should be 1,3
times that of the capacitor. It is also recommended that breakers switching shunt reactors be over-rated, because of
their onerous switching duty.

2.2 General

The common ratings of switchgear and control-gear including their operating devices and auxiliary equipment should be
selected from the following:-

a) Rated voltages.

b) Rated insulation level.

c) Rated frequency.

d) Rated normal current.

e) Rated short-time with-stand current.

f) Rated peak withstand current

g) Rated duration of short circuit.

h) Rated supply voltage of closing and opening devices and of auxiliary circuits.

i) Rated supply frequency of closing and opening devices and of auxiliary circuits.

j) Rated pressure of compressed gas supply for closing and opening devices. This type of equipment has largely
become obsolete and been replaced by devices containing SF6.

k) Pollution level.

l) Corona and RIV requirements.

The most important characteristics that require specifying are the insulation level, the mechanical strength and key
dimensions (to ensure compatibility with other equipment).

Equipment has to be type tested in order to verify its compliance with the specified ratings.

Note: Other rated characteristics may be necessary and are specified in the relevant IEC standards.

2.3 Circuit Breaker (See also SLDG 25)

A circuit breaker is a mechanical switching device, capable of making, carrying and breaking currents under normal
circuit conditions and also making, carrying for a specified time and breaking currents under specified abnormal circuit
conditions such as those of short-circuit.

The breaking capacity of a circuit breaker is defined by a large number of parameters. The value of breaking / making
current must be related to the transient recovery voltage (TRV) which depends mainly on the properties of the circuit

to be switched. The shape of TRV varies at the same point of the network depending upon switching state (the number,
type and load of interconnected bays) and on the location of the short-circuiting point. These circumstances give
different resonant circuits and the circuit breaker must be able to break the current in all cases.

The shape of TRV is partially influenced by the circuit breaker itself as it depends on the deformation of the current
waveform immediately before the interruption. More beneficial conditions are given by minimum-oil and SF6 “puffer”
than by air-blast arc extinction chambers.

The switching process is considered to give rise to a steep fronted TRV when the short circuiting point is up to 3 km on
the line side of a circuit breaker. Switching of longer lines may lead to a lower steepness but higher peak value of TRV,
which may threaten the insulation of switch-gear.

The results of long-term investigations form the basis of type tests given by IEC Standard 56. However, in particular
cases the switching conditions may be more sever then those given by IEC 56, in which cases an over-rated circuit
breaker may need to be used for lower current. Some methods of evaluation of breaking capacity under non-standard
TRV conditions have been formulated, e.g. by employing controlled switching techniques.

The time period between receiving a trip command and current interrupting or making is very important for the setting of
back-up protection relays. Therefore it influences the requirements of the current carrying capacity of all switch-gear as
well as the dynamic processes in the EHV network. A longer time can be expected when breaking current after auto-re-
closing on to an un-cleared fault.

Circuit breaker types are defined by their interrupting medium and their drive mechanism.

2.3.1 Interrupting Medium

a) Bulk oil

b) Small oil volume.

c) Air blast.

d) SF6 (or a mixture of SF6 and Nitrogen for very low ambient temperatures)

e) Vacuum.

Although other types of circuit breaker may be available, the present day choice at Transmission Voltages is generally
SF6.

These are grouped in accordance with their arc extinction chambers as “dead tank” or “live tank”.

The majority of circuit-breakers supplied for outdoor open-terminal substations are of the “live tank” type in which the
interrupters are housed in porcelain weather-shields on top of an insulated support column.

A small number however, have interrupters housed in an earthed metal container with their connections taken out
through porcelain bushings. The benefit of this ‘dead tank’ arrangement is that the bushings may be used to house the
current transformer windings saving the cost of separately mounted post CT’s.

2.3.2 Drive Mechanism

There are three types of drive mechanism in common use for circuit breakers at Transmission Voltages:-

a) Pneumatic - using either a unit compressor or a compressed air system common to a complete substation.

b) Hydraulic - using a high pressure oil system in conjunction with a nitrogen gas or spring accumulator.

c) Spring - Using a spring charged by an electric motor.

Any circuit breaker drive must be fitted with an energy storage device that permits a complete standard cycle of
operation without further input of energy. Usually this is an “Open-Close-Open” or a “Close-Open” sequence. If the
circuit breaker is in the “Open” position its operation must be automatically inhibited if there is insufficient stored energy
for a further “Close-Open” sequence.

IEC 56 clause 8 gives comprehensive details of the selection of circuit breakers for service in terms of their electrical
and mechanical performance.

2.4 Isolator and Earthing Switches (See also SLDG 26)

An isolator is a mechanical switching device that provides, in the open position, an isolating distance in accordance with
specified requirements.

An isolator is capable of opening and closing a circuit when either negligible current is broken or made, or when no
significant change in the voltage across the terminals of each of the poles of the isolator occurs. It is also capable of
carrying currents under normal circuit conditions and carrying for a specified time currents under abnormal conditions
such as those of short-circuit.

An earthing switch is a mechanical switching device for earthing parts of a circuit, capable of withstanding for a specified
time currents under abnormal conditions such as those of short-circuit, but not required to carry current under normal
conditions of the circuit.

There are four types of isolators in common use:-

a) Rotating-End-Post (single arm or double arm)

b) Rotating-Centre-Post

c) Pantograph (vertical and horizontal)

d) Single Lifting Arm.

The way in which each of these types of disconnector (isolator) operates has an important effect on the design of the
substation. Three insulation conditions must be considered when selecting isolators:-

a) phase-to-earth insulation level

b) phase-to-phase insulation level

c) pole-to-pole (open contact) insulation level

The pole-to-pole insulation level is particularly important in areas where surge over-voltages can occur across an
isolator.

With all these types of isolators except the rotating centre post, the contacts remain live whether the isolator is open or
closed. Thus, electrical clearances, have to take into account the volume swept by the blades of the isolator. Use of
rotating-end-posts isolators, for instance, requires greater phase-to-phase clearance than the use of rotating-centre-post
isolators.

Another factor which has to be considered is that in the case of rotating end post and rotating centre post designs,
earthing switches can usually be mounted on the same structure rather than having to be separately mounted.

At transmission voltages it is usual for isolators to be motorised. Earthing switches may be motorised but are usually
operated manually.

In the case of double circuit lines special consideration has to be given to the interruption of capacitive and inductive
loads when the parallel circuit is energised. The isolator must also be capable of interrupting and making parallel
circuits when transferring load between main and bypass busbars.

2.5 Surge Protection Device (See also SLDG 32-2)

The effectiveness of any surge protection device is very dependent upon the quality of the earthing system and the
geometrical arrangement of the device. In particular, the wave impedance, the length of the connection between hot
line and earthing system, and the earth resistance play an important role.

2.5.1 Spark Gaps

The spark gap is a surge-protective device that consists of an open air gap between an energized electrode and an
earth electrode and provides the simplest possible form of surge protection.

There are several disadvantages to the use of co-ordinating gaps as a means of surge protection.

Firstly, if the gap operates, a fault is caused on the system. Secondly, if the gap is set for positive impulses, the
protection against negative switching impulses is poor at the higher voltages; thirdly, a higher insulation is generally
required if gaps are installed; lastly, the increasing threshold voltage causes inadequate protection against steep fronted
surges.

Spark gaps should never be set across the bushings of power equipment such as transformers and reactors, particularly
if the bushings are of the capacitor type, due to the very fast fronted over-voltages that are generated which can cause
puncturing and insulation breakdown. Spark gaps used to be a popular practice but has since ben discontinued.

2.5.2 Surge Arresters (See also SLDG 32-2)

The use of a surge arrester provides superior protection compared to a co-ordinating gap, and it is not sensitive to
polarity. A big advantage is that a system fault is not caused by the operation of a surge arrester. The margins between
the protective level and insulation levels of a system are covered in IEC standard 71.2.

The two types of arrester in common use are gapped silicon carbide and “gapless” zinc oxide varieties.

The silicon carbide arrester comprises a stack of silicon carbide blocks with series gaps. There is some variation in the
voltage at which “spark over” occurs, especially for steep fronted surges the threshold voltage rises.

The zinc oxide arrester is gapless and comprises a stack of zinc oxide blocks and is, therefore, very simple to construct.
Its characteristic can be set very precisely and unless temporary over-voltages are relatively high (as non effective earth
system) then it is usually possible to obtain lower protective levels compared with the gapless types of arrester.

2.5.3 Lightning Protection (See also SLDG 32-1)

In most areas it is necessary to ensure protection against direct lightning stroke and this can be achieved by installing
different types of effectively earthed conductors. Substation protection is provided by means of vertical rods on top of
support structures or, specially erected masts or protective conductors may be suspended above the substation.

When interconnected overhead lines are not generally protected against direct lightning stroke, it is necessary to take
measures to protect the substation. Usually an earthwire should be installed on each overhead line for a distance of
approximately 3 km from the substation. This measure does depend, however, on the rated voltage of the system and
is not normally applied to medium voltage distribution networks.

2.6 Instrument Transformers (See also SLDG 28-1)

2.6.1 General

Instrument transformers are the devices used to transform the values of current and voltage in the primary system to
values which are suitable for measuring instruments, meters, protection relays and other similar apparatus. An
essential property of an instrument transformer is that it isolates primary voltages from the accessible parts of the
secondary system.

Internal insulation is oil-impregnated paper, SF6 or, cast resin.

Traditionally instrument transformers have been either of the inductive or capacitive type although developments are
taking place using optical fibres.

It is possible to combine the current and voltage transformers in one housing, however, this becomes less practicable at
higher voltages.

2.6.2 Voltage transformers (VT) (See also SLDG 28-3)

Voltage transformers are either of the capacitor (CVT) or electromagnetic type.

CVT’s are used singly for metering purposes or in three-phase sets for protection.

Electromagnetic VT’s are used when a higher degree of accuracy than can be provided by a CVT, is required - for
example high accuracy metering, or when no other means of discharging an overhead line is available.

2.6.3 Current transformers (CT) (See also SLDG 28-2)

Current transformers are specified by their primary rated current and their accuracy class which are selected according
to their service requirement.

The rated current of the current transformers should be selected from the IEC series. Rated currents and ratios should
be selected according to the requirements of continuous current rating, accuracy and protection. Current rating can also
be extended (120 %, 150 % or 300 %)

When the characteristics of a network are likely to evolve multi-ratio CT’s are necessary to follow the network evolution.
They require adequate nominal current rating and the ability to operate protection relays when short-circuit current is at
its minimum.

Usually a number of multi-ratio current transformers are housed within a single unit to allow for future development and
an increase in circuit loading.

Application of accuracy class is as follows:-

Accuracy Class Function

0,1
0,2 Measurements and Metering
0,5
1
5 Protection
10

Measurement and metering require a different core from protection with different accuracy class, secondary power
rating and rated over-current factor.

2.7 Line Traps (See also SLDG 30-1)

A line trap is an apparatus intended for series insertion into a high-voltage line and, in conjunction with a coupling
capacitor, it forms a parallel, resonant circuit. Its impedance must be negligible at the power frequency so as not to
disturb the power transmission, but must be relatively high over any frequency band appropriate to carrier transmission.

A line trap consists of a main coil with a protective device and, usually, a tuning device.

Line traps are used for power line carrier protection and may be mounted directly on post insulators or CVT’s for
support or hung from suspension insulator sets.

Note: For operation of power line carrier protection equipment it is necessary to inject the signal through a
capacitor. It is most economical to use the CVT’s for this purpose rather than to provide a separate
coupling capacitor unit.

2.8 Busbars and Connectors (See also SLDG 41 and SLDG 42)

Busbars may be either flexible stranded conductor or of tubular construction. Aluminium (and its alloys) and copper are
the most commonly used materials.

Connectors may be bolted, welded or crimped or any combination of these. Fittings should allow for expansion and
contraction with temperature.

Mechanical strength must be considered in addition to the general ratings described in paragraph 1.5. Aeolian vibration
of tubular conductor can cause fatigue failure and steps may need to be taken to limit this, for example, stranded

conductor laid inside a tubular busbar is often a very effective damper or special clamps with built-in dampers may be
used. Bi-metallic joints require special construction and jointing techniques to prevent corrosion. All busbars, fittings
and joints should be designed to mechanically avoid the ingress of moisture and electrically to avoid corona discharge.

2.9 Post Insulators (See also SLDG 33)

A post insulator consists of one post insulator unit or an assembly of such units and is intended to give rigid support to a
live part which is to be insulated from earth or from another live part.

The dimensions of post insulators have been standardised and details are given in IEC standard 273. The testing
requirements are given in IEC standard 168.

2.10 High Voltage Cables (See also SLDG 44-1)

In some circumstances it will be necessary that connections into, out of, and within a substation will be by means of
underground cables, e.g. within an urban area where overhead line entries are not possible or in order to connect a
particular circuit to a particular section of the substation.

Cables have to be terminated in sealing ends which act mechanically to retain the cable and seal the cable oil or XLPE
zone, depending on what type of cable is employed.

2.11 Earthing Grid (See Also SLDG 19)

The earthing grid comprises conductors that are buried in the ground in the substation and is complemented, in some
cases, by conductors that are above ground.

The conductors in the ground are buried in the form of a grid at a depth of about 0,5 - 1,0 metres and designed to limit
conductor temperature and, touch and step voltages to the maximum allowable values under specific fault conditions.

Earth rods may be driven into the ground around the perimeter of the earthing grid and are bonded to the grid. The
quantity and length of the earth rods will depend upon the resistivity of the soil. Additional earth rods are sometimes
required immediately below (or adjacent to) certain items of equipment such as capacitor voltage transformers and
surge arrestors.

The buried grid is usually made of copper rod or copper strip and the earth rods of copper-covered steel, although other
materials such as galvanised steel and cast iron may be used. In order to avoid electro-chemical reaction the copper
strip may be coated with a thin layer of zinc or tin. For the same reason stranded conductors should be avoided.

All main parts of structures and dead parts of equipment are bonded to the earthing grid as well as the neutral points of
primary equipment’s.

Where there are conductive pipelines, railway lines or other similar items, special attention must be paid to earthing in
order to prevent the transmission of earth current leading to a rise in ground potential outside the substation.

If there are telephone lines or a low-voltage network in the neighbourhood their protection against ground potential
rise (GPR) may cause considerable extra costs. The most effective way to limit the potential, would be to use shield
wires with good conductivity.

The layout of the earthing grid also has an effect on transient ground potential rise phenomena.

2.12 Power Transformers and Compensating Equipment

2.12.1 General

Plant that is intended to alter voltage or frequency, or influence the power factor of transmitted energy, is considered to
form part of a substation. The rating of such equipment however, is different from that which may apply to other switch-
gear in that the main parameter is the total power handling capacity of the unit.

The specification of this power rating is dependent upon the total required power, the cyclic nature of this power
requirement and the policy of the utility on reserve capacity.

It is usually economic to use units of the same rating within a substation but in certain individual cases this may be
unnecessary for example if a utility has determined to use a particular standard rating or if individual circuits have
differing requirements.

2.12.2 Power Transformers (See also SLDG 34-1)

Power transformers are usually of the two-winding type. However when both HV and MV systems have similar earthing
factors, and it is not necessary to limit the earth-fault current at the MV side due to interference or potential rise
problems, auto-transformers are often used. As a cost saving measure, the insulation level of the main transformers are
designed to be lower than that of other equipment, depending upon the effectiveness of the over-voltage protection.

The capacity of transformers is usually decided by system requirements and it is necessary to specify this together with
the general ratings given in SLDG 5-1.

Transformers may be designed with all three phases in a common tank or as three, separate, single-phase units.

In general it is only economic to choose single phase unit if there are transport problems or if it is important to replace a
failed transformer by a spare unit very quickly.

The single phase units are easier to transport and install but transformation losses will be greater than in the case of a
three phase unit. Additionally, three separate foundations are necessary; more space will be required and, depending
on the fire fighting philosophy, extra barrier walls are often installed between the single phase transformers.

2.12.3 Compensating Equipment

There are several forms of compensating equipment:-

2.12.3.1 Synchronous Compensators

Comprising a variably exited small synchronous machine

2.12.3.2 Shunt reactors (See also SLDG 35-1)

Comprising mechanically switched shunt reactors which may be installed on the tertiary winding of a system transformer
or connected directly to the grid system.

2.12.3.3 Mechanically Switched Capacitors (Shunt Connected) (See also SLDG 36)

May be installed on transformer tertiaries or connected directly to a grid system for local voltage control purposes.

2.12.3.4 Series Capacitors (See also SLDG 37)

Used in conjunction with long transmission lines

2.12.3.5 Static VAR compensation (SVC) (See also SLDG 38)

Comprising thyristor-controlled reactors (TCR), thyristor switched capacitors and harmonic filters. SVCs are usually
connected directly to their own discrete transformers.

The type of compensation required will usually be determined by the system planners but it should be noted that
switching compensating devices imposes an unusually onerous duty on the circuit breaker. In this case, controlled
switching techniques may be employed.

3. SPECIFICATION AND SELECTION OF AUXILIARY EQUIPMENT

3.1 A.C. Supplies (See also SLDG 18-1)

A.C. supplies provide energy for drivers, compressors, charging batteries, lighting and heating. Usually two
independent sources of supply are used with 100 % redundancy and automatic emergency switching. It should be
noted that external supplies tend to be less reliable than sources fed through a station transformer from the main
substation circuit. If supplies are taken from the MV network it should be ascertained that there is a degree of
independence from the HV substation itself.

A secure supply of up to 20 kVA e.g. for a transformer tap-changer, can be provided by D.C. - A.C. invertors from the
batteries. Figure 5-1.4 gives an example of the LVAC supplies for a substation.

3.2 Diesel Generation

Diesel generators are used to provide a back-up LV supply in important substations for loads up to about 800 kVA and
are activated automatically in the event of failure of the main LVAC supply (or supplies).

A diesel generator would be designed to provide energy for the essential components of the substation for a specified
period of time (usually the estimated time it will take to restore the main supply). The components considered to be
essential may vary from substation to substation and may include circuit-breaker drives (or charging of their energy
source), charging of batteries, operation of isolators, cooling of transformers and emergency lighting.

3.3 D.C. Supplies (See also SLDG 24-1)

Lead Acid batteries providing energy for a minimum specified period of time (usually 2 - 3 hours - based upon the time it
will take for maintenance staff to reach the site and the time it may take to remedy the fault) connected in parallel to the
load are fed by chargers. In case of failure of the AC charge voltage, the batteries take over the load. DC voltage up to
60 V is provided for remote control and communication, up to 220 V for emergency light, operation of switch-gear, etc.
Traditionally batteries were kept in separate room(s) with proper ventilation; heated if necessary as the capacity falls by
o o
1 % C below 20 C.

Nowadays leak-proof cells are available and these may be placed indoors adjacent to LV equipment without taking any
special precautions.

The servicing and maintenance schedules for batteries should be adhered to closely in order that full capacity under
emergency conditions is retained.

3.4 Compressed Air System

Compressed air systems provide pneumatic power for circuit breaker drives and is the extinguishing medium for air blast
circuit breakers. In the case of small plant, air is compressed on demand at service pressure but normally is stored at a
level much higher than service pressure and is reduced directly at the device supplied; for indoor plant a central facility
is common.

To avoid humidity problems at service pressure level, a ratio of at least 5 : 1 for storage pressure to service pressure is
o o
recommended; this is designed to cover temperature falls of 20 K within a temperature range of - 35 C to + 50 C.

MV NETWORK

MAIN TRANSFORMER

20 kV

20 kV SWITCHING BAY 20 kV
AUXILIARY AUXILIARY
FEEDER TRANSFORMER FEEDER TRANSFORMER DIESEL
0,4 kV 0,4 kV ~ GENERATOR
R
500-800 kVA
0,4 kV

BUSBAR 2 380/220 V BUSBAR 1

BUSBAR 4 BUSBAR 3

BUSBAR 6 BUSBAR 5

1
~ 1 ~
220 V

220 kV
AUXILIARY AUXILIARY 220V AUXILIARY 220V AUXILIARY 380/220V
SUPPLY DC SUPPLIES DC SUPPLIES AC SUPPLIES
SWITCHING BAY
AUXILIARY
380/220V
AC SUPPLIES

Figure 5-1.4: Example of Auxiliary Equipment Diagram for an Important Substation.

4. SPECIFICATION AND SELECTION OF SECONDARY EQUIPMENT

4.1 General

The term “secondary equipment” covers protection-, control- and measuring circuits. Not much more will be said here as
this is a specialised field and should be covered under a separate design guide. Some fundamentals are however
covered under SLDG 6-1.

5. COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN (See also SLDG 49)

With today’s Computer Aided Design (CAD), the emphasis is moving very much towards the “conceptual” ability of the
system.

The term CAD includes not only a sophisticated drawing ability but an advanced system capable of processing and
analysis on a conceptual level.

The drawing function is a tool used in the creation and manipulation of graphic entities, to furnish a “hard copy” of
drawings created by computer.

One of its greatest assets is that objects which are frequently used on drawings can be stored in a library and recalled
when required; thus saving time at the creation stage.

This tool lends itself quite readily to substation design as this is a matter of repetition of structures and modules. Thus
elements and also the grouping of elements to form bays may readily be stored in the library.

Even more time can be saved when, in working to create a new drawing, one only has to change an existing drawing.
However, this requires a certain minimum of “standardisation”.

In enhancing and adding to the simple drawing facility the ability to process and manipulate simple graphics can be
developed in to a “Design Package” which may include:

a) Automatic verification of electrical clearances

b) Verification of the conformity of the earthing grid

c) Dimensional calculations

d) Automatic calculation of a substation inventory (listing of constituent components) or even determination of the
overall construction cost of the particular substation

6. COMMISSIONING

Commissioning covers all the measures that need to be taken on-site in order to assure the correct functioning of both
single components of equipment and the substation as a whole. Beside the type tests, routine tests, and sample tests
in the factory, additional tests on-site may be necessary; these tests ensure the specifications of the equipment are met
and serve to detect any damage caused by transportation, shipping, or erection which may modify the characteristics.

In general, all installations that have to be erected on site are subject to commissioning tests. This involves both
providing the wiring that provides remote control, signalling and measurement, and also testing the HV equipment. One

example is the gas-insulated substation, which, after erection is subject to various commissioning tests, the most
important of which is the high voltage test.

Typical examples of commissioning tests are:

a) Checking of wiring, contact travel diagram of breaker and switches.

b) Duty cycle and hot spot checking for each bay test of proper operation of remote control, signalling and
measurement.

c) Checking of electrical clearances and conductor sag.

d) Insulation tests if required, (especially for GIS).

Commissioning tests are the most important quality assurance instrument when an installation is transferred to the user
after erection. The extent of tests, the responsibilities, and the procedure of repair or correction in case of detected
defects is subject to agreement between the companies concern.

SLDG 5-2

FUNCTION AND POSITIONING OF HIGH-VOLTAGE APPARATUS

1. ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS

When entering into an equipment yard, it would become evident that there are similarities in the positioning of primary
plant in the primary plant bays. In order to determine the positioning of the various items of primary plant in a substation
equipment bay, one firstly needs to understand what the essential parameters are that need to be measured, secondly
the function of the different items of primary plant (briefly discussed in SLDG 5-1)and thirdly, the purpose of the
equipment bay. To this end, a brief explanation of the essential parameters is given, a definition, and description of the
items of plant are also provided. This is then tied up with the purpose and functioning of the particular bay type.

A substation comprising a switchgear installation contains all the apparatus and auxiliary equipment necessary to
ensure reliable operation of the installation and a secure supply of electricity. In order for this to be done successfully, a
number of measurements need to be made so as to determine the instantaneous state of the installation and compare
these to predetermined set values which defines a healthy system. Power consumption measurements also need to be
made for billing the end user of this power. Meters normally provide the rms values of voltage and current.

1.1 Measurement of Basic Parameters

The basic parameters that need to be measured are voltage, current and the phase angle between the two since most
of the other parameters can be calculated from these.

1.1.1 Voltage = Vrms

= √2.Vp eq. 5-2.1

V
Vp
Vrms

t Vrms

Meter

Figure 5-2.1: A Typical Sinusoidal Voltage Signal

1.1.2 Current = Irms

= √2.Ip I eq. 5-2.2

Ip
Irms

t Irms

Meter

Figure 5-2.2: A Typical Sinusoidal Current Signal (Phase Shifted)

1.1.3 Phase Angle

1
T =
f
1
= eq. 5-2.3
50
= 20 ms

o
For a frequency of 50 Hz, the period is 20 ms. A time period (T) of 20 ms represents a full cycle of 360 . Therefore, any
time shift between the two signals can be translated into a phase shift (Figure 5-2.3) by:-

(t2 - t1)
ϕ= .360
T
1
= eq. 5-2.4
50
= 20 ms
V,I
Vp, Ip
Vrms, Irms

t φ

(t2-t1) Meter

Figure 5-2.3: A Typical Sinusoidal Voltage Signal

Electrical power has a real component which is the energy component (P) measured in watts (W, kW, MW or GW), and
an imaginary component (Q) which is the reactive component measured in volt-amperes reactive (VAr, kVAr, MVAr,
GVAr). The vector sum of these components which are at right angles to each other is referred to as the apparent power
(S) and is measured in VAr-Amps (VA, kVA, MVA, GVA). The cosine of the angle between the energy component and
the apparent power is called the power factor. Since the voltage and current measured by the meters are already in a
complex format, 3 multiplied by their product will give the apparent power (S) value. The real and reactive components
can then be calculated using the phase angle φ measured.

√3 (Watts, kW, MW, GW)

Real Power = Voltage . Current . cos(φ) .√ eq. 5-2.5

Reactive Power = Voltage . Current . sin(φ) . √3 (VAr, kVAr, MVAr, GVAr) eq. 5-2.6

√3 (VA, kVA, MVA, GVA)

Apparent Power = Voltage . Current .√ eq. 5-2.7

System healthy as referred to electrical system s can essentially be described to be that set of conditions present in the
system where all electrical equipment is operating within its rated parameters, i.e. normal operating conditions. Any of
the parameters outside the predetermined system healthy values will then describe a system unhealthy condition. An
abnormal condition would for example arise under short circuit conditions where current would be excessively high and
possibly also leading to low system voltage.

1.2 Protection and Control Application Using Basic Measurements

1.2.1 Synchronising Independent Systems

When different sections of a grid are to be connected together, it must be ensured that the voltages are synchronised,
or else a short circuit condition will arise. For example, consider Figure 5-2.4, where the magnitude of the peak and rms
values of voltage are exactly the same.

V
V
Vp1
Vp2
Vrms1
Vrms2

t t

Figure 5-2.4: Sinusoidal Voltage Signals that are Out of Phase

Superimposing the waveforms on the same axes, one discovers that the instantaneous voltage values are different, i.e.
the instantaneous values of v1 and v2 are not the same at every point, but are time displaced, i.e. the wave forms are
said to be out of phase as shown in Figure 5-2.5.

V
V1rms V2rms
Vp
Meter Vrms Meter

t1 t2 t

Figure 5-2.5: Short Circuits Due to Out of Phase Sinusoidal Voltage Signals

Connecting the two systems would result in a short circuit since v2 - v2 ≠ 0.

For two parts of a network, or for two different networks to be connected to each other, they must not only have the
same peak and rms voltage values, but must also have the same phase angle (be in phase), i.e. the instantaneous
voltage values, v1 and v2, must be very close to or be equal. The two systems are then said to be synchronised. This is
illustrated in Figure 5-2.6.

V
Vp
V1rms Vrms V2rms

Meter Meter
t

Figure 5-2.6: In-Phase Sinusoidal Voltage Signals

1.2.2 Fault Current Protection - Interrupting Line Faults

Faults are bound to occur on lines connecting two substations. Fault current will be fed into the fault from both sides of
the line, the contributions of which depend on the system impedances and configuration (see Figure 5-2.7). For
illustrative purposes we assume that some sort of over-current protection exists at both sides of the line, that conditions
are similar at both stations, but with no means of communication between the two stations. We consider the sequence
of events that would take place.

Substation A Substation B

If1

Meter

Figure 5-2.7: Fault Close to Substation A

With a fault occurring at a position close to Substation A, one could under the above conditions assume that the larger
portion of the fault current contribution would come from Substation A. The measurement made at Substation A would
then cause the opening of the appropriate device to interrupt the fault current from station A (see Figure 5-2.8).

Substation A Substation B

If2

Meter

Figure 5-2.8: Fault Current from Substation A Interrupted

Once the fault current from Substation A is interrupted, Substation B would momentarily still feed into the fault, and may
even increase slightly. The measurement made at Substation B would then cause the opening of the appropriate device
at Substation B a while time after that of Substation A (see Figure 5-2.9).

Meter

Figure 5-2.9: Fault Current from Substation B Interrupted

It could also be the case that the fault current contribution from Substation B is relatively much lower than from
Substation A, and may not even be detected as a fault, in which case the fault is not isolated. To overcome this, and to
reduce the time delay between the opening of both interrupting devices, some form of communication between the two
substations can be installed, so that when one interrupting device is activated, a signal is sent to the substation at the
opposite end of the line to activate the corresponding interrupting device. This way, isolation of the fault is ensured.

OPEN OPEN

If
Meter

a): Fault Current from Substation A Activates Signal

OPEN OPEN

I
Meter

b): Fault Current from Substations A and B Interrupted

Figure 5-2.10: Interrupting a Line Fault

1.2.3 Over-voltage Protection

Another form of protection that must be provided for is that of over-voltages that develop on lines due to lightning
strikes. These occur due to direct strikes onto transmission line towers with a corresponding flashover onto the line
conductor, or nearby cloud to earth strikes that induce transient over-voltages on the line.

Figure 5-2.11: Back-flashover from a Tower Strike

2. PRIMARY PLANT

2.1 Busbars (See also SLDG 5-1, 2.8)

An electrical bus (alternatively spelled "buss"), derived from busbar, is a common electrical connection between
multiple electrical devices or equipment bays.

A bus can either allow signals to be transferred between devices, the summing (mixing) of output signals from the
devices or the distribution of input signals or power amongst the devices. A bus often takes the form of a conductor that
terminates on multiple connector devices that allows the devices or equipment bays to be connected onto the busbar.

2.2 Circuit Breaker (CB)

Circuit breakers are mechanical switching devices that make, carry and interrupt currents occurring in the circuit under
normal conditions, and can make, carry for a specified time and break currents occurring in the circuit under abnormal
conditions, such as short circuit currents.

It is the first device to open when interrupting (de-energising), and the last to close when making (energising).

Terminals Single Vertical

Breaking Chamber

Load/Fault Current
SYMBOL Opening
and Closing Device

Hollow Post Insulator

Housing Drive Rod

Marshaling
Kiosk

Figure 5-2.13: Circuit Breaker with One SF6 Breaking Chamber

Terminal Terminal

Breaking Breaking
Chamber Chamber

Hollow Post Insulators

Housing Drive Rod

Marshaling
Kiosk

Figure 5-2.12: Circuit Breaker with Two SF6 Breaking Chambers

Closed Position Intermediate Positions Open Position

Common
Connection
Plate

Fixed Arcing
Contact

Fixed
Continuous
Current Contact

Movable Arcing
Contact Fixed Continuous
Current Contact
Movable
Fixed Arcing
Continuous
Contact
Current Contact
Movable Arcing
Arc Quenching Movable Contact
Nozzle Continuous
Current Contact
Compression Compressed
Chamber Insulating Gas Insulating Gas
Compression Being Escaping Through
Cylinder Compressed Gap Extinguishing
Compression Arc
Piston
Actuating Rod

Figure 5-2.13: Operation of a Circuit Breaker with One SF6 Breaking Chamber

Closed Position

Intermediate Opening Position – Just Before Arc Starts Forming

Fixed Continuous
Current Contacts

Movable Continuous
Current Contacts

Insulating Gas
Being Compressed

Figure 5-2.13: Operation of a Circuit Breaker with Two SF6 Breaking Chambers (Continued)

Intermediate Opening Position – Arc extinguished by Compressed Gas

Fixed Arcing
Contact
Movable Arcing
Contact

Compressed
Insulating Gas
Escaping Through
Gap Extinguishing Arc

Open Position

Figure 5-2.13: Operation of a Circuit Breaker with Two SF6 Breaking Chambers (Continued)

2.3 Isolator (IS)

Isolators, or sometimes referred to as disconnectors, are mechanical switching devices which provide an isolating
distance in the open position.

They are capable of opening and closing a circuit if either a negligible current (0,5 A) is switched or if there is no
significant change in voltage between terminals of the poles. Examples are capacitive charging current for bushings,
busbars, connections, very short lengths of cable, and currents of voltage transformers.

Currents can be carried continuously under normal operating conditions and for a specified time under abnormal
conditions such as short circuits.

Current Path

Terminal
Terminal
Fixed
Contact

Moving
M Contact

Rotating
Centre
SYMBOL Post
Insulators
No Load/ Current
Diverting

Marshaling
Kiosk

Current Path
Terminal
Terminal Fixed
Contact
Rotating Centre Moving
Post Insulators Contact

Figure 5-2.14: Conventional Centre Rotating Post Isolator

Closed Position

Current
Path Terminal
Terminal Fixed
Contact
Moving
Rotating Centre Contact
Post Insulators

Moving
Contact
Current
Path
Opening

Terminal
Terminal Fixed
Contact

Rotating Centre
Post Insulators

Moving
Contact

Current
Path
Open Position

Terminal
Terminal Fixed
Contact
o
70
Rotating Centre
Post Insulators

Figure 5-2.15: Operation of a Conventional Centre Rotating Post Isolator

Fixed Contact
Connected to
Busbar

M
Current Moving
Path Contact
SYMBOL
Terminal
Terminal

Solid Core
Post Rotating Driving
Insulator Solid Core
Post Insulator
Stack

Marshalling
Kiosk

Figure 5-2.16: Pantograph Type Isolator

Fully Open Intermediate Positions Fully Closed

Figure 5-2.17: Operation of a Conventional Centre Rotating Post Isolator

2.4 Earthing Switch (ES)

Earthing switches are mechanical switching devices for earthing and short circuiting circuits. They are capable of
carrying currents such as short circuit currents for a specified time under abnormal conditions. They are not required to
carry normal operating currents. Earthing switches for transmission networks may also be required to make, carry and
break induced currents (capacitive and inductive) under normal circuit conditions. Earthing switches with short circuit
making capability must be able to make the short-circuit current.

Terminal
Fixed
Contact

Solid Core
Post
SYMBOL Insulator

Earth Moving
Blade Contact

Mech
Box

Figure 5-2.18: Earthing Switch

Fully Open Intermediate Positions Fully Closed

Fixed
Contact

Moving
Contact

Earth
Blade
Arm

Mech
Box

Figure 5-2.19: Operation of an Earthing Switch

2.5 Current Transformer (CT)

Current transformers are used to transform high currents to values that can be unified or measured safely with low
internal losses. The primary winding carries the load current while the secondary winding current is identical to primary
side in phase and ration except for the transformer error. Current transformers operate almost under short-circuit
conditions. Primary and secondary sides are nearly always electrically independent and insulated from one another as
required by the service voltage.

I
Bellows
t
P1 P2
. Primary Bar
P1 P2 Insulator Secondary
Coils
Load/Fault
Hollow Post
SYMBOL
Insulator

Secondary
Tapings

Proportional
I Signal

t Graded Proportional
Insulation

Secondary t
Tap

a). Top Core Type

Cap Connected
To P2
P1 P2
Terminals

Hollow Post
Insulator

Full
Insulation
Oil
Dielectric
Secondary
Hair Pin Coils
Primary
Secondary Tap
Connection Box

b). Hair-pin Type

Figure 5-2.20: Current Transformers

2.6 Circuit Breaker and Current Transformer Combination

A fault occurring on a circuit will cause a high current to flow, the direction of which depending on where the failure took
place. Regardless of direction, the current transformer (CT) will send a representative signal back to the associated
control panel which will be detected as a fault current by the panel, and send a signal back to the adjacent circuit
breaker (CB) to open. It is generally the case that CTs are located next to the CB, sometimes even on the same
structure, in order to keep the distance between these two components as small as possible. On certain types of CBs
such as the dead-tank type, ring core CTs are part of the CB construction.

One will notice that the current transformer terminals are marked P1 and P2. The cap or head of the CT is electrically
connected to the P2 terminal, while the P1 terminal is insulated from it. This allows for the classification of a fault as
being either on the busbar side of the CT or on the “line” side. A fault on the busbar side will be classified as a buszone
fault which activates the buszone protection, whist a fault on the “line” side will activate only the protection associated
with that equipment bay. The P1 terminal always faces the circuit breaker, while the P2 terminal faces away from the
CB.

P1 P2
..
P1 ....
..

SYMBOL

Sends Signal
Receives Signal to Protection
from Protection Panel
Panel to Trip or
Close

Figure 5-2.21: Circuit Breaker and Current Transformer Combination

2.7 Voltage Transformer (VT)

Voltage transformers are used to transform high voltages to values that can be unified or measured safely with low
internal losses. The primary winding is connected to the service voltage while the secondary winding voltage is identical
to the primary side in phase and ration except for the transformer error. Voltage transformers operate at no load.
Primary and secondary sides are nearly always electrically independent and insulated from one another as required by
the service voltage.

These transformers can be classified into two types, inductive and capacitive.

2.7.1 Electromagnetic/Inductive Voltage Transformers

Inductive or electromagnetic voltage transformers are characterised by low output of high accuracy. They are normally
applied at system voltages of up to and including 132kV. They are also used for voltage measurement on static var
compensators (SVC) connected at up to 400kV where high accuracy measurements are required.

Terminal

Hollow Post
Insulator t

Full
Insulation System
SYMBOL Voltage

Oil
Dielectric Secondary
Coils Proportional
t Primary
Coil Secondary
Tap V
Connection
Box t

Figure 5-2.22: Electromagnetic Voltage Transformer

2.7.2 Capacitive Voltage Transformers

Voltage transformers at higher system voltages up to Um of 800 kV that operate with the principle of the capacitive
divider can also be used. They also have the advantage of being usable for coupling high-frequency power-line carrier
systems for telecommunications, remote-control installations and similar purposes.

Considering a system frequency of 50 Hz, the impedance of a capacitor with a capacitance of 6500 pf is given as:

1
XC =
2.π.f.C
1
= -12
eq. 5-2.8
2.π.50.6500.1 0
≈ 490 kΩ

It is apparent that the impedance is too high to allow the signal from going through. Now consider a high frequency
carrier signal of 500 kHz:

1
XC = 3 -12
2.π.500.10 .6500.10 (from eq. 5-2.8)
≈ 49 Ω

The impedance is several orders of magnitude lower, allowing the carrier signal through, which is drained off and sent
via a co-axial cable to the carrier cabinet housed in the control building.

Terminal
SYMBOL
V

t
Hollow Post
Insulator
Major System Voltage
Capacitor
Voltage
Minor Capacitor Sensing and Carrier
Capacitor Signal Draining
Earth Device
V Connection

t Oil Dielectric Secondary Proportional

Coils
Secondary Tap V
Primary Coil
V Connection Box
t
t

t
Carrier
Figure 5-2.23: Capacitive Voltage Transformer

2.8 Line Trap (LT)

Apart from the 50 Hz power signal, high voltage transmission lines are also used for transmitting carrier signals between
30 kHz and 500 kHz for remote control, voice communication, remote metering and protection, and so forth, and are
often referred to as Power Line Carrier (PLC) systems. Line traps prevent transmission of these high frequency signals
to unwanted directions without loss of energy at power frequency. Line traps are series-connected to the transmission
lines, and are designed to withstand the rated power frequency current and the short-circuit current to which the lines
are subjected.

Line traps are a key component in power line carrier (PLC) systems used for remote control signals, voice
communication, remote metering and control between substations in the electrical transmission and distribution
networks.

Considering a system frequency of 50 Hz, the impedance of a line trap with an inductance of 0,2 mH is given as:

XL = 2.π.f.L
-3
= 2.π.50.0,2.10 eq. 5-2.9

≈ 63 mΩ

It is apparent that the impedance is very low and will therefore allow the signal passing through. Now consider a high
frequency carrier signal of 500 kHz:

3 -3
XL = 2.π.500.10 .0,2.10
(from eq. 5-2.9)
≈ 630 Ω

The impedance is several orders of magnitude higher, therefore not allowing the carrier signal through.

A line trap therefore acts as means for allowing a 50 Hz power frequency signal through, but blocking high frequency
carrier signals as illustrated in Figure 5-2.24. The tuning device which is located inside the line trap is for fine tuning to
obtain the best signal possible.

Terminal Carrier

High Frequency
Carrier Signal
Line Blocking
SYMBOL Matching Device
Unit 100-500kHz

Terminal Inductor (0,2-0,5 mH)

I
Solid Core
t Post Insulator
Stack

50Hz Frequency
Goes Through
Line Matching
Equipment

Figure 5-2.24: Line Trap

Figure 5-2.25: Line Trap Details Illustrating Tuning Device

a). Phase-to-Earth (Single Phase) Coupling

b). Phase-to-Phase (Two-Phase) Coupling

c). Phase-to-Phase (Two-Phase) Coupling

Figure 5-2.26: Line Trap Coupling Configurations

2.9 Line Trap and Capacitor Voltage Transformer Used in Combination

As discussed above, a line trap acts as means for allowing a 50 Hz power frequency signal through, but blocking high
frequency carrier signals, whilst a capacitor voltage transformer acts as a means for allowing high frequency carrier
signals through, but blocks 50 Hz power frequency signals through. The two devices are used in combination to filter off
the carrier signal as illustrated in Figure 2-5.27. Power lines are thus used as a means for communication between the
two substations.

Is
SYMBOL
t

Is
Icr

Icr

t
Is
Vs Carrier

t
Icr
System
t
Signal Filtering
Vcr Device
Carrier
t
Carrier

Figure 5-2.27: Line Trap and Capacitor Voltage Transformer Used in Combination

Capacitor voltage transformers are generally only employed at voltage levels of 220 kV and above. On lower voltage
level lines where power line carrier systems are employed, e.g. on international interconnections, it is common practice
to order a coupling capacitor which then also becomes the supporting insulator for the line trap. Voltage transformers
would only be installed if accurate metering is required and the busbar voltage transformers are not of the correct class.
These would be of the normal electromagnetic type.

2.10 Surge Arrester (SA)

Lightning or switching surges result in over-voltages in substations. If these over-voltages exceed the insulation level
(BIL) of the equipment, it could cause permanent damage to the equipment. Surge arresters provide the primary
protection against over-voltages caused by external sources (e.g. lightning) and by system disturbances (e.g. switching).
Surge arresters limit these over-voltages to a safe level (lower than the BIL of the equipment) and thus protect the
equipment. The maximum voltage that the arrester transmits further is called the arrester protection level. The
difference between the BIL of the equipment and protection level is the protective margin

V V

1,2 50 t (µs) 250 2500 t (µs)

Switching
Lightning

Figure 5-2.28: Fast Fronted Surge Voltages due to Lightning and Switching

Live Terminal V

Grading Ring
1,2 50

Hollow Post Insulator Lightning

Metal Oxide Stacked Block V

Material Non-linear Resistance
SYMBOL
Surge/Over-Voltage
Arresting Device 250 2500

Switching
Earth Terminal

Figure 5-2.29: Surge Arrester

3. THE COMPOSITION OF A SUBSTATION ELECTRICAL BAY

Having briefly discussed some of the major components that are employed in an equipment bay, and their particular
function, it is now time to discuss their positioning within the bay itself. An equipment bay is a grouping of discrete items
as discussed above to fulfil a certain overall function with elements of protection built in. With the equipment bay may be
configured to be a feeder bay, which means that it is connected to a line which in turn is connected to a feeder at
another substation. The appropriate type of protection system will be employed, viz. a line protection scheme (distance
protection). If it is an equipment bay to feed a transformer, it will be configured in a particular way so that an appropriate
transformer protection scheme (differential protection) can be employed. A bay configured for the installation of a shunt
capacitor bank will again be configured such that its particular type of protection scheme can operate successfully, so to
for a reactor bay and so on. These bays all have some common features that will be discovered as one progresses
through this chapter, with additional features that are peculiar to the application. Equipment bays that deviate a bit from
those mentioned above are busbar coupling and busbar sectioning bays. However, even they, as one will see, can be
easily understood when analysing their functioning.

The topic of Busbar Arrangements is discussed at length under SLDG 6. The chapter indicates that the starting point of
almost all bays would be the busbar, and in particular, the arrangement chosen. The busbar defines the electrical
conductor that connects all the circuits together in a substation. It allows the current from any connected circuit to flow to
any other circuit in accordance with system requirements, system configurations and impedances. The current flow

through the busbar cannot be directly controlled however the switching of equipment can change the current flow.
Different busbar configurations are used in different circumstances as discussed under SLDG 6.

3.1 A Feeder Bay With Double Busbars

3.1.1 Busbars

As described above, the starting point for developing an electrical bay is the busbar system, which in this case is a
double busbar system. These are normally labelled Busbar 1 (BB1) and Busbar 2 (BB2). Which of the busbars is
labelled Busbar 1 and Busbar 2 will become more apparent later in the text under paragraph 3.1.11.

BB 1 BB 2

Figure 5-2.30: Double Busbars

3.1.2 Busbar Isolators

The two busbar arrangement allows an equipment bay to be connected onto one or the other busbar, but not to both at
the same time under normal in service conditions. For this to be realised, one side of an isolator is connected directly to
a busbar, i.e. one isolator per busbar. This isolator is referred to as a busbar isolator, so there is Busbar 1 Isolator, and
Busbar 2 Isolator. The non-busbar sides of the isolators are connected to each other to form a common point. The
isolator is operated under no load conditions and is not designed to make or break load current.

BB 1 BB 2

Figure 5-2.31: Busbar Isolators Added

3.1.3 Circuit Breakers

Since isolators are operated under no load, a means for switching out a circuit by interrupting load or fault current needs
to be allowed for. The device that performs this function is called a circuit breaker and is specially designed for this
capability. It is placed next to the busbar isolators so as to keep the interconnection to the isolator common point to the
circuit breaker as short as possible, whilst still observing electrical clearances. The circuit breaker requires a signal
initiated by a means external to itself for the open or close operation.

BB 1 BB 2

Figure 5-2.32: Circuit Breaker Added

3.1.4 Current Transformers

The circuit breaker does not in itself have the ability to detect or distinguish between load and fault current and trip itself.
This function is performed by a current transformer. It is therefore desirable that the current transformer therefore by
necessity, needs to be as close to the circuit breaker as possible, and is therefore generally placed as the next device in
the bay. A small signal that is representative of the actual load current is measured, and through wiring sent back to the
control panel in the control building which then analyses the signal by comparing it to the settings. If it is determined that
the current measured is a fault current, the control panel will send a trip signal to the circuit breaker to open in the
manner discussed earlier.

BB 1 BB 2

Figure 5-2.33: Current Transformer Added

3.1.5 Voltage Transformer

The monitoring or measurement of bay circuit voltage may also be required for some special applications where busbar
voltage measurement is not suitable. This may include the metering of a large or international customer which requires
accurate readings for billing purposes. An accurate voltage signal is used with a current signal to determine the phase
angle between them in order to calculate the power factor (cosφ) as discussed in paragraph 1.1.3, hence the energy
consumption (MW), reactive power consumption (MVAR), and apparent power usage (MVA) can also be determined.
The voltage transformer may, but not necessarily, be next to the current transformer. If it were a capacitor voltage
transformer, as is employed on feeders at HV and higher voltage levels, then they need to be outboard (line side) of the
line trap as it has a dual function, i.e. voltage measurement and a connection to receive and transmit signals for the
teleprotection purposes.

BB 1 BB 2

Figure 5-2.34: Voltage Transformer Added

3.1.6 Line Isolator

Circuit breakers require maintenance from time to time and safe working conditions needs to be created to be able to
carry out maintenance activities. Two busbar isolators already exist on the busbar side of the circuit breaker. With the
circuit breaker in the open position and no current flowing, these isolators are both opened to isolate the CB from the
busbars. A third isolator is installed on the “line” side external to the current and voltage transformers as is the case here
to be able to isolate the bay equipment from apparatus external to it. This then allows total isolation of the circuit breaker
for safer working conditions.

BB 1 BB 2

Figure 5-2.35: Line Isolator Added

3.1.7 Earth-switches

While isolators offer a means to totally disconnect the common point from the busbar system, this does not guarantee
safe working conditions. Electrostatic and electromagnetic induction due to live circuits in close proximity to the circuit
breaker can produce dangerously high induced voltages. In addition, the circuit breaker cannot be relied on to remain
closed after isolation as spurious signals can cause the inadvertent opening of the breaker or the breaker may be
required to opened for testing. Therefore, applying an earth connection on one side of the breaker is not enough; it has
to be done on both sides. In fact, any section of conductor that can be isolated from the rest of the bay or busbar system
needs to have an earthing point. This will become clear later when bays are meshed together to make up an equipment
yard.

Where the busbar fault level is less than 20 kA, it is normal to employ portable earths to those areas to make it safe for
work. Where fault levels are 20 kA and greater, it is highly recommended that fixed earths be applied at these points,
either as stand alone units, or mounted directly onto isolators. It is also expedient to apply earth-switches on the “line”
side of the line isolator as well due to inadvertent closing of the breaker at the remote end and due to electrostatic and
electromagnetic induction of lines in close proximity.

BB 1 BB 2

Figure 5-2.36: Earth-switches Added

3.1.8 Line Trap

A line trap, being a large air-core inductor is placed outboard of the line isolator so as to prevent high frequency signals
from entering the busbar and so exit onto other lines. It is on the line side of the line isolator since it needs to be

operational even it the line is de-energised and earthed. The line earth-switch is placed behind the line trap so that the
carrier signal is not short circuited.

BB 1 BB 2

Figure 5-2.37: Line Trap Added

3.1.9 Coupling Capacitor

A means for filtering off the received and allowing the transmission of high frequency signals is required. As stated in the
previous paragraph, the line trap stops the signal from entering the busbar area (it blocks it), while a capacitor will allow
it through. A coupling capacitor is therefore placed on the line side of the line tap to filter the signal off.

BB 1 BB 2

Figure 5-2.38: Coupling Capacitor Added

At HV, EHV and UHV voltage levels, the VT and coupling capacitor are combined in the form of a capacitor voltage
transformer to fulfil both functions of voltage measurement and power line carrier.

BB 1 BB 2

Figure 5-2.39: Capacitor Voltage Transformer Added

3.1.10 Surge Arrester

A device is required to protect substation equipment from transient over-voltages that occur on lines due to lightning and
switching. The surge arrester is placed as the first device at the line entrance point to perform this function.

BB 1 BB 2

Figure 5-2.40: Surge Arrester Added

Surge arresters are also located close to power plant such as transformers and reactors, cables and bushings that are
sensitive to switching over-voltages and may result in solid insulation damage.

3.1.11 Feeder with Bypass Facilities

Radial lines are those that feed a substation which has no other in-feed into it. This means that if the circuit breaker at
either end of the line needs to be maintained, then the feeder illustrated in Figure 5-2.10 would have to be switched out,
and the station being supplied would be without power for the duration of the maintenance period. This would in most
cases not be acceptable and a means for keeping the remote end station alive would have to be found.

Keeping the remote end station energised could be done by building a second line between the two stations, however,
this is generally not a cost effective solution, so a means of bypassing the circuit breaker in a way so that the line
protection remains functional must be implemented. The line must still be selectable to the two busbars.

3.1.11.1 Busbar Side Circuit Breaker Isolator

The circuit breakers must be totally isolated and earthed on both sides, calling for an additional isolator to be placed on
the busbar side of the circuit breaker to separate it from the busbar isolators for the busbar side of the circuit breaker1.
An isolator mounted earth-switch is required as shown on Figure 5-2.4 and is therefore included on the breaker side of
the busbar side breaker isolator. The line side isolator with the required earth-switch is already in place to separate the
breaker from the line.
BB 1 BB 2

Figure 5-2.41: Busbar Side Circuit Breaker Isolator Added

3.1.11.2 Circuit Breaker Bypass Isolator

The next step is to bypass the circuit breaker with yet another isolator. No additional earth-switches are as they already
exist in the relevant positions as illustrated in Figure 5-2-42. The end result is a feeder bay that has double busbar
selection and bypass.

BB 1 BB 2

Figure 5-2.42: Circuit Breaker Bypass Isolator Added

3.1.11.3 Reposition the Bay Current Transformers

The associated feeder protection must be kept in service so that the current transformer cannot remain where it is
positioned in Figure 5-2-43. It needs to move “outboard” of the line and bypass isolators so that regardless of which
current path is selected, it remains in-circuit.

BB 2

Figure 5-2.43a): Current Transformer Repositioned

3.1.11.4 Repositioning the Line Side Earth-switch

A further modification of Figure 5-2-43a) is required since if the line side earth-switch remains on the busbar side of the
current transformer, and it is closed to earth the line, trapped line charge will flow through the current transformer to
earth. This will appear as a buszone fault and will activate the buszone protection scheme. All circuits attached to the
same zone as this feeder will be stripped from the busbar unnecessarily. To stop this from happening, the earth-switch
is placed on the line side of the current transformer so that the flow of trapped line charge to is not seen by the current
transformer.

BB 1 BB 2

Figure 5-2.43b): Line Earth-switch Repositioned

3.1.11.5 Double Busbar Selection with Bypass

The configuration of Figure 5-2.43b) can be even more to bypass even the busbar isolators and save on the busbar side
breaker isolator by connecting the bypass isolator to the Busbar 2 directly. The need for the busbar side breaker isolator
then falls away.

BB 1 BB 2

Figure 5-2.43c): Removal of the Busbar Side Breaker Isolator - Double Busbar Selection with Bypass

3.1.11.4 Single Busbar Selection with Bypass

It may be that double busbar selection with bypass is too elaborate for the station being fed, allowing a further
simplification to the bay layouts. In this case, single busbar selection with bypass will suffice and is a configuration that
has been popular at voltage levels of up to 275 kV. It is however far more common at the lower voltages from 132 kV
down.

BB 1 BB 2

Figure 5-2.43d): Removal of the Busbar 2 Isolator - Single Busbar Selection with Bypass

3.2 A Transformer Bay With Double Busbars

The transformer bay would, as with the feeder bay, be built up in like manner to the feeder starting with the two busbar
isolators, then the circuit breaker, followed by the current transformer. It may, but usually does not have a voltage
transformer for voltage measurement. The voltage signal is normally sourced from voltage transformers connected to
the busbar. A ‘line’ isolator is generally not included unless the power is sourced from, or being supplied to a client with
a bay in an adjacent yard, where isolation may be deemed necessary to ensure safety to maintenance staff. In this
case, an isolator on the owner’s side and one on the client’s side may be required for independent isolation of the two
sides (see Figure 5-2.46a) If this isolation requirement is considered necessary, then all of the earth switches would be
retained for the same reasons as above. Transformer differential protection is the protection of choice. Line traps would
not be required since teleprotection would not be applied, being inappropriate for this application. As discussed above,
the surge arrester is required to protect the transformer due to its sensitivity to transient overvoltages.

3.2.1 Free-standing Earth-switch

Earth-switches are applied when the busbar fault level is 20 kA or greater. When a ‘line isolator’ is not called for in the
transformer bay, a free standing 3 phase earthswitch would be installed if dictated by the fault level.

BB 1 BB 2

a). Transformer Bay with ‘Line’ Isolator

BB 1 BB 2

b) Transformer Bay with Free Standing Earthswitch

Figure 5-2.44: Transformer Bay with Free Standing Earthswitch

3.2.2 Power Transformer

Since the purpose of this equipment bay is to either transform the system voltage up for further power transmission, or
transform the system voltage down to a more appropriate voltage for clients, the bay equipment would be connected to
a power transformer of suitably rated capacity.

The transformer could be located either in the client’s yard, or in the yard of the owner supplying the power.

BB 1 BB 2 Own Client’s
Yard Yard

a). Transformer in Clients Yard

BB 1 BB 2

b). Transformer in Own Yard

Figure 5-2.45: Transformer Bay

The opposite side of the transformer would be connected to a bay virtually identical to the one just created, but with
equipment of higher or lower voltage depending on whether the voltage was transformed up or down respectively.
Again, a voltage transformer, a ‘line’ isolator and earthswitches would be employed under the conditions already
discussed above.

BB 1 BB 2 Own Client’s BB 2 BB 1
Yard Yard

a). One Transformer Bay in Own Yard and other in Client’s Yard

BB 1 BB 2 BB 2 BB 1

b). Both Transformer Bays in Own Yards

Figure 5-2.46: Position of Transformer Bays

3.2.3 A Shunt Capacitor Bay With Double Busbars

The shunt capacitor bay would, as with the transformer bay, be built up in like manner starting with the two busbar
isolators, then the circuit breaker, followed by the current transformer. Depending on the configuration of the capacitor
bank and type of protection, the bay may or may not have a voltage transformer for voltage measurement. The voltage
signal is sometimes sourced from voltage transformers connected to the busbar. A ‘line’ isolator is generally not
included. Not the all of the earthswitches would therefore be retained, only one on either side of the circuit breaker for
the same reasons as above. Surge arresters are not necessarily a requirement, but may be called for under certain
conditions.

BB 1 BB 2

Figure 5-2.47: Shunt Capacitor Bank Bay with Double Busbar Selection

3.2.4 A Shunt Reactor Bay With Double Busbars

The shunt reactor bay would, as with the transformer bay, be built up in like manner starting with the two busbar
isolators, then the circuit breaker, followed by the current transformer for fault current detection. As before, the bay may
or may not have a voltage transformer for voltage measurement. As with the shunt capacitor, the voltage signal is

sometimes sourced from voltage transformers connected to the busbar. All of the earth-switches as shown in the
capacitor bank bay would be retained for the shunt reactor. Surge arresters are a definite requirement, for protection
against switching transient over-voltages.

BB 1 BB 2

Figure 5-2.48: Shunt Reactor Bay with Double Busbar Selection (Busbar Reactor)

3.2.5 A Bus Coupler Bay

A busbar coupling bay is a bay that electrically ties two separate busbars together, whilst offering a means for automatic
separation them if a fault occurs on one of them. As with all the previous bays, it is built up by starting with the two
busbar isolators, this time not directly connected to each other, then the circuit breaker, followed by the current
transformer for fault current detection. Depending on the protection philosophy applied, a second current transformer
can be included, one either side of the circuit breaker. This is normally a requirement at power stations where the
buszone protection schemes need to clear a fault in the shortest possible time. The bay usually does not have a voltage
transformer directly associated with it. The voltage signal is normally sourced from voltage transformers connected to
the busbar. The circuit breaker side isolator mounted earthswitches would be retained. In addition, busbar side, isolator
mounted earth switches may be required for earthing the busbars for busbar maintenance purposes. Surge arresters
are normally not a requirement.

BB 1 BB 2

a). Application at all other Substations

BB 1 BB 2

b). Application at Power Station High Voltage Yards

Figure 5-2.49: Bus Coupler

3.2.6 A Bus Section Bay

A busbar sectioning bay is a bay that electrically ties two sections of the same busbar together, whilst offering a means
to automatically separate them if a fault occurs on one of the sections. As with the bus coupling bay, it is built up by
starting with the two busbar isolators, also not directly connected to each other, then the circuit breaker, followed by the
current transformer. The configuration is virtually the same as that of a Bus Coupler except that the bay is arranged in
line with the associated busbar. As with bus couplers, depending on the protection philosophy applied, a second current
transformer is included, one either side of the circuit breaker. Again, this is normally a requirement at power stations
where the buszone protection schemes need to clear a fault in the shortest possible time. The bay may or may not have
a voltage transformer associated with it. These are referred to as busbar voltage transformers. The circuit breaker side
isolator mounted earthswitches would be retained. Busbar side, isolator mounted earth switches would be required for
earthing the busbars for busbar maintenance purposes if they have not been included in the Bus Coupler. Surge
arresters are normally not a requirement.

BB 1A BB 1B

a). Application at all Substations with Busbar Voltage Transformers

BB 1A BB 1B

b). Application at Power Station High Voltage Yards with Busbar Voltage Transformers

Figure 5-2.50: Bus Section

3.2.7 Developing a Complete Equipment Yard

Having developed the equipment bays that form the basic building blocks of an equipment yard, one can now start
putting them together to arrive at a first draft of a functional substation yard. Once the first draft has been developed, an
optimisation exercise may be needed to see what improvements can be made to the busbar configuration.

The requirements for the substation would be provided by the planning engineers once their system studies have been
completed and have received confirmation from the client that what is being offered is acceptable.

Suppose the requirements for the higher voltage equipment yard comprises two feeders, one feeding in and one feeding
out, a single transformer to start with, with a second transformer to be installed soon after, and then possibly a third
transformer and a third feeder some time after that. The arrangement developed must accommodate all the relevant
bays together with the required busbar coupling and busbar sectioning bays. Figure 5-2.51 provides a layout that is
practical from a protection point of view.

Once the single line for the higher voltage side has been developed, the lower voltage side can be developed using the
higher voltage side as a starting point. Now suppose the lower voltage side has a single feeder to start with, with two

more feeders later once the second transformer is installed, and another feeder when the third transformer is installed.
A capacitor bank is to be installed during the first stage of the substation establishment. Figure 5-2.52 provides a layout
that will accommodate these requirements.

Feeder 1 Feeder 2 Feeder 3

(Future)

Busbar 2

Busbar 1A Busbar 1B

Bus Section 1
(Future)

Bus Coupler A Bus Coupler B

(Future)

Transformer 1 Transformer 2 Transformer 3

(Future) (Future)

Figure 5-2.51: Single Line Diagram of an Equipment Yard comprising a number of Equipment Bays

Feeder 1 Feeder 2 Feeder 3

(Future)

HV YARD
Higher System Voltage

Busbar 2

Busbar Busbar
1A 1B

Bus Section 1
(Future)

Bus Coupler A Bus Coupler B

(Future)
Transformer 1 Transformer 2 Transformer 3
(Future) Bus Coupler B
Bus Coupler A (Future) (Future)

Bus Section 1
(Future)
Busbar Busbar
1A 1B

Busbar 2

MV YARD
Lower System Voltage
Shunt
Fdr 1 Capacitor Fdr 4 Fdr 5
(Fut) Fdr 2 Fdr 3 Bank 1 (Fut) (Fut)

Figure 5-2.52: Single Line Diagram of Two Equipment Yards of Differing System Voltage

SLDG 6-1

PROTECTION SCHEMES

1.1 Purpose of Protective Relays

Protective relays are used to detect defective lines or apparatus, and to initiate the operation of circuit-interrupting
devices to isolate the defective equipment. Relays are also used to detect abnormal or undesirable operating conditions
other than those caused by defective equipment and either operates an alarm or initiate operation of circuit-interrupting
devices. Protective relays protect the electrical system by causing the defective apparatus or lines to be disconnected to
minimize damage and maintain service continuity to the rest of the system.

1.2 Design Objectives

The design objectives of protective relaying are to minimize the effects of a system disturbance and to minimize the
possible damage to power system equipment. A good protective relaying system will address dependability, security,
speed, and simplicity.

1.3 Dependability

Dependability is the certainty of correct operation in response to system troubles. It includes the reliable operation of the
relay system operating when it is supposed to and selectivity of the relay system operating to isolate the minimum
amount of the system necessary to provide continuity of service.

1.4 Security

Security is the ability to avoid mal-operations between faults. Every relay system needs to be designed to either operate
or not operate selectively with other systems.

1.5 Speed

Speed means clearing all faults in the shortest possible time with all due regard to dependability and security.

1.6 Simplicity

A relaying system should be no more complex than is required for any given possibility of equipment failure and mal-
operation.

1.7 Indications of Defective Equipment or Abnormal Conditions

1.7.1 Short-Circuits

A short-circuit is an abnormal connection of relatively low resistance between two or more points of differing potential in
a circuit. If any of these points is at earth (ground) potential, it is referred to as an “earth (or ground) fault”. If earth
potential is not involved, it is referred to as a “phase fault”. Phase faults cause excessive currents and low voltages.
Earth faults may or may not cause excessive currents or abnormal voltages, depending on whether the system is
normally unearthed, high- or low- resistance or impedance earthed, or effectively earthed.

1.7.2 Excessive Heating

Equipment is designed to deliver full-rated capacity with the temperature maintained below a value that will not be
damaging to the equipment. If operating temperature becomes excessive, the life of the equipment (generator, motor,
transformer, etc.) will be reduced. Excessive heating may be caused by overloading, high ambient temperatures,
improper cooling, or failure of cooling equipment.

1.7.3 Overvoltage

Equipment is designed for normal operating voltages as stated on its nameplate with a slight allowance (usually about 5
percent) for normal overvoltage. Abnormal overvoltage may cause:-

a). Insulation failure

b). Shortening of the equipment life

c). Excessive heating as a result of greatly increased excitation currents where electromagnetic devices are used

d). Excessive heating in resistors used in controls

e). Failure of transistors and other electronic devices

1.7.4 Under-voltage

Continuous under-voltage will likely cause overheating of motors and dropping out of contactors, and lead to the failure
of electrical equipment.

1.7.5 Unbalanced Phase Conditions

On balanced three-phase systems with balanced three-phase loads, a sudden unbalance in the current or the voltage
usually indicates an open or partially short-circuited phase. An unbalance voltage condition is especially serious for
three-phase motors because negative sequence currents can lead to considerable overheating within the motor. On
balanced three-phase systems with single-phase loads, the loading on each phase may normally vary, depending on
the magnitude of each single-phase load. However, it is desirable to keep this unbalance to a minimum to maintain
balanced voltages for three-phase loads. Unbalanced conditions, which include single-phase and double-phase faults
with or without earth, can be detected with the use of negative and zero sequence relay elements.

1.7.6 Reversed Phase Rotation

Reversed phase rotation can occur after circuit changes have been made or during an open phase condition. Reversed
rotation of motors may cause considerable damage to the facility driven by motors, such as a conveyor.

1.7.7 Abnormal Frequency

Abnormal frequencies can occur when the load does not equal the generation. The frequency may be above or below
the system normal frequency. Frequency is normally below system frequency when load exceeds generation, while it is
normally above the system frequency when load is less than generation. Many facilities such as electric clocks,
synchronous motors, etc., are frequency sensitive.

1.7.8 Over-speed

Considerable mechanical damage can be done to generators and motors because of over-speed. Excessive over-speed
may cause parts of the generator or motor to be thrown for considerable distances, which is dangerous to personnel as
well as other facilities. Generators and series connected motors may reach dangerous over-speeds when loads are
suddenly removed.

1.7.9 Abnormal Pressure

In electrical equipment, such as transformers or reactors, that use liquid as an insulating fluid (transformer oil), high
internal pressures can be created during internal faults.

1.7.10 Abnormal Impedance

Electrical equipment has impedance associated with it that either has definite values or values that may vary within a
known range during known varying operating conditions. These values are normally determined during the manufacture
and installation of equipment. Substantial deviations in the impedance of the equipment can indicate a failure of the
equipment.

1.7.11 Out-of-Step Conditions

Electrical power systems in many countries in Europe, Africa and Australasia operate at a frequency of 50Hz, while
those in North America operate at 60Hz. All generators and rotating equipment on the applicable systems rotate at an
rpm to maintain the given frequency. As such, each machine on the electrical system maintains a relative position, or
phase angle, with respect to every other machine on the system. Once a machine exceeds a critical phase angle, it can
no longer stay in phase with the system. It is said to have moved out of step with the system, and has to be removed
from the system and re-synchronized to the system in order to establish operation. Out-of-step conditions are typically
monitored through the use of impedance relays and set to trip or block the trip of circuit breakers in order to segment the
system at predetermined locations based on system stability studies.

1.7.12 Excessive System Phase Angles (Synchronism Check)

The closing of a circuit breaker on a system connects the electrical systems on either side of the circuit breaker. The
closing of the breaker will cause any differences in voltage and phase angle across the breaker to be reduced to zero,
causing current flow from one system to the other to equalize the system voltages, currents, and phase angles. If the
voltages and phase angles across the breaker are too much, excessive currents can flow, resulting in a disturbance to
the system, possibly damaging the breaker or adjacent rotating equipment. Typically, the voltage and phase angle
across the breaker are compared to confirm the systems are within proper limits before the breaker is closed.

1. FUNDAMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS

2.1 Phasors

A phasor is a complex number used to represent electrical quantities. In protective relaying systems, phasors are used
to aid in applying the connecting relay and for analysis of relay operation after faults. Phasor diagrams have to be
accompanied by a circuit diagram. The phasor diagram shows the magnitude and relative phase angle of the currents
and voltages, while the circuit diagram shows the location, direction, and polarity of the currents and voltages.

2.2 Polarity

The relative polarities of a current transformer’s primary and secondary terminals are identified either by painted polarity
marks or by the symbols “P1” and “P2” or “H1” and “H2” for the primary terminals, and “X1” and “X2” for the secondary
terminals.

The convention is that if current enters “P1” (“H1”) terminal, secondary current leaves the “X1” terminals, or when
current enters “P2” (“H2”) terminal, secondary current leaves the “X2” terminal. Normally when paint is used, the
terminals corresponding to “P1” (“H1”) and “X1” are identified. Since ac current is continually reversing its direction, one
might well ask what the significance of polarity markings is. Its significance is in showing the direction of current flow
relative to another circuit or to a voltage, as well as to aid in making proper connections. The polarity marks for a voltage
(potential) transformer have the same significance as for a current transformer.

2.3 Faults

A system fault (short circuit) is a condition in which the electric current follows an abnormal path as a result of the failure
or removal of the insulation that normally confines the electric current to the conductors. Insulation is usually either air or
high-resistive material that may also be used as a mechanical support. Air insulation can be accidentally short-circuited
by birds, rodents, snakes, kite strings, tree branches,; broken down by over-voltages due to lightning; or weakened by
ionisation due to a fire or smoke. Organic insulation can deteriorate because of heat or aging or can be broken down by
overvoltage due to lightning, switching surges, or faults at other locations. Porcelain insulators can be bridged by
moisture with dirt or salt, or can develop a crack as a result of mechanical forces.

2.4 Symmetrical Components

Symmetrical components are the foundation for obtaining and understanding fault data on three-phase power systems.
Today, fault studies are commonly made with digital computers. System changes can be accurately modelled and
incorporated into the database. Knowledge of symmetrical components is important both in making a study and in
understanding the data obtained from the computer. It is also extremely valuable in analysing faults and relay
operations. A number of protective relays are based on symmetrical components. Symmetrical components are one of
the most powerful technical tools used by a protection engineer. The practical value lies in the ability to think and
visualise in symmetrical components.

2.5 Relay Input Sources

Instrument transformers are the primary sources in providing relays with currents and voltages that are proportional to
voltage and current flowing in the primary circuit. Voltage signals are obtained from voltage transformers (VTs), and
current signals from current transformers (CTs). Instrument transformers and their applications are described in SLDG
28.

2. BASIC RELAY TYPES

3.1 General

Protective relays consist of three basic modules:-

• Input Sources

• An input module

• A decision module

• An output module

The modules are each constructed of components that will vary depending on the type of construction of the relay:
electromechanical, static, or microprocessor. See Figure 6-1.1.

System Control/
Input Decision Output
Control Information
Module Module Module
Inputs Systems

Figure 6-1.1: Logical Representation of Protective Relays

Relays are also classified according to the function they provide to the system. The five most common functions are:

• Protection

• Regulation

• Reclosing and synchronizing

• Monitoring

• Auxiliary

The primary emphasis of this discussion is protection. Other functions are included as applicable.

Each of the basic relay modules operates to perform tasks as follows:

3.1.1 Input Module

The principal function of the input module is to receive the inputs from the electrical system to the relay, generally in the
form of currents, voltages, and status input contacts. It acts as the interface between the relay decision module and the
electric power system, protecting the sensitive decision module from the harsh environment of the electric power
system. The electrical system input section typically consists of transformers, transducers, zener diodes, and other
equipment to provide a signal, proportional to the inputs, to the decision module. The input equipment will condition the
input signals to be in a format required by the decision module. Conditioning may be converting the voltage, contact, or
current inputs into voltages and currents suitable to electronic equipment. It may also include the conversion of the
signals from analog values to digital values. The input section will also typically contain equipment that will provide
protection for the relay to withstand the surges, transients, and oscillations that may be present in the substation
environment.

An additional task of the input section of the relay is to provide for the input and storage of the relay settings. For
electromechanical and static relays, this is most often the setting of various taps, dials (which are normally preset

tension on a spring), and selector switches on the face of the relay. For microprocessor relays, the input section often
includes a series of push buttons that will allow the input of relay settings or the input of requests for the relay to display
settings or data processed by the relay. The relay settings will be stored for use by the relay in providing its protective
functions.

Microprocessor relays often include a number of additional inputs to the relay. Included in these inputs are the power
supply; clock signals to provide sequence of events (SOE) timing, communication ports to provide direct computer,
SCADA, or other data inputs; and front panel push buttons to set the relay or scroll through metering functions.
Microprocessor relays are often provided with multiple relay setting groups that will allow for changes in the electric
power system configuration. The change from one settings group to another can usually be keyed locally by an external
contact in the substation control scheme or remotely via SCADA. It should be noted that there is an inherent danger of
inadvertently changing a relay setting or setting group with this type of microprocessor relay.

The protection engineer has to be aware of the electrical system inputs that are available for use in determining the
failure of the electric power system or its components. Knowledge of the electric power system and how the system
responds to various failures is invaluable in making decisions as to the types of relays that are used to protect it.

3.1.2 Decision Module

This module monitors the input data included in the relay settings input to the relay and the system data, including
currents, voltages, status contacts, and control signals that were input to the relay. The module will evaluate the system
data in comparison to the relay settings. When the system data exceed the threshold determined by the relay settings,
this module will signal the output module to function and record the results. The quantities to which the relay responds
usually designate the relay type.

For electromechanical relays, the decision often consists of disks that work by induction, plungers, or solenoids; levers
that will work on a balance beam principle; units that work on the basis of thermal characteristics; or D’Arsonval units
that consist of a combination of fixed magnetic and electromagnetic elements. Each of the units is configured with a
contact that either makes (closes) or breaks (opens) upon the operation of the device. The recording of the action is
usually accomplished by the dropping of a target to indicate the relay operation. The module compares the input relay
settings to the input settings through the inherent magnetic or thermal action of the relay to overcome the spring
tensions and inertia associated with the relay settings. Relays may operate in the following ways:

• Instantaneously

• With some definite time delay

• With a time delay that varies with the magnitude of the quantities to which the detecting element responds

Static relays replace the electromechanical components with solid-state components and make the comparisons by
electronic means. Static or solid-state detecting elements generally convert the current, voltage, or power inputs to
proportional dc millivolt signals that are then applied to adjustable transistor amplifiers. These amplifiers have a “go-no
go” characteristic that causes an input signal up to the set level to produce no output and input signals beyond that level
that level to produce full output. The output may be another dc millivolt signal applied to further transistor logic or to
contact closure. Indication of the operation of the relay is usually accomplished by dropping of a target to indicate the
relay operation.

Microprocessor relays replace the decision module with a small digital computing unit that utilizes sampled input data
and digitized setting parameters. Comparisons are made digitally by the computer performing a calculation or series of

calculations, comparing the relay setting information to the periodic samples obtained from the electric power system.
When the threshold values are exceeded, the module activates the output module. Most relays will also store a number
of metering values, the status of input devices, intermediate logic elements, and other information available to the relay
in output storage devices, intermediate logic elements, and other information available to the relay in output storage
registers. The information is then available for retrieval either locally at the substation or remotely through
communications that are often provided to the relay.

3.1.3 Output Module

This module provides an output from the decision module to the control system in order to operate electric power
system equipment and isolate faulty system components.

For electromechanical relays, this system typically consists of output contacts or auxiliary relays with multiple contacts.
The contacts act as the interface between the relay and the electric power control system. These contacts are then used
to trip circuit breakers, provide alarms, trip other relays such as lockout relays and send signals via communications to
remote equipment or personnel, or other functions. The contacts will carry specific ratings for the voltages and currents
they will successfully carry or break.

Static relays provide the option for outputs to be either auxiliary reed (magnetically activated) relays and their associated
contacts or solid-state-controlled thyristors. Electronically controlled thyristors are usually faster than their relay
counterparts. Triggering circuitry may include opto-isolators to provide isolation between the relay and the harsh
environment of the electric control system.

Microprocessor relays will use either reed relays or solid-state-controlled thyristors for output elements. Usage will vary
between manufacturers and may be optional to the user. In addition to the standard relay outputs, microprocessor
relays may include a number of additional output contacts that may be programmed for the user’s requirements. One of
the output contacts is normally designed as the relay alarm contact. Most relays include a number of output storage
registers where the relay stores a number of metering values, the status of the input devices, intermediate logic
elements, and other information available to the relay. The information is then available for retrieval either locally at the
substation or remotely through communications that are often provided to the relay. Most microprocessor relays include
communication capabilities that allow to transmit data in digital format to computers, SCADA systems, or local systems.

Many microprocessor relays also include a display unit as a part of the output. This display unit is typically used to
display metering values of the input that are brought to the relay or metering information that is calculated in the relay.
The display may also show other functions of the relay, such as the internal variables, flags, and input parameters. This
display typically provides a means of getting information out of the relay without the requirement to connect a computer
to one of the output ports.

3.2 Relay Selection

The type of relay selected for an application is of primary importance. Knowledge of the existing system needs to be
coupled with additional studies in order to determine the types of failures that each component of the electrical system
can experience and the characteristics of the failure. The electrical system inputs that will be available to the relay and
the speed with which the relay has to operate to maintain electrical system stability has to be known. With this
information, appropriate relays can be selected that will measure the identified characteristics of the electrical power
system component with the previously established relay and operate dependably and security in protecting the electrical
system. Some of the following factors need to be considered.

3.2.1 Electromechanical relays are the oldest and have the most history associated with them. They provide discrete
protection functions within each case. Relay settings are usually straightforward and well documented in most
instruction books. A relatively good knowledge of magnitudes of electrical signals that will be applied to the
relay is necessary in order to obtain the proper range of settings for each application.

3.2.2 Static relays generally provide discrete functions similar to electromechanical relays. Since the operation of the
relay depends only on threshold values being met, these relays are generally faster than their
electromechanical counterparts. Static relays often come in cases similar to their electromechanical
counterparts, making replacement relatively simple. They are also available in “packages” or “schemes” that
include all the protective functions for the line in a single rack or panel.

3.2.3 Microprocessor relays often can accommodate more complex system operation because of the inputs provided
to the relay and the programming features included with the relay. In many cases, numerous functions are
provided in the relay so that the number of discrete relays required for protection may be reduced substantially.
In many cases, additional functions may be provided to protect a system from abnormal conditions that might
not otherwise be considered based on the low occurrence of such conditions or because of other
considerations.

3.2.4 Microprocessor relays often provide many more options for providing protection than either electromechanical
or static relay counterparts. Once the inputs to the relay are obtained, the decision module can then be
programmed to provide many protective functions with these inputs. This information can also be used to
implement the transmittal of data remotely through SCADA or other data retrieval means. In terms of the
number of functions, the microprocessor relay will often provide more protective functions per unit cost.

Some of these relays may be slightly slower to operate than some of the electromechanical or static relays that
are available, operating in the range of 1,5 to 2 cycles, while other may operate in less than 1 cycle.

Microprocessor relays usually include internal self-checking functions for the majority of their functions. It is
necessary to be aware of the functions and features that may not be covered by an alarm, such as capacity of
the output relays to function.

3.2.5 In new installations, the use of microprocessor relays may result in reduced cost since fewer relays are
required. Generally, less floor space is needed so smaller control buildings are needed for the equipment. This
may result in reduced auxiliary power system requirements. The interconnection wiring in a panel is also
reduced since many of the protective functions are included in one relay enclosure.

3.2.6 For simple systems, control system design may be equally simple with electromechanical, static, and
microprocessor relays. If the complexity of the power system requires many specific functions of protection, the
microprocessor relays provide simpler installation.

3.2.7 Consider the effects of the protective relay system on the personnel who will operate and maintain the
equipment. If new devices are being proposed, special training may be required for them to operate and
maintain the equipment. Additional equipment may be necessary for relay testing, such as computers to
connect locally to the microprocessor relays.

3.2.8 Consider the lifetime of the installation the relays are being applied in. Will spare parts be available for the
devices? Will the manufacturer have personnel available to answer questions on the relays in future?

2.8.9 Be aware that the complexity of the relay will increase the complexity of the settings. A simple
electromechanical over-current relay has basically two settings: a tap setting for the pickup of the relay and the
time dial to determine the time delay until trip, if any. A feeder with four over-current relays will thus have eight
settings, with a set of common phase settings. By comparison, a microprocessor relay may have up to 10 or
more pages of relay settings. A small part of these settings will actually involve the protective functions of the
relay; however, the applicability of the function need to be studied to determine whether or not to use them. In
general, if the function is not required, it should be disabled in the relay to avoid over-complicating the
protection scheme.

3.2.10 Personal preference regarding the protective schemes and equipment used can play an important part in the
decision making process. Design and application of protective relaying schemes is an art that uses science to
make it work. In most cases, many relays and protective schemes can be used to protect a line or piece of
equipment. What is used depends on the skill of the designer and preferences of those who will be operating
and maintaining it.

3.2.11 Substation automation combines many functions, such as relaying, metering, and data acquisition. Designers
should be aware of the benefits and traps included in implementing relays in a substation automation project.

Substation automation provides many more options controlling equipment. There are some cases where firms
use programmable logic controllers to perform protective relay functions. These cases are either very simple,
such as providing a timing function, or very complex, providing logic to control switching or testing of a three-
terminal line. In the majority of cases, relays that provide the relay functions should be used and not introduce
automation equipment into the relay functions. It is recommended the relays be used what they are designed to
do, provide system functions, and use automation equipment to provide additional operating features or
metering functions.

3.2.12 The communication relaying functions being used on a system, device function numbers and contact
designations have been developed to identify devices in protective schemes. Appendices F and G to this
chapter list the function numbers and contact designations summarised.

3.3 Over-current Relay

The over-current relay responds to a magnitude of current above the specified value. There are four basic types of
construction: plunger, rotating disc, static, and microprocessor. In the plunger type, a plunger is moved by a magnetic
attraction when the current exceeds a specified value. In the rotating disc induction-type, which is a motor, the disc
rotates by electromagnetic induction when the current exceeds a specified value. Static types convert the current to a
proportional dc millivolt signal and apply it to a level detector with voltage or contact output. Such relays can be
designed to have various current-verses-time operation characteristics. In a special type of rotating induction-disc relay,
called the voltage restrained over-current relay, the magnitude of voltage restrains the operation of the disc until the
magnitude of the voltage drops below a threshold value. Static over-current relays are equipped with multiple curve
characteristics and can duplicate almost any shape of electromechanical relay curve. Microprocessor relays convert the
current to a digital signal. The digital signal can then be compared to the setting values input into the relay. With the
microprocessor relay, various curves or multiple time-current settings can be input to set the relay operation. Some
relays allow the user to define the curve with points or calculations to determine the output characteristics.

The protective characteristic of the over-current relay, in terms of the impedance diagram, is a circle assuming a
constant voltage, with the relay located at the origin of the R-X coordinate diagram as shown in Figure 12.2. The relay
operates on the simple magnitude of current passing through it according to the settings applied to the relay.

The over-current relay may be the simplest relay in concept to use. When the current exceeds the setting value, it
causes a trip. Complications in applying the relay may occur when the system does not provide adequate differentiation
between current values, such as between short lines with high fault current duties. When a number of over-current
relays are used sequentially in a circuit, the trip delay times may become excessive.

Note: Voltage Assumed Constant

Figure 6-1.2: Over-current Protective Characteristic

3.4 Distance Relay

The distance relay responds to a combination of voltage and current. The voltage restrains operation, and fault current
causes operation that has the overall effect of measuring impedance. The relay operates instantaneously (within a few
cycles) on a 50Hz or 60Hz basis for values of impedance below the set value. When time delay is required, the relay
energizes a separate time-delay relay or function with the contacts or output of this time-delay or function performing the
desired output functions.

The protective characteristics of the distance relay, in terms of the impedance diagram, is a circle with the relay located
at the origin of the R-X coordinate diagram as illustrated in Figure 6-1.3. The relay operates on the magnitude of
impedance measured by the combination of restraint voltage and the operating current passing through it according to
the settings applied to the relay. When the impedance is such that the impedance point is within the impedance
characteristic circle, the relay will trip. The relay is inherently directional. The line impedance typically corresponds to the
diameter of the circle with the reach of the relay being the diameter of the circle.

Since the relay responds directly to the value of impedance represented by the fault current and voltage applied to the
relay, it will discriminate more correctly between the location of faults since the electric power system also may be
represented by its impedance. The distance relay may be used more successfully on an electric power system when the
magnitudes of fault current do not provide adequate location differentiation to be able to accurately trip specific breakers
and isolate a fault.

Figure 6-1.3: Distance Protective Characteristic

The distance element in a relay may be used when a component of the electric power system, such as a transmission
line, has defined impedance characteristics. Several distance elements are often used, with the circles passing through
the origin of the R-X diagram, to provide several zones of protection for the system component. Additional zones of
protection will be used with timers to provide direct protection or without timers and used in pilot protection schemes
requiring communications from all remote terminals of the transmission line. Distance elements may be used for out-of-
step protection with the first zone impedance characteristic passing through the R-X impedance coordinate diagram
origin and the remaining zones concentric around the first zone.

3.5 Differential Relay

The differential relay is a current-operated relay that responds to the difference between two or more currents above the
set value. The relay works on the basis of the differential principle that what goes into the device has to come out. This
is illustrated in Figure 6-1.4. If the current does not add to zero, the “error” (fault) current flows to cause the relay to
operate and trip the protective device.

The differential relay is used to provide internal fault protection to equipment such as transformers, generators, and
busbars. Relays are designed to permit differences in output currents as a result of current transformer mismatch and
applications where the input currents come from different system voltages, such as transformers. A current differential
relay provides restraint coils on the incoming current circuits. The restraint coils in combination with the operating coil
provide an operation curve, above which the relay will operate. Some of the relays for specific equipment, such as
transformers, use additional restraint proportional to the harmonics sensed in the incoming currents. Setting levels are
based on the characteristics of the protected equipment.

6 6
Protected
Device

6
3

8
2
87 Relay
2 6 D

Note: For Simplicity of Illustration, the CTs are Indicated with a 1:1 Ratio
and Equal Currents in the Primary and Secondary of the CTs

Figure 6-1.4: Differential Relay Principle

Differential relays are often used with a lockout relay to trip all power sources to the device and prevent the device from
being automatically or remotely re-energized. The relays are very sensitive. The operation of the device usually means
major problems with the protected equipment and the likely failure in re-energizing the equipment.

3.6 Over-voltage Relay

The overvoltage relay responds to a magnitude of voltage above a specified value. As noted, the basic types of
construction include plunger, rotating induction-disc, static, and microprocessor relays, all of which are discussed in
Section 3.3.

3.7 Under-voltage Relay

The under-voltage relay responds to a magnitude of voltage below a specified value and has the basic construction as
the overvoltage relays.

3.8 Power Relay

The power relay responds to the product of the magnitude of voltage, current, and cosine of the phase angle between
the voltage and current, and is set to operate above a specified value. The basic construction includes rotating
induction-disc, static, or microprocessor relay. The relay is inherently directional since normally open contacts close for
power flow in one direction above a set value but remain open for power flow of any amount in the opposite direction.

3.9 Directional Over-current Relay

A directional over-current relay operates only for excessive current flow in a given direction. They are available in
electromechanical, static, and microprocessor constructions.

3.9.1 An electromechanical over-current relay is made directional by adding a directional unit that prevents the over-
current relay from operating until the directional unit has operated. The directional unit responds to the product of
the magnitude of current, voltage, and the phase angle between them, or to the product of two currents and the
phase angle between them. The value of this product necessary to provide operation of the directional unit is
small, so that it will not limit the sensitivity of the relay (such as an over-current relay that it controls). In most
cases, the directional element is mounted inside the same case as the relay it controls. For example, the over-
current relay and a directional element are mounted in the same case, and the combination is called a directional
over-current relay.

3.9.2 Microprocessor relays often provide a choice as to the polarizing method that can be used in providing the
direction of fault, such as applying residual current or voltage or negative sequence current or voltage polarizing
functions to the relay.

3.10 Frequency Relay

A frequency relay responds to frequencies above or below a specified value. The basic types are electromechanical
relays with a vibrating reed or rotating induction-disc with a frequency-sensitive circuit, static relays, and microprocessor
relays.

3.11 Thermal Relay

A thermal relay responds to a temperature above a specified value. There are two basic types: direct and replica.

3.11.1 Direct

In the direct type of thermal relay, a device such as a thermocouple is embedded in the equipment. This device converts
temperature to an electrical quantity such as voltage, current, or resistance. The electrical quantity then causes a
detecting element to operate.

3.11.2 Replica

In the replica type of thermal relay, a current proportional to the current supplied to the equipment flows through an
element, such as a bimetallic strip, that has a thermal characteristic similar to the equipment. When the equipment is
heated by the flow of current, one of the bimetallic strips expands more than the other, causing the bimetallic strip to
bend and close a set of contacts.

3.12 Pressure Relay

The pressure relay responds to sudden changes of either fluid or gas pressure. It consists of a pressure sensitive
element and a bypass orifice located between the equipment to which the relay is connected and a chamber that is part
of the relay. During slow pressure changes, the bypass orifice maintains the pressure in the chamber to the same value
as in the equipment. During sudden pressure changes, the orifice is not capable of maintaining the pressure in the
chamber at the same value as in the equipment, and the pressure-sensitive element mechanically operates a set of
contacts.

3.13 Auxiliary Relay

Auxiliary relays perform such functions as time delay, counting, and providing additional contacts upon receiving a
signal from the initiating relay. These relays are necessary to provide the broad variety of schemes required by a power
system.

3. RELAY SCHEMES

4.1 General

Protective relays are most often applied with other protective and auxiliary relays as a system rather than individually.
The following basic scheme descriptions apply to electromechanical, static, and microprocessor relay systems.

The static and microprocessor relay systems generally have more elaborate logic involved in the tripping decision,
particularly in the area of transient blocking during external fault clearing. Static systems require more careful treatment
of input circuits, i.e., CT and VT leads are often shielded. Static systems are slightly faster require less maintenance and
considerable more costly than electromechanical systems.

Microprocessor relays are very versatile and often can perform many functions at a lower cost than other methods. In
addition to basic relaying they may do fault locating, fault data recording, self-testing, and metering. Since
microprocessor relays tend to have protective functions available in a relay case, it often allows the designer to provide
additional protection that would not have been considered. Microprocessor relay systems tend to have fewer devices
since they contain more functions in one case. This will tend to reduce the cost of installation.

4.2 Transmission Line Protection

Transmission lines provide the links between the various points of the power system and deliver power from the point of
generation to the ultimate user. The lines operate at the differing voltages included in the power system. The
significance of a line to the electric power system varies according to the voltage level, the location of the line in the
system, the loads carried by the line, and other factors specific to the utility. Schemes for the relay protection of the line
vary according to the significance of the line in the system, the characteristics of faults on the line, the speeds at which a
line fault has to be cleared, and the preferences of the designer and the utility’s practices. The protection schemes
available for transmission line relay protection include:-

a) Over-current, instantaneous, non-directional

b) Over-current, timed with either inverse curves or discrete times, non-directional

c) Over-current, instantaneous, directional

d) Over-current, timed with either inverse curves or discrete times, directional

e) Current differential using over-current

f) Distance, instantaneous and timed

g) Pilot with a communication channel between all terminals

Depending on the fault characteristics of the line in question, the designer may use any of the above relay protection
schemes for the protection of phase and ground faults on a transmission line. Protection schemes may include the use
of the schemes individually or in combination to protect lines with primary and secondary protection schemes.

The following information is necessary in order to determine the relay protection to be used for a transmission line:-

a) The configuration of the transmission line

b) The number of line terminals

c) Whether the line is radial or looped in the system

d) How many taps, if any, or on the line

e) How the line will be loaded

f) Fault levels associated with the line

g) Any other transmission line-specific data peculiar to the system

h) Load-specific information such as specified outage times, temporary power levels, etc.

i) System constraints such as out-of-step relay requirements

j) Coordination requirements with relay systems of the remote line terminals

Higher voltage transmission lines tend to have more sophisticated relay protection schemes often using
communications channels providing information from the remote end of the line to provide greater security.
Transmission lines at 220kV and above normally utilize two primary relay schemes with teleprotection. The voltage of
the line is, however, not the primary factor in determining the types of relay protection that may be used. It is rather the
significance of the line of the line that will determine the speed in which the line has to be removed from the system
when a fault occurs. Some lower voltage systems are in operation where extremely sophisticated relay schemes are in
place, while some higher voltage systems operate with simplistic characteristics of the system at the location of the line.

With the above information, it is possible to make a decision as to the type of relay schemes that may be used. Below
are schemes that are used for transmission line protection.

4.2.1 Non-Teleprotection (Pilot) Schemes

In these cases, relays are used to provide protection without the assistance of communications channels providing
information from the remote end of the line. The relay measures the input quantities, makes the action decision based
on these quantities, and provides an output to the circuit breakers or circuit logic at the site of application based on the
input and the relay logic. All the inputs and outputs are local to the site of application.

4.2.1.1 Over-current Relaying

Over-current relay protection is the simplest form of protection usually applied on lower voltage lines or on radially
supplied lines. In its most basic form, non-directional inverse time over-current relays are applied on radial feeders with
two phase devices and one earth device. The fault current is reduced by increased line impedance the further out on the
line the fault occurs, resulting in a longer time for the relay to trip the line.

When a back-feed from another power source is possible on the feeder, directional over-current relays may be used to
provide selectivity between faults ‘in front’ of or in tripping direction of the relay verses those behind the relay. An
instantaneous over-current element is often used to protect the transmission line or feeder for high-current, close-in
faults near the terminal where the relay is located.

While this type of protection can be used on a network system with varying contributions from both directions on the
lines, it is extremely difficult to coordinate such a system and it should be avoided where possible.

4.2.1.2 Current Differential with Over-current Relay

This circuit uses the differential principle in connecting the CT circuits and an over-current relay instead of a differential
relay. The scheme has limited use since the CTs from all terminals of the line, line segments, or busbars has to be
connected by the hardwire circuits back to the over-current relay. This connection is more secure and can be set more
sensitively than a simple over-current relay application. It also can keep one more over-current relay from being in a
string of over-current relays that have to be set with increasing time delay.

The circuit is typically used within a substation or generation plant facility where short line segments or busbars require
protection that does not need the speed of a differential relay. In applying the circuit, the designer needs to be aware of
the CT error and mismatch that may occur in the differential circuit to the relay and set the relay over any mismatch that
may occur.

The circuit is often applied in a variation as an open differential circuit. This circuit has a number of lines connected to it
with CTs connected in n-1 lines (see Figure 6-1.5). The over-current relay is then set for the load of the line without the
CT. The circuit is often applied as a backup circuit to a transformer differential circuit at a substation with an in-and-out
transmission line. The designer has to be aware of through faults on the lines with CTs that do not involve the line
without the CT. CT mismatch will result in an error current as a result of the through-fault current that will flow in the
relay.

50/51

Figure 6-1.5: Open Differential

4.2.1.3 Step Distance Relaying

Since the distance relay responds to the impedance of the device it is protecting, it can more easily be coordinated and
used when the coordination of over-current relays does not work. The distance relay is more costly than the over-current
relay and requires the addition of line potential sources, adding cost to the scheme. Advantages of distance relays
include a fixed reach based on the impedance of the protected device, regardless of the system voltage and current
changes; the ability to operate at fault currents less than load current; and little transient overreach.

Two relays are used to protect the total length of the line, protection referred to as zones (see Figure 6-1.6). Zone 1
relay is typically set for 85 to 95 percent of the line impedance. Zone 1 tripping time is set for instantaneous tripping, i.e.
with no intentional time delay. Zone 2 is typically set to 120 to 150 percent of the line impedance. The zone 2 needs to
extend past the line being protected into the adjacent lines, not reaching past the far end terminal of the adjacent lines,
yet ensuring the line in question is covered. Zone 2 tripping time is typically set with 18 to 30 cycles of trip delay.

120% - 150% of ZL

≈
85% - 95% of ZL

F2 ZL F1
C1 C2
85% - 95% of ZL

120% - 150% of ZL
≈

Figure 6-1.6: Distance Relay Zones 1 and 2

This scheme provides instantaneous tripping for 70 to 90 percent of the transmission line for a fault (F1, Figure 6-1.6)
located within Zone 1 reach for both ends of the line. For the remainder of the line, a fault (F2, Figure 6-1.6) near each
line terminal is cleared in the time delay used for Zone 2. A fault located near a line terminal will be sequentially cleared
by the near breaker tripping first and the remote terminal breaker tripping after the Zone 2 trip time delay.

A third zone of protection, Zone 3, is often used in step distance relaying. Zone 3 is usually set to reach through the next
line to cover breaker failures. The reach for Zone 3 relay is usually in the range of 200 to 225 percent of the line
impedance. Zone 3 tripping time is typically set with 60 to 120 cycles. The impedance setting will vary depending on the
length of the adjacent lines. Because the reach of the Zone 3 characteristic, it often encroaches on the load impedance
and is susceptible to power system swings. Causing needs to be applied when incorporating Zone 3 relays since long
settings can result in tripping on load.

Zone 3 may be reversed to look in the opposite direction of the line to which step distance relays are being applied. This
is the case when carrier schemes are applied. Occasionally, a reverse-set Zone 3 relay reach is used as a local breaker
failure relay, indicating failure of adjacent circuit breakers.

Step distance relaying may be difficult to apply when the transmission lines are short, with little impedance. The settings
for the distance relays may be very small, near the limits of the design for the relay reach, resulting in the possibility of
the relay’s overreaching and tripping for adjacent line faults. Three terminal lines will often use distance as fault
detectors, but will normally require the implementation of a telecommunications scheme to ensure tripping for all fault
conditions.

4.2.2 Telecommunications (Pilot) Schemes

Telecommunications (pilot) schemes simultaneously measure and monitor system parameters at all terminals of a
transmission line, local and remote, and then respond according to their predetermined functions. These schemes
require the use of a communications channel that may be provided through radio, microwave, optical fibre, or power line
carrier. If the measured parameters exceed the threshold values, appropriate actions are initiated.

“Pilot” schemes can generally be broken into primary categories. These are direction directional comparison and phase
comparison. Directional schemes use directional relays for phase fault detection and either directional distance relays or

directional over-current relays for earth fault detection. The decision to trip is based on relay setting thresholds being
exceeded and the faults being located in the predetermined direction for trip.

Phase comparison schemes are an extension of the differential protection principle. Currents from all line terminals are
converted (summed) into a composite signal, transmitted to the remote terminals, and compared to the local terminal
composite signal. The result of the comparison will result in a trip if the relay setting threshold is exceeded. Phase
comparison schemes are inherently directional and secure, not tripping for faults outside the protected zone of
operation.

4.2.2.1 Directional Comparison

Directional comparison schemes are divided into four categories, blocking schemes, unblocking schemes, overreaching
transfer trip schemes, and under-reaching transfer trip schemes.

a) Blocking Schemes

Directional comparison blocking uses distance relays as directional indicators and block initiation for phase faults. Either
distance or directional over-current relays may be used for earth fault indicators and block initiation. Each terminal has
trip and start relays. The trip relay reaches toward the remote terminal and a little beyond. The start relay reaches
backwards, away from the protection section. The trip relay attempts tripping when it operates unless it is stopped by
receipt of a blocking signal (carrier, audio tone, or microwave) from the remote end. The start relays at each end initiate
the blocking signal. Thus if only the trip relays see the fault, it is within the protected section and both ends trip. If the
fault is just outside one end, the start relays at that end operate and send a block signal to the remote end, which would
otherwise trip. The earth relays operate simultaneously.

A tripping delay is necessary to allow for the receipt of the blocking signal. A typical delay time of 6- to 60-msec is
required to coordinate for the channel delay in communications. The communication channel is not required for tripping
the breakers since the breakers will trip in the absence of the blocking signal. Failure of the channel could result in over-
tripping of the breakers for adjacent line faults within the reach setting of the distance relays. Blocking directional
comparison is commonly used with on/off type carrier facilities. Since it is not necessary to drive a signal through a fault
to operate this scheme, it is the most popular carrier relaying system (see Figure 6-1.7).
120%

A B

R
21P Trip Breaker B 21P

21S 21S

Carrier, Tone or MCW

T R
On - Off

Trip If:
Local 21/P Operates and Carrier is not Received

Figure 6-1.7: Blocking Directional Comparison

b) Unblocking Schemes

Directional comparison unblocking is similar to the blocking scheme except that the start relays are deleted and the
blocking, “guard” signal is sent continuously (see Figure 6-1.8). The communication signal for an unblocking scheme
uses a frequency shift keying (FSK) channel.

For an internal fault, the frequency is shifted to the unblocked, “trip” frequency. The receivers receive the trip frequency
and close the output contact, which in series with the 21P relay output contact will trip the breaker. For an external fault,
within the reach of one of the 21P relays, the distant 21P relay will see the fault while the local 21P relay will not see the
fault since it is behind the relay. The distant 21P relay will shift its transmitter frequency to trip. The local 21P relay will
not send the trip frequency or close the 21P output contacts. The line thus stays in service. Should the receivers fail to
receive a guard signal and a trip signal, the receivers will allow typically 150-msec of receiver contact closure to permit
the 21P relay contact to trip the line. After this time, the communication channel will lock out.

120%
120%

A B

21P 21P

Carrier, FSK
T R

Figure 6-1.8: Directional Comparison Unblocking

This scheme is more secure since over-tripping is avoided at all times with the exception of the 150-msec interval during
the loss of signal. Reliability is improved since the communication channel operates continuously and can be monitored,
providing an alarm in the case of failure. The scheme is applicable for two-terminal and multi-terminal lines. Separate
channels are required between each pair of line terminals.

c) Overreaching Transfer Trip Schemes

Permissive overreach is also a simple scheme, requiring only one overreaching fault detector at each terminal. This fault
detector sends both a trip signal and attempts local tripping through a contact on the receiver. If both relays see a fault,
both ends trip simultaneously. The scheme appears similar to the directional comparison unblocking scheme of Figure
6-1.8.

A trip signal is required for this scheme to trip. Power line carrier channels therefore are not recommended for these
schemes since a fault could short out the carrier signal. These channels are normally used with audio tones with
frequency shift keying over microwave, leased line, or fibre-optic communications.

The overreaching transfer trip scheme provides highly secure transmission line protection since a trip signal is required
from both ends of the line for tripping to occur. The dependability of the scheme may be less than the blocking schemes
since the trip signal has to be received before the tripping is initiated. The scheme is often used when an existing “non-
pilot” scheme has communications added for “piloting”.

d) Under-reaching Transfer Trip Schemes

Under-reaching transfer trip schemes include two variations; direct under-reach and permissive under-reach.

i) Direct Under-reach

This form of protection requires only a single distance fault detector at each end. It has to be set short of the remote end
and will simultaneously trip the local breaker and send a trip signal to the remote end, which then trips directly upon
receipt of the signal. Note that local confirmation is not required upon receipt of this trip signal. Though this scheme is
the least complex, it is seldom used because of the high risk of false outputs from the communication channel, which
would result in false trips. This risk can be minimized by using a dual-channel transfer trip, which requires the receipt of
two signals from the remote end to effect a trip as illustrated in Figure 6-1.9.
90%

A B

21ΙΙ 21ΙΙ

Trip Breaker A

T R

Trip Breaker B
Carrier, Tone or MCW
T R
FSK

Trip If:
• Local 21/I Operates or
• Two T/T Signals are Received

Figure 6-1.9: Direct Under-reach

ii) Permissive Under-reach

This scheme is identical to the direct under-reach scheme with the addition of an over-reaching fault detector. The
transfer trip signal requires local confirmation by this fault detector before tripping can occur. This increases the security
of the scheme and the consequent range of application. It is commonly selected when an existing step distance relay
line is to have the “pilot” added as illustrated in Figure 6-1.10. Carrier is not normally used since a fault could short out
the communication signal and prevent the signal from reaching the remote terminal.

90% 120%

A B

21 Ι 21ΙΙ

21 P 21P

Trip Breaker A

21P
Carrier, Tone or MCW Trip
T FSK R
Breaker B

Trip If:
• Local 21/I Operates or
• Local 21/P Operates and 1 T/T Signal is Received

Figure 6-1.10: Permissive Under-reach

4.2.2.2 Phase Comparison

Phase comparison relay systems monitor the current direction at each line terminal of the protected line and transmit
this information to the other terminal via a communication channel. Each line terminal compares local and remote
current direction and trips if the current is into the line from both terminals. The communication channel is normally an
on/off type of communications, transmitting only when the over-current detector’s thresholds have been exceeded. This
system is immune to tripping on overloads or system swings since it operates on current direction only. It needs no
potential source unless it has to be supervised by distance relays because of low fault currents.

Current or distance fault detectors are used to supervise tripping. These detectors have to be set above line charging
current, which can appear to the relays as an internal fault at low loads. Internal timers have to be set to compensate for
the transit time of the communication channel. One of the most popular applications of this system is on lines with series
capacitors because it is less likely that such a current-operated scheme will operate incorrectly for faults near the
capacitors.

a) Pilot Wire

This scheme is a form of phase comparison since it compares current direction at each terminal. The difference
between this scheme and others is that a pair of telephone wires is used as the communication channel. A special filter
in the relay converts the three-phase currents to a single-phase voltage and applies this voltage to the wires. When
current flows through the protected section, the voltages at each end oppose each other and no current flows in the
operate coils. When current enters the line from each end, the voltage on the pilot wire reverses to allow current to
circulate through the operate coils and consequently trip both ends. Special monitor relays sound an alarm if the pilot
wire pair become open or shorted. The wire line has to have adequate protection against induced voltages and a rise in
station ground potential but may not use carbon block protectors because the line has to remain in service while the

protection is operating. Neutralizing transformers and gas tubes with mutual drainage reactors, all with adequate voltage
ratings, comprise the preferred pilot wire protection package.

This relaying has the advantage of simplicity and does not require a potential source. It does not provide backup
protection. Its application is limited to short lines of 1,5 kilometres or so in length because of pilot wire cost and
increased exposure. The system’s dependency is based on the integrity of the pilot wires themselves. Many pilot wire
systems have been replaced with other pilot schemes because of the failure of the pilot wire system to function reliably
and securely. In more recent years, pilot wire systems have been replaced with fibre-optic systems providing the
communication systems, using a module to convert the output voltage to a light signal. These modified systems have
provided a more dependable and secure protection system.

b) Single-Phase Comparison

This scheme applies a sequencing network to the current inputs to the relay to produce a single-phase voltage output.
This output is proportional to the positive, negative, and zero phase sequence components of the input currents. This
signal is squared so that the positive portion of the signal provides the positive portion of the square wave. The negative
portion of the signal provides the zero portion of the square wave. Two fault detectors are normally used to provide
security, with the more sensitive detector used as the carrier start to transmit signal to the remote end. The less
sensitive detector is used to arm the comparison module for a trip upon the correct comparison of the local and remote
signals as illustrated in Figure 6-1.11.

Normally current-operated units are used as the fault detectors. In a case where the fault current is less than the load,
impedance-operated units may be used for fault detection. The use of impedance fault detectors will increase the cost of
the system because of the necessity of having line potentials for operation of the relay.

A B

FD FD
A1 B1

FD FD
A2 B2

Sequence Sequence
Network Network

Squaring Squaring
Amp Amp

Communication
Channel

Delay Delay

Comparison Comparison

Trip Breaker A Trip Breaker B

Figure 6-1.11: Single Phase Comparison

c) Dual-Phase Comparison

This scheme is similar to the single-phase comparison scheme except that square wave signals are developed for
the positive and the negative portions of the signal voltage output of the sequencing network. Each signal requires
a separate channel for the transmission of information to the remote site. This scheme can provide a slightly higher
speed of detection since faults are detected on both the positive and the negative portions of the single-phase
voltage output of the sequencing network. This scheme is normally used with a frequency-shift channel, which is
continuously transmitted. On a line carrier it is configured as an unblocking scheme.

d) Segregated Phase Comparison

This scheme is similar to the single-phase comparison scheme except that square wave signal is developed for
each phase of the transmission line. A communications channel is required for each phase to provide

communications to the remote terminal. Comparisons made on each of the three phases. The operation of the
scheme is basically as described above in the previous phase comparison schemes.

4.3 Distribution Feeder

Distribution line switching and protection within the substation are provided by circuit breakers, reclosers, or fuses. The
selection of the protective devices to be used on any particular feeder will depend on the load being fed by the feeder,
the magnitude of loads being served, any special protective requirements necessitated by the load, and the clients
preference in design and operating practices. In addition to the above-listed items, sectionalisers may be located on the
distribution for additional segmenting of the line during fault conditions.

4.3.1 Circuit Breakers

Circuit breakers will most commonly use over-current relays to provide fault protection at a substation. On a typical
radial distribution feeder, two phase and one earth (if the system is an earthed system) non-directional inverse time
over-current relays with instantaneous elements will be the minimum relays that are applied that will detect all phase
and earth faults when properly coordinated. Often, a third over-current relay is applied to the phases to provide full
protection on all three phases. This will provide complete protection for faults if one of the relays should be disabled.
This permits the complete removal of one of the relays for testing, providing protection for the feeder without taking the
feeder out of service. With today’s microprocessor relays, three-phase relays and the neutral relay are applied to detect
all faults when properly coordinated. The time-current characteristic chosen for coordination of protective devices will
depend on what downstream devices are present on the feeder. See Figure 6-1.12.

Other protection may be provided in addition to over-current relays, such as voltage-controlled over-current relays and
negative sequence relays. Special circumstances on a feeder will allow specific relays to be applied to address those
circumstances. Microprocessor relays will often have a number of protective functions available that may be used for
special circumstances. Relay protection of circuit breakers may be readily customized and applied to special situations.
Many of the microprocessor relays available for distribution feeder protection also include multiple setting groups. This
feature will allow a relay to be set for a particular configuration. Should the configuration change, the setting group can
be changed, either automatically or manually, to provide for different settings to adjust the relay protection to the new
configuration.

Station Supply Busbar

F4
ACR

Recloser
F3
Fuse

Sectionalizer S
OC Relay

Figure 6-1.12: Distribution Circuit Protective Elements

4.3.2 Automatic Circuit Reclosers

Reclosers are devices similar to circuit breakers but more compact and self-contained so that they may be used within
the substation or mounted on poles out on the distribution feeder. The controls allow various combinations of
instantaneous and time-delayed trips and automatic reclosures so that coordination may be accomplished with both
upstream and downstream devices. Reclosers may be single- or three-phase interrupters. Single-phase reclosers are
series trip devices, and three-phase reclosers may be either series trip or non-series trip devices. Non-series trip
reclosers usually employ a solid-state control and have a self-contained battery. Some single-phase reclosers are
available with electronic controls.

Single-phase reclosers usually provide better service reliability to rural distribution circuits because a fault to earth on
one phase will not trip the other phases. However, where loads are predominantly three-phase, or where the load on the
circuit is large, three-phase reclosers with earth trip settings are desirable to achieve the required sensitivity for earth
faults.

Microprocessor controls are also available for reclosers. The microprocessor adds much flexibility to the controller and
provides additional functions, similar to many of the microprocessor relays. Also, many additional protective

characteristics (curves) are typically available in the microprocessor controls. There is normally a telecommunications
port available on the control that can then provide data to remote sites.

4.3.2.1 Sectionaliser

These devices, located outside the substation on the distribution lines, are similar to reclosers, except that they do not
interrupt fault current. Instead, the sectionaliser counts trips of an upstream recloser and opens its contacts during a de-
energized period following a predetermined number of closure interruptions. Sectionalisers can, however, interrupt load
currents within their rating. Refer back to Figure 6-1.12.

4.3.2.2 Fuses

Fuses are used both to protect connected distribution transformers and to protect sections or branches of the
distribution circuit. Occasionally, they are used in the substation for protection of a feeder or as backup protection for a
bypass switch around a recloser or a breaker. They are most commonly supplied in outdoor holders that are
combination fuse-holders and isolating switches. Fuses are usually applied as the furthest downstream device in a
sectionalising scheme because of their non-repeating nature. An upstream recloser trips and recloses several times with
the accumulated “on” time being sufficient to blow the fuse during a delayed trip. The recloser then resets before the trip
occurs.

4.3.2.3 Coordination

Coordinating devices on a distribution circuit involves the progressive disconnecting of sections of the distribution circuit
beginning at the end furthest from the station until the fault is removed. Since several different types of devices are
involved, this process can be more complex than coordinating a transmission line.

With reference to Figure 6-1.12, it may be seen fault F1 should be interrupted by the fuse. This means that the relay,
recloser, and sectionaliser has to be programmed to allow enough accumulated fault current through (integrated over
several reclosures) that none of these devices locks out. Generally, the recloser will have one fast and three delayed
trips in such a situation. Time curves will be selected so that the fuse will blow during the second delayed trip. The
sectionaliser will be programmed to open following the second delayed trip to clear fault at F2. A fault at F3 would then
be cleared when the recloser locks out following the third (delayed) trip. The relay will be set to clear a fault F4 but
coordinated with the line recloser so as not to trip for a fault F3, paying careful attention to over-travel and rest time of
electromechanical reclosers following each successive interruption.

This is a simplified example of distribution coordination and ignores complications, such as long branches and
improperly applied protective devices, both common occurrences on real distribution systems. In such cases,
compromises have to be made and areas of non-selectivity accepted. The coordination process involves moving these
areas of non-selectivity into positions where they do the least harm.

4.4 Major Equipment

4.4.1 Transformer and Reactor Protection

Transformers are protected by circuit-interrupting devices such as breakers or circuit switchers with relays detecting
faults and providing trip signals to the circuit interrupting devices. Transformers 5MVA and below are sometimes
protected with fuses although the trend is to prefer relay protection of transformers, particularly for units rated at 10MVA
and above.

Fuse protection has the merits of being economical and requiring little maintenance. Fuses require no circuit interrupting
devices such as circuit breakers and no battery power systems for auxiliary power. Auxiliary equipment that would
normally be located within a control building is minimized, resulting in the reduced need for and cost of a control
building. Fuses will provide protection for primary and secondary external faults, but little protection for transformer
internal faults. Fuses introduce the probability of creating a severely unbalanced (single-phasing) voltage condition for
secondary loads should only one fuse blow. Proper coordination with secondary devices is essential to avoid this
condition.

Relay protection for the larger size transformers usually includes sudden pressure relays, differential relays, over-current
relays or directional phase distance relays, and earth over-current relays as illustrated in Figure 6-1.13. Sudden
pressure relays are often considered by many to be the primary relay protection on a transformer. The sudden pressure
relay is sensitive to sudden changes in pressure in the transformer tank that occur during an internal fault. Differential
protection is a primary scheme of protection that is normally applied on a percentage differential basis to allow for
differences in transformer rations, magnetizing current, and current transformer mismatch. Over-current relays are often
applied on the primary voltage winding to provide backup protection to the differential relay protection. If the over-current
relays are not coordinated with the secondary main and feeder relays, a directional phase distance relay may be
applied.

Figure 6-1.13 indicates the possibility of using local primary and secondary breakers. As a result of economics, a
primary breaker is sometimes not used. Tripping of the breaker is accomplished by sending a transfer trip signal to the
remote substation using a telecommunications signal or a high-speed earth switch. The time required to isolate the
transformer is increased by the communication channel time or time for the remote relay and breaker to clear the fault
established by the high-speed earth switch. Secondary breakers are often not used. The designer will have to decide
whether or not to trip all the feeder breakers or to manually open the feeder breakers before re-energizing the
transformer. Reactors may be protected by generator-type differential relays with phase and earth over-current backup
relays. Occasionally, phase distance relays are used for backup.

Additional means of protection applied to transformers and reactors include negative sequence relays, over-current
relays, and thermal relays. Negative sequence relays can be set sensitively to back up differential relays since they do
not respond to load current. Overvoltage relays will protect the transformer from excessive system voltage that will result
in excessive transformer magnetizing current and heating of the transformer core. Thermal relays provide additional
protection for the transformer against internal heating as a result of overloading the transformer.

Each transformer installation should be individually evaluated for the type of protection that is to be applied.

Optional CT Connection
if Local Primary Breaker
is Used

50H
51H

Trip Local
87 86 Breakers

50L Transfer
51L Trip
Remote
51N Optional Primary
Breaker
Breakers

Optional CT Connection
if Local Primary Breaker
is Used

Busbar

Typical Feeder

Figure 6-1.13: Typical Transformer Relay Protection

4.4.2 Busbar Protection

4.4.2.1 Remote Tripping for Busbar Fault

Faults on busbars can be isolated by allowing remote substation breakers on all lines that feed into the faulted busbar to
trip by Zone 2 or time-delay earth relay. This type of busbar protection is simple and the most economical. It has the
disadvantage that any loads fed by lines to the remote substations are also removed from service. Another
disadvantage is that the time necessary to clear the fault may be intolerable.

4.4.2.2 Local Tripping for Busbar Fault

a) In distribution substations, the bus protection is often provided by over-current relays, phase and neutral, located
on either the low-voltage or high-voltage side of the transformer as shown in Figure 6-1.13. Phase relays have to
be set to coordinate with the feeder relays and any additional downstream devices. This results in a slow trip time

for the clearing of the busbar. Each busbar has to be evaluated to determine if the time delay that will be
experienced by this type of protection will be excessive and if this type of protection will be adequate. This bus
protection scheme is very simple and may also be able to act, in part, as backup protection to the feeder relays.

b) A busbar fault can be removed by a bus protective scheme in which all the substation breakers associated with the
faulted busbar, or zone of busbar, are tripped. The two basic types of busbar protective schemes are current
differential and voltage differential. The current differential scheme connects all the current transformers on all the
circuits connected to a busbar in parallel, and the relay operates on the unbalance current that exists during fault
conditions as illustrated in Figure 6-1.14. During normal conditions, there should be no unbalance current, since the
current entering a busbar has to equal the current leaving a busbar. Restraint coils help to compensate for unequal
current transformer performance during external faults, but the scheme still has to be applied carefully on busbars
with high busbar fault levels.

Voltage differential schemes use the same parallel connection but connect a high impedance voltage element
across the parallel. It is possible to set this voltage element well above the worst case external fault voltage and still
retain adequate sensitivity for internal faults. This type of relay performs well on busbars with high fault current
levels.

In some cases, over-current relays are applied to the differential circuit. This provides an inexpensive relay for use
in the operation of the differential circuit. The disadvantage of the over-current relay is that there is no restraint in
each of the relay circuits. Any mismatch in the CTs has to be taken into consideration in the settings of the relay by
using higher pickup amperage or a longer time delay. This will make the operation of the circuit slower than the
times provided by differential relays. Often this time delay is unacceptable for the coordination with the rest of the
system relays.

Busbar

Figure 6-1.14: Busbar Differential Relay (Buszone) Protection

c) Since the recent use of the microprocessor relay that normally provides additional functions at a relatively
inexpensive cost, a pseudo busbar differential scheme has been applied. This scheme uses a combination of
instantaneous relay elements from the secondary main busbar relay and the feeder relays to detect whether the
fault is on the feeder or on the busbar. As shown in Figure 6-1.15, this scheme requires that there be no fault

sources on the feeders since the operation of the feeder instantaneous elements for reverse feeder current would
make the fault look like a feeder fault and cause the scheme to fail. If fault sources are located on the feeders,
directional instantaneous over-current relays have to be set to reach out further than the main breaker relay so that,
for any close-in feeder faults that the main breaker relay will see, the feeder relay will also see and disable the
circuit. For a busbar fault, the feeders will not see the fault so the relay takes no action. The main breaker sees the
fault, closes its contact, and after the appropriate time delay, trips the breaker. This circuit will be slower than actual
differential relay operating time, but will be faster than the over-current relay in protecting the busbar from damage.

d) Local tripping for a bus fault may be accomplished by the use of a reverse-looking Zone 3 element from a distance
relay. Zones 1 and 2 on a line are set to look out on the line, away from the busbar. Often, the Zone 3 element is
set to look in the reverse direction, which will see the busbar from behind. Through a timer, the Zone 3 may be set
to trip through-bus faults.

Transformer

50M
Main Busbar 51M
Relay

Main Busbar 5D-M

Breaker M a 62
5D-1
Busbar
b
5D-2
50-1 50-2 50-3 50-4 b
Feeder 51-1 51-2 51-3 51-4
Relays 5D-3
b
5D-4
Feeder b
Breakers 1 2 3 4

Timer 62 M TC
Feeders

Figure 6-1.15: Pseudo Busbar Differential Circuit

4.4.3 Breaker Failure Protection

Breaker failures can normally be separated into two classes: the failure of the breaker itself and the failure of the
relaying associated with the breaker. Schemes developed to protect for the failure of breakers are based on providing
either remote backup or local backup. Failure of the breaker results in the necessity to trip all the adjacent breakers in
order to clear the fault and to isolate the failed breaker.

4.4.3.1 Remote Backup

Remote backup normally consists of a Zone 3 relay and/or earth time over-current relay set to cover lines contiguous to
the line being protected. This scheme will provide protection for the breaker failure regardless of whether that failure is a

result of relay failure or breaker failure. It will normally see faults on the protected line plus faults on the next busbar and
line adjacent to the protected line. This scheme has the advantage of simplicity. Complications in using this scheme
include that the relay has to be set above the maximum load current that is carried on the lines, yet it has to be set
sensitively enough to see the faults that may occur on the lines. Faults occurring at the remote ends of the lines may not
be detected because of insufficient current flow. When applied on a system where the adjacent busbar has a number of
lines with varying length, the settings for the relay may extend beyond the adjacent lines resulting in over-coverage and
over-tripping. When adjacent lines are multi-terminal lines, a number of terminals may be unnecessarily tripped by
remote backup. Longer reach Zone 3 relays are more susceptible to out-of-step system swings. Even with its
shortcomings, in some situations with its inherent economics, this scheme may provide acceptable backup
performance.

4.4.3.2 Local Backup

a) A simple means of providing local backup protection is to use the Zone 3 relay looking in the reverse direction.
This provides a degree of protection for local equipment including all adjacent breakers, busbars, lines, and remote
terminals. Advantages and disadvantages in the use of this scheme are included in the discussion above on
remote backup.

b) An additional means of providing breaker protection is to add timing to the primary relays. If the relays do not trip
and the fault is still on the system within the set time of the timer, the timer will act to trip all adjacent breakers. This
scheme depends on the proper action of the primary relays and provides no backup to the failure of those relays.

c) An additional scheme provides the use of a second set of relays to back up the primary relaying. Carried to the
maximum limit, a second dc tripping system is provided including battery, panels, charger, relays, breaker trip
coils, CTs, and potential devices. This degree of duplication is normally applied on EHV and UHV systems. High
voltage systems will often provide dual trip coils in the circuit breakers, and primary and secondary relays with dual
dc trip busbars. The designer has to decide if auxiliary dc power systems will be duplicated, including power panels
and chargers; often both systems are fed from a common battery. The reduced cost of relaying afforded by the
development of microprocessor relays make this option a relatively economical option to provide backup protection
for relays. This scheme does not provide for the tripping of adjacent breakers in the case of the failure of the
breaker mechanical mechanism to trip the breaker and clear the fault.

d) Full breaker backup includes protection for the failure of relays and the failure of the breaker. A separate backup
relay that acts to trip all adjacent breakers, including remote breakers by means of a transfer trip, provides this
degree of backup. Figure 6-1.16 indicates a typical configuration for a local breaker failure relay. Indicated are
primary and secondary relays, dual trip coils in the breaker, and the fault detector and timer associated with the
breaker relay. Should either the primary or secondary relay call for a trip of the breaker, an auxiliary relay, 62X or
62Y, keys the timer. If the fault is not removed during the setting for the timer, the 86BF lockout relay is picked up
to trip all adjacent breakers and transfer trip any remote breakers. The time setting for the timer is usually in the
range of 10 to 20 cycles. If either the protective scheme resets or the current relay drops out within the set time,
nothing happens.

+ + +

Primary Secondary 62X 62Y

Relay Relay

50BF

52a 52a

52T1 62X 52T1 62Y 62T 86BF

- - -

Busbar

50-1
51-1

Sec
Relay 50BF

52 Breaker

Transmission Line

Figure 6-1.16: Typical Breaker Failure Relay Scheme

4.5 Reclosing

4.5.1 General

Protective relays detect faults or abnormal conditions. These faults or abnormal conditions can be transient or
permanent. For open-wire overhead circuits, such as most of the distribution lines, most faults are transient faults,
caused by inter-alia lightning, can be cleared by disconnecting the circuit from the power source. Service can be
restored by reclosing the disconnecting device. Certain abnormal conditions, such as overheating of motors, can be
relieved by reducing the load on the motor. The motor starters thus can be safely reclosed after the motor has cooled
off. The disconnecting device can be reclosed either manually or automatically. Manual reclosing is performed by
following the same procedures used in closing the device. Automatic reclosing is usually performed by automatic
reclosing relays. Reclosing is generally not applied where permanent faults are more likely such as on cables.

4.5.2 Automatic Reclosing Relays

Automatic reclosing relays permit the circuit disconnecting device, usually a breaker, to close one or more times when
the breaker has been tripped by protective relays. Relays that permit one reclosing operation are called single-shot
reclosing relays, while relays that permit more than one reclosing operation are called multi-shot reclosing relays.
Single-shot reclosing relays can be either the manual- or self-reset type. The manual-reset types have to be manually
reset after each automatic reclosing operation to obtain succeeding automatic reclosing operations. The self-rest types
automatically reset if the breaker remains closed for a predetermined time. Multi-shot reclosing relays are of the self-
reset type. Automatic reclosing can take place either instantaneously or with time delay, when the line is de-energized or
energized, or when the voltages on both sides of the breaker are synchronized. On radial circuits, the first reclosure is
usually instantaneous, with additional reclosures when used, taking place after some time delay. On loop or multi-
terminal distribution lines, instantaneous reclosing is generally not used unless special forms of protective relaying are
applied to ensure simultaneous operation of all line breakers for all line faults. After a specified number of unsuccessful
automatic reclosure attempts, the breaker is usually locked open.

4.6 Coordination

When a circuit element such as a line, transformer, or busbar experiences a fault, it has to be removed from service.
This, as has been previously stated, is the function of the protective relay system. Coordination is the process of
ensuring that only those elements of the power system that has to be removed to clear the fault, and no more, are
tripped in the shortest time possible.

As previously discussed, some schemes are inherently selective in tripping the protected equipment. Such protection
schemes include differential schemes and transmission line phase protection that are differential in nature. No additional
coordination is required for these schemes.

Coordination with distance relays is the easiest to accomplish. Since such a relay’s reach is constant under all system
conditions, the instantaneous zone is typically set short of the remote end of the line by 10 percent, and it will never trip
for any condition but a fault on the protected section. With the remote end set the same, 80 percent of the line is
covered by instantaneous protection. To cover the remaining 20 percent, the second zone can be relied on or a
“piloted/communications” scheme can be added. The second zone reaches beyond the protected section and so it has
to have a time delay to allow the breaker at the remote station to clear a fault on another line. The third zone reaches
beyond the remote zones and so has to time coordinate in the same manner, thus the increasing time settings.

Coordinating with over-current relays can be more difficult and can also require a more detailed knowledge of system
parameters.

For the simple system shown in Figure 6-1.17, with a fault at X, the near relays at C and D have to operate and their
breakers have to completely open before the remote or backup relays at A and F close their contacts. It is assume that:

a) A faulted condition exists until the breakers isolating the fault are entirely open.

b) When a relay closes its tripping contacts, a “seal-in” auxiliary relay ensures that the switching operation will be
completed even though the fault is cleared at the same instant the relay contacts close.

X
A B C D E F

Figure 6-1.17: Coordination Conditions

The time delay of the remote relay necessary for selectivity has to be equal to the operating time of the near relay plus
the opening time of the breaker; plus a reasonable factor of safety, which can be taken at about 25 percent of the
combined relay and breaker time with a minimum allowance of not less than six cycles if the relays are normally field
calibrated at the calculated setting. If the relays are bench tested at typical setting values and only adjusted in the field
with no further calibration, this margin has to be greater, typically 0,2 to 0,3 seconds.

Additional requirements for adequate relay coordination include the following:

• The relays have to be capable of carrying a reasonable emergency overload without tripping incorrectly on load
current.

• The relays have to be able to operate under minimum system generating conditions for faults at the far ends of the
sections that they protect.

Maximum system generating conditions include a sufficient number of generators in service to supply the maximum
demand load of the system. Similarly, the minimum system generating conditions include only the generators in service
necessary to supply the minimum system load. Such minimum conditions would probably exist early Sunday and
perhaps some public holidays, for example. In addition to the above generation, there are usually some emergency
generators in service called “spinning reserve” that can immediately pickup load if a generator fails. Both maximum and
minimum conditions have to be checked, since maximum generation usually results in faster operation of induction-type
relays with more critical selectivity, and the minimum condition determines whether the relays will receive sufficient
current to operate.

The output of a synchronous generator under fault conditions is variable, depending on the characteristics of the
machine and the duration of the fault. The initial output, which is maintained for three cycles or less, may be four to ten
times the normal machine rating and is determined by the sub-transient reactance. The generator output rapidly
decreases to the value determined by transient reactance, the average value of which may be assumed to exist for
about 30 cycles on turbine generators and up to 120 cycles on condensers and slow-speed generators. The transient
reactance may be taken roughly as 125 percent to 150 percent of the sub-transient reactance. If the fault is not cleared,
the generator output approaches the synchronous value, which is equal to or slightly less than the normal rating. It is
common practice, therefore, to use generator sub-transient reactance values when calculating maximum fault kVA and
to use transient values for minimum generating conditions. Synchronous values of short-circuit kVA are not usually
calculated, but the decrease in generator output should be considered for slow operating relays.

The earth current calculations and determination of selectivity for earth relays, it is customary to show only the maximum
fault conditions on transmission systems. On transmission systems where the relative distribution of earth current is
changed for minimum generation because earthed transformers have been removed from service, it may be necessary
to calculate and check the relay settings for both maximum and minimum earth faults. It may also be necessary to show
minimum earth faults for some special conditions with certain lines or transformer banks out of service.

Briefly summarized, the duty of a designer is to assume various types of faults at numerous points on a system. The
magnitude and distribution of fault currents are then calculated for these fault points with maximum and minimum
generating conditions. Faults are assumed for normal system operating conditions and for various special conditions
with certain lines, generators, or transformers out of service.

The operating time of all breakers involved have to be checked and tabulated and, for high burdens and low ratios, the
true or effective ratios of bushing-type current transformers have to be determined. Having obtained this data, the next
step is to determine suitable settings or adjustments for the relays that will provide selective operation for each fault
condition. The tentative relay settings, the calculated current values, and the operating times of the near and remote
relays for each fault condition are worked up and recorded as “Details of Selectivity” or on “Selectivity Curves”. After the
most satisfactory settings are determined, “Summary Sheets” are made up for all relays at each station. The Summary
Sheets have the instructions or calibration data to enable the relay personnel in the field to set or adjust the relays to
obtain the desired operating characteristics.

4. REFERENCES

5.1 Blackburn, J. Lewis, Protective Relaying Principles and Applications, New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc., 1987.

5.2 IEEE Std. C37.2, “IEEE Standard Electrical Power System Device Function Numbers and Contact Designations.”

5.3 Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers, Inc., IEEE Guides and Standards for Protective Relaying Systems,
New York: IEEE, 1992.

5.4 Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers, Protective Relaying for Power Systems, New York: IEEE, 1980.

5.5 Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers, Protective Relaying for Power Systems II, New York: IEEE, 1992.

5.6 Mason, C.R., The Art and Science of Protective Relaying, New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1956.

5.7 McGraw Edison Company, Power Systems Division, Distribution System Protection Manual, Canonsberg, Pa.:
McGraw-Edison Co., 1972.

5.8 St. Leonards Works, GEC Measurements, Marketing Department, Protective Relays Application Guide, Stafford
ST147LX, England: St. Leonards Works, 1987.

5.9 Warrington, Van C., Protective Relays: Their Theory and Practice, 2d ed., London: Chapman and Hall Ltd., 1968.

SLDG 6-1 APPENDIX A

ANSI/IEC PROTECTION RELAY SYMBOLS AND NUMBERING

SLDG 6-2

BUSBAR ARRANGEMENTS AND THE CONSEQUENCES OF MAINTENANCE

1. INTRODUCTION

The purpose of this chapter is to build the concept of a substation busbar system by starting with the simplest of
substation layouts and logically developing this through to the most complex of busbar arrangements. At this point, only
the effect of planned switching operations for maintenance purposes will be considered and discussed. The effects of
electrical faults and how to design for availability and reliability of electrical circuits will be discussed in SLDG 6-3 since
these require one to consider the instrument transformers as well. In this chapter we will consider only the opening and
closing of circuit breakers and isolators due to controlled deliberate intervention will be considered.

The above explanation will ultimately lead to the classification of substations in terms of availability of electrical circuits
under maintenance conditions. As a result, an understanding of what is meant by Planning Levels 1, 2 and 3 will then
be developed.

In the development process, bypassing the circuit breakers is not considered. The addition of the bypass isolator as
shown in section 5-2, 3.1.11 obviously improves the situation intensely.

2. A TRANSFORMER-FEEDER ARRANGEMENT

The simplest “transformation substation” arrangement comprises a line terminating directly onto a transformer through
some equipment. In this case, there is no busbar and is essentially a feed-in/feed-out arrangement. If any part of the
system is removed for maintenance purposes, the supply to the end customer is lost. The supply must therefore be
highly interruptible, e.g. domestic customers
F1

T1
Figure 6-2.1: Line Banked Transformer (Transformer Feeder), No Busbar, No Selectability

3. A TRANSFORMER-BUSBAR-FEEDER ARRANGEMENT

This arrangement is essentially still a Transformer-Feeder except that the transformer and the feeder both terminate
onto a zone of busbar, each through some equipment. This would only be done if some equipment is to be connected
to the busbar such as another transformer to further reduce the transformed voltage to feed a local customer, or it is
envisaged that another transformer or feeder is to be installed in the near future as shown in Figure 6-2.3. As with the
previous case, if a any part is removed for maintenance purposes, the supply to the end customer is lost. The supply
must therefore be interruptible, e.g. domestic customers

Busbar

T1
Figure 6-2.2: Single Line and Transformer, Single Busbar Selection, One Zone of Busbar

4. A SINGLE BUSBAR ARRANGEMENT WITH AN ADDITIONAL FEEDER OR TRANSFORMER

A further development may be that either a feeder is added to the station due to a new client, while the transformer
capacity is sufficient, or a transformer is added to the station to provide a backup transformer supply. In both cases, the
arrangement is starting to resemble what one would consider to be a conventional distribution substation. Both
transformers and the feeders terminate onto the same zone of busbar, each through some equipment.

Unlike the previous case, if one of the lines in Figure 6-2.3a) (F1 or F2) is removed for maintenance purposes, then
only the applicable end customer will loose supply. However, if any part of the system from the busbar towards the
transformer is removed from service, then both end customers will be without power.

In the second case (Figure 6-2.3b) where a line is feed by two transformers via a busbar, the end customer will loose
supply if parts towards the line including the busbar are removed for maintenance purposes. If any of the transformers
are removed from service, supply could be maintained via the remaining transformer unit, providing it has adequate
capacity.

The supply in both cases must therefore be relatively highly interruptible, e.g. domestic customers. The overall
classification of this system is a Planning Level 3.

F1 F2 F1

Busbar Busbar

T1 T1 T2

a) Two Lines and One Transformer b) One Line and Two Transformers

Figure 6-2.3: One Zone, Single Busbar Selection

5. A SINGLE BUSBAR ARRANGEMENT WITH AN ADDITIONAL FEEDER AND TRANSFORMER

Developing Figure 6-2.3 a) and b) further, a transformer is added to the station in a) to provide a backup transformer
supply in the previous first case, or a feeder is added to the station in b) due to perhaps a new client, while the
transformer capacity is sufficient. Both cases end up with the arrangement shown in Figure6-2.4. Both transformers
and feeders terminate onto the same zone of busbar, each through some equipment.

As with the case in Figure 6-2.3, if one of the lines F1 or F2 is removed for maintenance purposes, then only the
applicable end customer will loose supply. If the busbar is removed from service, then both end customers will be
without power.

If any of the transformers are removed from service, supply could be maintained via the remaining transformer unit,
providing it has adequate capacity.

The supply therefore need not be as interruptible as the previous cases, e.g. domestic customers and some types of
factories can be supplied from such a system. The overall classification of this system is still a Planning Level 3 in
terms of the number of busbars, although a much better arrangement tan before.

F1 F2

Busbar

T1 T2
Figure 6-2.4: Two Lines and Two Transformers, One Zone of Busbar, Single Busbar Selection

6. A SINGLE BUSBAR ARRANGEMENT WITH A BUS SECTION ADDED

The problem with the previous arrangement with respect to the removal of the busbar can be largely, overcome by
introducing a circuit breaker into the busbar. Each transformer-feeder pair then terminates onto a different zone of
busbar, all circuits through some equipment. The busbar circuit breaker splits the busbar into two zones, so that if
busbar maintenance needs to be done, only one zone is removed at a time. This will obviously affect the relevant
transformer-feeder pair.

As with the previous case, if one of the lines F1 or F2 is removed for maintenance purposes, then only the applicable
end customer will loose supply. If any of the transformers are removed from service, supply could be maintained to
both customers via the remaining transformer unit, providing it has adequate capacity.

The supply can therefore be relatively less interruptible as with the previous cases, e.g. domestic customers and some
types of factories. The overall classification of this system is a Planning Level 3 in terms of busbar selectability.

F1 F2

Bus Section
Busbar

T1 T2

Figure 6-2.5: Two Feeders and Transformers, Two Zone Arrangement, Single Busbar Selection

7. A DOUBLE BUSBAR ARRANGEMENT WITH AN ADDITIONAL BUS COUPLER ADDED

Previously the busbar was split into two zones, but not quite eliminating the issue regarding the removal of any zone of
the busbar. This can be completely overcome by introducing a second busbar running parallel with the first, and
coupling the two busbars with a circuit breaker in much the same way, except that the direction of coupling is
perpendicular to the last case. The two busbars form the two zones and each transformer-feeder pair can be made to
terminate onto the same or different zones of busbar by adding busbar selectable isolators. Busbar maintenance can
now be carried out by selecting all circuits onto one bar, and the other busbar removed from service. Each busbar can
then be maintained in turn. For the first time, the substation can be classed as fully maintainable without interruption
due to a single contingency in the substation. The overall classification of this system is a Planning Level 2 as there are
the same number of busbars as there are transformers and both transformers can be selected to either busbar..

F1 F2

Bus
Coupler ‘A’
Busbar 2

Busbar 1

T1 T2
Figure 6-2.6: Two Feeders and Transformers, Two Zone Arrangement, Double Busbar Selection

8. A DOUBLE BUSBAR ARRANGEMENT WITH AN ADDITIONAL BUS SECTION AND BUS COUPLER

In Figure 6-2.6, the consequence of removing one zone of busbar is that both pairs of transformer-feeder circuits are
then selected onto one zone of busbar. There are situations where it is necessary to ensure that pairs of circuits always
remain on separate zones even in the case of any one of the zones of busbar are taken out for maintenance purposes.
This case is a requirement more from a system reliability point of view when considering busbar zone faults, to guard

against more than one pair of circuits being lost from the system. This will be discussed under “Busbar Arrangements
and the Consequences of Faults”.

Figure 6-2.7 (a) has the disadvantage that when the “middle” busbar zone is removed from service for maintenance
purposes, the bus system will be split in two, and the transformers may be unevenly loaded, perhaps even one being
under-loaded while the other overloaded. To obviate this situation, the busbar loop is closed with a second bus coupler
as shown in Figure 6-2.7b). This then holds the bus system together, regardless of which zone is removed for
maintenance.

As with the previous case, if one of the lines F1 or F2 is removed for maintenance purposes, then only the applicable
end customer will loose supply. If any of the transformers are removed from service, supply could be maintained via the
remaining transformer unit, providing it has adequate capacity.

The supply can be even less interruptible than the previous cases, e.g. furnaces and mines. The overall classification
of this system is a Planning Level 1 as there is one more zone of busbar available to the transformers than the number
of transformers, and both transformers can be selected to two of the busbars.

F1 F2 F1 F2

Bus Bus Bus

Coupler ‘A’ Coupler ‘A’ Coupler ’B’
Busbar 2

B/S B/S
Busbar 1A Busbar 1B

T1 T2 T1 T2

a) Double Busbar, One Bus Coupler b) Double Busbar, Two Bus Couplers

Figure 6-2.7: Two Feeders and Transformers, Three Zones of Busbar, Double Busbar Selection

9. A DOUBLE BUSBAR ARRANGEMENT WITH A SECOND BUS SECTION

There are situations where it is necessary to ensure that pairs of circuits are normally selected on to zones of busbar
that are separated by two circuit breakers, except under busbar maintenance conditions where they will be on adjacent
zones of busbar. Again, this case is a requirement from a system reliability point of view when considering busbar
double zone faults, to guard against more than one pair of circuits being lost from the system. This will be discussed
under “Busbar Arrangements and the Consequences of Faults”.

As with all the previous cases, if one of the lines F1 or F2 is removed for maintenance purposes, then only the
applicable end customer will loose supply. If any of the transformers are removed from service, supply could be
maintained via the remaining transformer unit, providing it has adequate capacity.

The supply can be even less interruptible than the previous cases, e.g. furnaces and mines. The overall classification
of this system is a Planning Level 1 with both transformers under any busbar zone outage always remaining on
separate zones of busbar.

F1 F2

Bus Bus
Coupler ‘A’ B/S 2 Coupler ’B’
Busbar 2A Busbar 2B

B/S 1
Busbar 1A Busbar 1B

T1 T2

Figure 6-2.8: Two Feeders and Transformers, Four Zones of Busbar, Double Busbar Selection

10. MULTIPLE TRANSFORMER FEEDER PAIRS

The busbar concepts can easily be extended to cater for larger numbers of transformer-feeder pairs. It is good design
and operating practice to have feeders and transformers positioned in such a manner

F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 F6
FEEDER
PAIR

FEEDER
PAIR

B/S 2
B/B 2A B/B 2B

B/C ‘A’ B/C ‘B’

B/S 1
B/B 1A B/B 1B

T1 T2 T3

Figure 6-2.9: Multiple Feeders and Transformers, Multiple Zone Arrangement, Double Busbar Selection

SLDG 6-3

BUSBAR ARRANGEMENTS AND THE CONSEQUENCES OF FAULTS

1. INTRODUCTION

The purpose of this chapter is to build the concept of a substation busbar system in much the same way as was done in
SLDG 6-2 by starting with the simplest of substation layouts and developing this through to the most complex of busbar
arrangements by referring in this case to the impact of electrical faults at various positions in the circuits and bus system.
The effects of Maintenance and how to design for availability and reliability based on maintenance was discussed in
SLDG 6-2 since these require one to consider isolator switching. In this chapter only the opening of circuit breakers due
to uncontrolled automated intervention will be considered.

The above explanation will ultimately lead to the classification of substations in terms of availability of electrical circuits
under fault conditions. Consequently, an understanding of what is meant by Planning Levels 1, 2 and 3 will then be
developed even further.

In order to understand the discussion below when certain terminology is used, some brief explanation is provided below.

1.1 Outboard

This means on the “line side”, “transformer side”, “capacitor bank side”, “reactor side”, i.e. not on the busbar side of.

1.2 Current Transformer Markings

The current transformer terminals are marked P1 and P2. The CT is always orientated in such a manner that the P1
terminal faces the circuit breaker and consequently the P2 terminal faces away from the breaker. This is due to the
manner in which a CT is constructed where a fault occurring on the P1 side is determined to be a Buszone fault. This
includes the so called End Zone fault. A fault on the P2 side of the CT, which includes a fault onto the head of the CT, is
determined to be a “line” fault, i.e. a fault that is outboard of the CT. (see Current Transformers SLDG 28-1 for in-depth
explanation)

F1(S)

Outboard Legend
P2
End Zone F1(P): Feeder 1 on the
P1 Primary (HV) Side

F1(S): Feeder 1 on the

T1 Secondary (MV) Side

T1: Transformer 1
P1 End Zone
P2

Outboard

F1(P)

Figure 6-3.1: Line Banked Transformer End Zone and Outboard Faults

1.3 Line Banked Transformer/Transformer-Feeder

A line banked transformer or sometimes referred to as a transformer-feeder is the case where a transmission or
distribution line terminates onto a transformer through some primary plant without first being connected to a portion of

busbar as illustrated in Figure 6-3.1. This is often done to save on unnecessary busbar infrastructure and expensive
Buszone protection.

1.4 Buszone and Buszone Faults

The buszone is that region the busbar and circuit layout enclosed between all P1 terminals. The buszone may itself be
comprised of sub-zones which are determined by the regions between all P1 terminals which include the CTs of bus
couplers and bus sections. The extent of the sub-zones depends on which circuits are selected to a particular zone.
Figure 6-3.2 illustrates a typical busbar layout with four sub-zones, Zone 1 (BB1A), Zone 2 (BB1B), Zone 3 (BB2A) and
Zone 4 (BB2B). Schemes may be extended to more than 4 zones.

Since F1(S) and T1(S) are selected onto BB1A, the buszone will include these two circuits. This is determined by the
isolator selected onto that zone of busbar by means of the isolator auxiliary contacts (see SLDG 26-5). In a similar
manner, BB2B will include F2(S) and T2(S). On the other hand, BB2A and BB1B have no additional circuits connected,
hence the buszone only include the bus couplers, bus sections and associated busbar, viz. BC’A’, BS1 and BB1B, and
BC’B’, BS2 and BB2A.

F1(S) F2(S)
End Zone
Coverage

P2 P2
P1 P1
P2 P1 P1 P2
BB2A Zone 2 Zone 4 BB2B
P2 P2
BS2
P1 P1
End Zone
Coverage P1 P2 P1 P1 P2 P1 End Zone
Coverage
P2 P2
Zone 1 Zone 3
BB1A BS1 BB1B

P1 P1
P2 P2
Buszone
T1 T2 Protection
End Zone
Coverage
P1 P1
P2 P2

F1(P) F2(P)

Figure 6-3.2: Buszone of a Busbar System

Any faults occurring within the said buszone regions will be cleared by the operation of the Buszone Protection. Any
faults occurring outboard of the CTs on the “line” circuits connected to the busbars will be cleared by the respective
circuit protection, e.g. feeders will be cleared by the feeder protection, transformers by transformer protection, shunt
capacitors by shunt capacitor protection and so on.

1.5 End Zone and End Zone Faults

The “end zone” is a term used to describe the conductor connected area between a circuit breaker and its corresponding
current transformer(s) as illustrated in Figure 6-3.1 and 6-3.2.

An end zone fault is therefore a fault that occurs within this region and can be due to a flashover, a current transformer
secondary core insulation failure, or a circuit breaker that fails to open when given the signal as a result of a stuck pole.
These will all result in a buszone fault.

A fault anywhere in the end zones of bus couplers and bus sections can result in more than one zone of busbar taken
out of circuit, resulting in the loss of multiple circuits.

1.6 Overlapping Current Transformers

Overlapping current transformers refer to the case were two sets of current transformers are employed in bus couplers
and bus sections. This is a philosophy that is used particularly at stations were fast circuit breaker tripping is essential for
system stability purposes and the protection of expensive plant such as generators. Buszone protection is inherently fast
acting and is therefore current policy to implement overlapping current transformers at all power stations.

P2 P1 P1 P2
BB2A Zone 2
P2
BS2
P1

P1 P2 P1 P1 P2
P2
BB1A Zone 1
BS1

Figure 6-3.3: Overlapping Current Transformers

2. A TRANSFORMER-FEEDER ARRANGEMENT

The simplest “transformation substation” arrangement comprises a line terminating onto a transformer of appropriate
transformer voltage ratio through some equipment. In this case, there is no busbar and is essentially a feed-in/feed-out
arrangement as illustrated in Figure 6-3.4. If any part of the system is removed due to a fault purposes, the supply to the
end customer will be lost (see Figure 6-3.5). The supply must therefore be highly interruptible, e.g. domestic customers.

F1(S)

P2
P1

P1
P2

F1(P)
Figure 6-3.4: Line Banked Transformer, No Busbar

Outboard of secondary CT Between secondary CT & Between primary CT & Outboard of primary CT
Fault Condition Transformer Differential
Line Fault CB End Zone Fault CB End Zone Fault Line Fault

F1(S) and Remote F1(P) F1(P) and Remote F1(P)

Circuit Breakers F1(S) CB opens F1(P) CB opens F1(P) and F1(S) CBs open
CBs open CBs open

Supply Loss to F(S). F(S) Total Supply Loss. F(S) & Total Supply Loss Total Supply Loss F(S), T1
Consequence Supply Loss to F1(S)
& T1 Out T1 Out F(S), T1 & F(P) Out & F(P) Out

F1(S) F1(S) F1(S) F1(S) F1(S)

P2 P2 P2 P2 P2
P1 P1 P1 P1 P1

Diagram T1 T1 T1 T1 T1

P1 P1 P1 P1 P1
P2 P2 P2 P2 P2

F1(P) F1(P) F1(P) F1(P) F1(P)

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)

Figure 6-3.5: Fault Conditions on a Radial Feed

Availability Map: Single Transformer Feeder

F1(S) line

F1(P) line
F1(P) EZ
F1(S)/T1
BZ & EZ
Fault

T1 Diff
Condition

Fault
fault

fault

fault
Affected
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)
Circuits

F1(S) X X X X X

T1(S) - X X X X

T1 - - X X X

F1(P) - - - X X

- Available to carry out function

X Not available to carry out function

3. A TRANSFORMER-BUSBAR-FEEDER ARRANGEMENT

The arrangement shown in Figure 6-3.6 is essentially still a Transformer-Feeder except that the transformer and the
feeder both terminate onto a zone of busbar, each through some equipment. As with the previous case, if any part is
removed from service due to a fault, the supply to the end customer is lost as illustrated in Figure 6-3.7. The supply
must therefore be highly interruptible, e.g. domestic customers

F1(S)

P2
P1

Busbar

P1
P2

F1(P)

Figure 6-3.6: Line Banked Transformer with a Busbar on the secondary Side of the Transformer, One Zone
of busbar, Single Busbar Selection

Outboard of Between secondary CT Busbar Between secondary CT Between primary CT & Outboard of primary
Fault secondary CT & CB & CB CB CT
Transformer Differential
Condition
Line Fault End Zone Fault Buszone Fault End Zone Fault End Zone Fault Line Fault

Circuit F1(S) and T1(S) CBs T1(P) and T1(S) CBs T1(S) and Remote F1(P) T1(P) and Remote
F1(S) CB opens T1(P) CB opens F1(S), Ti(P) CB open
Breakers open open CBs open F1(P) CBs open

Supply Loss to F1(S) Total Supply Loss

Consequ Supply Loss to F1(S). Supply Loss to F1(S). Total Supply Loss. Total Supply Loss F1(S),
Supply Loss to F1(S) F1(S), T1 & F1(P)
ence F1(S), T1 & BB Out F1(S) & BB Out F1(S), BB & T1 Out F1(S), BB & T1 Out BB, T1 & F1(P) out
Out

F1(S) F1(S) F1(S) F1(S) F1(S) F1(S) F1(S)

P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2
P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1

Busbar Busbar Busbar Busbar Busbar Busbar Busbar

Diagram P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1
P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2
T1(S) T1(S) T1(S) T1(S) T1(S) T1(S) T1(S)
T1(P) T1(P) T1(P) T1(P) T1(P) T1(P) T1(P)

P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1
P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2

F1(P) F1(P) F1(P) F1(P) F1(P) F1(P) F1(P)

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g)

Figure 6-3.7: A Single Busbar System with a Single Transformer and Single Feeder

Availability Map: A Single Busbar System with a Single Transformer and Single Feeder

F1(S) BZ &
F1(S) line

F1(P) line
F1(P) EZ
T1 BZ &
EZ fault

EZ fault
Busbar

T1 Diff
Fault
Fault

fault

fault
Condition

Affected
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g)
Circuits

F1(S) X X X X X X X

BB1A - X X X X X X

T1(S) - - - X X X X

T1 - - - X X X X

F1(P) - - - - - X X

- Available to carry out function

X Not available to carry out function

4. A SINGLE BUSBAR ARRANGEMENT WITH AN ADDITIONAL FEEDER

A feeder may be added to the station due to a new client while the transformer capacity is sufficient. The
arrangement in Figure 6-3.8 starts to resemble what one would consider to be a conventional substation. Both
Feeders and the transformer terminate onto the same zone of busbar, each through some equipment. Unlike the
previous case, if one of the lines F1 or F2 is removed due to a fault, then only the applicable end customer will
loose supply. However, if any part of the system from the busbar towards the transformer is removed from service,
then both end customers will be affected.

In the second case where a line is feed by two transformers via a busbar, the end customer will loose supply if
parts towards the line including the busbar are removed for maintenance purposes. If any of the transformers are
removed from service, supply could be maintained via the remaining transformer unit, providing it has adequate
capacity.

The supply must therefore be interruptible, e.g. domestic customers. The overall classification of this system is a
Planning Level 3.

F1(S) F2(S)

P2 P2
P1 P1

Busbar

P1
P2

F1(P)

Figure 6-3.8: Two Feeders with a Single Transformer, One Zone of Busbar, Single Busbar selection

Outboard of secondary Outboard of secondary Between secondary Between secondary Busbar Between secondary
Fault CT CT CT & CB CT & CB CT & CB
Condition
Line Fault Line Fault End Zone Fault End Zone Fault Buszone Fault End Zone Fault

Circuit F1(S) and T1(P) CBs F1(S), F2(S) and T1(S) F1(P), F1(S) and F2(S)
F1(S) CB opens F2(S) CB opens T1(S) CB opens
Breakers open CBs open CBs open
Supply Loss to F1(S) Supply Loss to F1(S) Supply Loss to F1(S) Supply Loss to F1(S),
Consequence Supply Loss to F1(S) Supply Loss to F2(S) & F2(S). F1(S), F2(S) and F2(S). F1(S), F2(S) and T1. F1(S),
& BB Out F2(S) & BB Out F2(S) & BB Out F2(S), BB & T1 Out

F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S)

P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2
P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1
BB BB BB BB BB BB

P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1
Diagram
P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2
T1 T1 T1 T1 T1 T1
P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1
P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2

F1(P) F1(P) F1(P) F1(P) F1(P) F1(P)

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f)

Figure 6-3.9: A Single Busbar System with a Single Transformer and Two Feeders

A Single Busbar System with a Single Transformer and Two Feeders (Continued)
Between primary CT Outboard of primary
Fault Transformer & CB CT
Condition Differential Fault
End Zone Fault Line Fault
Circuit T1(P) and T1(S) CBs T1(S) and Remote T1(P) and Remote
Breakers open F1(P) CBs open F1(P) CBs open
Total Supply Loss. Total Supply Loss. Total Supply Loss.
Consequence F1(S), F2(S), BB & T1 F1(P), F1(S), F2(S), F1(P), F1(S), F2(S),
Out BB & T1 Out BB & T1 Out

F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S)

P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2
P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1
BB BB BB

P1 P1 P1
Diagram
P2 P2 P2
T1 T1 T1
P1 P1 P1
P2 P2 P2

F1(P) F1(P) F1(P)

(g) (h) (i)

Figure 6-3.9: A Single Busbar System with a Single Transformer and Two Feeders (Continued)

Availability Map: A Single Busbar System with Two Feeders and a Single Transformer

F1(S) BZ &

F2(S) BZ &

T1(S) BZ &
F1(S) line

F2(S) line

F1(P) line
BB1A BZ

T1(P) EZ
EZ fault

EZ fault

T1 Diff
Fault
Fault

fault

fault
Condition

Affected
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (c) (d) (e) (f)
Circuits

F1(S) X - X X X X X X X

F2(S) - X X X X X X X X

Busbar - - X X X X X X X

T1(S) - - X X X X X X X

T1 - - - X - X X X X

F1(P) - - - - - - - X X

- Available to carry out function

X Not available to carry out function

5. A SINGLE BUSBAR ARRANGEMENT WITH AN ADDITIONAL TRANSFORMER

It may be the case that a transformer is added to the station to provide a backup transformer supply. Again, the
arrangement is starting to resemble a conventional substation instead of a feeder. Both transformers and the feeder
terminate onto the same zone of busbar, each through some equipment. As with the previous case where if the line
F1 is removed due to a line fault, then the end customer will loose supply.

In this case where the line is feed by two transformers via a busbar, the end customer will loose supply if parts
towards the line including the busbar are removed due to a fault. If any of the transformers are removed from
service, supply could still be maintained via the remaining transformer unit, providing it has adequate capacity.

The supply must therefore still be highly interruptible, e.g. domestic customers. The overall classification of this
system is a Planning Level 3 when considering the busbar and customer only. It is a planning level 2 in terms of the
in-feeds and transformers.

F1(S)

P2
P1

Busbar

P1 P1
P2 P2

T1 T2

P1 P1
P2 P2

F1(P) F2(P)

Figure 6-3.10: Single Feeder with two Transformers, One Zone of Busbar, Single Busbar selection

Outboard of F1(S) Between F1(S) Busbar Between T1(S) Between T2(S)

Fault secondary CT secondary CT & CB secondary CT & CB secondary CT & CB T1 Transformer
Condition Differential Fault
Line Fault End Zone Fault Buszone Fault End Zone Fault End Zone Fault

Circuit T1(S) and T2(S) CBs F1(S), T1(S) and F1(S), T2(S) and F1(S), T1(S) and T2(P) T1(P) and F1(S) CBs
F1(S) CB opens
Breakers open T2(S) CBs open T1(P) CBs open CBs open open
Supply Loss to F1(S), Supply Loss to F1(S),
Supply Loss to F1(S). Supply Loss to F1(S). Supply Loss to T1. T1
Consequence Supply Loss to F1(S) and T1. F1(S), T1 & and T2. F1(S), T2 & BB
F1(S) & BB Out F1(S) & BB Out Out
BB Out Out

F1(S) F1(S) F1(S) F1(S) F1(S) F1(S)

P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2
P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1
BB BB BB BB BB BB

P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1
Diagram P2
P2 P2 P2 P2 P2
T1 T2 T1 T2 T1 T2 T1 T2 T1 T2 T1 T2

P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1
P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2

F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P)

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f)

Figure 6-3.11: A Single Busbar System with Two Transformers and a Single Feeder

Between T1(P) Between F2(P) CT & Outboard of T1(P) Outboard of t2(P) CT

Fault T2 Transformer primary CT & CB CB primary CT
Condition Differential Fault
End Zone Fault End Zone Fault Line Fault Line Fault
Circuit T2(P) and T2(S) CBs T1(S) and Remote T2(S) and Remote F2(P) T1(S) and Remote T2(P) and Remote F2(P)
Breakers open F1(P) CBs open CBs open F1(P) CBs open CBs open
Supply Loss to T2. T2 Supply Loss to T1. Supply Loss to F2(S) Supply Loss to F1(P). Supply Loss to F2(P).
Consequence
Out F1(S) & T1 BB Out and T2. F2(S) & T2 Out F1(P) Out F2(P) Out

F1(S) F1(S) F1(S) F1(S) F1(S)

P2 P2 P2 P2 P2
P1 P1 P1 P1 P1
BB BB BB BB BB

P1 P1 P1 P1 P1
Diagram
P2 P2 P2 P2 P2
T1 T2 T1 T2 T1 T2 T1 T2 T1 T2

P1 P1 P1 P1 P1
P2 P2 P2 P2 P2

F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P)

(g) (h) (i) (j) (k)

Figure 6-3.11: A Single Busbar System with Two Transformers and a Single Feeder (Continued)

Availability Map: A Single Busbar System with a Single Feeder and Two Transformers

F1(S) BZ &

T1(S) BZ &

T2(S) BZ &
F1(S) line

F2(P) line

F1(S) line
BB1A BZ

F1(P) EZ

F2(P) EZ
EZ fault

EZ fault

T1 Diff

T2 Diff
Fault

Fault
Fault

fault

fault
Condition

Affected
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) (j) (k)
Circuits

F1(S) X X X X X - - - - - -

Busbar - X X X X - - - - - -

T1(S) - X X X X X - X - - X

T2(S) - X X X X - X - X - -

T1 - - - X - X - X - - -

T2 - - - - X - X - X - -

F1(P) - - - - - - - X - - -

F2(P) - - - - - - - - X X -

- Available to carry out function

X Not available to carry out function

6. A SINGLE BUSBAR ARRANGEMENT WITH AN ADDITIONAL FEEDER AND TRANSFORMER

Further development occurs when either a transformer is added to the station to provide a backup transformer
supply in the first case of Figure 6-3.9, or a feeder is added to the station due to a new client, while the transformer
capacity is sufficient, as with the case in Figure 6-3.8. Both cases end up with the arrangement shown in Figure 6-
3.12. Both transformers and feeders terminate onto the same zone of busbar.

As with the previous case, if one of the lines F1 or F2 is removed for maintenance purposes, then only the
applicable end customer will loose supply. If the busbar is removed from service, then both end customers will be
without power.

If any one of the transformers are removed from service, supply could be maintained via the remaining transformer
unit, providing it has adequate capacity.

The supply therefore need not be as interruptible as the previous cases, e.g. domestic customers and some types
of factories. The overall classification of this system is, however, still a Planning Level 3 since there is only one
busbar.

F1(S) F2(S)

P2
P1

Busbar

P1 P1
P2 P2

T1 T2

P1 P1
P2 P2

F1(P) F2(P)
Figure 6-3.12: Two Feeders and transformers, One Zone of Busbar, Single Busbar Selection

Condition

Between F1(S) CT & Between F2(S) CT & Between T1(S) CT & Between T2(S) CT &
Outboard of F1(S) CT Outboard of F2(S) CT Busbar
CB CB CB CB
Line Fault Line Fault Buszone Fault
Fault

End Zone Fault End Zone Fault End Zone Fault End Zone Fault
Breakers

T1(S), T2(S), F2(S) and F1(P), F2(P), F2(S) and F1(S), F2(S), T1(S) F1(S), F2(S), T1(P) F1(S), F2(S), T2(P) and
F1(S) CB opens F1(S) CB opens
Circuit

F1(S) remote CBs open F1(S) remote CBs open and T2(S) CBs open and T2(S) CBs open T1(S) CBs open
Consequence

Supply Loss to F1(S) Supply Loss to F1(S) Supply Loss to F1(S) Supply Loss to F1(S), Supply Loss to F1(S),
Supply Loss of F1(S) Supply Loss of F1(S) and F2(S). F1(S), F2(S) and F2(S). F1(S), F2(S) F2(S). F1(S), F2(S) & F2(S) & T1. F1(S), F2(S) & T2. F1(S),
& BB Out & BB Out BB Out F2(S), T1 & BB Out F2(S), T2 & BB Out

F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S)

P2 P2 P2
P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2
P1 P1 P1
P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1
BB BB BB BB BB BB BB

P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1
P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2
T1 T2 T1 T2 T1 T2 T1 T2 T1 T2 T1 T2 T1 T2
P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1
P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2
Diagram

F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P)

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g)

Figure 6-3.13: A Single Busbar System with Two Feeders and Two Transformers

Between T1(P) CT &

Fault T1 Transformer T2 Transformer Between CT & CB Outboard of T1(P) CT Outboard of T2(P) CT
CB
Condition Differential Fault Differential Fault End Zone Fault Line Fault Line Fault
End Zone Fault
Circuit F1(P) and T1(S) CBs F2(P) and T2(S) CBs T1(S) and remote T2(S) and remote F2(P) F1(P) and remote F2(P) and remote F1(P)
Breakers open open F1(P) CBs open CBs open F1(P) CBs open CBs open
Supply Loss to T1. T1 Supply Loss to T2. T2 Supply Loss to F1(P) & Supply Loss to F2(P) &
Consequence Supply Loss F1(P). Supply Loss F2(P).
Out Out T1. T1 & F1(P) Out T2. T1 & F2(P) Out

F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S)

P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2
P2 P2
P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1
P1 P1
BB BB BB BB BB BB

Diagram P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1
P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2
T1 T2 T1 T2 T1 T2 T1 T1 T2 T1 T2
T2
P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1
P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2

F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P)

(h) (i) (j) (k) (l) (m)

Figure 6-3.13: A Single Busbar System with Two Feeders and Two Transformers (Continued)

Availability Map: A Single Busbar System with Two Transformers and Two Feeders
F1(S) BZ &

F2(S) BZ &

T1(S) BZ &

T2(S) BZ &
F1(S) line

F2(S) line

F1(P) line

F2(P) line
BB1A BZ

F1(P) EZ

F2(P) EZ
EZ fault

EZ fault

T1 Diff

T2 Diff
Fault

Fault
Fault
fault

fault

fault
Condition

Affected
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) (j) (k) (l) (m)
Circuits

F1(S) X - X X X X X - - - - - -

F2(S) - X X X X X X - - - - - -

BB1A - - X X X X X - - - - - -

T1(S) - - X X X X X X - X - - -

T2(S) - - X X X X X - X - X - -

T1 - - - X - X X X - X - - -

T2 - - - - - - X - X - X - -

F1(P) - - - - - - - - - X - X -

F2(P) - - - - - - - - - - X - X

- Available to carry out function

X Not available to carry out function

7. A SINGLE BUSBAR ARRANGEMENT WITH A BUS SECTION ADDED

The problem with the previous arrangement with respect to the loss of the busbar can be partly, but not completely,
overcome by introducing a circuit breaker into the busbar. Each transformer-feeder pair then terminates onto a different
zone of busbar, all circuits through some equipment. The busbar circuit breaker splits the busbar into two zones, so that
if a zone of busbar faults, only one zone is removed at a time. This will obviously affect the relevant transformer-feeder
pair.

As with the previous case, if one of the lines F1(S) or F2(S) is removed for maintenance purposes, then only the
applicable end customer will loose supply. If any of the transformers are removed from service, supply could be
maintained via the remaining transformer unit, providing it has adequate capacity.

F1(S) F2(S)

P2
P1

Busbar Bus Section

P1 P1
P2 P2

T1 T2

P1 P1
P2 P2

F1(P) F2(P)

Figure 6-3.14: Two Feeders, Two Transformers and a Bus Section, One zone of Busbar, Single Busbar Selection

Between F1(S) CT & Between F2(S) CT &

Fault Outboard of F1(S) CT Outboard of F2(S) CT Busbar A Busbar B Between BS CT & CB
CB CB
Condition Line Fault Line Fault Buszone Fault Buszone Fault End Zone Fault
End Zone Fault End Zone Fault
Circuit F1(S), F2(S), T1(S) F1(S), F2(S), T1(S) F1(S), BS and T1(S) F2(S), BS and T2(S) F1(S), F2(S), T1(S)
F1(S) CB opens F2(S) CB opens
Breakers and T2(S) CBs open and T2(S) CBs open CBs open CBs open and T2(S) CBs open
Supply Loss to F1(S) Supply Loss to F1(S) Supply Loss to F1(S)
and & F2(S). F1(S), and & F2(S). F1(S), Supply Loss to F1(S). Supply Loss to F2(S). and F2(S). F1(S),
Consequence Supply Loss of F1(S) Supply Loss of F2(S)
F1(S) & BB”A” Out F2(S) & BB”B” Out
F2(S) & BB Out F2(S) & BB Out F2(S) & BB Out

F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S)

P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2
P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1
BB BB BB BB BB”A” BB”B BB
)
Diagram P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1
P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2
T1 T2 T1 T2 T1 T2 T1 T2 T1 T2 T1 T2 T1 T2

P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1
P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2

F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P)

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g)

Figure 6-3.15: A Single Busbar System with Two Transformers, Two Feeders and a Bus Section, Tow Zones of Busbar

Between T1(S) CT & Between T1(P) CT & Between T2(P) CT &

Fault Between T2(S) CT & CB T1 Transformer T2 Transformer Outboard of T1(P) CT
CB CB CB
Condition End Zone Fault Differential Differential Line Fault
End Zone Fault End Zone Fault End Zone Fault
Circuit T1(P), BS and F1(S) T2(P), BS and F2(S) CBs T1(S) and T1(P) CBs T2(S) and T2(P) CBs T1(P) and Remote T2(P) and Remote T1(P) and Remote
Breakers CBs open open open open F1(P) CBs open F2(P) CBs open F1(P) CBs open
Supply Loss to F1(S) Supply Loss to F1(P) & Supply Loss to F2(P)
Supply Loss to F2(S). Supply Loss to T1(S) Supply Loss to T2(S)
Consequence and T1. F1(S), T1(S) & T1. F1(S), F1 & T1(P) & T2. F1(S), F2 & Supply Loss F1(P).
T2(S) & BB1B Out and T1(P). T1 Out and T2(P). T2 Out
BB1A Out Out T2(P) Out

F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S)

P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2
P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1
BB’A’ BB’B’ BB BB BB BB BB

Diagram P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1
P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2
T1 T2 T1 T2 T1 T2 T1 T2 T1 T2 T1 T2 T1 T2

P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1
P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2

F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P)

(h) (i) (j) (k) (l) (m) (n)

Figure 6-3.15: A Single Busbar System with Two Transformers, Two Feeders and a Bus Section, Tow Zones of Busbar (Continued)

Availability Map: A Single Busbar System with Two Transformers, Two Feeders and a Bus Section
F1(S) BZ &

F2(S) BZ &

T1(S) BZ &

T2(S) BZ &
F1(S) line

F2(S) line

F1(P) line

F2(P) line
BB1A BZ

BB1B BZ

T1(P) EZ

T2(P) EZ
EZ fault

EZ fault

EZ fault
BS1 EZ

T1 Diff

T2 Diff
Fault

Fault
Fault
fault

fault

fault
Condition

Affected
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) (j) (k) (l) (m) (n) (o)
Circuits
X
F1(S) X - X - X - X - - - - - - -
X
F2(S) - X - X - X - X - - - - - -
X
BB1A - - X - X - X - - - - - - -
X
BB1B - - - X - X - X - - - - - -
X
BS - - X X X X X X - - - - - -
X
T1(S) - - X - X - X - X X - - -
X
T2(S) - - - X - X - X - X X - -

T1 - - - - - - - X X - X - -

T2 - - - - - - - - X X - X - -

F1(P) - - - - - - - - - X - X - X -

F2(P) - - - - - - - - - - X - X - X

- Available to carry out function

X Not available to carry out function

8. A DOUBLE BUSBAR ARRANGEMENT WITH A BUS COUPLER ADDED

In the previous arrangement where the busbar is split into two zone, the issue regarding the loss of the busbar can be
partly overcome by introducing a second busbar running parallel with the first, and coupling the two busbars with a circuit
breaker in much the same way, except that the direction of coupling is perpendicular to the last case. The two busbars
form the two zones and each transformer-feeder pair can be selected onto the same or different zones of busbar by
adding busbar selectable isolators. Busbar maintenance can now be carried out by selecting all circuits onto one bar,
and the other busbar removed from service. In the event of a busbar fault, the associated circuits will be lost temporarily.
By relinking the lost transformer and feeder onto the healthy busbar, supply can be restored fairly quickly. The overall
classification of this system is a Planning Level 2.

F1(S) F2(S)

P2
P1
Bus
Coupler ‘A’
Busbar 2

Busbar 1

P1 P1
P2 P2

T1 T2

P1 P1
P2 P2

F1(P) F2(P)

Figure 6-3.16: Two Feeders, Two Transformers, Double Busbar Selection

Between F1(S) CT & Between F2(S) CT &

Fault Outboard of F1(S) CT Outboard of F2(S) CT Busbar 1 Busbar 2 Between BC CT & CB
CB CB
Condition Line Fault Line Fault Buszone Fault Buszone Fault End Zone Fault
End Zone Fault End Zone Fault
Circuit T1(S), BC’A’ and F1(S) T2(S), BC and F2(S) F1(S), BC and T1(S) F2(S), T2(S) and BC F1(S), F2(S), T1(S)
F1(S) CB opens F2(S) CB opens
Breakers remote CBs open remote CBs open CBs open CBs open and T2(S) CBs open
Supply Loss to F1(S),
F2(S), T1(S) and
Supply Loss to F1(S). Supply Loss to F2(S). Supply Loss to F1(S). Supply Loss to F2(S). T2(S). F1(S),
Consequence Supply Loss of F1(S) Supply Loss of F2(S)
F1(S) & BB1 Out F2(S) & BB2 Out F1(S) & BB1 Out F2(S) & BB2 Out
F2(S), T1(S), T2(S),
BB1 & BB2 Out

F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S)

P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2
P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1
BC BC BC BC BC BC BC
BB2 BB2 BB2 BB2 BB2 BB2 BB2

BB1 BB1 BB1 BB1 BB1 BB1 BB1

Diagram
P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1
P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2
T1 T2 T1 T2 T1 T2 T1 T2 T1 T2 T1 T2 T1 T2

P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1
P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2

F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P)

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g)

Figure 6-3:17: A Double Busbar System with Two Transformers, Two Feeders and a Bus Coupler

Between T1(S) CT & Between T2(S) CT & Between T1(P) CT & Between T2(P) CT &
Fault T1 Transformer T2 Transformer Outboard of F1(P) CT
CB CB CB CB
Condition Differential Fault Differential Fault Line Fault
End Zone Fault End Zone Fault End Zone Fault End Zone Fault
Circuit F1(S), BC and T1(P) F2(S), BC and T2(P) T1(S) and T1(P) CBs T2(S) and T2(P) CBs T1(S) and F1(P) T2(S) and F2(P)
F1(P) CB opens
Breakers CBs open CBs open open open Remote CBs open Remote CBs open

Supply Loss F1(S), Supply Loss F2(S), Supply Loss to T1. Supply Loss to T2 Supply Loss F1(P), Supply Loss F2(P),
Consequence Supply Loss of F1(P)
T1(S) & T1. T2(S) & T2. T1(S) and T1 Out T2(S) and T2 Out T1(P), T1(S) & T1. T2(P), T2(S) & T2.

F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S)

P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2
P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1
BC BC BC BC BC BC BC
BB2 BB2 BB2 BB2 BB2 BB2 BB2

BB1 BB1 BB1 BB1 BB1 BB1 BB1

Diagram
P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1
P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2
T1 T2 T1 T2 T1 T2 T1 T2 T1 T2 T1 T2 T1 T2

P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1
P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2

F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P)

(h) (i) (j) (k) (l) (m) (n)

Figure 6-3:17: A Double Busbar System with Two Transformers, Two Feeders and a Bus Coupler (Continued)

Availability Map: A Double Busbar System with Two Transformers, Two Feeders and a Bus Coupler
F1(S) BZ &

F2(S) BZ &

T1(S) BZ &

T2(S) BZ &
F1(S) line

F2(S) line

F1(P) line

F2(P) line
BB1A BZ

BB2A BZ

F1(P) EZ

F2(P) EZ
BCA EZ
EZ fault

EZ fault

T1 Diff

T2 Diff
Fault

Fault
Fault
fault

fault

fault
Condition

Affected
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) (j) (k) (l) (m) (n) (o)
Circuits

F1(S) X - X - X - X X - - - - - - -

F2(S) - X - X - X X - X - - - - - -

BB1A - - X - X - X X - - - - - - -

BB2A - - - X - X X - X - - - - - -

BC - - X X X X X X X - - - - - -

T1(S) - - X - X - X X - X - X - - -

T2(S) - - - X - X X - X - X - X - -

T1 - - - - - - - X - X - X - - -

T2 - - - - - - - - X - X - X - -

T1(P) - - - - - - - X - X - X - X -

T2(P) - - - - - - - - X - X - X - X

- Available to carry out function

X Not available to carry out function

9. A DOUBLE BUSBAR ARRANGEMENT WITH A BUS SECTION AND BUS COUPLER ADDED

In the previous case, the consequence of loosing one zone of busbar due to a fault is that both pairs of transformer-
feeder circuits are then selected onto one zone of busbar. There are cases where it is necessary to ensure that pairs of
circuits always remain on separate zones even in the case of any one of the zones of busbar are lost because of a fault
and the pair of circuits need to be reselected onto a healthy zone of busbar. Again, this case is a requirement more from
a system reliability point of view when considering busbar zone faults, to guard against more than one pair of circuits
being lost from the system if another zone of busbar faults.

Figure 6-3.18 (a) has the disadvantage that when the “middle” busbar zone is removed from service due to a faulty unit,
the bus system will be split in two, and the transformers may be unevenly loaded, perhaps even one being under-loaded
while the other overloaded. To obviate this situation, the busbar loop is closed with a second bus coupler. This then
holds the bus system together, regardless of which zone is lost due to a fault.

As with the previous case, if one of the lines F1(S) or F2(S) is tripped, then only the applicable end customer will loose
supply. If any of the transformers trip, supply will be maintained via the remaining transformer unit, providing it has
adequate capacity.

The supply therefore has a greater availability than the previous cases, e.g. furnaces and mines. The overall
classification of this system is a Planning Level 1.

F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S)

P2 P2 P2 P2
P1 P1 P1 P1
Bus Bus Bus
Coupler ‘A’ Coupler ‘A’ Coupler ‘B’
Busbar 2 Busbar 2
Bus Section 2

Bus Section 1 Bus Section 1

Busbar 1B
Busbar 1A Busbar 1B
Busbar 1A

P1 P1 P1 P1
P2 P2 P2 P2

T1 T2 T1 T2

P1 P1 P1 P1
P2 P2 P2 P2

F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P)

a) One Bus Coupler, Open Loop b) Two Bus Couplers, Closed Loop

Figure 6-3.18: Two Feeders, Two Transformers, One Bus Section, Three Zones of Busbar, Double Busbar
Selection

Between F1(S) CT & Between F2(S) CT &

Fault Outboard of F1(S) CT Outboard of F2(S) CT Busbar 1A Busbar 1B Busbar 2
CB CB
Condition Line Fault Line Fault Buszone Fault Buszone Fault Buszone Fault
End Zone Fault End Zone Fault
Circuit T1(S), BC and BS CBs T2(S) and BS CBs F1(S), T1(S) and BC F2(S), T2(S) and BC
F1(S) CB opens F2(S) CB opens BS CBs open
Breakers open open CBs open CBs open
Supply Loss to F1(S) Supply Loss to F2(S) Supply Loss to F1(S). Supply Loss to F2(S).
and T1(S). F1(S), and T2(S). F2(S), No Supply Loss. BB1B
Consequence Supply Loss of F1(S) Supply Loss of F2(S) F1(S), T1(S) and F2(S), T2(S) and BB2
Out
BB1A & T1(S) Out BB1B & T2(S) Out BB1A Out Out

F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S)

P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2
P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1
BC BC BC BC BC BC BC
BB2 BB2 BB2 BB2 BB2 BB2 BB2

BS BS BS BS BS BS BS
1B 1B 1B 1B 1B 1B 1B
Diagram BB1A
P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1
P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2
T1 T2 T1 T2 T1 T2 T1 T2 T1 T2 T1 T2 T1 T2

P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1
P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2

F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P)

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g)

Figure 6-3.19: A Double Busbar System with Two Transformers, Two Feeders, a Bus Coupler and a Bus Section

Between T1(S) CT & Between T2(S) CT &

Fault Between BC CT & CB Between BS CT & CB T1 Transformer T2 Transformer Between T1(P) CT
CB CB
Condition End Zone Fault End Zone Fault Differential Fault Differential Fault End Zone Fault
End Zone Fault End Zone Fault
F1(S), F2(S), T1(S),
Circuit F1(S), T1(S) and BC F1(S), T1(P), BC and F2(S), T2(P) and BC T1(S) and T1(P) CBs T2(S) and T2(P) CBs T1(S) and Remote
T2(S) and BS CBs
Breakers CBs open BS CBs open CBs open open open F1(P) CBs open
open

Supply Loss to F1(S) Supply Loss to F1(S). Supply Loss to F1(S) Supply Loss to F2(S) Supply Loss to F1(P)
Supply Loss to T1. Supply Loss to T2
Consequence and F2(S). F1(S) & F1(S), BC, BS, BB1A and T1. F1(S), T1(P), and T2. F2(S), T2(P), and T1.
T1(S) and T1 Out T2(S) and T2 Out
BB1A Out & BB1B Out T1(S) & BB1A Out BC, T2(S) & BB2 Out F1(P), T1 & T1(S) Out

F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S)

P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2
P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1
BC BC BC BC BC BC BC
BB2 BB2 BB2 BB2 BB2 BB2 BB2

BS BS BS BS BS BS BS 1B
1B 1B 1B 1B 1B 1B
Diagram
P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1
P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2
T1 T2 T1 T2 T1 T2 T1 T2 T1 T2 T1 T2 T1 T2

P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1
P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2

F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P)

(h) (i) (j) (k) (l) (m) (n)

Figure 6-3.19: A Double Busbar System with Two Transformers, Two Feeders, a Bus Coupler and a Bus Section (Continued)

Fault Between T2(P) CT Outboard of F1(P) CT Outboard of F2(P) CT

Condition End Zone Fault Line Fault Line Fault
Circuit T2(S) and Remote
F1(P) CB opens F2(P) CB opens
Breakers F2(P) CBs open
Supply Loss to F2(P)
Consequence and T2. Supply Loss of F1(P) Supply Loss of F2(P)
F2(P), T2 & T2(S) Out

F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S)

P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2
P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1
BC BC BC
BB2 BB2 BB2

BS BS BS
1B 1B 1B
Diagram
P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1
P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2
T1 T2 T1 T2 T1 T2

P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1
P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2

F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P)

(o) (p) (q)

Figure 6-3.19: A Double Busbar System with Two Transformers, Two Feeders, a Bus Coupler and a Bus Section (Continued)

Availability Map: A Double Busbar System with Two Transformers, Two Feeders, a Bus Coupler and a Bus Section
F1(S) BZ &

F2(S) BZ &

T1(S) BZ &

T2(S) BZ &
F1(S) line

F2(S) line

F1(P) line

F2(P) line
BB1A BZ

BB1B BZ

BB2A BZ

F1(P) EZ

F2(P) EZ
BCA EZ
EZ fault

EZ fault

EZ fault
BS1 EZ

T1 Diff

T2 Diff
Fault

Fault
Fault
fault

fault

fault
Condition

Affected
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) (j) (k) (l) (m) (n) (o) (p) (q)
Circuits

F1(S) X - X - X - - X X X - - - - - - -

F2(S) - X - X - - X X - - X - - - - - -

BB1A - - X - X - - X X X - - - - - - -

BB1B - - - - - X - - X - - - - - - - -

BB2A - - - X - - X X - - X - - - - - -

T1(S) - - X - X - - X X X - X - X - - -

T2(S) - - - X - - X X - - X - X - X - -

T1 - - - - - - - - - X - X - - - -

T2 - - - - - - - - - - X - X - X - -

T1(P) - - - - - - - - - - - X - - - - -

T2(P) - - - - - - - - - - - - X - X - X

- Available to carry out function

X Not available to carry out function

Between F1(S) CT & Between F2(S) CT &

Fault Outboard of F1(S) CT Outboard of F2(S) CT Busbar 1A Busbar 1B Busbar 2
CB CB
Condition Line Fault Line Fault Buszone Fault Buszone Fault Buszone Fault
End Zone Fault End Zone Fault
Circuit T1(S), BCA and BS T2(S), BCA and BCB F1(S), T1(S), BCA and F2(S), T2(S), BCA and
F1(S) CB opens F1(S) CB opens BCB and BS CBs open
Breakers CBs open CBs open BS CBs open BCB CBs open
Supply Loss to F1(S). Supply Loss to F2(S). Supply Loss to F1(S). Supply Loss to F2(S).
No Supply Loss. BCB,
Consequence Supply Loss of F1(S) Supply Loss of F2(S) F1(S), T1(S), BB1A, T2(S), BB2, BCA & F1(S), T1(S), BCA, BS F2(S), T2(S), BCA,
BS and BB1B out.
BCA & BS Out BCB Out and BB1A out. BCB & BB2 Out

F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S)

P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2
P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1
BCA BCB BCA BCB BCA BCB BCA BCB BCA BCB BCA BCB BCA BCB
BB2 BB2 BB2 BB2 BB2 BB2 BB2

BS1 BS1 BS1 BS1 BS1 BS1 BS1

Diagram BB1A BB1B BB1A BB1B BB1A BB1B BB1A BB1B BB1A BB1B BB1A BB1B BB1A BB1B
P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1
P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2
T1 T2 T1 T2 T1 T2 T1 T2 T1 T2 T1 T2 T1 T2

P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1
P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2

F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P)

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g)

Figure 6-3.20: A Double Busbar System with Two Transformers, Two Feeders, Two Bus Couplers and a Bus Section

Between BC’A’ CT & Between BC’B’ CT & Between T1(S) CT & Between T2(S) CT &
Fault Between BS CT & CB T1 Transformer T2 Transformer
CB CB CB CB
Condition End Zone Fault Differential Fault Differential Fault
End Zone Fault End Zone Fault End Zone Fault End Zone Fault
F1(S), T1(S), F2(S),
Circuit F2(S), T2(S), BCA and F1(S), T1(S), BCA and F1(S), T1(P), BCA and F2(S), T2(P), BCA and T1(S) and T1(P) CBs T2(S) and T2(P) CBs
T2(S), BCB and BS1
Breakers BS CBs open BCB CBs open BS CBs open BCB CBs open open open
CBs open
Supply Loss to F1(S)
Supply Loss to F2(S). Supply Loss to F1(S). Supply Loss to F1(S) Supply Loss to F2(S)
and F2(S). F1(S), Supply Loss to T2
F2(S), T2(S), BCA, F1(S), T1(S), BCA, and T1. F1(S), and T2. F2(S), Supply Loss to T1.
Consequence T1(S), F2(S), T2(S),
BCB, BS, BB1B & BB2 BCB, BB1A & BB1B T1(S),BCA, BS & BB1A T2(S),BCA, BCB & BB2 T1(S) and T1 Out T2(S) and T2 Out
BCA, BCB, BB1A &
Out Out Out Out
BB2 Out

F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S)

P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2
P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1
BCA BCB BCA BCB BCA BCB BCA BCB BCA BCB BCA BCB BCA BCB
BB2 BB2 BB2 BB2 BB2 BB2 BB2

BS1 BS1 BS1 BS1 BS1 BS1 BS1

P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1
P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2

F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P)

(h) (i) (j) (k) (l) (m) (n)

Figure 6-3.20: A Double Busbar System with Two Transformers, Two Feeders, Two Bus Couplers and a Bus Section

Between T1(P) CT & Between T2(P) CT & Outboard of secondary Outboard of secondary
Fault CB CB CT CT
Condition
End Zone Fault End Zone Fault Line Fault Line Fault
Circuit T1(P) and F1(P) T2(P) and F2(P)
F1(P) CB opens F2(P) CB opens
Breakers Remote CBs open Remote CBs open
Supply Loss to T1 and Supply Loss to T2 and
Consequence Supply Loss of F1(P) Supply Loss of F2(P)
F1(P). F1(P) & T1 Out F2(P). F2(P) & T2 Out

F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S)

P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2
P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1
BB2 BB2 BB2 BB2

BS1 BS1 BS1 BS1

Diagram BB1A BB1B BB1A BB1B BB1A BB1B BB1A BB1B

P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1
P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2
T1 T2 T1 T2 T1 T2 T1 T2

P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1
P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2

F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P)

(o) (p) (q) (r)

Figure 6-3.20: A Double Busbar System with Two Transformers, Two Feeders, Two Bus Couplers and a Bus Section

Availability Map: A Double Busbar System with Two Transformers, Two Feeders, Two Bus Couplers and a Bus Section
F1(S) BZ &

F2(S) BZ &

T1(S) BZ &

T2(S) BZ &
F1(S) line

F2(S) line

F1(P) line

F2(P) line
BB1A BZ

BB1B BZ

T1(P) EZ

T2(P) EZ
BCA EZ

BCB EZ
EZ fault

EZ fault

BB2 BZ

EZ fault

EZ fault
BS2 EZ

T1 Diff

T2 Diff
Fault

Fault
Fault
fault

fault

fault
Condition

Affected
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) (j) (k) (l) (m) (n) (o) (p) (q) (r)
Circuits

F1(S) X - X - X - - X - X X - - - - - - -

F2(S) - X - X - - X X X - - X - - - - - -

BB1A - - X - X - - X - X X - - - - - - -

BB1B - - - - - X - - - X - - - - - - - -

BB2 - - - X - - X X X - - X - - - - - -

T1(S) - - X - X - - X - X X - X - X - - -

T2(S) - - - X - - X X X - - X - X - X - -

T1 - - - - - - - - - - X - X - X - - -

T2 - - - - - - - - - - - X - X - X - -

F1(P) - - - - - - - - - - - - X - X - X -

F2(P) - - - - - - - - - - - - - X - X - X

- Available to carry out function

X Not available to carry out function

10. A DOUBLE BUSBAR ARRANGEMENT WITH A SECOND BUS SECTION

There are also cases where it is necessary to ensure that pairs of circuits are normally selected on to zones of busbar
that are separated by two circuit breakers at all times. Again, this case is a requirement from a system reliability point of
view when considering busbar double zone faults, to guard against more than one pair of circuits being lost from the
system.

As with all the previous cases, if one of the lines F1(S) or F2(S) is lost due to a fault, then only the applicable end
customer will loose supply. If any of the transformers trip, supply could be maintained via the remaining transformer
unit, providing it has adequate capacity. This will be the case even with a double zone fault.

The overall classification of this system is a Planning Level 1.

F1(S) F2(S)

P2 P2
P1 P1
Bus Bus
Coupler ‘A’ Coupler ‘B’
Busbar 2A Busbar 2B
Bus Section 2

Bus Section 1

Busbar 1A Busbar 1B

P1 P1
P2 P2

T1 T2

P1 P1
P2 P2

F1(P) F2(P)

Figure 6-3.21: Two Feeders, Two Transformers, Two Bus Couplers, Two Bus Sections, Four Zones of Busbar,
Double Busbar Selection

Between F1(S) CT & Between F2(S) CT &

Fault Outboard of F1(S) CT Outboard of F2(S) CT Busbar 1A Busbar 1B Busbar 2A
CB CB
Condition Line Fault Line Fault Buszone Fault Buszone Fault Buszone Fault
End Zone Fault End Zone Fault
T1(S), BS1, BCA and T2(S), BS2, BCB and
Circuit F1(S) and Remote F2(S) and Remote F1(S), BS1, BCA and F2(S), BS2, BCB and BCA and BS2 CBs
F1(S) Remote CBs F1(S) Remote CBs
Breakers F1(S) CBs open F2(S) CBs open T1(S) CBs open T2(S) CBs open open
open open
Supply Loss to F1(S). Supply Loss to F1(S). Supply Loss to F1(S). Supply Loss to F2(S).
No Supply Loss. BCA,
Consequence Supply Loss of F1(S) Supply Loss of F2(S) F1(S), BCA, BS1 & F1(S), BCB, BS2 & F1(S), BCA, BS1 & F2(S), BCB, BS1 &
BS2 & BB2A out
BB1A out BB1A out BB1A out BB2B out

F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S)

P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2
P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1
BS2 BS2 BS2 BS2 BS2 BS2 BS2
BB2A BB2B BB2A BB2B BB2A BB2B BB2A BB2B BB2A BB2B BB2A BB2B BB2A BB2B

BS1 BS1 BS1 BS1 BS1 BS1 BS1

P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1
P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2

F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P)

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g)

Figure 6-3.22: A Double Busbar System with Two Transformers, Two Feeders, Two Bus Couplers and Two Bus Sections

Between BCA CT & Between BCB CT &

Fault Busbar 2B Between BS1 CT & Between BS2 CT & Between T1 CT & CB Between T2(S) CT &
CB CB
Condition Buszone Fault CB End Zone Fault CB End Zone Fault End Zone Fault CB End Zone Fault
End Zone Fault End Zone Fault
F2(S), T2(S), BS2,
Circuit F2(S), BS2, BCB and F1(S), BS1, BS2 and F2(S), BS1, BS2 and F1(S), BCA, BCB and F1(S), BCA, BS1 and F2(S), BCB, BS2 and
BCA and BCB CBs
Breakers T2(S) CBs open T1(S) CBs open T2(S) CBs open T1(S) CBs open T1(P) CBs open T2(P) CBs open
open
Supply Loss to F2(S). Supply Loss to F1(S). Supply Loss to F2(S). Supply Loss to F1(S). Supply Loss to F2(S). Supply Loss to F1(S). Supply Loss to F2(S).
Consequence F1(S), BCB, BS2 & F1(S), BCA, BS1, BS2, F2(S), BCB, BS1, BS2, F1(S),BCA, BCB, BS1, F2(S),BCA, BCB, BS!, F1(S), BCA, BS1, F2(S), BCB, BS2, BB2B
BB2B out BB1A & BB2A out BB1B & BB2B out BB1A & BB1B out BB2A & BB2B out BB1A & T1 out & T2 out

F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S)

P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2
P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1
BS2 BS2 BS2 BS2 BS2 BS2 BS2
BB2A BB2B BB2A BB2B BB2A BB2B BB2A BB2B BB2A BB2B BB2A BB2B BB2A BB2B

BS1 BS1 BS1 BS1 BS1 BS1 BS1

P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1
P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2

F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P)

(h) (i) (j) (k) (l) (m) (n)

Figure 6-3.22: A Double Busbar System with Two Transformers, Two Feeders, Two Bus Couplers and Two Bus Sections (Continued)

Between F1(P) CT & Between F2(P) CT &

Fault Transformer T1 Transformer T2 Outboard of F1(P) CT Outboard of F2(P) CT
CB CB
Condition Differential Fault Differential Fault Line Fault Line Fault
End Zone Fault End Zone Fault
Circuit F1(P) and T1(S) CBs F2(P) and T2(S) CBs T1(S) and F1(P) T2(S) and F2(P) F1(P) and Remote F2(P) and Remote
Breakers open open Remote CBs open Remote CBs open F1(P) CBs open F2(P) CBs open
Supply Loss to T1 and Supply Loss to T2 and
Consequence Supply Loss to T1. Supply Loss to T2. F1(P). F1(P) and T1 F2(P). F2(P) and T2 Supply Loss of F1(S) Supply Loss of F2(S)
Out. Out.

F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S) F1(S) F2(S)

P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2
P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1
BS2 BS2 BS2 BS2 BS2 BS2
BB2A BB2B BB2A BB2B BB2A BB2B BB2A BB2B BB2A BB2B BB2A BB2B

BS1 BS1 BS1 BS1 BS1 BS1

Diagram BB1A BB1B BB1A BB1B BB1A BB1B BB1A BB1B BB1A BB1B BB1A BB1B
P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1
P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2
T1 T2 T1 T2 T1 T2 T1 T2 T1 T2 T1 T2

P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1
P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2 P2

F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P) F1(P) F2(P)

(o) (p) (q) (r) (s) (t)

Figure 6-3.22: A Double Busbar System with Two Transformers, Two Feeders, Two Bus Couplers and Two Bus Sections (Continued)

Availability Map: A Double Busbar System with Two Transformers, Two Feeders, Two Bus Couplers and Two Bus Sections
F1(S) BZ &

F2(S) BZ &

T1(S) BZ &

T2(S) BZ &
F1(S) line

F2(S) line

F1(P) line

F2(P) line
BB1A BZ

BB1B BZ

BB2A BZ

BB2B BZ

T1(P) EZ

T2(P) EZ
BCA EZ

BCB EZ
EZ fault

EZ fault

EZ fault
BS1 EZ

BS2 EZ

T1 Diff

T2 Diff
Fault

Fault
Fault
fault

fault

fault
Condition

Affected
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) (j) (k) (l) (m) (n) (o) (p) (q) (r) (s) (t)
Circuits

F1(S) X - X - X - - - X - X - X - - - - - - -

F2(S) - X - X - - - X - X - X - X - - - - - -

BB1A - - X - X - - - X - X - X - - - - - - -

BB1B - - - - - X - - - X X - - - - - - - - -

BB2A - - - - - - X - X - - X - - - - - - - -

BB2B - - - X - - - X - X - X - X - - - - - -

T1(S) - - X - X - - - X - X - X - X - X - - -

T2(S) - - - X - - - X - X - X - X - X - X - -

T1 - - - - - - - - - - - - X - X - X - - -

T2 - - - - - - - - - - - - - X - X - X - -

F1(P) - - - - - - - - - - - - - - X - X - X -

F2(P) - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - X - X - X

- Available to carry out function

X Not available to carry out function

11. MULTIPLE TRANSFORMER FEEDER PAIRS

As before, the busbar concepts can easily be extended to cater for larger numbers of transformer feeder pairs. It is
good design and operating practice to have feeders and transformers positioned in such a manner

F1 F2 F3 F5 F4 F6
FEEDER
PAIR

FEEDER
PAIR

B/B 2B B/S 2
B/B 2A B/B 2C

B/C ‘A’ B/C’B’

B/S 1 B/B 1B
B/B 1A B/B 1C

T1 T2 T3

Figure 6-3.24: Busbar Configuration with Multiple Feeders and Transformers

Comparison of Unavailability Maps (Need to be rechecked)!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

Single Transformer Feeder Single Busbar System with a Single A Single Busbar Arrangement with A Single Busbar Arrangement with Two
Transformer and Single Feeder One Transformer and Two Feeders Transformers & One Feeder
BZ & EZ

BZ & EZ

BZ & EZ
line fault

line fault

line fault
line fault

line fault

EZ fault

EZ fault
EZ fault

EZ fault
F1(S)/T

T1 Diff

T1 Diff
F1(S)

F1(S)

F1(P)

F1(S)

F1(P)

F1(S)

F1(P)

F1(P)
1 BZ &

Fault

Fault
T1 Diff

Fault
fault

fault

fault
F1(S)

F1(P)

F1(P)
Fault

Condition

F1(S) X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X - - -
T1(S) - X X X X - - X X X - X X X X - X X X X
T1 - - X X X - - X X X - - X X X - - X X -
F1(P) - - - X X - - - X X - - - X X - - - X -
Busbar System with Two A Single Busbar System with Two A Double Busbar System with Two A Double Busbar System with Two
Transformers and Two Feeders Transformers, Two Feeders and a Bus Transformers, Two Feeders and a Bus Transformers, Two Feeders, a Bus
Section Coupler Coupler and a Bus Section
F1(S) X X - - - X X - - - X X - - - X X - - -
T1(S) - X X X - - X X X - - X X - - - X X X -
T1 - - X X - - - X X - - - X - - - - X X -
F1(P) - - - X X - - - X X - - - X X - - - X X
Double Busbar System with Two
Transformers, Two Feeders, Two Bus
Couplers and two Bus Sections
F1(S) X X - - -
T1(S) - X X X -
T1 - - X X -
F1(P) - - - X X

BZ & EZ

BZ & EZ
line fault

line fault

line fault
line fault

line fault

EZ fault

EZ fault
EZ fault

EZ fault
F1(S)/T

T1 Diff

T1 Diff
F1(S)

F1(S)

F1(P)

F1(S)

F1(P)

F1(S)

F1(P)

F1(P)
1 BZ &

Fault

Fault
T1 Diff

Fault
fault

fault

fault
F1(S)

F1(P)

F1(P)
Fault

Condition

F1(S)
T1(S)
T1
F1(P)
Busbar System with Two A Single Busbar System with Two A Double Busbar System with Two A Double Busbar System with Two
Transformers and Two Feeders Transformers, Two Feeders and a Bus Transformers, Two Feeders and a Bus Transformers, Two Feeders, a Bus
Section Coupler Coupler and a Bus Section
F1(S)
T1(S)
T1
F1(P)
Double Busbar System with Two
Transformers, Two Feeders, Two Bus
Couplers and two Bus Sections
F1(S)
T1(S)
T1
F1(P)
Double Busbar System with Two
Transformers, Two Feeders, Two Bus
Couplers and two Bus Sections
F1(S)
T1(S)
T1
F1(P)

S.L.D.G. 6-4

SWITCHING ARRANGEMENTS

1. GENERAL - VIEWPOINTS FOR THE CHOICE OF SWITCHING ARRANGEMENTS

Substations and switching stations have the task to guarantee the highest possible security of supply for all consumers
of the network. Faulty network sections should be disconnected as fast as possible and the supply renewed by change-
over switching. The switching layout of a station must therefore be matched to the network configuration.

In meshed networks that have a subordinated meshed network, the failure of a distribution station for example, does not
result in a supply interruption. For such stations a particularly large expenditure for the switching layout is not
necessary. On the other hand in pure radial networks, all load-side connected consumers would be simultaneously
interrupted if the feeder station breaks down. It is further to be considered whether the network has chiefly double or
single-line circuits. For the case of single-line circuits the security of the feeders must be particularly heeded, with the
possible installation of an auxiliary (bypass) busbar.

Further influencing factors for the switching layout selection are:

i) The possibility of network division e.g. to reduce the short circuit power.

ii) The sensitivity of the consumers to supply interruptions.

iii) The mutual influence of the consumers by voltage fluctuations (stations up to 33 kV)

iv) The number of the various high supply-voltages, regulated, unregulated - as well as somewhat higher voltages for
remote consumers (stations up to 33 kV)

The guidance given in this section cannot be exhaustive but gives a choice between several of the more commonly
encountered arrangements. The continuity of service under maintenance and fault conditions for switching
arrangements is categorized as demonstrated in SLDG 6-2 and SLDG 6-3. At this point therefore, it may be necessary
for the reader to visit SLDG 49-1 which discusses single line diagrams, particularly in the case where there is a need to
understand the symbols employed.

Figure 6-4.1 shows some commonly used switching arrangements. In a substation, flexibility can be achieved by the
introduction of sectionalizing of the busbars or by using different arrangements as discussed at length in SLDG 6-3.

More than one of the examples shown in Figure 6-4.1 may be used on the same site but at different voltage levels. This
approach has been exercised in the development of the 765 kV corridor between Gauteng and the Western Cape where
both breaker-and-a-half and double busbar selection philosophies have been used.

It should also be noted that the choice of isolator used (see S.L.D.G. 26-1) may influence the switching arrangement
chosen.

In Figure 6-4.1 earth-switches have been omitted for clarity.

a) Single Busbar Selection b) Single Busbar Selection

c) Single Busbar Selection
Busbar Sectionaliser
with Bypass

d) Double Busbar Selection e) Double Busbar Selection f) Double Busbar Selection

Single Breaker Double Breaker with Bypass Single
Breaker

g) Breaker-and-a-Half i) Extended Ring Busbar

h) Ring Busbar

Denotes connection to
transformer or feeder

Circuit Breaker

Isolator

k) 3-Switch Arrangement j) 3-Switch Arrangement

Figure 6-4.1: Typical Switching Arrangement

Considering the above influences on choice, the following provides suggestions regarding the application of the
individual switching arrangements shown in Figure 6-4.1.

1.1 Single Busbar Arrangements: (Figure 6-4.1 a), b) and c))

Single busbar arrangements are more commonly used for MV and HV substations.

Single busbar with a transfer busbar, and single busbar installations connected as a ring of substations, offers improved
flexibility but limited system security.

These arrangements have little security against busbar faults, little switching flexibility, and involve fairly extensive
outages for busbar and busbar disconnector maintenance.

1.1.1 Single Busbar (Single Busbar Selection)

See Figure 6-4.2. The earth-switches are included for cases where the fault levels are greater than or equal to 20 kA.

1.1.1.1 Features

i) Good overall view; therefore little danger of incorrect switching on part of operator

ii) Low cost (approximately 83 % referred to a 132 kV station in in-line arrangement with double busbar)

iii) Small operational flexibility; with buszone faults or station overhauls the complete station must be disconnected

iv) Disturbance localizing and additional possibilities of group operation and network division is achieved with busbar
sectionalizer (bus section isolator or circuit breaker)

1.1.1.2 Application

i) Points in the network for which an uninterrupted supply is not necessary

Fdr 1 Fdr 2

BB 1A BB 1B

Trfr 1 Trfr 2

Figure 6-4.2a: Single Busbar Arrangement (With Sectionalising Isolator)

Fdr 1 Fdr 2

BB 1A BB 1B

Trfr 1 Trfr 2

Figure 6-3.2b: Single Busbar Arrangement (With Sectionalising Circuit Breaker)

The medium voltage network (Figure 6-4.2b, 22 kV) is expediently divided into island networks. In case of a meshing
and of the division of a 132 kV cable, high equalizing currents in the medium-voltage network, and thereby undesired
tripping, can occur.

1.1.2 Auxiliary (Bypass) Busbar (Single busbar Selection with Bypass) (Figure 6-4.c)

B/B 1A B/B 1B

Bypass
B/B

Trfr 1 Fdr 1 B/S & B/C Fdr 2 Trfr 2

Figure 6-4.3: Auxiliary (Bypass) Busbar Arrangement

1.1.2.1 Features

i) The possibility of switching any circuit breaker without voltage and without disconnection of the relevant feeder-
branch. High security of supply

ii) Through-connection of feeder-branches without circuit breaker and without use of main busbar

iii) Slightly higher costs than for an additional busbar system (approximately 104 % referred to a 132 kV station in in-
line arrangement with double busbars)

iv) With multiple busbars, bus coupler circuit breaker can also serve as reserve circuit breaker

1.1.2.2 Range of Application

i) For network points in which a higher security of supply is required then in the case of single busbar selection, for
example, single-circuit lines are predominantly present.

ii) In connection with multiple busbars for localities with heavy air pollution, when cleaning would result in frequent
unwanted disconnections

1.1.2.3 Special Remarks

The current transformers in the transformer bays are expediently arranged between the transformer and the bypass
isolator TA (Feeder A) so that they remain in the current flow during bus coupler circuit breaker operation. In this way
the protection which is adjusted for the transformer can easily be changed over to the reserve circuit breaker. In
connection with the double busbar the auxiliary (bypass) busbar offers a large security against supply interruptions.
Almost all parts of the installation can, if necessary, be consequently switched without voltage and without interruptions
to the supply.

1.1.2.4 Auxiliary (Bypass) Busbar for the Line Feeder-branches Only

In large transformer stations, although not common, it is occasionally necessary to additionally provide a complete
transformer branch for reserve purposes. In these cases, it is sufficient to co-ordinate the auxiliary (bypass) busbar with
the line feeder-branch. Moreover, in the case that the line feeder-branches all leave the busbar in the one direction,
smaller costs are involved than for an additional busbar system. In connection with a single busbar, this solution is
sometimes technically more advantageous than a double busbar.

1.2 Double and Triple Busbar Arrangements

The double busbar, double busbar with a transfer busbar or triple busbar arrangement is used for large substations
where security of supply is important. These are particularly suitable for highly inter-connected power networks in which
switching flexibility is important and multiple supply routes are available. They are also used for splitting networks that
are only connected in emergency cases.

Circuits in arrangement d) are lost during circuit breaker and instrument transformer maintenance and repairs. When a
by-pass facility is used as in arrangement C, permanent interconnection of the circuit can be maintained during most
maintenance work. It may also be possible to use the by-pass connection after a failure but the possible coincidence of
failure during maintenance should be considered.

1.2.1 Double Busbar (Double Busbar Selection) (Figure 6-4.1d)

See Figure 6-4.4.

1.2.1.1 Features

i) Freedom to choose desired switching connections and uninterrupted division of all feeder-branches into two groups
for disturbance localizing and network division

ii) A "loose coupling" between the two network halves makes possible the use of a lower rated feeder-branch circuit
breaker. Only the coupling circuit breaker is dimensioned for the full short-circuit capacity. On occurrence of a
disturbance, the coupling circuit breaker receives a tripping signal from a fast over-current relay and separates the
networks before the feeder-branch circuit breaker trips

iii) Maintenance of a busbar without supply interruption to the feeder-branches that are connected to the other busbar
during the maintenance time

iv) For maintenance on feeder-branch equipment the relevant feeder-branch must be disconnected. Should the
appropriate construction be provided, the coupling circuit breaker can be used in conjunction with the second busbar
as a temporary feeder-branch circuit breaker. For this purpose, the equipment is bridged by a stranded conductor.
Normally the remote end substation would have an alternative in-feed.

Fdr 1 Fdr 2

B/B 2

B/B 1

Trfr 1 Trfr 2

Figure 6-4.4: Double Busbar Selection

1.2.1.2 Applications

i) Extensive junction-points of the network where remote end substations can be supplied from another point, i.e. it
would have a second in-feed.

1.2.2 By-pass Isolator System

See Figure 6-4.5.

1.2.2.1 Features

A feeder-branch can remain in service during maintenance. The protection must be taken over by the bus coupler
circuit breaker. Load break in place of the by-pass isolators make possible the switching of idle lines and transformers

In connection with double busbar the coupling circuit breaker can serve as reserve circuit breaker

1.2.2.2 Application

Single busbars with bypass for medium and small installations can be relatively easily upgraded to double busbars with
bypass. Bypass on transformer circuits are only done in exceptional cases.

Fdr 1 Fdr 2

B/B 2

B/B 1

Trfr 1 Bus Section Trfr 2

Figure 6-4.5: Double Busbar Selection with Bypass

1.2.3 Triple busbar (Triple Busbar Selection)

Fdr 1 Fdr 2

B/B 1B B/B 1C
B/B 1A B/B 1D

B/B 2B B/B 2C
B/B 2A B/B 2D

B/B 3B B/B 3C
B/B 3A B/B 3D

Trfr 1 Bus Section Trfr 2

Figure 6-4.6: Triple Busbar Selection

1.2.3.1 Features

i) Large operational flexibility

ii) Poor overall view and hence increased danger of incorrect switching on the part of the operator

iii) High costs (approximately 110 % of a 132 kV station in in-line arrangement with double busbar)

1.2.3.2 Applications

i) Only in exceptional cases in which continuous group operation with freedom to choose desired switching
connections of the feeder-branches is required. The third busbar system is then free for maintenance purposes.
These arrangements are applied in extensive network coupling points and installations of large power stations. The
arrangement makes no provision for bypassing the circuit breaker.

1.3 Double Circuit Breaker and 1½ Circuit Breaker Arrangement: (Figure 6-4.1 e) and g))

The double circuit breaker and 1½ circuit breaker arrangements are particularly suitable for substations handling large
amounts of power, such as those associated with generating stations, and for networks which comprise mainly radial
circuits with few mesh connections.

It should be noted that to cover all contingencies of switching, the circuit breakers and associated equipment in
arrangement g) (Breaker-and-a-Half) should be capable of handling the combined load current of two circuits.

1.3.1 Double circuit breaker system

B/B 1

B/B 2

Fdr or
Trfr

Figure 6-4.7: Double Busbar, Double Circuit Breaker System

1.3.1.1 Features

i) Very high security of supply for the whole installation

ii) Selective disconnection of busbar faults without supply interruptions in so far as the busbars are in parallel
operation

iii) With parallel operated busbars and automatic re-closing the two circuit breakers must be synchronously switched

iv) Very high investment costs (approximately 160 % referred to a 132 kV station with double busbar in in-line
arrangement)

1.3.1.2 Application

i) Very important network junction points

1.3.2 Conventional 1 ½ Circuit Breaker System

BB Fdr 1 Fdr 2
Reac 1

B/B 1

B/B 2

Fdr 3 Trfr 1 Trfr 2

Figure 6-4.8: Conventional 1½ Circuit Breaker System

BB Fdr 1 Fdr 2
Reac 1

B/B 1

B/B 2

Fdr 3 Trfr 1 Trfr 2

Figure 6-4.9: Folded-In 1½ Circuit Breaker System

Fdr 1 BB Fdr 3 Fdr 5

Reac 1

B/B 1

B/B 2

Fdr 2 Trfr 1 Fdr 4 Trfr 2

Figure 6-4.10: Folded-Out 1½ Circuit Breaker System

1.3.2.1 Features

i) One reserve circuit breaker is provided for each 2 feeder branches, hence 1½ circuit breaker

ii) Selective disconnection of faults in the station in so far as the busbars are operated in parallel (all circuit breakers
closed)

iii) With parallel operated busbars and automatic re-closing the two circuit breakers must be synchronously switched

iv) Many circuit breakers and isolators must be rated for double the feeder-branch current

v) Costly construction and bad overall view, danger of incorrect switching on part of operator

vi) High investment costs (approximately 125 % referred to 132 kV station with double busbars in in-line arrangement)

1.3.2.2 Application

i) Network points with a high demand for security. This arrangement would therefore only be applied where security
of suppy can justify it, e.g. 765 kV and associated 400 kV systems.

1.4 Mesh Arrangements: Figure 6-4.1 h) and i)

The mesh arrangements are particularly suited to applications where maximum security against busbar faults and
minimum outage for maintenance is required.

It should be noted that equipment in the ring connections of the mesh must be capable of carrying the maximum load
current that may occur due to any switching contingency.

Additionally, mesh arrangements are not readily extensible.

1.4.1 Ring Busbar - See Figure 6-4.11

1.4.1.1 Features

i) Saving of a spare circuit breaker as opposed to the single busbar system with auxiliary (bypass) busbar, otherwise
same features

ii) When the current transformers are situated within the ring (usual arrangement), almost the entire installation is
covered by the protection range of the feeder-branches. Only the short line between the current transformer and
the pertinent circuit breaker lies outside the protection. However, for the case of a current transformer on each
side of the circuit breaker, an over-reaching protection is possible

iii) Features of multiple busbar systems cannot be attained (network division)

iv) With open ring and additional disconnection of a feeder-branch circuit breaker, other feeder-branches can
unwantingly lose supply voltage. For this reason, this system is limited to 4 branches or otherwise a multiple
polygon must be installed

v) Poor overall view of the construction and of the current flow

vi) The equipment in the ring must be rated to the higher ring current (approximately double the feeder-branch
current)

vii) Insertion of summation current transformers for determination of the feeder-branch currents. Synchronous
switching of 2 circuit breakers is necessary with or without automatic re-closing (increase of probability of circuit
breaker malfunction)

Fdr 1 Fdr 2

Trfr 1 Trfr 2
Figure 6-4.11: Ring Busbar
Fdr 1 Fdr 2 Fdr 2

Trfr 1 Trfr 2 Trfr 2

Figure 6-4.12: Ring Busbar

1.4.1.2 Application

i) Small installations and less frequently as an extended ring for large installations

1.5 Single and Three Switch Arrangements: Figure 6-4.1 j) and k)

The single and 3 switch arrangements have limited application and are mainly suited to a ring system of supply feeding
bulk supply points consisting of duplicate transformers or banks of transformers.

1.6 Draw-out Breaker System

The fact that most accidents in switching installations arise from faulty isolator switching led to the development of
installations without isolators (up to 132 kV).

B/B 1

B/B B/B 2

Fdr1 Fdr1

Figure 13: Draw-Out Breaker System

1.6.1 Features

i) Deletion of the isolators. Circuit breaker contains contacts and is mobile. Simple mechanical interlocks positively
prevent faulty travel of the circuit breaker.

ii) Smaller ground areas and space requirements (particularly important for indoor installations).

iii) Short interruption times on loss of equipment because of the available spare circuit breaker

iv) Largely limited to 132 kV

v) Double busbars require 2 circuit breakers per feeder-branch when it is required that a busbar change over be
remotely controlled. In this case high investment costs

1.6.2 Application

i) Primarily indoor installations with single busbars

1.7 Installation of Earth-switches

Fixed earth-switches are installed in stations where the system fault levels are very high, generally in excess of 20 kA
and portable earth-switches are not rated for these fault currents. In these cases, each point that can be isolated with
isolators, and on both sides of a circuit breaker, fixed earth-switch need to be installed for personnel safety.

Feeder

Figure 6-4.14: Installation of Earth-switches

1.7.1 Features

i) High safety for personnel

ii) Increased security of supply with interlocking against closing onto parts still earthed

iii) Shortening of the out-of-service time during maintenance and repair

iv) Increase of investment costs

1.7.2 Application

In networks with low-ohmic star point earthing and in particular for outdoor installations

1.7.3 Special Remarks

In networks with low-ohmic star points earthing (effectively earthed), high earth short circuit currents arise even with
single pole faults. This could lead to an earthing process where a movable earthing set of parts approach the point to
be earthed which is carrying voltage by mistake leads to an accident with fatal results. These points need fixed earth-
switches. Furthermore, disturbances in the installation are produced. This problem becomes particularly acute in
outdoor installations because no suitable voltage tester can be supplied that is suitable for installation under all
atmospheric conditions.

2. SERVICE CONTINUITY

When choosing a specific switching arrangement, one of the prime considerations should be the effect of the loss of
plant due to fault conditions or for maintenance. Such effects may include loss of Generating Plant, loss of transmission
and loss of supply to customers.

In all the examples given, if line or transformer faults or maintenance (of e.g. line isolator, instrument transformers or line
traps) are considered, continuity cannot be maintained on the effected circuits. Apart from these limitations, a measure
of service continuity can be maintained.

Reliability calculations for schemes are complex and the following information is given to allow a quantitative
assessment of the effects of repair or maintenance outage. An attempt in carrying out reliability assessments is given in
SLDG 8-3.

An assessment of the continuity that can be obtained from any example in Figure 6-4.1 has been categorized as follows
and shown in Table 6-4.1.

Category 1: No outage necessary within the substation for either maintenance or fault.
Note : Category 1 necessitates no system outage but does not necessarily
provide a secure supply for single faults, even if these are limited to busbar
and circuit breaker faults.
Category 2: Short outage (maximum approximately 4 hours) necessary to transfer the load to an
alternative circuit at the same or other station for maintenance or fault.
Category 3: Loss of circuit or section until the repair is completed
Category 4: Loss of substation.

In situations where a fault occurs when maintenance is in progress on other equipment, the above categories do not
apply. Under these conditions the probability of a split in the network can increase rapidly, especially in the polygonal
arrangements.

Table 6-4.1: Analysis of Service Continuity

Ref. Type of arrangement Service continuity category

Circuit Breaker area Busbar area
a) Single busbar 3 4
b) Single busbar with bus section circuit 3 3
breaker
c) Single busbar with transfer bar 2 4
(see Note 1)
d) Double busbar without by-pass 3 2
facilities. (see Note 2) (see Note 1)
e) Double busbar with double Circuit 1 or 2 1
Breaker
f) Double busbar with by-pass facilities. 2 2
(see Note 1)
g) Double busbar with 1½ Circuit Breaker 1 or 2 1
(see Note 1)
h) and i) Mesh 1 or 2 Not applicable
j) 3 switch with by-pass 1 or 2 Not applicable
k) 1 switch with by-pass 1 or 2 Not applicable

Note 1 : To achieve these stated categories, a bus coupler switch must be included.
Note 2 : Category 2 applies when facilities are provided to transfer the protection of a feeder bay to
the bus-coupler bay.
Note 3 : Category 1 applies for maintenance conditions. Category 2 applies for fault conditions.

3. CHOICE OF SWITCHING ARRANGEMENTS

In addition to the functions of a substation previously considered in this section choice of switching arrangements may
be influenced by:-

a) The level of skill and experience of operating staff

b) The future growth and development of the supply system

c) Economy in the early stages of development

d) The ease of facilitating future extensions

e) Duplication of circuits to give alternative supply routes

f) Amount of power to be transmitted

g) Strategic importance of the circuits

h) The service continuity of other significant parts of the network

j) The reliability both of the substation as a whole and the individual components within the substation

k) The standardization policy of the organisation

l) Maintenance requirements and techniques

m) National regulations (for example whether or not it is permissible to operate an isolator remotely to change a
particular switching arrangement without personal verification)

4. BUSBAR ARRANGEMENTS EMPLOYED BY ESKOM FOR THE MAIN TRANSMISSION SYSTEM (MTS)

4.1. Double Busbar

In a double busbar system, the circuits can normally be selected via isolators to either busbar, shown schematically in
Figure 6-4.15. On load transfer from one busbar to the other is possible when a bus coupler forms part of the yard
arrangement.

BB1 BB2

Bus Coupler

Feeder Circuit

RWB BWR

Figure 6-4.15: Double Busbar Selection

The busbar phasing convention used by Eskom is shown in Figure 6-4.15, with the outer phases of the two bars being
the “Red” phase and the inner phases being the “Blue” phase.

Busbar 1 Busbar 2
R W B B W R

Figure 6-4.15: Busbar Phasing Convention

4.1.1 By-passes

For economic reasons, single-line radial supplies have become more popular. With this has come an increasing
demand for by-pass facilities which permit maintenance, particularly of the circuit breaker, to be carried out without the
need for a complete shut-down of the circuit. So called single busbar selection with by-pass is shown schematically in
Figure 6-4.16. The feeder is shown to be on bypass through the bus coupler, all other circuits in the station being
selected to the running bus (Busbar No. 1). If a fault occurs on the by-passed line, it must be detected, and clearance
should preferably be effected discriminately. To rely on the system back-up protection for these faults is inviting a major
shut-down and cannot be accepted at stations supplying large important loads with perhaps one or two single line
supplies to small customers.

To overcome this problem, various alternatives are possible, but the simplest solution is to position the current
transformers on the line side of the line and by-pass isolators so that the normal protection remains in service at all
times. All that is then necessary is for the trip circuit to be diverted to a suitable breaker, preferably a bus coupler.
Figure 6-4.16 shows the line on by-pass through the bus coupler so that operation of the line protection, which is
transferred to the bus coupler, trips the bus coupler breaker and so clears the fault.

B/B 1 B/B 2
Bus Coupler

Feeder Circuit

Figure 6-4.16: Single Busbar Selection with By-Pass

Busbars are by convention always labelled with the “By-pass” busbar as the “No. 2 Busbar” and the normal
“Running” busbar as the “No. 1 Busbar”, as illustrated in Figure 6-4.16.

Important lines may be provided with double busbar selection with by-pass in which case the same criteria for
labelling busbars as used in the previous example, still apply. This arrangement is shown schematically in
Figure 6-4.17.

PG. or In-line Isolator BB 1 BB 2

Bus Coupler

Feeder Circuit

Figure 6-4.17: Double Busbar Selection with By-Pass

4.1.2 Optimising the busbar configuration

In order to optimise the busbar arrangement, we consider first a double busbar scheme to which two feeders and two
transformers are connected (see Figure 6-4.18).

T1 T2

ZONE 2
B/B 1

B/B 2
ZONE 1

B/C F1 F2

Figure 6-4.18: A Typical Double Busbar Arrangement with 2 x Transformers and 2 x Feeders

The bays should typically be selected onto the busbars in the way illustrated in Figure 6-4.18, the isolators marked “•“
being closed, resulting in a feeder and a transformer pair selected onto a separate zone of busbar, so that in the event
of one zone faulting, the other zone would still be able to maintain supply. This arrangement therefore provides for a
single busbar contingency. The loss of the second busbar would obviously result in the loss of the station.

It is current policy that each transformer that is introduced to a busbar system, should be selected onto its “own” section,
or zone of busbar. The introduction of a third transformer to the above arrangement would therefore require a bus
section to be introduced, usually on Busbar No. 1. A second bus coupler is normally also introduced in order to
complete the circuit, and so prevent the splitting of the two busbar systems.

T1 T2 T3

ZONE 2 ZONE 3
B/B 2
B/S

ZONE 1
B/B 1A B/B 1B

B/C ‘A’ F1 F2 F3 B/C ‘B’

(Future)

Figure 6-4.19: A Typical Double Busbar Arrangement with 3 x Transformers

Figures 6-4.18 and 6-4.19 are both arrangements with a “Planning Level 2” ranking i.e. there are as many zones of
busbar as there are transformers. This implies that a zone of busbar can be removed from service for maintenance
purposes by selecting all bays from the busbar to be maintained, to the adjacent busbar. This, however, results in two
transformers and all the related feeders to be selected onto a single busbar. A busbar fault on the zone with two
transformers in this case would probably result in the total loss of the station, as one transformer would not be able to
transform the required load.

4.1.3 Improving the Reliability of Supplies - Planning Level Ranking

Where it is absolutely necessary to ensure supplies to important customers e.g. petroleum (Sasol) and smelter (Alusaf)
industries, busbar arrangements which allow alternative busbar selections with transformers remaining on dedicated
sections of busbar, can be realized. This results in a station with a “Planning Level 1” ranking i.e. there is one section of
busbar more than there are transformers, i.e. there is one more zone of busbar than there are transformers or critical
feeders.

In the case of a two transformer station, three sections of busbar would be required (see Figure 6-4.20).

T1 T2

B/S
ZONE 2 ZONE 3
B/B 1A B/B 1B

ZONE 1
B/B 2

B/C ‘A’ F1 F2 B/C ‘B’

Figure 6-4.20: A Two Transformer Arrangement with a Planning Level 1 Ranking.

Transformer T2 and Feeder F2 can, for example, be selected either onto Busbar 1 or 2 and still result in an arrangement
where there is a circuit breaker between T1 and T2 i.e. they are still selected onto their own section of busbar. The
additional cost over and above a planning level 2 arrangement is that of a bus section and a second bus coupler (see
Figure 6-4.20).

A three transformer arrangement could have two possibilities.

4.1.3.1 Bus Sections in the Same Busbar.

T1 T2 T3

BS 1 BS 2
ZONE 1
ZONE ZONE 5
BB 1A BB 1C

ZONE
BB 2A BB 2C
BB 2B
ZONE 2 BS ZONE 4 BS
ISOL 1 ISOL 2

B/C ‘A’ F1 F2 F3 B/C ‘B’

Figure 6-4.21: Bus Sections in the Same Busbar.

This arrangement is particularly used at power stations where Busbar 1 is the normal “running” busbar, and busbar 2,
the “by-pass” or “hospital” busbar.

To enable even greater flexibility, busbar isolators are included in the by-pass (hospital) busbar to be able to cut down
on the extent to which sections of busbar are removed for maintenance purposes, i.e. smaller sections can be removed.

4.1.3.2 Bus Sections in Opposite Busbars (Staggered Bus Sections)

T1 T2 T3

BS 1
ZONE 3 BS
ZONE 1 B/B 2B ISOL 1 ZONE 5
B/B 1A B/B 2C

B/B 2A B/B 1C
B/B 1B ZONE 6
ZONE 2 BS ZONE 4 BS 2
ISOL 2

B/C ‘A’ F1 F2 F3 B/C ‘B’

Figure 6-4.22: Bus Sections In Opposite Busbars

This arrangement allows slightly greater flexibility than that shown in Figure 6-4.21 in that a variety of options of
selection of transformer / feeder pairs are available to the operator. Busbar 2 would, however, still remain as the bypass
busbar. Bus section isolators, as in the previous option, add additional flexibility when maintenance on busbars or
busbar associated equipment has to be carried out.

In both options 1 and 2, the removal of any one busbar from service for maintenance, still results in a transformer /
feeder pair being selected onto a separate section, or zone of busbar, with at least one circuit breaker separating it from
other pairs.

Both options 1 and 2 can be extended to cater for multiple transformer / feeder pairs, by adding bus sections.

4.1.4 3-Busbar arrangement (Double Busbar Selection with Bypass)

Prior to the invention of the pantograph isolator, it was necessary to employ a three busbar system to be able to obtain
double busbar selection with bypass on the more important substations viz. 400 kV. Two of the busbars were used as
normal running busbars, with the third busbar, named the “Transfer” busbar, installed to be able to carry out
maintenance on the feeder circuit breakers.

T1 T2 T3

B/S
ZONE 1 ZONE 2
B/B 1A B/B 1B

ZONE 3
B/B 2 B/B

B/C ‘A’ B/C ‘B’

TX
F1 F2 B/C F3
Figure 6-4.23: Three Busbar System

Selecting any one of the feeders onto the transfer busbar requires the transfer bus coupler (TX B/C) to brought into
service. The transfer bus coupler can be selected onto either B/B 1 or B/B 2 via the busbar isolators. This system is
cumbersome if the telecommunication equipment (line traps and capacitor voltage transformers) are in-board i.e. behind
the transfer isolator. The telecoms settings have to be continuously changed with the change in feeders that go onto
bypass. This leaves room for errors to arise and is therefore not used in the design of new substations.
Telecommunications equipment is now placed outboard of the bypass isolator. This arrangement is now used regularly
with tubular busbar substations, where the third busbar is integral to the design in order to realise a low profile
substation.

4.1.5 Hybrid 3-busbar arrangement

There may be instances where a “three busbar” system is required, especially where there are space and cost
constraints. In fact, this system is just a modified two busbar system with one busbar wrapping around the other (see
Figure 6-4.24). Acacia substation has a 400 kV busbar with a similar configuration.

T1 T2 T3

ZONE 1
B/B 1 (B/B 1A)

ZONE 2
B/S B/B 2

ZONE 3
B/B 3 (B/B 1B)

B/C ‘A’ B/C ‘B’

F1 F2 F3 F4

SAME DESTINATION
Figure 6-4.24: Hybrid 3-Busbar Arrangement

This in effect results in a “Planning Level 1” station.

The advantage of this arrangement is that two feeders to the same destination can be selected onto two different
busbars even though they are next to each other, even with one of the busbars out, i.e. to say, one effectively has a
Planning Level 1 substation. The requirement of line crossings or internal by-passes are negated, as would be the case
in a conventional arrangement, where it is necessary to have feeder bays either side of a bus section (see Figure 6-
4.25).

T1 T2

ZONE
B/B 2

ZONE 1 ZONE 3
B/B 1A B/B 1B
B/S

B/C ‘A’ INTERNAL F4 B/C ‘B’

BY-PASS
F1 F3 F2
SAME
DESTINATION

Figure 6-4.25: Conventional Positioning Of Lines to the Same Destination

In the case of Figure 6-4.24, the feeders to the same station can exit the station side by side and still be either side of
the bus section, while Figure 6-4.25 illustrates the conventional way of positioning two feeders to the same destination.

The disadvantage of the arrangement shown in Figure 11 is that it complicates the operation of the station.

5. SPECIAL BUSBAR ARRANGEMENTS

5.1.1 Odd Numbers of Transformer or Critical Feeders

Cases have risen where odd numbers of transformers or critical feeders need to be so arranged so as to realise a
Planning Level 1 station, i.e. circuits to be on their own zone even when busbar maintenance needs to be done. The
conventional manner of arranging transformers would be as shown in Figure 6-4.26). In this arrangement, only
transformer T5 is selectable to a free zone (Zone 6) making the arrangement a sub-optimised one.

T1 T2 T3 T4 T5

BS 1 BS 3 Zone 5
BB 1A Zone 3
Zone 1 BB 1B BB 2C

BB 2A Zone 6
Zone 2 BB 1C
BB 2B
BS 2 Zone 4 BS 4

BC ‘A’ F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 BC ‘B’

Figure 6-4.26: Conventional Positioning of Bus Section (Only T5 Selectable onto Spare Zone)

The rearrangement of the bus sections as shown in Figure 6-4.27 allows all the transformers and feeders to be
selectable to the free zone. Zone 6 is the free zone. This is done by relinking of bays until the appropriate zone has no
circuits connected to it.

T1 T2 T3 T4 T5

BS 1 BS 3 Zone 5
BB 1A Zone 3
Zone 1 BB 1B BB 1C

BB 2A Zone 6
Zone 2 BB 2C
BB 2B
BS Zone 4 BS 4
(Fut)

BC ‘A’ F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 BC ‘B’
Figure 6-4.27: Conventional Positioning Of Bus Section (All Transformers Selectable onto Spare Zone)

5.1.2 Busbar Reactor Switchable to a Line

Some lines may under certain circumstances only require a line reactor for energisation but not for normal running
conditions, i.e. once energised it may be that voltage control is required on the busbar. Figure 6-4.28 provides a layout
that is a practical solution for these cases. The Busbar Reactor breaker is opened together with the isolators on both
sides of the breaker. The reactor transfer isolator is closed onto the Transfer Busbar and the transfer isolator of the
appropriate feeder is also closed onto the Transfer Busbar, e.g. Feeder 3. Feeder 3 circuit breaker is then closed and
the line becomes energised. Once Feeder 3 is energised, the Busbar Reactor and Transfer Bus Coupler breakers can
be closed again and the two transfer isolators opened. This is possible as the voltage on all zones of busbar are the
same and a minimal arc will be drawn.

T1 T2 T3

BS
Zone 1 Zone 2
BB 1A BB 1B

Zone 3
BB 2 BB 2

BC ‘A’ BC ‘B’

TX
BC F1 F2 F3

BB Reac /
SB Line Reac

Figure 6-4.28: Conventional Positioning Of Bus Section (All Transformers Selectable onto Spare Zone)

SLDG 7-1

TECHNICAL ASPECTS OF GRID PLANNING AND INTERCONNECTION

1. INTRODUCTION

Having introduced and dealt with various types of busbar arrangements, it would be expedient to look a bit further than
just a single substation, and consider the electrical grid comprising the interconnection of a number of facilities through
lines.

1.1. The Evolution of Interconnected Systems

Electricity grid interconnections have played a key role in the history of electric power systems. Most national and
regional power systems that exist today began many decades ago as isolated systems, often as a single generator in a
large city. As power systems expanded out from their urban cores, interconnections among neighbouring systems
became increasingly common. Groups of utilities began to form power pools, allowing them to trade electricity and
share capacity reserves. The first power pool in the United States was formed in the Connecticut Valley in 1925. As
transmission technologies improved, long distance interconnections developed, sometimes crossing national borders.
The first international interconnections in Europe came in 1906, when Switzerland built transmission links to France
and Italy. In Southern Africa, interconnections between South Africa and Botswana have existed for quite a number of
years. Interconnections from South Africa have expanded into Zimbabwe, Mozambique, Swaziland, Lesotho and
Namibia at 400 kV.

One of the great engineering achievements of the 19th century has been the evolution of large synchronous alternating
current (AC) power grids, in which all the interconnected systems maintain the same precise electrical frequency.
Today, the North American power system is composed of four giant synchronous systems, namely the Eastern,
Western, Texas, and Quebec interconnections. The Eastern interconnection by itself has been called the largest
machine in the world, consisting of thousands of generators, millions of kilometres of transmission and distribution
lines, and more than a billion different electrical loads. Despite this complexity, the network operates in synchronism as
a single system. So does the Western European interconnection, which reaches from the UK and Scandinavia to Italy
and Greece, embracing along the way much of Eastern Europe (for example, Poland, Hungary, Slovakia, and the
Czech Republic). Synchronous interconnections among countries are expanding in Central and South America, North
and Sub-Saharan Africa, and the Middle East.

At the same time that synchronous AC networks have reached the continental scale, the use of high voltage direct
current (HVDC) interconnections is also rapidly expanding as a result of technical progress over the last two decades.
HVDC permits the asynchronous interconnection of networks that operate at different frequencies, or are otherwise
incompatible, allowing them to exchange power without requiring the tight coordination of a synchronous network.
HVDC has other advantages as well, especially for transmitting large amounts of power over very long distances.
Fundamentals of both AC and DC interconnections are discussed below in Sections 2.2, 2.3, and 2.4 of this Chapter.

1.2. General Potential Benefits of Grid Interconnections

There are a number of technical rationales for grid interconnections, many of which have economic components as well
technical rationales for grid interconnection that include:

1.2.1 Improving Reliability and Pooling Reserves

The amount of reserve capacity that must be built by individual networks to ensure reliable operation when supplies
are short can be reduced by sharing reserves within an interconnected network.

1.2.2 Reduced Investment in Generating Capacity

Individual systems can reduce their generating capacity requirement, or postpone the need to add new capacity, if they
are able to share the generating resources of an interconnected system.

1.2.3 Improving Load Factor and Increasing Load Diversity

Systems operate most economically when the level of power demand is steady over time, as opposed to having high
peaks. Poor load factor (LF) (the ratio of average to peak power demand) means that utilities must construct
generation capacity to meet peak requirements, but that this capacity sits idle much of the time. Systems can improve
poor load factors by interconnecting to other systems with different types of loads, or loads with different daily or
seasonal patterns that complement their own.

Average Power Demand

LF =
Peak Power Demand
1.2.4 Economies of Scale in New Construction

Unit costs of new generation and transmission capacity generally decline with increasing scale, up to a point. Sharing
resources in an interconnected system can allow the construction of larger facilities with lower unit costs.

1.2.5 Diversity of Generation Mix and Supply Security

Interconnections between systems that use different technologies and/or fuels to generate electricity provide greater
security in the event that one kind of generation becomes limited (e.g., hydroelectricity in a year with little rainfall).
Historically, this complementarity has been a strong incentive for interconnection between hydro-dominated systems
and thermal-dominated systems. A larger and more diverse generation mix also implies more diversity in the types of
forced outages that occur, improving reliability.

1.2.6 Economic Exchange

Interconnection allows the dispatch of the least costly generating units within the interconnected area, providing an
overall cost savings that can be divided among the component systems. Alternatively, it allows inexpensive power from
one system to be sold to systems with more expensive power.

1.2.7 Environmental Dispatch and New Plant Siting

Interconnections can allow generating units with lower environmental impacts to be used more, and units with higher
impacts to be used less. In areas where environmental and land use constraints limit the siting of power plants,
interconnections can allow new plant construction in less sensitive areas.

1.2.8 Coordination of Maintenance Schedules

Interconnections permit planned outages of generating and transmission facilities for maintenance to be coordinated so
that overall cost and reliability for the interconnected network is optimized.

Some costs and benefits of interconnections are difficult to quantify, but as a rough figure of merit it has been estimated
that interconnections in Western Europe has resulted in reduced capacity requirements of 7-10 percent.

1.3. Technical Complexities and Risks of Grid Interconnections

The fact that interconnections between power systems are increasingly common does not imply that they are as simple
as connecting a few wires. Interconnections obviously entail the expense of constructing and operating transmission
lines and substations, or in the case of HVDC, converter stations. Interconnections also entail other costs, technical
complexities, and risks. For AC interconnections especially, a power system interconnection is a kind of marriage,
because two systems become one in an important way when they operate in synchronism. To do this requires a high
degree of technical compatibility and operational coordination, which grows in cost and complexity with the scale and

inherent differences of the systems involved. To give just one example, when systems are interconnected, even if they
are otherwise fully compatible, fault currents (the current that flows during a short circuit) generally increase, requiring
the installation of higher capacity circuit breakers to maintain safety and reliability. To properly specify these and many
other technical changes required by interconnection requires extensive planning studies, computer modelling, and
exchange of data between the interconnected systems.

The difficulties of joint planning and operation of interconnected systems vary widely. As with marriages, from the
institutional and administrative standpoint, coupled systems may become a single entity, or they may keep entirely
separate accounts. Within the North American interconnections, for example, there are hundreds of electric utility
companies that are entirely separate commercial entities. Customers receive power from, and pay bills to, the utility
that serves their area, for example Consolidated Edison. They may do so without even knowing of the existence of the
Eastern interconnection. Yet all the utilities in the Eastern interconnection are in a technical marriage that dictates or
constrains key aspects of their technology choices and operating procedures.

Within countries, there are typically common technical standards for all utilities, which reduces the complexity of
interconnecting separate systems. In different countries, on the other hand, power systems may have evolved quite
separately, with very different standards and technologies, which adds an extra layer of technical complexity to
interconnections. Institutional and administrative features of power systems in different countries are also likely to differ
in many ways, and these differences invariably affect the technical and operational dimensions of an interconnection.
Issues ranging from power trading agreements to reliability standards, while expressed in technical terms, often must
be resolved within the realm of policy and political economy. As one expert on international interconnections has
remarked, “many technical, organizational, commercial and political problems have had to be solved to get large
networks linked by international interconnections to operate”11.

The greatest benefits of interconnection are usually derived from synchronous AC operation, but this can also entail
greater reliability risks. In any synchronous network, disturbances in one location are quickly felt in other locations.
After interconnecting, a system that used to be isolated from disturbances in a neighbouring system is now vulnerable
to those disturbances. As major blackouts in North America and Europe in 2003 demonstrated, large-scale
disturbances can propagate through interconnections and result in cascading outages, bringing down systems that had
previously been functioning normally. In addition, long-distance interconnections with long transmission lines have
potentially greater stability problems than is the case for shorter lines. Finally, many systems that have undergone
electricity liberalization in recent years have experienced large increases in transmission capacity utilization, reducing
reserve margins. Minimizing the likelihood that an interconnection will lead to such problems as voltage collapse,
dynamic and transient instability, or cascading outages due to propagated disturbances requires careful planning and
well-coordinated operation.

2. BASIC PLANNING AND DESIGN FEATURES

The basic design features of an interconnection include the following elements:-

• whether it is AC or DC

• if DC, whether it is single-pole or double-pole (+/-)

• transmission capacity (in MVA)

• transmission voltage (in kV)

• system components and overall design

• operating agreement

These features are dictated by the answers to the following questions:-

• Will the interconnected systems operate synchronously or asynchronously? To operate synchronously, at a

minimum the systems must have the same nominal frequency (50 Hz or 60 Hz). Even if frequencies are the same,
technical and operational differences can make synchronous operation too difficult or expensive to pursue. Many
synchronous networks with the same nominal frequency, including the four North American interconnections, have
only asynchronous DC connections between them.

• What are the magnitudes and directions of the anticipated power flows? The basic rationales for the interconnection
must be expressed quantitatively, using models that forecast the power flows through the interconnection among
constituent systems. The forecasts must be conducted on different time scales: diurnal, seasonal, annual, and
multi-year projections.

• What physical distance and terrain will the interconnection span? The peak power flows and the physical length of
the interconnection will influence the choice of AC or DC, the size of conductors, and requirements for other system
components, such as series capacitors or phase-shifting transformers. Terrain, geology, and land use
considerations (such as urban areas, environmentally sensitive areas) will determine whether overhead lines or
underground cables are used, the layout and design of substations or converter stations, EARTHing and lightning
protection schemes, and the most suitable kinds of support structures. Undersea transmission requires the use of
special cables that are quite different from terrestrial cables and overhead lines. Terrain and land use also dictate
construction and maintenance methods.

• What are the key technical and operating differences among the systems to be interconnected? These include
differences in the hardware, control systems, and procedures used for frequency regulation, voltage regulation, and
fault protection.

3. INTERCONNECTION ELEMENTS

A listing of the basic elements of an interconnection is provided below.

3.1 Technical Objectives

The ultimate objective of an interconnection, like the power systems it is part of, is to provide power to customers
economically, safely, reliably, efficiently, and with minimal environmental impact. Each of these aspects has one or
more quantitative measure, such as price per kilowatt-hour, number and lethality of accidents, frequency and duration
of service interruptions, generating plant heat rate, transmission and distribution losses, and emissions factors.
Interconnections are designed, and their individual components selected, with all of these objectives in mind, though
they may be optimized differently in different systems.

3.2 Transmission Lines

Transmission lines come in two basic varieties: overhead lines and underground (or undersea) cables. Overhead lines
are more common and generally less expensive than cables. The main design consideration for overhead lines is the
choice of conductor type and size, which must balance the need to minimize impedance (and the associated losses),
minimize cost, and minimize the weight that must be carried by support structures. Although copper is a better
conductor, it has been overtaken in recent years by aluminium, which is lighter, cheaper, and in abundant supply. The
most common variety of overhead conductors for high-capacity, long-distance transmission is stranded aluminium wire
reinforced with steel (known as ACSR, for “aluminium conductor steel reinforced”). Other design considerations for
overhead lines are the type of support structures (such as transmission towers and insulators) used, and the
configuration of conductors on the support structures, which affects the reactance of the conductors and the strength of
electromagnetic fields (EMFs) around the lines.

Underground cables are used where overhead conductors are inappropriate due to environmental or land use
considerations, such as in high-density urban areas or ecologically sensitive areas. Cables are insulated and are
typically routed through underground conduits, and often require cooling systems to dissipate heat. Cables may use

copper instead of aluminium, balancing the greater cost of copper against its superior conductivity and lower resistive
heating. Undersea cables are usually made of copper, and may be surrounded by oil or an oil-soaked medium, then
encased in insulating material to protect from corrosion. Undersea cables often have a coaxial structure, which has an
inherently high capacitive reactance; therefore undersea cables are usually DC, which is not affected by reactance.
2
Conductor cross-sections are typically measured in square millimetres (mm ) in the metric system. The capacity of a
conductor to carry current without exceeding thermal limits is called its ampacity, measured in amperes (A), and in kA
for large conductors.

3.3 Transmission Line Support Structures

There are many possible types of support structures for overhead transmission lines. In developed countries,
transmission lines are supported on structures made out of steel lattice, tubular steel, wood, and concrete. Of these,
steel lattice has the highest strength to weight ratio, and is the easiest to assemble in areas that are difficult to access.
Where aesthetics are an important factor, however, other materials are often used. The main function of support
structures is to keep the conductors from contacting trees or other objects, including people and animals; thus the
structures must be tall enough to do so even when the conductors sag due to high temperatures caused by resistive
heating. All things being equal, taller structures also minimize ground-level EMFs. Since overhead transmission lines
are not insulated, they are typically suspended from towers on strings of ceramic insulators, which are designed to
prevent flashover, or the leakage of current from the conductors to the tower, which would present a lethal prospect to
anyone touching the tower. AC transmission towers are usually designed to carry three conductors: the three phases of
AC power systems. Towers that hold these in an equilateral triangle shape (called a “delta”) keep the mutual
reactances of the three phases balanced; non-delta configurations often require that conductors be transposed, or
switch places, at regular intervals along the transmission path. Some towers carry more than one circuit, with three
phases per circuit; for example, a double-circuit tower will have six conductors. (The conductor for each phase may
also be subdivided into “bundles” of two or more conductors, which are physically close together.) DC transmission
towers carry two conductors per circuit. Figure 7-1-1 on the following page shows various options for transmission
tower design.

Figure 7-1-1: Common Configurations for Transmission Towers

3.4 Transformers and Substations

Transformers are used to change voltage levels in AC circuits, allowing transmission at high voltages to minimize
resistive losses, and low voltages at the customer end for safety. This ability, following the development of
transformers, led to the rapid adoption of AC systems over DC systems. The essential element of a transformer
consists of two coils of wire wrapped around an iron core. An alternating current in one coil produces a changing
electromagnetic field that induces a current in the other. The voltages on either side are in the same ratio as the
number of turns on each coil. For example, a transformer with a 10:1 “turns ratio” that is connected to a 13,2 kV supply
on its primary side, will have a voltage of 132 kV on its secondary side. Transformers step up the voltage from
generator to transmission system, and other transformers step it down, often in several stages, from transmission to
sub-transmission to primary distribution to secondary distribution, and finally to the end-user voltage, such as 220 V. At
the distribution level, transformers often have taps that can be used to change the turns ratio; this allows operators to
maintain customer voltage levels when system voltages change. Modern transformers are extremely efficient, typically
greater than 99%, but even small losses can produce a great deal of heat, which must be dissipated to prevent
damage to the equipment. Large transformers are cooled by circulating oil, which also functions as an electrical
insulator.

Large transformers are housed in substations, where sections of a transmission and distribution system operating at
different voltages are joined. Larger substations have a manned control room, while smaller substations often operate
automatically. In addition to transformers, important substation equipment includes switchgear, circuit breakers and
other protective equipment (see next section), and capacitor banks used to provide reactive power support.

3.5 Protection Systems (See Also SLDG 6-1)

Protection systems are an extremely important part of any power system. Their primary function is to detect and clear
faults, which are inadvertent electrical connections – that is, short circuits – between system components at different
voltages. When faults occur, very high currents can result, typically 2-10 times as high as normal load currents. Since
2
power is proportional to I , a great deal of energy can be delivered to unintended recipients in a very short time. The
goal of protection systems is to isolate and de-energize faults before they can harm personnel or cause serious
damage to equipment. Note that protection systems are designed to protect the power system itself, rather than end-
user equipment.

The key components of protection systems are circuit breakers, instrument transformers, and relays. Circuit breakers
are designed to interrupt a circuit in which high levels of current are flowing, typically within three voltage cycles (about
60 milliseconds in a 50 Hz system). To do this they must quench the electric arc that appears when the breaker
contacts are opened; this is usually accomplished by blowing a gas, such as compressed air or sulphur hexafluoride
(SF6) across the contacts. Since human operators generally could not respond to a fault in time to prevent damage,
circuit breakers are operated by automatic relays that sense faults or other undesirable system conditions. To
distinguish between normal operations and fault conditions, relays are connected to instrument transformers – voltage
transformers (VT) and current transformers (CT) – that reflect the voltages and currents of the equipment they are
connected to. Relays themselves can be either electromechanical or solid state devices.

Essential aspects of protection system design include determining the specifications and placement of protection
equipment, and also the correct timing and sequence of relay operations. Protection engineers must determine how
long an undesirable condition should be allowed to persist before opening a circuit breaker, and the order in which
circuit breakers must open to correctly isolate faults in different zones.

3.6 Communications, Monitoring, and Control Systems

Power system operations take place within geographically well-defined control areas, which traditionally corresponded
to a utility’s service territory. With market liberalization, individual utility control areas have sometimes been combined
into larger control areas under the jurisdiction of an independent system operator (ISO). In either case, system

operations are coordinated by a central control centre, the responsibility of which it is to keep the entire system running
safely and reliably. This entails continuously monitoring system conditions and deploying system resources as the
situation requires.

Traditionally, monitoring and control have been conducted semi-manually, with a heavy reliance on telephone
communications with plant operators and field personnel. Increasingly, these activities are automated. Supervisory
control and data acquisition (SCADA) systems combine remote sensing of system conditions with remote control over
operations. For example, control center SCADA systems control key generators through automatic generator control
(AGC), and can change the topology of the transmission and distribution network by remotely opening or closing circuit
breakers. This monitoring and control is enabled by dedicated phone systems (often fibre-optic based), microwave
radio, and/or power line carrier signals.

4. TECHNICAL ISSUES ASSOCIATED WITH AC GRID INTERCONNECTION

4.1. General Requirements for AC Interconnection

AC interconnection usually provides the greatest interconnection benefits, except in certain cases for which DC is the
preferred option (see Section 5.1). Synchronous interconnection of different systems is, however, technically
demanding. At a general level, the first requirement is that the systems share the same nominal frequency, either 50
Hz or 60 Hz. Then, they must regulate frequency so that they achieve and remain in synchronism (see Section 3.4,
below). They must also interconnect at a common voltage level. This is easier if the countries involved have agreed to
a common standard for transmission voltage, such as the 380 kV standard in Europe. It is still possible for countries
with different voltage schemes to interconnect by using transformers (if voltages are not very different,
autotransformers are often used, which have only a single winding and are less expensive than ordinary
transformers). Having to use an excessive number of transformers is, however, undesirable, since transformers are
costly, add impedance to the line, and may require lengthy repair after a fault, keeping the transmission inter-tie out of
operation for an extended period. Other, more specific technical issues are discussed in the remainder of this section.

Good engineering must be complemented by good cooperation among the interconnected systems. In both planning
and operation phases, this requires extensive data sharing, joint modelling, and clear communication.

4.2. Technical Issues for AC Interconnection

One way of thinking about the technical issues of AC interconnections is to group them into those associated with the
transmission interconnection itself, and those associated with operating the larger interconnected system.
Transmission issues are discussed in 4.3. Key issues include thermal limits, stability limits, and voltage regulation,
which are the main constraints on transmission line operation. Other transmission issues include loop and parallel path
flows, available transfer capacity, and FACTS technologies. System-wide issues are discussed in 4.4, including
frequency regulation, power quality, the coordination of planning and operations, political and institutional cooperation,
systems that are aging or in poor repair, and the operation of nuclear power plants. The implications of electricity
market liberalization for interconnected systems are also discussed.

4.3. Transmission Issues

4.3.1 Thermal Limits

The capacity of transmission lines, transformers, and other equipment is determined by temperature limits. If these
limits are exceeded, the equipment can be damaged or destroyed. Equipment ratings have traditionally been
conservative, and operators have stayed well below the rated limits, but increased power trading in liberalized markets
has created pressure for higher utilization. Instead of a single thermal limit, dynamic ratings are now often used. For
example, transmission lines can carry more current when heat is effectively dissipated, and thus will have a higher
rating on cold, windy days without direct sunlight.

When transmission lines heat up, the metal expands and the line sags. If the sag becomes too great, lines can come
into contact with surrounding objects, causing a fault. Excess sag can also cause the metal to lose tensile strength due
to annealing, after which it will not shrink back to its original length. Important transmission lines are often monitored by
a device called a “sagometer”, which measures the amount of sag, making system operators aware of dangerous sag
conditions.

4.3.2 Stability Limits

The stability limit of a transmission line is the maximum amount of power that can be transmitted for which the system
will remain synchronized if a disturbance occurs. The power flow through a transmission line is governed by the
difference in power angle between the sending and receiving sides:-

VR.VS.sinδ
P= =
XS

where:-

VR = Receiving end voltage

VS = Sending end voltage
δ = Power or transmission angle between the sending and receiving end
XS = Surge or characteristic impedance of the line

All other factors being equal, the power transmitted from the sending side to the receiving side increases as the
difference in power angle between the two points, called δ (delta), approaches 90°, and decreases as it approaches 0°.
However, the feedback mechanism that keeps generators in synchronism and returns them to synchronous operation if
they are disturbed becomes more tenuous as δ approaches 90°. The stability limit represents the value of the power
angle that allows the highest power transfer while maintaining stability; a typical maximum value of δ is around 45°.

In general, stability limits are more important than thermal limits for long transmission lines, while thermal limits are
more important for shorter lines. In South Africa, for example, thermal limits are more important in the Gauteng
interconnections, while stability limits play a larger role in the Western Cape interconnections.

4.3.3 Voltage Regulation

Utilities generally maintain system voltages within 5-10 percent of nominal values in order to avoid the risk of voltage
collapse, which can lead to a major interruption of service. Power system voltages are primarily governed by reactive
power flows. Voltages along a transmission link are a function of the physical length of the circuit, the impedance per
unit length, and the flow of real power: the higher the current and the greater the reactance, the larger the voltage drop
(if the reactance is predominantly inductive) or gain (if capacitive). Voltage collapse can be triggered when reactive
demand is high and systems are operating near their stability limits, then undergo a disturbance that triggers a quick
downward spiral. To maintain voltages along long AC transmission lines, reactive compensation of various kinds can
be employed, such as series and shunt capacitors, and shunt reactors. (See section on FACTS, below).

System operators also maintain voltage levels in order to protect end-use equipment (for example, low voltages cause
motor currents to increase, and higher currents can cause thermal damage). Utilities are usually obliged to provide
power to customers within prescribed voltage tolerances. Devices called tap-changing transformers in the local
distribution system are used to ensure that customer voltages are maintained even when system voltages change
substantially. Note, however, that the power quality experienced by the customer is generally more affected by local
conditions in the distribution system, such as switching, lightning strikes, and the loads of other customers, than by
conditions in the transmission system. Protecting sensitive electronic end-use equipment is the responsibility of the
customer rather than the utility.

4.3.4 Loop and Parallel Path Flows

In power systems, power flows do not necessarily follow a specified transmission path – for example, from seller in
system A to buyer in system B - but divide themselves among various connected transmission paths according to the
voltage levels and impedances of the path. To put it another way, power flows conform to physical laws rather than
economic agreements. In some cases, a power transaction can take quite unwanted paths, resulting in line losses and
possibly overloading lines of neighbours having nothing to do economically with the transaction. In general, these
phenomena are referred to as circulating power, loop flows, and parallel path flows. What is important for the reliability
of an interconnected system is that operators know the sources and destinations of all transactions and where the
power will flow, and are able to calculate the resulting reliability risks (see section on power flow modelling, below).

4.3.5 Available Transmission Capacity (ATC)

An important measure of transmission capacity is transmission transfer capability (TTC), which is the maximum power
flow that a line can accommodate at any given time and still be able to survive the loss of a major generator or
transmission link elsewhere in the system. Available transmission capacity (ATC) is the TTC of a line minus the amount
of capacity already committed to other uses on that line. ATC is thus the measure of how much power can be safely
transmitted over a transmission line at a given time while ensuring overall system reliability.

4.3.6 Flexible AC Transmission System (FACTS)

Flexible AC Transmission System (FACTS) refers to a number of different technologies based on power electronics
and advanced control technologies, which are used to optimize power flows and increase grid stability18. FACTS
equipment is expensive, but it can pay for itself by directing power flows with precision, eliminating loop flows, and
relieving transmission bottlenecks without requiring that new lines be built. It can also improve frequency and voltage
stability, decrease transmission losses and voltage drops, and improve power quality. FACTS equipment includes
static compensators, static VAR compensators, thyristor-controlled series capacitors, phase-shifting transformers,
interphase power controllers, universal power flow controllers, and dynamic voltage restorers. With FACTS, AC
transmission over distances that were not previously possible due to stability limits has become possible. Figure 7-1.2
shows applications for different FACTS technologies. FACTS devices have been used extensively in the North
American and European interconnections, and increasingly in developing regions, the Brazil north-south
interconnection, and other interconnections in Latin America, Africa, and South Asia.

Issue Device Device

Steady-state Voltage Control MSC Stepwise, infrequent control only
SVC Continuous control inherent
SC Continuous control inherent
Dynamic and Post-contingency SVC Compact design
Voltage Control STATCOM
Improvement of Steady-state Load PST Easily expandable rating
Sharing IPC Very low losses
SC
Post-contingency Load Sharing PST Faster
TCSC
Transient Stability Improvement SC Inherently self-regulating
SVC Compact design
STATCOM
Issue Device Device
Power Oscillation Damping SVC Location critical
TCSC Insensitive to location and load type

Power Quality Improvement SVC Voltage fluctuation mitigation

STATCOM Flicker mitigation
DVR Voltage sag mitigation
Terminology:
MSC Mechanically-switched Capacitor*
SVC Static Var Compensator
SC Series Capacitor*
STATCOM Static Compensator
PST Phase-shifting Transformer
IPC Interphase Power Controller
TCSC Thyristor-controlled Series Capacitor
UPFC Unified Power Flow Controller
DVR Dynamic Voltage Restorer
* Not strictly FACTS devices, but closely related to its application

Figure 7-1.2: Applications of FACTS Technologies

4.3.7 Transmission Upgrades

If existing transmission facilities are to be used in the interconnection but are not adequate to transmit the expected
volume of power, they can be upgraded either by adding additional lines in parallel or increasing the transmission
voltage. If these options are not available, FACTS or HVDC solutions can be explored.

4.4. Systems Issues

Key technical systems issues that must be addressed in planning and implementing a grid interconnection include
frequency regulation, coordination of operations, interconnections of power systems with weak grids, and aspects of
interconnection that are associated with electricity market liberalization.

4.4.1 Frequency Regulation

Controlling frequency in a synchronous network is ultimately an issue of precisely matching generation to load. This
load-matching occurs on several time scales. System planners and operators plan generation from hours to months in
advance, coordinating the dispatch of generating units and power exchanges with other systems based on factors such
as historical load patterns, weather predictions, maintenance schedules, and unplanned outages. At the scale of
minutes to seconds, frequency is maintained by Automatic Generator Control (AGC), which precisely controls the real
and reactive power output of certain generators that are able to respond rapidly to changes in load. Hydroelectric and
gas turbine units are generally used for regulation and load following; nuclear plants and large coal-fired plants can be
damaged by rapid changes of output and are not used in this function.

At the instantaneous time scale, frequency synchronization is a self-regulating phenomenon. When loads suddenly
increase, generators slow down slightly, giving up some of their mechanical energy of rotation to supply the additional
electrical energy required; when loads suddenly decrease, generators speed up. Through feedback among the different
generators in the system, synchronism is maintained, at a frequency slightly higher or lower than nominal. When the
control center computers sense these frequency movements, AGCs are notified to increase or decrease generator
output to the amount necessary to balance load and return frequency to nominal levels. System operators also have a
variety of off-line reserves or “ancillary services” available upon need to assist in frequency regulation and other
aspects of reliable system operation. The theory of parallel operation of generators in large networks, once a daunting
engineering problem, was established in the 1930s. Modern networks seldom deviate from nominal frequency by more
than 0.1 Hz, and generally operate within 0.01 Hz of nominal. In an interconnected system, except where DC links are
used, frequency synchronization must be accomplished through the means above, jointly administered across the
interconnected systems.

4.4.2 Coordinating Operations

The basic geographical unit of a power system is the control area, which typically has a single control center
responsible for monitoring system conditions and scheduling the dispatch of all generation. In interconnected systems,
transmission lines to neighbouring control areas are metered and the incoming and outgoing power flows are
scheduled and continuously monitored. A continuous record of the balance of load, generation, and exchanges with
other control areas called the Area Control Error (ACE) is used to plan real-time corrections to maintain load-generation
balance.

Interconnections create a number of coordination challenges, both institutional and technical. For example, reliability
standards and constraints may differ, and there may be differences in regulation and control schemes and
technologies. It is important for the operators and planners of interconnected systems to be aware of the conditions and
practices in their neighbouring control areas. Good communication between different system operators is important for
agreeing on and coordinating interchange schedules, transmission loading, maintenance schedules, procedures for
fault clearing, and emergency protocols.

As interconnected systems expand to encompass large geographical scales, technology is striving to keep up with the
associated complexities and risks. Some important trends in grid technologies related to the problems of maintaining
reliability in large AC systems include:-

4.4.2.1 Faster physical control over the system, for example FACTS technologies with solid state controls that allow
rapid adjustment of reactive power flows.

4.4.2.2 Improved real-time monitoring ability, for example the development of wide area monitoring systems (WAMS).

4.4.2.3 Faster analytical capability to complement improved monitoring.

4.4.2.4 Improved communications.

4.4.3 Interconnection of Power Systems with Weak Grids

Not all interconnections take place between power systems in top technical condition. In the developing world, many
power systems bear the marks of age, poor repair, and insufficient investment, ranging from corroded conductors and
deteriorating insulation to leaking transformers, worn out switchgear, and a variety of inoperable equipment. Equipment
is often obsolete, and operations that are automated elsewhere may be carried out manually. Systems in poor repair
generally perform poorly, have serious reliability problems, and often fail to comply with safety or environmental
standards. As one scholar described the difficulties of interconnection among sparse, poorly maintained systems:

“The vastness of the area and the low power consumption density in most African countries makes the operation of
the interconnection difficult from an operational point. Many of the loads are connected to spurs off a grid that has a
low level of interconnectivity. In addition, most of the networks have suffered from a lack of maintenance due to a
shortage of funds. This has dramatically reduced the reliability of the system and outages frequently occur in many
places. The combination of these factors has forced industries to provide their own generating facilities in the form
of diesel power. These plants then operate in island mode and will often also provide power to towns and villages in
the immediate vicinity of the plant. Some utilities are discouraging this practice, but need to convince these clients
to connect to a grid that may not be that reliable in the first place, particularly in areas connected to spurs.”

Interconnection can improve such systems, by providing emergency reserves and more reliable supplies. However,
careful planning must ensure that the interconnection doesn’t lead to additional stresses elsewhere in the
interconnected system.

Countries with weak or isolated grids are usually poor candidates for siting nuclear power plants (NPP). NPPs have
much more stringent requirements regarding grid stability than do fossil fuel thermal plants, for two reasons. First, the
auxiliary systems in a NPP are much more sensitive to power conditions than such systems at other plants because of

the potential consequences – namely, that a major failure could lead to a nuclear accident. Second, NPPs have large
amounts of decay heat to remove long after the chain reaction is shut down, and require power to operate cooling
water pumps during this extended period. With weak grids, large variations in voltage and frequency will trip a NPP off-
line; worse, the sudden loss of a large power plant start a cascading failure that collapses the grid altogether. With
interconnection to other grids, however, siting a NPP in a country with a weak or isolated grid becomes a plausible
option. The interconnection can help to stabilize the weak grid, and it can also provide access to an independent back-
up grid connection, which is a safety requirement for NPPs.

4.4.4 Interconnections and Electricity Market Liberalization

Electricity market liberalization presents a combination of opportunities, challenges, and risks for interconnection
projects. From the economic standpoint, the opportunity of greater access to lower-cost supplies is balanced against
the challenge of operating competitive markets and the risk of market breakdowns of the type that occurred in
California in 2000-2001. From the technical standpoint, the focus is on the impact of liberalization on reliability. Some of
the main concerns that have been raised include:-

• Increased or excessive utilization of transmission capacity, reducing reliability margins such as what is prevalent in
South Africa.

• Reduced information exchange among system operators due to proprietary concerns in a competitive environment

• Reduced investment in reliability as companies cut costs due to competitive pressures, a concern for transmission
especially as generation and distribution are liberalized

• Increased complexity in planning and operations as the number of players and transactions increases, and dispatch is
based on changing market prices

• The intentional creation of congestion, or the appearance of congestion, on transmission lines to drive up prices, as
done by Enron and others during the California crisis

• Transaction costs associated with replacing experienced organizations and procedures with new ones as ISOs and
TRANSCOs replace integrated utility control areas

Requirements for successful interconnection operation in a liberalized, more market-driven electricity sector
environment include:-

• Make knowledge of all transactions available to system operators

• Improve cooperation between network managers of different countries

• Improve incentives for investing in infrastructure

• Clearly define the rights and obligations of all parties

• Monitor behaviour and rigorously enforce rules

5. TECHNICAL ISSUES RELATED TO DC INTERCONNECTIONS

5.1. Why Use HVDC

The first electrical transmission systems built in the 1880s were DC. However, because DC could not be readily
transformed to higher voltages for long distance transmission, AC systems quickly became the standard. It was many
years before technological development again made DC competitive for some applications. The first commercial use of
modern HVDC transmission was in Sweden in 1954. It has been since the 1980s, however, when high-voltage solid
state converters were developed to replace mercury arc converters that the use of HVDC transmission in
interconnection projects has taken off. While still expensive, costs of converter stations have been steadily falling, and
HVDC must be considered as an option for many interconnection projects.

HVDC is used in interconnection projects in three principal applications:

5.1.1 Transmitting Large Amounts of Power over Very Long Distances

Unlike long-distance AC transmission, HVDC transmission over long distances has no inherent stability limit. Also,
even within AC stability limits (which can be extended through the use of FACTS or other reactive compensation),
HVDC can overtake AC on cost grounds alone. This is because HVDC carries more power for a given conductor size,
and only requires two conductors while AC transmission requires three. Thus even though converter stations are very
expensive, the cost per kilometre of DC transmission lines is lower. Generally, for distances above about 600 km,
HVDC transmission is less expensive to build and operate than AC. The relationship between costs of AC and DC
transmission lines versus the distance that power must be transmitted is illustrated in Figure 2-3. The dashed lines in
this figure illustrate only terminal (converter station for DC, substation for AC) and line costs; the solid lines show that
HVDC economics are improved when consideration of the relative line losses of the two technologies are included.

Total AC Cost Total DC Cost

Losses

DC Line Cost
Cost

AC Line
DC Terminal Cost

AC Terminal Cost

Distance

Figure 7-1.3: The Effect of Transmission Distance On AC and DC Transmission Line Costs

Figure 7-1-4 shows the comparison of AC and DC cost curves for an illustrative case. (Note: this figure is for illustrative
purposes only.) In this example, for a 2000 MW line, AC is less expensive below 700 kilometres, and DC is less
expensive above 700 km.

Figure 7-1.4: AC and DC Line Costs for 2000 MW Transmission Line

5.1.2 Transmitting Power Underwater.

HVDC is preferred for undersea transmission. Undersea cables have a coaxial structure in order to minimize space
requirements, but coaxial cables have a high capacitance. This presents a high reactive impedance to AC
transmission, but DC is unaffected by capacitance, and can therefore be used for high capacity, long-distance
undersea cables.

5.1.3 Asynchronous Interconnections.

HVDC is a viable alternative when synchronous AC connections are difficult or impossible due to the use of different
system frequencies in the systems to be interconnected or other important system differences. As one expert has
remarked, “the advent of DC connections has reduced the number of ‘islands’ that must consider themselves
electrically isolated.” DC ties between different AC systems deliver some of the benefits of interconnection while
avoiding many of the technical problems of synchronous operation. There are two general types of asynchronous
interconnection:

5.1.3.1 HVDC transmission over some distance, between two converter stations connected at either end to an AC
system.

5.1.3.2 HVDC “back-to-back” interconnection to AC systems on either side, without any intervening transmission. Back-
to-back connections have sometimes served as a stepping stone to a later full synchronous interconnection.

In addition to the three applications above, there are other reasons HVDC interconnections are used. A key one is that
HVDC carries more power for a given conductor size. Because of this, in situations where existing transmission
capacity is constrained, HVDC is an alternative to an AC transmission upgrade. Conversely, to provide a given
transmission capacity, HVDC lines, towers, and rights-of-way can be smaller than a comparable AC system, reducing
the line’s environmental footprint. Another major advantage is that the solid-state controls of HVDC systems offer
complete control over the direction of power flow, without unpredictable loop flows. The direction of flow can be
reversed, and operating voltages can be reduced if necessary. The track record of HVDC indicates high reliability and
availability, and the advantage that in a bipolar system one pole can operate if the other pole is not operational due to

maintenance or an outage. Also, HVDC does not increase fault currents in the network it is connected to, so new circuit
breakers are not required in the rest of the system. HVDC systems, however, are difficult to operate with more than
two, or at most three, terminal connections to AC transmission systems, so that HVDC systems are not an optimal
choice if power is to be supplied to several intermediate locations along a power line route.

5.2. Technical Considerations with HVDC systems

5.2.1 Components of an HVDC System

The main components of an HVDC system are the transmission line and the converter stations at either end of the
interconnection. The heart of the converter station is the converters themselves, which are composed of high-voltage
solid-state “valves” that perform the AC to DC and DC to AC conversions. The valves are air-insulated, water-cooled,
and controlled by optical signals from fibre optic devices (since the valves operate at extremely high voltage and any
physical connection to a grounded object, such a wire leading back to a control room, would immediately become a
short-circuit path). Converter stations also include transformers to convert to and from the AC transmission voltage to
which the DC link is attached. Finally, converter stations include filters on both the AC and DC sides.

Figure 7-1.5: Schematic of a HVDC Converter Station

Overhead HVDC transmission lines can usually be easily identified because they have two conductors per circuit,
rather than three as in the AC case. Normally these lines are bipolar, meaning that the two conductors have opposite
polarity (e.g., +/- 600 kV). DC conductors are made from the same materials as AC conductors. Cables used for
undersea transmission come in two varieties, solid and oil-filled.

5.2.2 Choice of Converter Technology

An important issue in HVDC systems is the choice of converter technology. (Note that AC to DC conversion is often
called rectification, and DC to AC conversion is often called inversion. However, the term conversion is applied to both
operations.) There are three types of converters:

5.2.2.1 Natural commutated converters are the most common variety. They use solid-state device called thyristors,
which are connected in series to form valves, which operate at the frequency of the AC grid, either 50 or 60
Hz.

5.2.2.2 Capacitor commutated converters, which have capacitors inserted in series between the valves and
transformers. They improve the performance of converters connected to weak networks.

5.2.2.3 Forced commutation converters, which use rapidly switchable solid-state devices. One variety is the voltage
source converter (VSC), composed of high-voltage transistors called IGBTs. The VSC performs conversion at
very high frequencies, using a method called pulse-width modulation. This gives the VSC a very high degree
of control over the incoming and outgoing waveform, allowing it to change power angles, control both real and
reactive power, and maintain high power quality.

Long Long Distance Interconnections Windmill Feed of

Distance Transmission of Connection to Small
Transmission Over Sea Asynchronous Network Isolated
Over Land Networks Loads
Natural Commutated
X X
HVDC with OH Lines
Natural Commutated
X X
HVDC with Sea Cables
Capacitor Commutated
Converters (CCC) in X
Back-to-Back
Capacitor Commutated
Converters (CCC) with X X
OH Lines
Capacitor Commutated
Converters (CCC) with X X
Sea Cables
VSC Converters in
X X
Back-to-Back
VSC Converters with
X X X X X
Land and Sea Cables

Figure 7-1.6 Shows the Suitability of the Different Converter Technologies for Various Applications

5.2.3 Proximity to Parallel AC Lines

Parallel operation of high-voltage AC and DC lines in close proximity can create control problems. This must be
considered in any siting decisions.

5.2.4 Reactive Power Consumption

Natural commutated converters consume a substantial amount of reactive power in the conversion process, and may
require reactive power compensation on the AC side. VSCs by their nature do not consume reactive power.

5.2.5 Harmonics

The process for converting AC to DC power, and vice versa, involves rapid switching, which generates various
harmonics that can reduce AC power quality and interfere with telecommunications facilities. AC filters are needed
especially to eliminate harmonics of order 11, 13, 23, and 25; the amount of filtering necessary depends on the kind of
converter technology employed.

5.2.6 Operation and Maintenance

Because of the high voltage environment associated with them, HVDC systems are designed for remote operation. A
relatively few people can operate HVDC links from a central location. The maintenance requirements for HVDC
transmission lines are comparable to those for high voltage AC lines. Turnkey systems, where a supplier builds an
HVDC system, then turns it over to a line operator, are common, and the supplier should provide the necessary training
and support to utility personnel. One week of maintenance per year is the typical anticipated outage time for HVDC
systems.

5.3. HVDC Projects Worldwide

The highest capacity HVDC interconnection in the world at present is a bipolar +/- 600 kV line transmitting 6300 MW of
power from the Itaipu dam on the Brazilian-Paraguayan border into Brazil over a distance of 800 km. HVDC was
selected at the technology for this transmission project for two reasons:-

5.3.1 the great distance between the dam and demand centres, and

5.3.2 because the dam generates power at 50 Hz, while Brazil has a 60 Hz power system. The longest HVDC link
currently operating is the 975 km line carrying power from China’s Three Gorges Dam. China also has the
HVDC link with the highest power per pole, at 1650 MW. Figure 7-1.7 on the next following page shows the
location of major HVDC projects worldwide.

Figure 7-1.7: HVDC projects worldwide. Lighter boxes are 50 Hz power systems, darker boxes are 60 Hz power
systems31

6. PLANNING AND MODELLING OF INTERCONNECTION TECHNICAL PARAMETERS

6.1. Planning Steps

There are typically a number of distinct stages in the technical design of an interconnection project (although some of
these stages may be combined or their order changed). These stages include:

6.1.1 Preliminary electricity supply and demand estimates, usually based on resource planning and regional
market pricing simulations. Project owners make quantitative estimates of time-dependent electricity supply and
demand and potential magnitudes of power exchanges between the systems to be interconnected.

6.1.2 Technical specification. Project owners provide potential designers/ contractors with general specifications,
including the amount and direction of power to be transmitted, temporary overload levels, voltage levels,
distance and terrain, and environmental requirements. Details on the technical status and operations of the
different systems must also be provided.

6.1.3 Conceptual design. Potential project designers/contractors provide project owners with a conceptual design for
the interconnection, including the preliminary determination of AC or DC interconnection, overhead lines or
cable, conductors, support structures, transformers, reactive compensation, substation location and design. For
DC systems, conceptual design will also include commutation method and filtering.

6.1.4 Tendering. Potential designers/contractors tender offers to design and/or build the interconnection infrastructure
to project owners, followed by review, negotiation, and approval

6.1.5 Final design. After approval of design/selection of contractors, the project design is finalized. Often, tendering
and final design are an interactive process between designer/contractors and the project owners, sometimes
also involving other interested parties.

6.2. Modelling Requirements for Transmission Interconnections

During the project planning process, the design of the technical and operating parameters of an interconnection
requires extensive computer modelling to ensure that the interconnection and the systems it connects provide reliable
and economical service. The types of modelling required include the following:

6.2.1 Power Flow Modelling

The most important single class of tools in power system engineering is that of power flow models, also called load
flow models. These models are used to compute voltage magnitudes, phase angles, and flows of real and reactive
power through all branches of a synchronous network under steady-state conditions. Power flow models account for
loop flows, and make it possible to understand how much power will actually flow on transmission lines under a given
set of circumstances. Modellers vary the initial conditions – for instance, adding a proposed new generator to the
network – and determine the impact on power flows throughout the system.

A standard reliability requirement is that utilities meet the “N-1” criterion, meaning that the system is able to continue
to supply all loads despite the loss of a large generator or the outage of large transmission line. These
“contingencies” are modelled with a power flow model, and if the model results indicate a problem, planners and
operators must address it, typically by adding new generation and/or transmission capacity, or by changing operational
procedures.

To run power flow models requires that each busbar and line in the system be thoroughly described, requiring a great
deal of input data. The real and reactive power consumption at each load bus, the impedance of each line and
transformer, and the generating capacity of all generators must be known.

Power flow models are used by the utilities to calculate a power transfer distribution factor (PTDF) for individual power
transfers. The PTDF shows the incremental impact of a power transfer from a seller to a buyer on all transmission
lines, as a percentage of their transfer capacity. If a line is overloaded, transactions that have PTDF values greater
than 5 percent on the overloaded line can be curtailed.

6.2.2 Optimal Power Flow (OPF) Modelling

Optimal power flow models take the outputs of power flow models and analyze them according to user-defined
objective functions, such as least cost or minimization of transmission loading. Where the ordinary power flow model
provides only engineering information – voltage, power, and phase angle, for example – OPF models assist operators
in ranking alternatives according to economic and other criteria.

6.2.3 Short Circuit (Fault Level) Modelling

Short-circuit models are used to compute fault currents for various kinds of short circuits (phase-to-phase and phase-
to-earth). The results of short-circuit models are used to determine the required specifications for protection equipment
such as circuit breakers and relays, and to determine the proper settings for relays to clear faults.

6.2.4 Dynamic Stability Modelling

Dynamic stability models are used to determine whether the synchronous machines in a power system – namely the
generators and motors - will remain in synchronism in the case of a disturbance, for example the loss of a generator or
transmission line, a fault, or a sudden increase in demand. The models work by calculating the angular swings of
synchronous machines during a disturbance, and determining whether they will remain within an envelope of stable
operation.

6.2.5 Transient Modelling

Transient models are used to compute the magnitude of transient voltages and current spikes due to sources such as
lightning and circuit switching. The model results are used to specify the insulation (BIL) requirements for lines and
transformers, to determine grounding schemes, and to determine surge arrester specifications.

6.3. Data Requirements for Planning

Exchange of data between the owners/operators of the systems to be interconnected regarding the technical
characteristics and requirements of their respective systems is essential from the outset of an interconnection project.
The need for transparency and for the development of mutual understanding cannot be overemphasized. An example
of the kinds of technical data that are typically exchanged in an interconnection project can be seen in Table 7-1.1.

Table 7-1.1: Sample of Technical Data Requirements for Interconnection

Overhead Transmission Line Nominal Voltage (kV)

Length (km)
Route Map (including transposition locations)
Plan and profile drawings
Electric single line diagram showing transmission line and any other associated
devices required for switching, reactive compensation, protection and control and
communication and the interface to the generator or end-user
Nominal power transfer rating
Conductor type and size
Overhead earth-wire type and size
Configuration of conductors and overhead earth-wires on tower )including diagram
showing phase spacing and clearances to earth)
Positive sequence R1, X1,B1 (ohms/km)
Zero sequence R0, X0 (ohms/km)
Description of protection provided
Description of communication systems

Table 7-1.1: Sample of Technical Data Requirements for Interconnection (Continued)

Reactive Compensation Devices Connection location
(if applicable) Type, make, model
Configuration
Rated voltage (kV)
Size (MVAr)
Switching device: Type, make, model, interrupting capacity, continuous current
rating, tripping and closing times and any switching restrictions
Criteria for automatic switching
Description of protection provided
Intermediate or Terminal Electrical single line diagram
substation Circuit breakers, model, type, interrupting capacity, continuous current ratings,
tripping and closing times
Description of all protection
Transformer Type, make, model
MVA rating - Normal
MVA rating - Emergency

Voltage rating of each winding

Connection configuration of each winding
Saturation characteristics
Tap-changer nominal tap, tap step size and tap range
Positive sequence impedance on own base (pu) at nominal tap for each winding
Zero sequence impedance on own base (pu) at nominal tap for each winding
Circuit breakers: type, make, model, interrupting capacity, continuous current
rating, tripping and closing times
Surge arresters: type, model and rating
Description of protection and control provided including block diagrams and
schematic diagrams
List of protection and control settings
Description of interface provided for remote control and monitoring
Description of facilities for metering
Description of communication systems provided

The data given above forms the basis on which the design of a substation or HV yard is performed.

6.4 Software Tools

Table 7-1.2 lists several examples of common software packages used for modelling power flow, optimal power flow
(OPF), dynamic stability, available transfer capacity (ATC), and fault analysis. The table also includes examples of
software used for integrated economic and resource planning, and SCADA software. Please note that this table by no
means presents an exhaustive list of the software available to address these needs, nor do UN-DESA or the authors
make any claims or recommendations regarding these software tools—the table presents examples for reference only.

Table 7-1.2: Power System Simulation Software

Company Software Function

PowerWorld Corporation PowerWorld Simulator Power flow, OFP, transfer capacity
General Electric PSLF Power flow, dynamic simulation, fault analysis
Siemens PSS/E Power flow, OPF, dynamic simulation, fault analysis,
transfer capacity, pricing
ABB SIMPOW Power flow, dynamic simulation, fault analysis
General Electric MARS Interconnected system reliability
ABB Network Manager SCADA software
General Electric XA/21 SCADA software
LCG Consulting UPLAN Integrated planning, market price simulation
Global Energy Decisions ProSym Integrated planning, market price simulation
OLADE and IADB SUPER Generation and interconnection planning
ICF Consulting IPM Integrated planning, market price simulation
Operation Technology, Inc ETAP Integrated analysis tool for design, maintenance, and
operation of electric power systems; includes modules
for HVDC and many other functions

• An example of a software tool for Power Flow modelling with graphic interface features: the PSS/E Simulator Figure
7-1.8 shows a “screen shot” of a PSS/E simulation of a small part of the South African and Zimbabwean network with
busbars containing both load and generation. The display can indicate the percentage of transmission capacity of each
transmission link that is in use under the given scenario. The visual interface helps operators and planning understand
the impact of adding or removing generators and transmission lines, or of large changes in real or reactive power
consumption by loads.

Fig. 7-1.8: Power-World Display of Transmission Loading on Small 9-Bus System

Figure 7-1.9 shows another graphic picture of the Southern African Interconnected Power Grid. This figure shows the
Power Transfer Distribution for a proposed power transfer in the northern part of the proposed grid. It illustrates the
importance of parallel path flows in loading transmission lines far from the nominal sender and receiver.

Figure 7-1.9: Southern African Grid

7. SUMMARY OF TECHNICAL ISSUES IN GRID INTERCONNECTION

Several basic technical issues must be addressed early in the planning process for a grid interconnection. Will the
interconnected systems operate synchronously or asynchronously? What are the magnitudes and directions of the
anticipated power flows? What physical distance and terrain will the interconnection span? What are the key technical
and operating differences among the systems to be interconnected?

For AC interconnections, key design and operating issues relate to the constraints on transmission capacity, which
include thermal limits, stability limits, and voltage regulation. Where there are liberalized electricity markets, these
constraints become more severe as systems are operated closer to capacity. FACTS and HVDC options should be
considered as alternatives or complements to traditional transmission upgrades. Simulation software is an essential
tool for planning and operating an interconnection. For modelling to be effective, however, extensive technical data
must first be gathered and shared between systems, and personnel must be trained. Grid interconnections require a
careful calculation of costs, benefits, and risks. Technical planning of a grid interconnection should be coordinated with
economic, organizational, legal, and political aspects of a potential interconnection project from the outset of project
consideration.

8. RESOURCES FOR FURTHER ANALYSIS

8.1 J. Glover and M. Sarma (2002), Power System Analysis and Design, 3rd edition. Brooks/Cole, Pacific Grove, CA.

8.2 W. Stevenson (1982), Elements of Power System Analysis, 4th edition.

8.3 A. Fitzgerald, C. Kingsley, and S. Umans (2003), Electric Machinery, 6th edition. McGraw-Hill, New York.

8.4 J. Casazza and G. Loehr (1999), The Evolution of Electric Power Transmission Under Deregulation. IEEE,
Piscataway, NJ.

8.5 North American Reliability Council (1995), Transmission Transfer Capability: A Reference Document for Calculating
and Reporting the Electric Power Transfer Capability of Interconnected Systems.

8.6 T. Hughes (1983), Networks of Power: Electrification in Western Society, 1880-1930. Johns Hopkins University,
Baltimore, MD.

8.7 R. Rudervall, J. Charpentier, and R. Sharma, “High Voltage Direct Current (HVDC) Transmission Systems
Technology Review Paper”. Joint World Bank-ABB Paper, available as
http://www.worldbank.org/html/fpd/em/transmission/technology_abb.pdf.

8.8 R. Grunbaum, J. Charpentier, and R. Sharma, “Improving the efficiency and quality of AC transmission systems”.
Joint World Bank-ABB Paper, available as http://www.worldbank.org/html/fpd/em/transmission/efficiency_abb.pdf.

8.9 T. Overbye (2004), “Power System Simulation: Understanding Small- and Large-System Operations”. IEEE Power
and Energy, Jan/Feb 2004

8.10 E. Ewald and D. Angland (2004), “Regional Integration of Electric Power Systems”. IEEE Spectrum, April 1964.

8.11 H. Happ (1973), “Power Pools and Superpools”. IEEE Spectrum, March 1973

8.12 K. Hicks (1967), “Disaster Control Coordination for Large Interconnected Systems”. IEEE Spectrum, November
1967.

8.13 R. Rincliffe (1967), “Planning and Operation of a Large Power Pool”. IEEE Spectrum, January 1967.

8.14 E. Lerner (2003), “What’s Wrong with the Electric Grid?”. The Industrial Physicist, October/November 2003.

8.15 A. Edris (2003), “FACTS Technology Development: An Update”. IEEE Power Engineering Review, March 2000.

8.16 General Electric Company and Electric Power Research Institute (1982), Transmission Line Reference Book –
345kV and Above, 2nd edition. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA.

8.17 J. Blackburn (1998), Protective Relaying: Principles and Applications, 2nd edition. Marcel Dekker, New York.

S.L.D.G. 7 - 2

GENERAL SYSTEM PLANNING DATA REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DESIGN OF A SUBSTATION

1. INTRODUCTION

The transmission network has two main constituent elements:-

a) Circuits that enable power transmission.

b) Substations that enable the interconnection of these circuits and the transformation between networks of different
voltages.

1.1 Functions of the Network

The transmission network performs three different functions:-

a) The transmission of electric power from generating stations (or other networks) to load centres.

b) The interconnection function that improves security of supply and allows a reduction in generation costs.

c) The supply function which consists of supplying the electric power to sub-transmission or distribution transformers
and in some cases to customers directly connected to the transmission network.

1.2 Functions of the Substation

These three functions of the transmission network are fulfilled through different types of substations listed below:-

a) Substations attached to Power Stations (Power Station High Voltage Yards)

b) Interconnection substations

c) Step-down (EHV / HV, EHV / MV, HV / MV) substations

A single substation may perform more than one of these functions.

1.3 Structure of a Substation.

Substations generally comprise the following:-

a) Switchgear.

b) Power Transformers.

c) Control Gear

1.4 System Requirements

Some of these parameters are common for all the substations that perform the same functions whereas others are
specific to each substation.

Standardised parameters are established jointly by system planners and transmission departments by means of
system studies, and economic considerations. Particular economic benefits are derived from specifying the technical
stages to allow the use of standardised HV equipment with identical characteristics (such as short-circuit (fault) current
level, maximum current carrying capacity of HV equipment, characteristics of transformers, insulation level (BIL) and
compensating devices).

The location of a substation at a particular site will give rise to system requirements peculiar to this station:-

a) General location requirements

b) Extent of the substation

c) Required availability of circuits

d) Main connections scheme

e) Current rating

f) Fault current level

g) Neutral point earthing

h) Fault elimination rapidity with respect to system stability

i) Future extensions

j) Control and needs of personnel

k) Equipment characteristics

2. PARAMETERS DETERMINED BY THE NETWORK

System planners seek to optimise the parameters that apply to the complete transmission system. They proceed to
network studies that involve mainly, insulation co-ordination, transient stability, short-circuit level and load flow.

2.1 Main Equipment Parameters

a) The maximum short circuit current rating of the substations’ equipment (Busbars, Isolators, Circuit Breakers,
Current Transformers), including its supporting structures.

b) The maximum load current passing through the components of a substation (which is related to the maximum
current carrying capacity of the lines and underground cables).

c) The transformer numbers, sizes and impedances as well as the mode of voltage control required, i.e. operating
mode of tap changing, regulation range, its phase shifting characteristics and number of taps.

2.2 Fault Clearing Time With Respect To System Stability

Transient stability characterises the dynamic behaviour of a generator in the case of large oscillations following a
major disturbance

In order to comply with the requirements of the Network (system stability), or the specifications of particular utilities,
specified fault clearance times must not be exceeded.

Fault clearing time limits and the re-closing conditions, may influence the choice of circuit breaker and other
switchgear, and also the dimensioning of the earthing grid and the mechanical strength of the equipment.

3. PLANNING OF A SUBSTATION

The starting point for a substation design procedure is as follows:-

a) The need for a new substation is approved.

b) The range of its duties, loadings and general location are known.

3.1 General Location

For the location of a new substation in the network several alternatives usually exist, the total costs of which should be
calculated. The following should be included:-

a) The losses in power transmission and transformation.

b) The costs of telecontrol and communications.

c) Preliminary study of reliability and busbar schemes.

d) Fault current and load flow calculations.

The building cost of new transmission lines and the reinforcement of old ones are often of the same order as that of
the substation and often much greater. Thus, it is worth examining various alternatives with system planners.

Nowadays it is not easy to get new line corridors, and their availability alone may determine the location of the
substation. Along with the automation of substations the costs of tele-control and telecommunications grow, but they
do not have a decisive effect from the point of view of location.

3.2 Extent of the Substation

It is very important to reserve sufficient space for the future and sophisticated network planning is needed to estimate
the necessary reserve space. If no better prognosis exists, 100 % reserve of outgoing feeders may be used as an
estimate. The space required depends essentially on the function of the substation.

It is important to define the number and the size of the main transformers at the final stage. The initial peak load of a
power transformer is dependent upon a number of factors such as the network configuration, standby-philosophy and
rate of load growth. An initial estimate would be in the range of 30 - 70 %.

In the case of GIS switchgear it is usual to reserve space for a number of spare bays and also to make allowance for
the future extension of the control building.

The outgoing line corridors should be planned so that there are a minimum number of crossings between different
overhead lines.

3.3 Busbar Scheme (See also SLDG 8)

3.3.1 Operational Flexibility (See also SLDG 8-1)

In order to take into account both production and consumer risks and contingent faults in system components the
circuits between two substations are often doubled, so that power transfer is shared, for instance between two
separate overhead line circuits. In some instances this is also necessary to limit the power due to a fault. These
requirements lead to the installation of a proportionally greater number of busbars and sections in the substation when
the number of outgoing feeders is large.

3.3.2 System Security (See also SLDG 8-1)

Careful selection of the electrical schematic arrangement - primary connections and protection scheme - and the
detailed construction layout should enable these criteria to be optimized.

3.3.3 Reliability and Availability (See also SLDG 8-2)

based on an older generation of apparatus and the likelihood of a severe outage occurring during the life-time of the
substation is quite small.

Not only the primary equipment but also the secondary equipment, e.g. the location and number of instrument
transformers and the arrangement of the secondary circuits can have a great influence on the over-all reliability
performance. For the looped substation schemes in particular, special attention has to be paid to the secondary wiring
and cabling.

3.3.4 Substation Control

The proposed scheme and layout must allow simple and efficient performance of the usual operational steps, changes
of section and planned outage for maintenance or extension.

3.4 Fault Current Levels

Fault current dimensioning depends on the neighbouring network and the size and short-circuit impedance of the main
transformers. System planning usually defines the following fault current ratings for a new substation:-

a) Maximum three-phase effective short-circuit current for the lines and the substation for the foreseeable future.

b) Duration of the effective short-circuit current.

c) Peak short-circuit current.

d) Maximum earth fault current and corresponding time.

e) Maximum current through the neutral point of the main transformer.

f) Minimum short-circuit (fault) current (for protection).

g) Minimum earth fault current (for protection).

3.5 Neutral Point Earthing

The transmission networks may be:-

a) Effectively earthed (earthing factor 1,4).

b) Non-effectively earthed (earthing factor e.g. 1,7). e.g. resistance earthed or resonant earthed.

c) Isolated.

In the first case earth current may be 60 to 120 % of the short-circuit current. If the conductivity of the soil is poor (for
example on the average 2 000 ohm-m), special attention has to be paid to the magnitude of station potential during an
earth fault. In this case it is possible to limit the earth-fault current and dimension the insulation level of the three-
phase transformer neutral point correspondingly. Alternatively the potential rise of the earthing grid may be limited by
ensuring that the earth wires of outgoing overhead lines have cross sectional areas equivalent to those of the phase
cables.

3.6 Future Extensions

Extension work such as building of new bays, dismantling and reconstruction of bays, extension of the set of busbars
may rather difficult and expensive, if there has been no previous planning for them.

3.7 Control In General

a) Manually operated isolators.

b) Motor operated isolators.

c) Presence of earthing switches.

d) Control via local control board.

e) Control via local computer terminal.

f) Degree of substation automation, sequence control.

g) Remote control from the National or Regional control centre.

h) Regulations.

i) Station manned / unmanned.

The need for telecontrol and telecommunication links depends on the needs of the automation, remote control, data
transmission and operation of the network. A substation is often also a nodal point of a data transmission network.

Probable future development: Remote control substations automation is increasing; substations are designed as
unmanned; maintenance is managed by the resources concentrated in control centres. Whether the substation is
manned or unmanned may depend on the importance of the station in the grid.

In accordance with system planning requirements, load shedding, network sectioning, voltage regulation and load
distribution regulation devices may be placed on the substation.

3.8 Protection in General

The substation has to be constructed so that all possible faults can be eliminated:-

a) Selectively.

b) So that the fault current rating of the lines and equipment is not exceeded.

c) So that no danger is caused to personnel and the requirements of safety codes are fulfilled.

d) Within such a time that stability of the network is maintained.

e) In such a way that load and production are held in balance.

For every protection item back-up protection is usually provided and important main protection is duplicated.

Protection systems can be divided into the following groups according to the protected item (See also SLDG 6-1):-

a) Line protection.

b) Transformer protection.

c) Busbar protection (bus zone protection).

d) Breaker failure protection.

e) Compensating equipment protection.

OR according to the type of the protection:-

a) Short-circuit protection.

b) Earth-fault protection.

c) Sub-harmonic protection

d) Overload protection

e) Over-voltage protection.

f) Anti-failure automation (load shedding, auto-re-closing, network sectionalisation and splitting of the network.

SLDG 8-1

IMPACT OF BUSBAR LAYOUTS ON CONTINGENCIES

1. INTRODUCTION

The transmission system is susceptible to facilities being removed from service for circumstances such as equipment
failure, weather-related damages, and accidents. Adequacy planning therefore entails identifying the reinforcements
required to allow the transmission system to operate under system normal conditions and most single contingency (N-
1) scenarios for the majority of substations. For a few strategically located interconnecting substations that may be
regarded as critical nodes in the network, as well as all power stations connected to the grid, double contingency (N-2
or (N-1) -1) scenario planning is more appropriate.

From the “time” perspective one can distinguish four dimensions of reliability of electricity supply:

1.1 System Security

Security is the readiness of existing and functioning generation and network capacity to respond in real time when they
are needed to meet the actual demand. This is a short-term issue. Caring for system security is the main function of the
System Operator, who sets at every moment the most adequate reserve margins for generation and network.

1.2 System Firmness

Firmness is the provision of the generation and network availability that partly results from operation planning activities
of the already installed capacity. This is a short to mid-term issue. Firmness depends on the short and medium term
management of generator and network maintenance, fuel supply contracts, reservoir management, start-up schedules,
etc. A flawed management of firmness may result in poor system security, even if there is abundant installed capacity
of generation and network.

1.3 System Adequacy

Adequacy means the existence of enough available capacity of generation and network, both installed and/or expected
to be installed, to meet demand. This is a long-term issue.

1.4 Strategic Energy Policy

Strategic Energy Policy is concerned the long-term availability of energy resources and infrastructures: long-term
diversification of the fuel provision and the technology mix of generation, geopolitical considerations, future price
evolution of fuels, potential environmental constraints, expected development of interconnections, etc. This is a long to
very long term issue.

2. STATE OF THE SYSTEM

2.1 System Normal

System normal refers to the state of the transmission system under which all existing transmission network elements
are available for service. Under system normal conditions, the transmission system must be designed to ensure:

2.1.1 Adequate voltage is provided to all customers, as defined within the Grid Code and any subsequent revisions.

2.1.2 All transmission lines operating between 220 kV and 800 kV do not exceed their respective seasonal normal
ratings.

2.1.3 All transmission system transformers (6,6 kV and above on the low side) are within their respective zero percent
loss of life, twenty-four hour continuous ratings.

An extended outage of a single generating unit or a single Bulk Power transformer (132 kV and above on the low side)
is also considered to be a system normal state.

2.2 Single Contingency

Single contingency refers to the state of the transmission system when one element is removed from service from the
system normal state. A transmission element can consist of a transmission line, a transformer, a generator, a double
circuit transmission tower, a busbar, a capacitor bank, or a static VAR compensator. A double circuit transmission
tower outage should be considered as a single contingency if multiple circuit towers are used for more than station
entrance and/or exit purposes and exceed more than five towers in length. Multiple contingency outages that could
result in the widespread loss of load such as the loss of a busbar may also be considered for the primary purpose of
identifying their impact on the transmission system.

Under single contingency conditions, the transmission system must be designed to ensure:

2.2.1 Adequate voltage is provided to all customers, as defined in the Grid Code

2.2.2 All transmission lines operating between 220 kV and 800 kV do not exceed their respective seasonal Long Term
Emergency (LTE) or Short Term Emergency (STE) ratings.

2.2.3 Transmission system transformers (6,6 kV and above on the low side) must not exceed their respective seasonal
LTE or STE ratings.

It should be noted that all LTE ratings are based on a duration of 4 hours and STE ratings are based on a duration of
15 minutes. Generally, the LTE rating will be used as the limiting rating to identify thermally limited facilities.

When the contingency is in addition to a generating unit or Bulk Power transformer being out of service, potential
solutions could include voltage reduction, load transfers, interruptible load curtailment, public appeals such as what is
currently done on television, voluntary load curtailment, and/or load shedding.

2.3 Double Contingency

Eskom Transmission is legally required to plan, operate, and maintain its transmission system in accordance with its
Transmission Licence issued by the National Energy Regulator of South Africa (NERSA). One of the conditions of the
Licence is compliance with the South African Grid Code (Grid Code), the regulatory document published by NERSA.
The System Operation Code section of the Grid Code governs the operation of the system. The Network Code section
of the Grid Code governs connections of customers to the transmission system, the planning and development of the
transmission system, technical limits to be adhered to, and the criteria to which all capital investments made by
transmission licensees must conform.

The system is operated as prescribed in clause 2.1.2.(1) of the System Operation Code which states “The System
Operator shall operate the IPS as far as practical so that instability, uncontrolled separation or cascading
outages do not occur as a result of the most severe double contingency. Multiple outages of a credible nature
shall be examined and, whenever practical, the System Operator shall operate the IPS to protect it against
instability, uncontrolled separation and cascading outages.”.

Traditionally contingency analysis is only performed for single contingency (N-1) outage. However, after several major
blackouts in industrial countries, a conservative approach of taking N-2 outages into contingency analysis has been
adopted by many utilities. The number of combinations of N-2 outages increases dramatically as the number of circuits
considered increases.

2.4 Multiple Contingency

Multiple contingencies occur when two or more transmission lines, or transformers, or generators, or a combination of
these are put out of service at the same time. In analysis of these types of contingencies, distribution factors are used.
The first contingency distribution factors can be combined in a manner that allows the calculation of double
contingencies.

3. VOLTAGE STABILITY

In any electricity transmission system, a stable condition must be assured, but power systems are currently more
complex and heavily loaded, which means that voltage collapse is becoming an increasingly serious problem. It is
possible that, under specific conditions, the system can be placed on a state in which it may not be possible to maintain
the voltage levels within secure limits in one or more of the network busbars. Besides economic and environmental
concerns, there may be a limit to the construction of new transmission lines and generation capacity, thus increasing
the stress on the operating conditions and consequently placing the system closer to its stability limits. Voltage
collapse can be defined as instability of heavily loaded electric power systems that lead to declining voltages and
blackout, which has severe security repercussions and jeopardizes the essential service to final customers.

System instability can occur if one or more grid elements disconnect by tripping (a contingency), the load increases
suddenly or the geographical profile of the generation dispatch is abnormal. In case of instability, the System Operator
must act in the electrical grid elements nearest to the area (or busbar) where the problem lies, taking suitable control
measures in order to bring the system back to a secure operating condition. The control measures to be applied in a
voltage collapse situation are:

3.1 To connect capacitor banks;

3.2 To change the generators’ excitation in order to achieve more reactive power injection;

3.3 To change the transformer and autotransformer taps position;

3.4 To transfer load to other delivery points through the distribution network;

3.5 To execute load shedding (this is the last action to be applied when reactive power resources are insufficient).

In real time operation it is important for the System Operator to have voltage stability indicators that allow him to react
in advance and prevent voltage collapse blackouts. These indicators must be presented for the:

a) N Security Criteria – current network where all the grid elements are connected;

b) N-1 and N-2 Security Criteria – considering contingencies where one or two grid elements are disconnected in a
non-planned way.

The EMS (Energy Management System) software, which many TSO’s (Transmission System Operators) use as a
complement of SCADA, allows the operator to check the security principles applied for system operation (N, N-1 and
N-2 Security Criteria). Contingency Analysis results can reveal that the network is near an unstable voltage point when
the critical contingency (e.g. the trip of a line that can lead to voltage collapse) does not converge, giving the System
Operator the information that instability may be imminent (without the necessary details). Contingency Analysis
Applications (as part of EMS) are designed with simplified algorithms in order to carry out dozens of contingencies in
just a few seconds, which is not a suitable tool to deal with this problem. Moreover, the load flow algorithms are easily
unstable near the “non-convergence point” of voltage collapse.

58
57
56
55

System Voltage (kV)

54
53
52
51
50
49
48
47
46
392 396 400 404 408 412 416 420 424 428
Apparent Power Consumption (MVA)

Figure 8-1.1: System Voltage Curve for a Substation

When analyzing the transmission system, voltage is one of the most critical parameters that must be considered. Sub-
marginal voltages can result in damage to utility and customer equipment, and decrease the reactive power supply
capability of switched capacitors. The transmission system must be designed to maintain steady state voltages
between 90% and 110% of nominal for service to regulated transmission and distribution facilities at voltages less than
400 kV, and between 95% and 105% of nominal for service to regulated transmission facilities at voltages greater than
or equal to 400 kV during system normal and most single contingency conditions. Transmission system voltages may
be allowed to deviate outside the above ranges if it can be determined that the voltage provided to affected customers
is acceptable.

4. EQUIPMENT RATINGS

To maintain a reliable and enduring transmission system, equipment must be sized and operated according to
manufacturer’s specifications, industry and national standards, and Company guidelines. These guidelines specify
everything from maximum operating temperatures, to energy dissipation, to mechanical operation times.

Substation equipment and transmission lines are designed to accommodate specific ratings when operating under
normal or emergency conditions. A transformer’s “Normal” rating is intended to protect the unit from premature aging
caused by excessive heating. The seasonal LTE rating specifies the amount of load the transformer can potentially
carry for up to 4 hours while suffering no more than a 0.25% loss of life. The seasonal STE rating allows the
transformer to operate at two times its nameplate rating for no longer than 15 minutes. Most overhead transmission
lines and substation equipment also have seasonal normal, LTE, and STE ratings. The ratings for transmission circuits
and transformers are based on the most limiting element in the path.

The transmission line engineering group is responsible for providing thermal ratings for overhead transmission lines
and conductors.

5. OVERHEAD TRANSMISSION LINES

Thermal ratings for all of the Bulk Power System overhead transmission lines are based on the IEEE Standard 738-
1993. The following criteria and assumptions are used to establish the ratings for Bulk Power System overhead
transmission lines:

6.1 A 40-year life is assumed for each line.

6.2 A maximum ambient temperature of 35°C, with an average daily maximum temperature of 30°C is used for
summer.

6.3 A maximum ambient temperature of 10°C, with an average daily maximum temperature of 5°C is used for winter.

6.4 An ambient wind speed of 0,9144 m/s is used for summer and winter.

6.5 All LTE ratings are established assuming a maximum time period of 4 hours but totalling not more than 300 hours
over the life of the line.

6.6 All STE ratings are established assuming a maximum time period of 15 minutes but totalling not more than 12.5
hours over the life of the line. A normal preload is also used in establishing the STE rating.

The Eskom Power Grid has been designed with the “N-1” principal in mind, meaning that it is built to survive at least
one failure. The redundant design is such that if a power asset such as a transmission line or generator were to fail the
power would be routed from elsewhere without causing major blackouts. However, infrastructure that resists single
points of random failure such a zone of busbar, may not survive.

Consider two redundant power lines, designed to handle the extra load if one or the other goes down, but selected to
the same busbar due to a maintenance activity. A fault on the busbar onto which these two feeders are selected would
result in both feeders being lost from service.

Perfect security is ideal but in reality security administrators are usually faced with budget constraints and end up trying
to balance cost and security. This kind of manual security planning for a network the size of the Power Grid can easily
become intractable and is actually a hard problem. One should however recognize the importance of spending more
capital on securing assets that are more critical such as the power corridor to the Western Cape.

A power system is typically depicted as a drawing in one-line network diagrams where nodes are busbars and edges
are branches. Branches can be either of type transmission lines or transformers, through which electrical energy is
transmitted to supply customers.

In any electric network, current and voltage are governed by Kirchhoff's current and voltage law and the current flow
through the branches is governed by a generalization of Ohm's resistive law. Therefore there is a current limit on each
line. If one line is not operational due to some contingency, the current flow will take a different path in the network.
This may cause a current in a branch to increase to a dangerous level and might cause a heating and melting of the
conductors. Similarly if a transformer or a generator is forced to operate beyond its intended capacity violations may
occur causing malfunctioning, for instance burnt insulation and wiring.

A contingency analysis via a power-flow simulation software will take out of service each device, one-by-one,
resolve the power flow, and then check that no violations have occurred e.g. no lines have exceeded their rated
capacity.

Industry planning and operating criteria often refer to the “N – 1” rule, which holds that a system must operate in a
stable and secure manner following any single transmission or generation outage.

6. SUBSTATION BUSBAR FACILITIES

Ampacity rating factors for rigid bus conductors are based on information provided in various documents such as
ANSI/IEEE Standard 605-1987. Ampacity rating factors for bare flexible bus conductors are determined using the rating
factors for transmission line conductors, except that for ampacity calculations of the substation bus conductors, a wind
velocity of 0,6 m/s must be considered.

7. RISK ASSESSMENT

Ideally, it is desirable to meet all of the previously mentioned planning criteria to provide an adequate continuous
supply to all customers. However, the benefit to cost analyses to achieve this may not be justified. Therefore, situations
may arise under which customer loads cannot be adequately served during certain contingencies. When these

situations are identified, selected areas of impact should be evaluated and available resources need to be allocated in
a manner that will benefit customers. The variables to be evaluated include, but are not limited to the following:-

7.1 The probability of the event occurring and its associated risk

7.2 The frequency and duration of the outage

7.3 The number of customers and amount of customer load affected

7.4 Lost revenue

7.5 Damage claims

7.6 The cost of transmission system upgrades

While no single variable can usually justify an upgrade on its own, the effective combination of all the variables can
provide important insights into assessing system problems and determining the solutions.

8. CONCEPT FOR DEVELOPMENT OF ELECTRICITY TRANSMISSION GRIDS

Energy is the most capital-consuming sector of economy and, besides, its operating conditions are subject to
significant technical limitations (on quality, reliability, security, sustainability, etc.). Hence, ensuring development of the
power transmission networks is connected with the necessity of attracting the substantial investments. At the same
time, since the systems of power transmission and distribution are the natural monopolies, implementation of large
‘strategic’ investments in the power grids might create disadvantages for development of the other energy sectors (for
instance, strategic investments might result in increasing the grid margins to the extent suppressing incentives for
development of the new generation capacities).

Check of energy system reliability on basis of (N-1) criteria carried out with PSS/E or other software package
demonstrates that it is necessary to strengthen certain nodes of the power system.

8.1 Tempered N-1 Standard

• Under normal situations, lines are not overloaded, voltages hold steady, and loads are served. (This criterion is
met virtually all of the time.)

• After a first contingency (N-1), the remaining lines are not overloaded above their emergency ratings, voltages are
adequate, and substation loads are served following required switching. (This criterion is met most of the time.)

8.2 Why Not Meet N-1 All of the time?

• The N-1 criteria appears to be tempered by the following:

– Radial lines

– Cost considerations

– Load levels

– Environmental considerations

8.2.1 Radial Lines

• Ideally, substations are supplied by at least two sub-transmission feeds in a looped configuration. If one feed is
lost to contingency, supply to the substation can be maintained by the alternate feed.

• However, a number of substations are supplied by only one sub-transmission line, i.e., supplied radially. To try to
mitigate against total loss of radial lines, usually a bypass isolator is included.

8.2.2 Load Levels

Situations may exist in which N-1 coverage is provided most of the time, but is not provided at the highest load levels.

9. DEFINITIONS

9.1 Reliability

The ability of an item to perform a required function, under given environmental and operational conditions and for a
stated period of time:

• The term “item” is used here to denote any subsystem, or system that can be considered as an entity.

• A required function may be a single function or a combination of functions that are necessary to provide a
specified service.

• All technical items (components, subsystems, system) are designed to perform one or more (required) function.
Some of these functions are active and some functions are passive. Containment of fluid in a pipe is an example
of a passive function. The reliability of the items should be assessed based on the required function under
consideration.

• For a hardware item to be reliable it must do than meet an initial factory performance and quality specification, it
must operate satisfactorily for a specified period of time in the actual application for which it is intended.

9.2 Failure Mode

The effect by which a failure is observed on failed items.

The failures are sometimes classified into three categories:-

• primary failures

• secondary failure, or

• command faults

9.2.1 Primary Failures

A primary failure is a failure that occurs in an environment for which the component is qualified.

9.2.2 Secondary Failures

A secondary failure is a failure that occurs in an environment for which it has not been qualified, i.e. the component fails
in a situation that exceeds the conditions for which it is designed.

9.2.3 Command Faults

A command fault is a failure that involved the proper operation of a component but at the wrong time or in the wrong
place.

9.3 Failure Rate

The frequency with which an engineered system or component fails, expressed for example in failures per hour.

The Bathtub curve describes the changes of failure rate during an item’s lifetime.

Burn-in Period Useful Life Period Wear-out Period

Decreasing Failure Rate Constant Failure Rate Increasing Failure Rate
Time
Failure Rate

Observed Failure Rate

Burning-in Failures Wear-out Failures

Constant Random Failures

Figure 8-1.2: Bathtub Curve: Hypothetical Failure Rate vs. Time

The lifetime of a component is descried in three intervals:-

• Burn-in period

• Useful life period, and

• Wear-out period

In the first interval, the failure rate is high in the initial phase, which explains the fact that the component may fail when
it is placed into service due to unexpected defects. After the burn-in period, the failure rate stabilises at a level where it
remains for a certain amount of time, named useful life. The last interval is the wear-out period, which represents the
late working stage of the component. The failure rate increases as the working time increases. Reliability analysis is
usually done in the middle interval, for the failure rate is nearly constant.

9.4 Mean Time to Failure (MTTF)

The average time that a device will take to fail from a functioning state

9.5 Mean Time to Repair (MTTR)

The average time that a device will take to recover from a non-terminal failure

9.6 Common Cause Failure (CCF)

Multiple component failures that occur at the same time or that occur in a relatively small time window and that are due
to a common cause

9.7 Redundancy

The provision of more than one means of achieving a function.

9.8 Availability

The availability of an item (under combined aspects of its reliability, maintainability, and maintenance support) to
perform its required function at a stated instant of time or over a stated period of time:-

The average availability (AAV) denotes the mean proportion of time the item is functioning. If the item is repaired to an
“as good as new” condition every time it fails, the average availability is:-

MTTF
A AV =
MTTR + MTTR
where:-

MTTF = Mean functioning time of the item

MTTR = Mean downtime after failure (sometime mean down time – MDT)

The average unavailability denotes the mean portion of time the item is not functioning.

A AV = 1 − A AV

MTTR
=
MTTR + MTTR

9.9 Difference Between Reliability and Availability

For availability, repair is considered, i.e. if the entity fails often, but is instantly repaired, the availability may be high, but
the reliability is low.

9.10 Cut Set

A sub-set of components whose simultaneous failure leads to the system failure, which is independent of the states of
the other components

9.11 Minimal Cut Set

A cut set that does not contain another cut set.

9.12 Quantitative Assessment

The results from qualitative assessment include:-

a) Minimal cut sets

b) Qualitative minimal cut set importance

In a qualitative assessment, minimal cut sets are obtained from Boolean reduction of a fault tree. Minimal cut sets,
which contain only one component, are named first order minimal cut sets. Those containing two cut sets are called
second order minimal cut sets, which represent two events have to occur at the same time to lead to the TOP event.
Similar terminology applies to higher order minimal cut sets. The unavailability associated with minimal cut sets often
decreases by orders of magnitude as the size of the minimal cut set increases; the ranking according to their sizes
gives gross indication of the importance of the minimal cut set. The basic events are not necessarily independent, since
common cause failure also plays a very important role in the reliability study.

SLDG 8-2

RELIABILITY OF SUBSTATION CONFIGURATIONS

1. INTRODUCTION

While one of the strongest points in a power system is the electric substation, it still contains what could be described
as weak points or points of failure that would lead to loss of load. By knowing how to calculate the reliability of different
substation configurations, an engineer can use this information to help design a system with the best overall reliability.
But determining the reliability of a substation can also be important for existing installations as it can help locate weak
points that may be contributing to overall system unreliability. This section will present an overview in determining
substation reliability indices and then through the use of an example show how various configurations can be
compared. Before embarking on determining reliability, the purpose of the assessment should be clearly evident as this
may affect the choice of which method is used to determine reliability. A method may look at how substation reliability
affects the overall system reliability, how the system reliability affects substation reliability [1], or substation reliability
decoupled from the rest of the power system. Methods may also be better suited to specific types of substations such
as transmission and switching, distribution or industrial. Switching and reconfiguration events typically will use a more
complex method of reliability assessment than those used to look at a single substation design. This section will
concentrate on determining the reliability of a substation not including system wide effects.

2. SUBSTATION EVALUATION BASICS

Billington describes what he considers the five essential steps to be carried out when performing substation evaluation.
While much work on this topic has been carried out since this early publication, these steps remain valid and provide a
starting point for this discussion on reliability evaluation. The steps are listed below followed by a short description of
each. The method used to carry out each of the five steps can vary depending on the chosen reliability assessment.

• Physical System Description

• Performance Criteria

• Reliability Indices

• Failure Mode and Effects Evaluation

• Accumulation of Failure Effects and Summary

2.1 Physical System Description

An important step when beginning the reliability assessment is to determine the boundaries of the system that will be
studied. A system study would include not only the substation, but also the incoming and outgoing feeders as well as
determining the impact the substation has on the system and ultimately customer satisfaction. While many of the early
reliability studies focused on transmission and switching substations in isolation from the electrical system, there are
now a number of methods that include the impact of the substation on the system. More recent works have extended
both the system and decoupled analysis to the distribution system, which has its own unique load point reliability
indices. After the boundary has been determined, the next step is to determine in what detail the components will be
represented. In the simplest case, a two state, up (U)/down (D) model can be used to represent all components, or if
more detail is required, higher order models can be utilized. The detail needed will be dependant on what type of failure
modes are being considered. Figure 8-2.1 shows Markov Component Models of increasing complexity.

Repair Repair
U D U D
Failure

Failure

Repair
Switching
U D U
Passive
Failure
Active
Failure

Switching
U

Figure 8-2.1: Component Models

Finally, the component reliability data must be specified.

2.2 Performance Criteria

If any system constraints are needed for the study, they would be added in this step. This would include items such as
transmission line carrying constraints, bus voltages and overloads. The criteria specified in this step will vary greatly
upon what type of reliability study is being carried out. A system study may include a large number of operating
constraints while an industrial substation study may include only a few.

2.3 Reliability Indices

During this step, a level of satisfactory performance must be developed. Billington lists a number of possibilities ranging
from a positive/negative status describing whether or not a system reaches the operational goal, to a numerical number
that describes the “availability of the system,” a per-unit time the system meets the reliability goal.

Some commonly used substation reliability indices are listed below.

• Failure rate λ (/yr)

• Duration (min/yr)

• Repair time r (hrs)

• Availability (%)

Other indices may be of importance when dealing with a more system wide view or when concerned with cost of the
loss of load.

• SAIFI, SAIDI, CAIDI, ASAI (distribution system indices)

• LOLP, LOLE, MELL (load point indices)

2.4 Failure Modes and Effects Evaluation

For each failure mode, the effects of the failure and what action must be taken to correct the failure need to be
determined. The effect of each failure can then be listed according to the likelihood of the event. The following steps
can provide a framework for gathering the needed information from each failure mode.

2.4.1 Protection system status and resulting breaker action.

2.4.2 Have breaker actions caused load interruption

2.4.3 Have any performance criteria violations occurred

2.4.3.1 If yes, then determine actions to mitigate violations

a) Transfer possible?

b) Repair required?

2.4.4 Record all effects by terminal affected, along with the probability of the event and its duration. Later papers have
described failure modes in a somewhat different manner categorizing them into 4 basic groups or combinations
thereof.

• Passive failure events

• Active failure events

• Stuck-condition of breakers

• Overlapping failure events

2.4.4.1 Passive Failure

Passive failure events are component failures that do not activate the protection system such as unknown open circuit
conditions or unintentional operation of a circuit breaker.

2.4.4.2 Active Failure

As expected, if a passive failure does not activate the protection system, an active failure is an event that causes the
protection system to operate and isolate a failed component. A simple example of an active failure event would be a
fault on a busbar and the subsequent operation of breakers to “seal off” the area from the rest of the station.

2.4.4.3 Stuck-condition of Breakers

If during the above fault one of the primary breakers failed to operate and a backup or secondary breaker had to
operate to isolate the faulted area, this would be termed a ‘stuck-condition of breakers’ failure mode. The station
may still remain in operation, but a larger portion has become inoperable than in the active failure mode.

2.4.4.4 Overlapping Failure

An overlapping failure is when a failure has occurred and before the failure has been fixed, another failure occurs.
When carrying out a reliability study, it is common to only look at events that involve two components. According to
Allan the probability of higher order failures is negligible.

A number of methods have been used in determining the final substation indices. The majority of these methods
represent each component as a Markov model, which allows various analytical methods to be used to solve for the
substation reliability. Another possible method which will be illustrated by an example presented later in this section, is
the minimal cut-set method based on the criterion of continuity of service.

A downside to using Markov models is that all transition rates must be constant implying that the time spent in a state is
exponentially distributed. While this may be true of failure times, the repair times may be considerably different.
Billington and Lian have developed a Monte Carlo approach to solving a system with non-Markovian models.

2.5 Accumulation of Failure Effects and Summary

The final step is to list all system failures by the probability of occurrence. This will provide a clear picture of scenarios
that will cause the most problems. To find the system reliability (or in this case, substation reliability), combine the
system failure probabilities and frequencies. Each failure state is an exclusive state, so the probability of occurrence
of system failure is the sum of all the failure event probabilities. The product of occurrence of failure event and the
duration can be used to determine the probability of the failure state.

3. SUBSTATION CONFIGURATIONS PRIMER

Before embarking on determining substation reliability indices, it is helpful to briefly re-familiarise one’s self with some
of the common substation layouts and their corresponding names as discussed in SLDG 6-4. Certain configurations
may be more suited to a specific task, so the equipment in each type of substation may vary, but with the exception of
switching stations, they generally will include a transformer, circuit breakers and isolation switches. This section will
give a brief introduction to 6 of the more common substation bus configurations followed by a number of
advantages/disadvantages. It will conclude with a cost comparison of each configuration. Plan and elevation views of
each type of configuration can be found in the Appendix of this chapter.

3.1 Typical Bus Configurations

3.1.1 Single Busbar

Figure 8-2.2 shows the one-line diagram of a single busbar substation configuration. This is the simplest of the
configurations, but is also the least reliable. It can be constructed in either of low profile or high-profile arrangement
depending on the amount of space available. In the arrangement shown, the circuit must be de-energized to perform
breaker maintenance, which can be overcome by the addition of breaker bypass switches, but this may then disable
protection systems.

Transmission Circuits Sub-transmission Circuits

Figure 8-2.2: Single Busbar

3.1.1.1 Single Bus Advantages:

• Lowest cost

• Small land area

• Easily expandable

• Simple in concept and operation

• Relatively simple for the application of protective relaying

3.1.1.2 Single Busbar Disadvantages:

• Single busbar arrangement has the lowest reliability

• Failure of a circuit breaker or a bus fault causes loss of entire substation

• Maintenance switching can complicate and disable some of the protection schemes and overall relay coordination

3.1.2 Sectionalized Busbar

Figure 8-3.3 shows the layout of a sectionalized bus, which is merely an extension of the single busbar layout. The
single bus arrangements are now connected together with a centre circuit breaker that may be normally open or
closed. Now, in the event of a breaker failure or bus bar fault, the entire station is not shut down. Breaker bypass
operation can also be included in the sectionalized bus configuration.

Figure 3: Sectionalized Busbar

3.2.1.1 Sectionalized Busbar Advantages:

• Flexible operation

• Isolation of busbar zones for maintenance

• Loss of only part of the substation for a breaker failure or busbar fault

3.2.1.2 Sectionalized Busbar Disadvantages:

• Additional circuit breakers needed for sectionalizing, thus higher cost

• Sectionalizing may cause interruption of non-faulted circuits

3.1.3 Main and Transfer Busbar

A main and transfer busbar configuration is shown in Figure 8-2.4. There are two separate and independent busbars; a
main and a transfer. Normally, all circuits, incoming and outgoing, are connection the main busbar. If maintenance or
repair is required on a circuit breaker, the associated circuit can be then fed and protected from the transfer busbar,
while the original breaker is isolated from the system.

Transfer Main
Busbar Busbar

Bus
Coupler

Figure 8-2.4: Main and Transfer Busbar

3.1.3.1 Main and Transfer Busbar Advantages:

• Maintain service and protection during circuit breaker maintenance

• Reasonable in cost

• Fairly small land area

• Easily expandable

3.1.3.2 Main and Transfer Busbar Disadvantages:

• Additional circuit breaker needed for busbar tie

• Protection and relaying may become complicated

• Busbar fault on the main busbar causes loss of the entire substation

3.1.4 Ring Busbar

Figure 8-2.5 depicts the layout of a ring bus configuration, which is a modification of the sectionalized busbar. In the
ring busbar a sectionalizing breaker has been added between the two open bus ends. Now there is a closed loop on
the busbar with each section separated by a circuit breaker. This provides greater reliability and allows for flexible
operation. The ring busbar can be easily adapted to a breaker-and-a-half scheme, which will be looked at next.

Figure 8-2.5: Ring Busbar

3.1.4.1 Ring Busbar Advantages:

• Flexible operation

• High reliability

• Double feed to each circuit

• No main busbars

• Expandable to breaker-and-a-half configuration

• Isolation of busbar zones and circuit breakers for maintenance without circuit disruption

3.1.4.2 Ring Busbar Disadvantages:

• During fault, splitting of the ring may leave undesirable circuit combinations

• Each circuit has to have its own potential source for relaying

• Usually limited to 4 circuit positions, although larger sizes up to 10 are in service. 6 is usually the maximum terminals
for a ring bus

3.1.5 Breaker-and-a-Half

A breaker-and-a-half configuration has two busbars but unlike the main and transfer scheme, both busbars are
energized during normal operation. This configuration is shown in Figure 8-2.6. For every 2 circuits there are 3 circuit
breakers with each circuit sharing a common centre (tie) breaker. Any breaker can be removed for maintenance
without affecting the service on the corresponding exiting feeder, and a fault on either busbar can be isolated without
interrupting service to the outgoing lines. If a centre breaker should fail, this will cause the loss of 2 circuits, while the
loss of an outside breaker would disrupt only one. The breaker-and-a-half scheme is a popular choice when upgrading
a ring busbar to provide more terminals.

Figure 8-2.6: Breaker-and-a-Half

3.1.5.1 Breaker-and-a-Half Advantages:

• Flexible operation and high reliability

• Isolation of either bus without service disruption

• Isolation of any breaker for maintenance without service disruption

• Double feed to each circuit

• Busbar fault does not interrupt service to any circuits

• All switching is done with circuit breakers

3.1.5.2 Breaker-and-a-Half Disadvantages:

• One-and-a-half breakers needed for each circuit

• More complicated relaying as the centre breaker has to act on faults for either of the 2 circuits it is associated with

• Each circuit should have its own potential source for relaying

3.1.6 Double Breaker-Double Busbar

The final configuration shown is the double breaker – double busbar scheme in Figure 8-2.7. Like the breaker-and-a-
half, the double breaker-double busbar configuration has two main busbars that are both normally energized. Here
though, each circuit requires two breakers, not one-and-a-half. With the addition of the extra breaker per circuit, any of
the breakers can fail and only affect one circuit. This added reliability comes at the cost of additional breakers, and thus
is usually only used at large generating stations.

Figure 8-2.7: Double Breaker-Double Busbar

3.1.6.1 Double Breaker-Double Busbar Advantages:

• Flexible operation and very high reliability

• Isolation of either busbar, or any breaker without disrupting service

• Double feed to each circuit

• No interruption of service to any circuit from a busbar fault

• Loss of one circuit per breaker failure

• All switching with circuit breakers

3.1.6.2 Double Breaker-Double Busbar Disadvantages:

• Very high cost – 2 breakers per circuit

3.2 Comparison of Busbar Configuration Costs

Table 8-2.1 gives a relative cost comparison of the different substation configurations discussed above. The
comparisons are done with four circuits for each configuration, but do not include costs associated with a power
transformer. Note that the cost relationships between the configurations may change, depending on the number of
circuits used and protective relaying devices that are used.

Table 8-2.1: Relative Cost Comparison of Substation Configurations

Busbar Configuration Multiple of Base Price

Single Bus 1,00
Sectionalized Bus 1,22
Main and Transfer Bus 1,43
Ring Bus 1,14
Breaker-and-a-Half 1,58
Double Breaker-Double Bus 2,14

4. SUBSTATION RELIABILITY COMPARISON EXAMPLE

The following example will compare the reliability of five different substation configurations as shown in Figure 8. The
indices developed for each will be the average failure rate, average outage duration, and annual outage time. The
components modelled in the example will be transformers, busbars and breakers. Although the original example
included a system study with distribution indices, only substation indices will developed in this discussion.
B1 B3 T1
L1

Low Voltage
Busbar
B2 B4 T2
L2

a) Single Busbar
B1 B4 T1
L1
Low Voltage Busbar

B2 B5 T2
L2

b) Sectionalized Single Busbar

Low Voltage Busbar

T1
L1
B1 B3 B5
T2
L2
B2 B4 B6

c) Breaker-and-a-Half

L1
B1 B5

Low Voltage
Busbar
B2 B6

B3 B7

L2
B4 B8

d) Double Breaker-Double Busbar

Low Voltage Busbar

B1 B3

B2 B4

e) Ring Busbar

Two lines, either of which can supply the total need of the station, feed each configuration. The stations reliability will
be computed ignoring line failure and also with line failures included.

The reliability of each configuration will be evaluated using the minimal cut-set method based on the criterion of
continuity of service.

A minimal cut-set is a set of components that when all fail, the continuity of service is lost, but if any one of the
components does not fail, the continuity remains.

The cut-sets will be categorized according to their failure mode and then further divided into active and passive failures.
The failure modes considered in this example are listed below:-

λ f)
4.1 First order total failure (both active and passive failures) (λ

λa)
4.2 First order active failure (λ

λ s)
4.3 First order active failure with stuck condition of circuit breaker (λ

λp)
4.4 Second order overlapping failure event involving two components (λ

When the minimal cut-sets have been formed, the reliability indices for each cut-set mode can be calculated. Each
minimal cut-set can be represented as a parallel configuration of components and the various cut-sets together can be
represented as a series configuration. To show how the cut-set method would work, the failure rate for the single bus
configuration will be calculated. For this calculation, the incoming lines L1 and L2 will be assumed to have 100%
reliability. To better recognize the cut-sets, the single bus configuration has been redrawn below in Figure 8-2.9b).

B1 B3 T1
L1

HV LV
B2 B4 T2
L2

L1
B1 B3 T1

HV LV
Bus Bus

L2
B2 B4 T2

Figure 8-2.9: Single Busbar Diagram

The component reliability data is shown in Table 8-2.2. λT is the total failure rate of a component and λA is the active
failure rate of a component.

Table 8-2.2: Substation Component Reliability Data

Component λT (/yr) λA (/yr) λM (/yr) MTTR (hours) MTTM (hours)

Line 0,046 0,046 0,5 8 8
Transformer 0,015 0,015 1,0 15 120
Circuit Breaker 0,006 0,004 1,0 4 96
Busbar 0,001 0,001 0,5 2 8

The first order total station failure modes are the failures of the high voltage busbar and low voltage busbar. The
failure of either bus interrupts the station continuity.

λt = 0.001+ 0.001 = 0.002 eq. 8-2.1

The first order active failure modes are B1, B2, B3 and B4. To illustrate this, consider a fault occurs on L1 and
breaker B1 fails to open, breaker B2 will operate, thus breaking station continuity. Similar scenarios can show that B2
to B4 are also active failure modes.

λa = 0.004 + 0.004 + 0.004 + 0.004 = 0.016 eq. 8-2.2

The first order active failure plus stuck breakers (p=1) are T1+B3 stuck and T2+B4 stuck.

λS = 0.015 + 0.015 = 0.030 eq. 8-2.3

The total failures overlapping total failures are B1+B2, B3+B4, B3+T2, B4+T1 and T1+T2. The parallel failure rate
of each paralleled group of two components can be calculated as follows.

− λ1 − λ2 − (λ1 + λ2)
λ1.e + λ2.e − (λ1 + λ2).e
λp = eq. 8-2.4
− λ1 − λ2 − (λ1 + λ2)
e +e −e
-5
λB1+B2 = 7,1357 .10
-5
λB3+B4 = 7,1357 .10
-4
λB3+T2 = 1,772 .10
-4
λB4+T1 = 1,772 .10
-4
λT1+T2 = 4,401.10

The total failure rate is then the sum of the paralleled rates.

λo = λB1+B2 + λB3+B4 + λB3+T2 + λB4+T1 + λT1+T2 eq. 8-2.5

-5 -4 -4 -4
= 2 . (7,1357 .10 ) + 2 . (1,772 .10 ) + 4,401.10 = 9.372 .10

The overall substation failure rate is then the sum of failure rates for each failure mode.

λ = λt + λa + λS + λo

= 0,0489 eq. 8-2.6

Annual outage time for the substation configuration can be found in a similar manner along with the average outage
duration.

U = Ut +Ua +US +Uo eq. 8-2.7

= 3.53

U
r =
λ
3,53
= eq. 8-2.8
0,0489
= 72,19

Complete reliability indices for the five substation configurations with 100% reliable source lines are listed in Table 8-
2.3.

Table 8-2.3: Substation Reliability Indices (Ignoring Line Failure)

Configuration λ (/yr) r (min) U (min/yr)

a 0,0489 72,19 3,53
b 0,0453 71,95 3,26
c 0,00301 184,56 0,56
d 0,00567 124,216 0,70
e 0,0174 81,88 1,42

For comparison, the indices with the impact of source line failures are shown in Table 8-2.4. Notice that trends seen in
Table 8-2.3 are also seen in Table 8-2.4. Failure rates increase between 0.9% and 35% and U increases from between
2.8% and 53%. This shows what effect source line failures can have on the substation indices, but it does not change
the relationships between the configurations. Configuration ‘c’ is still the most reliable scheme and ‘a’ remains the
worst.

Table 4: Substation Reliability Indices (Including Line Failure)

Configuration λ (/yr) r (min) U (min/yr)

a 0,0549 80,50 4,42
b 0,0459 76,35 3,50
c 0,00356 175,76 0,63
d 0,00572 125,14 0,72
e 0,0235 92,20 2,17

These results could then be fed into a composite system, which would then ultimately lead to load point indices.

SLDG 9-1

SUBSTATION DESIGN BASE DATA

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 General

1.1.1 This summary provides basic information on substation requirements and design.

1.1.2 The summary will be updated as the project progresses from initial design to in-service status. In its final form it will
be, with supporting and reference documents, a complete record of the substation.

1.2 Basic Identification Data

1.2.1 Substation Name

1.2.2 Region Name

1.2.3 Location

1.2.4 Summary Prepared by:

1.2.4.1 Date

1.2.4.2 Revision “A” Prepared by:

1.2.4.3 Date

(As many listings as necessary. Whenever a revision is made, a notation should be entered in the left-hand margin
adjacent to the item revised.)

1.3 Schedule
Proposed or Record
Date
1.3.1 Pre-Design (identify documentation of each item for record) _______________
1.3.1.1 Environmental Assessment or Environmental Report _______________
1.3.1.2 Site purchase and title clearance _______________
1.3.1.3 Topographical survey _______________
1.3.1.4 Ambient noise level survey _______________
1.3.1.5 Surrounding land use survey _______________
1.3.1.6 Soil borings _______________
1.3.1.7 Soil resistivity measurements _______________

1.3.2 Design
Proposed or Record
Date
1.3.2.1 One-line diagram and general layout for cooperative’s approval _______________
1.3.2.2 Detailed design for cooperative’s approval (list individual areas such as foundations,
structures, electrical below grade, electrical above grade, and protective relaying if
separate submittals are required) _______________
1.3.2.3 Design complete _______________

1.3.3 Procurement (itemize as listed below for each set of equipment, material, and hardware)

Proposed or Record
Date
1.3.3.1 Specification for cooperative’s approval _______________
1.3.3.2 Bid invitation _______________
1.3.3.3 Pre-bid meeting with vendors or contractors (sometimes advantageous for major
equipment or construction) _______________
1.3.3.4 Bids received _______________
1.3.3.5 Bid opening (usually construction only) _______________
1.3.3.6 Evaluation of bids _______________
1.3.3.7 Pre-award meeting (sometimes advantageous with major equipment or construction) _______________
1.3.3.8 Contract award _______________
1.3.3.9 Delivery (equipment, material, or hardware) _______________

1.3.4 Construction

Proposed or Record
Date
1.3.4.1 Begin construction _______________
1.3.4.2 Complete site grading _______________
1.3.4.3 Complete drainage _______________
1.3.4.4 Complete roadways _______________
1.3.4.5 Complete fence _______________
1.3.4.6 Begin foundations, conduit, and grounding _______________
1.3.4.7 Complete below grade _______________
1.3.4.8 Begin above grade _______________
1.3.4.9 Complete outdoor yard _______________
1.3.4.10 Complete control house _______________
1.3.4.11 Complete testing (list documents) _______________
1.3.4.12 Complete inspection (list documents) _______________
1.3.4.13 In service _______________

1.4 Permits and Licences

List all permits and licenses that will be required prior to and during construction:

________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________

1.5 References

1.5.1 Power requirements study (identify) _______________

1.5.2 Two-Year Work Plan (identify) _______________
1.5.3 Conceptual one-line diagram (identify) _______________

2 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

2.1 Initial and Ultimate Requirements

2.1.1 Nominal Operating Voltages (itemize as listed below for each voltage):-

Primary Secondary Tertiary

2.1.1.1 Voltage ___________ ___________ ___________ kV
2.1.1.2 Design BIL ___________ ___________ ___________ kV
2.1.1.3 Connection (delta or wye) ___________ ___________ ___________
2.1.1.4 Phase rotation ___________ ___________ ___________
2.1.1.5 Phase displacement with respect to other
voltages (leads or lags) ___________ ___________ ___________

2.1.2 Capacity:-

2.1.2.1 Voltage Transformations (itemize as listed below for each transformation):-

a) High Voltage/Low Voltage _ _ kV

i) Initial Capacity ___________ MVA
ii) Ultimate Capacity ___________ MVA
b) High Voltage/Low Voltage ___________ ___________ kV
i) Initial Capacity ___________ MVA
ii) Ultimate Capacity ___________ MVA

2.1.2.2 Circuit Connections (itemize as listed below for each connection):-

a) Voltage ___________ kV
i) Initial Quantity ___________
ii) Ultimate Quantity ___________
b) Voltage ___________ kV
i) Initial Capacity ___________
ii) Ultimate Capacity ___________

2.1.2.3 Bus Configurations (itemize as listed below for each bus):-

a) Nominal Bus Voltage ___________ kV

i) Initial Configuration
ii) Ultimate Configuration (single bus, sectionalized bus, main and
transfer bus, ring bus, breaker-and-a-half, double breaker-double
bus)
b) Nominal Bus Voltage ___________ kV
i) Initial Configuration
ii) Ultimate Configuration (single bus, sectionalized bus, main and
transfer bus, ring bus, breaker-and-a-half, double breaker-double
bus)

2.1.2.4 Current-Carrying Requirements (itemize as listed below for each bus and circuit connection):-

a) Bus or circuit connection description

b) Nominal Voltage ___________ kV
c) Ampacity

i) Continuous ___________ A
ii) 24-Hour temporary ___________ A

2.1.2.5 Ultimate Power Supply Fault Conditions:-

a) Three-phase fault ___________ A

b) Phase-to-phase fault ___________ A
c) Phase-to-ground fault ___________ A

2.1.2.6 Maximum Permissible Fault Clearing Time ____________ seconds

2.2 Site

State any unusual constraints imposed on the design because of site characteristics.

2.3 Environmental

2.3.1 State that design is in accordance with Environmental Assessment (identify) or Environmental Report (identify).

2.3.2 Describe property and adjacent property including existing land use.

2.3.3 State any other uses in addition to substation (such as storage).

2.3.4 Describe, in general, any design measures taken to enhance appearance.

2.3.5 State the necessity for any unusual cost items related to public safety.

2.3.6 State the rationale for noise contribution.

2.3.7 State the expected electrostatic and electromagnetic effects.

2.3.8 State the rationale for effluent design. Recommend that a design be made for a plan of action to prevent pollution if
this is so indicated.

2.3.1 Weather

2.3.1.1 State any unusually severe possible local conditions that the substation is not designed to withstand.

2.3.1.2 State what design measures have been taken with respect to any special local condition.

2.3.2 Temperatures

2.3.2.1 Average annual temperature:-

o
a) Maximum ___________ C
o
b) Minimum ___________ C
o
2.3.2.2 Highest recorded temperature ___________ C
o
2.3.2.3 Lowest recorded temperature ___________ C

2.3.3 Wind and Ice Loading (itemize as listed below for line support structures, equipment support structures, and
conductors)

2.3.3.1 Wind:-
a) Velocity ___________ km/hr
b) Safety Factor ___________
c) Gusts ___________ km/hr
o
d) Safety Factor ___________ C
2.3.3.2 Ice:-
a) Thickness ___________ cm
b) Safety Factor ___________

2.3.4 Precipitation

2.3.4.1 Design Rainfall -

a) Amount ___________ cm/hr
b) Period ___________ hours
c) Frequency of storm occurrence ___________
2.3.4.2 Design snowfall:-
a) Maximum drift depth ___________ m
2.3.4.3 Electrical Storms:-
a) Isokeraunic Level ___________ thunderstorm
days per
year
2.3.4.4 Humidity:-
State design measures
2.3.5 Altitude Above Mean Sea Level ___________ m
2.3.6 Seismic Risk Zone ___________
2.3.7 Wildlife Protection
a) State any unusual measures required ___________
2.3.8 Airborne Foreign Material Protection
State materials protecting against. ___________

3. DOCUMENTS

3.1 Authorising Document for Design

3.2 Distribution of Documents Itemise as listed below for each document and recipient.

(See Table 9-1.1 for Typical Document Distribution List)

3.2.1 Document Description:-

_______________________________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________________________________

3.2.2 Name and Address of Recipient :-

________________________________________________________________________________________________

3.2.3 Number of Copies Spec _______ , Full-Size Drawings _______ , Half-Size Drawings _______

Table 9-1.1: Typical Document Distribution List (* As Required)

Environmental

Construction
Procedures

Equipment
Feasibility

Feasibility

Drawings
Materials
Contract

Contract

Permits
Studies

Studies

Manual

Manual
Design
Report

Owner
General Manager X X X
Chief Engineer X X X X X X X X X X
Legal X X X X X X X X
Design Engineer X X X X X X X X X
Owner’s Field Representative X X X X X X X
File X X X X X X X X X X
Engineer
Project Manager X X X X X X X X X
Design Engineer X X X X X X X X X X
File X X X X X X X X X X
Resident Manager X X X X X X X
Inspector X X X X X X
Contractors
C1 * * * * *
C2 * * * * *
C3 * * * * *
C4 * * * * *
C5 * * * * *
Approving Agencies
Property Holder
DEAT * * * * * *
Interconnecting Utility X X * * * * *

4. PHYSICALLAYOUT

4.1 Substation Type (distribution, transmission, switching)

_______________________________________________________________________________________

4.2 Type of Design (cooperative’s standard, packaged, custom)

_______________________________________________________________________________________

4.3 Circuit Connections Itemize as listed below for each connection.

4.3.1 Overhead Circuits:-

4.3.1.1 Nominal voltage ___________ kV
4.3.1.2 Quantity ___________
4.3.1.3 Conductor size, type, and material ___________
4.3.1.4 Pull-off elevation ___________ m
4.3.1.5 Maximum tension ___________ N
o
a) Temperature ___________ C
b) Ice thickness ___________ cm
c) Wind velocity ___________ km/hr
4.3.1.6 Shield Wires
a) Quantity of shield wires per connection ___________
b) Wire size, type, and material ___________
c) Pull-off elevation ___________ m
d) Maximum tension (at same conditions as phase conductors) ___________ N
4.3.2 Underground Circuits:-
4.3.1.1 Nominal voltage ___________ kV
4.3.1.2 Quantity ___________
4.3.1.3 Conductor size, type, material and insulation ___________

4.4 Distribution Substations

4.4.1 Provisions for Mobile Transformer (yes or no) ___________

4.4.2 Provisions for Mobile Substation (yes or no) ___________
4.4.3 Provisions for Future Addition of (describe) ___________
4.4.4 Provisions for Source Voltage Change (yes or no) ___________
a) Initial voltage ___________ kV
b) Ultimate voltage ___________ kV
c) Change of (describe) ___________ kV
4.4.5 Provisions for Load Voltage Change (yes or no)
a) Initial voltage ___________ kV
b) Ultimate voltage ___________ kV
c) Change of (describe) ___________ kV

4.5 Transmission Substations (only)

4.5.1 Provisions for Future Addition of (describe) ___________

4.5.2 Provisions for Source Voltage Change (yes or no) ___________
a) Initial voltage ___________ kV
b) Ultimate voltage ___________ kV
c) Change of (describe) ___________ kV

4.5.5 Provisions for Load Voltage Change (yes or no)

a) Initial voltage ___________ kV
b) Ultimate voltage ___________ kV
c) Change of (describe) ___________ kV

4.6 Switching Stations (only)

4.6.1 Provisions for Future Addition of (describe) ___________

4.6.2 Provisions for Source Voltage Change (yes or no) ___________
a) Initial voltage ___________ kV
b) Ultimate voltage ___________ kV
c) Change of (describe) ___________ kV

4.7 Busbar Configuration Itemise as listed below for each bus.

4.7.1 Initial
a) Nominal bus voltage ___________ kV
b) Configuration (single bus, sectionalized bus, main and transfer bus,
ring bus, breaker-and-a-half, double breaker-double bus) ___________
4.7.2 Ultimate
a) Nominal bus voltage ___________ kV
b) Configuration (describe) ___________

4.8 Direct Stroke Shielding

4.8.1 Shielding Measures (rods, wires, masts) (describe)

4.7.2 Shielding Angles:-
o
a) Angle from vertical for single rod, wire, or mast ___________
o
b) Angle from vertical for adjacent rods, wires, or masts ___________

4.9 Insulators Itemise as listed below for each voltage.

4.9.1 Apparatus Insulators:-

4.9.1.1 Nominal voltage ___________ kV
4.9.1.2 Type (cap and pin or post) ___________
4.9.1.3 BIL ___________ kV
4.9.1.4 Colour ___________
4.9.1.5 Cantilever strength ___________ kN
4.9.1.6 NEMA TR No. (or other description) ___________
4.9.2 Suspension Insulators:-
4.9.2.1 Nominal voltage ___________ kV
4.9.2.2 Type (cap and pin or post) ___________
4.9.2.3 BIL ___________ kV
4.9.2.4 Colour ___________
4.9.2.5 M-E strength ___________ kN
4.9.2.6 ANSI Class (or other description) ___________

4.10 Electrical Clearances Itemise as listed below for each voltage.

4.10.1 Nominal Voltage ___________ kV

Rigid Flexible
Conductors Conductors

4.10.2 Minimum Metal-to-Metal _ _ mm

4.10.3 Minimum Phase to Earthed Parts ___________ ___________ mm
4.10.4 Minimum Phase to Substation Grade ___________ ___________ mm
4.10.5 Minimum Phase to Substation Roadway ___________ ___________ mm
4.10.5 Centerline-to-Centerline Phase Spacing ___________ ___________ mm

4.11 Busbar and Electrical Connections (Itemise as listed below for each case)

4.11.1 Nominal Voltage ___________ kV

4.11.2 Type of Connection (describe) ___________
4.11.3 Rigid Conductors (clamp, bolted, compression, welded) ___________
4.11.4 Non-Rigid Conductors (clamp, compression, welded) ___________
4.11.5 Fasteners (describe) ___________

4.12 Rigid Busbars (itemise as listed below for each busbar)

4.12.1 Conductor Size, Type, and Material ___________

4.12.2 Design Short Circuit Current (three-phase symmetrical) ___________ rms kA
4.12.3 Wind and Ice Loading ___________
4.12.4 Support Insulator Spacing ___________ m
4.12.5 Factor of Safety for Support Insulators ___________
4.12.6 Maximum Conductor Sag Without Ice ___________ mm
4.12.7 Maximum Conductor Sag With Ice ___________ mm
4.12.8 Measures for Prevention of Aeolian Vibration ___________
4.12.9 Provisions for Conductor Expansion ___________

4.13 Strain Busbars (Itemise as listed below for each busbar)

4.13.1 Conductor Size, Type, and Material ___________

4.13.2 Design Short Circuit Current (three-phase symmetrical) ___________ rms kA
4.13.3 Wind and Ice Loading ___________
4.13.4 Span Length ___________ m
4.13.5 Factor of Safety for Suspension Insulators ___________
4.13.6 Sag and Tension at Maximum Loading Conditions
4.13.6.1 Sag ___________ mm
4.13.6.2 Tension ___________ kN
o
4.13.6 Sag and Tension at 75 C
4.13.6.1 Sag ___________ mm
4.13.6.2 Tension ___________ kN
o
4.13.6 Sag and Tension at 90 C
4.13.6.1 Sag ___________ mm
4.13.6.2 Tension ___________ kN

5. MAJOR EQUIPMENT

Itemise as listed below for each different component.

5.1 Power Transformers

5.1.1 Type (auto, multi-winding, 3-phase, 1-phase) ___________

5.1.2 Quantity ___________
5.1.3 Dielectric (oil, air, or gas) ___________

5.1.4 Rating _/_/___ MVA

5.1.5 Cooling (OA, OA/FA, OA/FA/FA, OA/FOA, OA/FA/FOA, OA/FOA/FOA) ___________
5.1.6 Average Winding Temperature Rise (55ºC, 65ºC) ___________ ºC
5.1.7 Primary Voltage ___________ kV
5.1.7.1 No-load taps ___________
5.1.8 Secondary Voltage ___________ kV
5.1.8.1 No-load taps ___________
5.1.9 Tertiary Voltage ___________ kV
5.1.9.1 No-load taps ___________
5.1.10 S Load-Tap-Changer (LTC):- ___________
5.1.10.1 Percentage above and below nominal voltage ___________ %
5.1.10.2 Winding (primary or secondary)
5.1.10 S BIL:-
5.1.10.1 Primary winding ___________ kV
5.1.10.2 Secondary winding ___________ kV
5.1.10.3 Tertiary winding ___________ kV

5.2 Power Circuit Breakers

5.2.1 Type (dead tank or live tank) ___________

5.2.2 Quantity ___________
5.2.3 Interrupting Medium (oil, gas (SF6), vacuum) ___________
5.2.4 Nominal Voltage ___________ kV
5.2.5 Maximum Voltage ___________ kV
5.2.6 Rated Voltage Range Factor (K) ___________ kV
5.2.7 Continuous Current ___________ rms A
5.2.8 Short-Circuit Current at Rated Maximum Voltage ___________ rms kA
5.2.9 Maximum Symmetrical Interrupting Capability ___________ rms kA
5.2.10 3-Second Short Time Current Capability ___________ rms kA
5.2.11 Closing and Latching Capability ___________ rms kA
5.2.12 Interrupting Time ___________ cycles
5.2.13 Type of Operating Mechanism (solenoid, motor, pneumo-hydraulic,
pneumatic, motor-charged spring, manual-charged spring, manual) ___________
5.2.14 Control Power Voltage VAC/VDC
5.2.15 Auxiliary Power Voltage ___________ VAC

5.3 Metal-Clad Switchgear

5.3.1 Nominal Voltage ___________ kV

5.3.2 Indoor or Outdoor ___________
5.3.3 Switching Scheme (describe) ___________
5.3.4 Continuous Current
5.3.4.1 Busbar ___________ rms A
5.3.4.2 Feeders ___________ rms A
5.3.5 Maximum RMS Momentary Values:-
5.3.5.1 Current ___________ rms kA
5.3.5.2 Power ___________ rms MVA
5.3.6 Circuit Breaker Interrupting Capability ___________ rms kA

5.3.7 Circuit Exits OH/Underground ___________

5.4 Substation Voltage Regulators

5.4.1 Type (step or induction, single- or three-phase) ___________

5.4.2 Quantity ___________
5.4.3 Nominal Voltage ___________ kV
5.4.4. Rating ___________ MVA
5.4.5 Percentage Regulation:-
5.4.5.1 Current + ___________ %
5.4.5.2 Power – ___________ %

5.5 Shunt Capacitor Euipment

5.5.1 Type (open rack or housed) ___________

5.5.2 Quantity ___________
5.5.3 Nominal Voltage ___________ kV
5.5.4. Bank Rating ___________ MVAr
5.5.5 Individual Units:-
5.5.5.1 Voltage ___________ kV
5.5.5.2 Rating ___________ kVAr
5.5.6 Connection (delta, star, earthed star, double star)

5.6 Isolators

5.6.1 Type (conventional, in-line, pantograph) ___________

5.6.2 Quantity ___________
5.6.3 Nominal Voltage ___________ kV
5.6.4. Construction (vertical break, double break, tilting insulator, side break,
centre break, vertical reach) ___________
5.6.5 Operating Mechanism (hook stick, manual mechanism, motor
mechanism) ___________
5.6.6 Poles (single or three) ___________
5.6.7 Continuous Current ___________ rms A
5.6.8 Momentary Current ___________ rms kA
5.6.9 Interrupting Current ___________ rms kA

5.7 Surge Arresters

5.7.1 Type (station, intermediate, distribution) ___________

5.7.2 Quantity ___________
5.7.3 Voltage Rating:-
5.7.3.1. Duty Cycle ___________ kV
5.7.3.2 MCOV ___________ kV
5.7.4 Nominal System Voltage) ___________ kV
5.7.5 Earthing (Effectively Earthed/Non-Effectively Earthed) ___________
5.7.6 For Protection of (describe) ___________

5.8 Automatic Circuit Reclosers

5.8.1 Quantity ___________

5.8.2 Nominal Voltage ___________ kV

5.8.3 Continuous Current ___________ rms A

5.8.4. Interrupting Current ___________ rms kA
5.8.5 Single- or Three-Phase ___________
5.8.6 Interrupting Medium (oil, vacuum, gas (SF6) ___________
5.8.7 Control (Hydraulic or electronic) ___________
5.8.8 Coil Tripping (series, non-series) ___________
5.8.9 Closing (spring, solenoid, motor) ___________
5.8.10 Minimum Tripping Current ___________ rms A
5.8.11 Operational Sequence to Lockout (1-A, 3-B) ___________

5.9 Current Transformers

5.9.1 Type (bar, window, bushing, other) ___________

5.9.2 Quantity ___________
5.9.3 Nominal System Voltage ___________ kV
5.9.4. BIL ___________ kV
5.9.5 Rated Primary to Secondary Current Ratio(s) ___________
5.9.6 Secondary Winding Configuration (single, dual, multi-ratio) ___________
5.9.7 Accuracy (metering or relaying) ___________
5.9.8 Accuracy Class at Standard Burdens ___________
5.9.9 Continuous – Thermal – Current Rating Factor ___________
5.9.10 Short-Time Mechanical and Thermal Current Ratings ___________

5.10 Voltage Transformers

5.10.1 Type (cascade, grounded neutral, insulated neutral, single high-voltage ___________
line terminal, double high-voltage line terminal, etc.)
5.10.2 Quantity ___________
5.10.3 Nominal System Voltage ___________ kV
5.10.4. BIL ___________ kV
5.10.5 Ratios ___________
5.10.6 Accuracy Class at Standard Burdens ___________
5.10.7 Thermal Burden Rating ___________

5.11 Coupling Capacitors and Capacitor Voltage Transformers

5.11.1 Type (CC or CVT.) ___________

5.11.2 Quantity ___________
5.11.3 Nominal System Voltage ___________ kV
5.11.4. BIL ___________ kV
5.11.5 Capacitance ___________ pF
5.11.6 Carrier Accessories (yes or no) ___________
5.11.7 Voltage transformer (yes or no) ___________
5.11.7.1 Ratio(s) ___________
5.11.7.2 Accuracy Class at Standard Burdens ___________
5.11.7.3 Thermal Burden Rating ___________

5.12 Mobile Units

5.12.1 Type (transformer, substation) ___________

5.12.2 Quantity ___________

5.12.3 Primary Voltage ___________ kV

5.12.4. Secondary Voltage ___________ kV
5.12.5 Capacity ___________ MVA
5.12.6 Accessories (list and describe) ___________

6 SITE

6.1 General

6.1.1 Yard Type (flat, sloped, stepped) ___________

6.1.2 Nominal Finished Grade Elevation(s) ___________
6.1.2.1 ___________ m
6.1.2.2 Slope ___________ %
6.2.3 Topographical Drawing Reference ___________
6.2.4 Soil Boring Reference ___________

6.2 Drainage

6.2.1 Type of System (surface or closed) ___________

6.2.2 Design Basis (see Chapter 6, Section 6.4) ___________
6.2.3 Time for Runoff from Remotest Part of Drainage Area ___________ m

6.3 Earthwork
3
6.3.1 Excess Top Soil ___________ m
3
6.3.2 Fill Required ___________ m
3
6.3.3 Earth to Be Moved Exclusive of Excess Top Soil ___________ m

6.4 Roads Itemise as listed below for each access road, interior road, and railroad.

6.4.1 Length ___________ m

6.4.2 Width ___________ m
6.4.3 Maximum Grade ___________ %
6.4.4 Minimum Inside Curve Radius ___________ m
6.4.5 Base Course ___________
6.4.6 Wearing Course ___________
6.4.7 Maximum Equipment Load ___________ kg/axle

6.5 Erosion Protection

State basic description.

6.6 Yard Surfacing Material

6.6.1 Material:- ___________

6.6.1.1 Type ___________
6.6.1.2 Size ___________
6.6.3 Material Placement:-
6.6.3.1 Area ___________
6.6.3.2 Layer depth ___________

6.7 Security Fence

6.7.1 Height ___________ m

6.7.2 Fabric Gauge ___________

6.7.3 Fabric Material ___________

6.7.4 Gates (itemise as listed below for each size gate):-
6.7.4.1 Size ___________ m
6.7.4.2 Quantity ___________
6.7.5 Depth of Post Footing Holes ___________ m

7 STRUCTURES

7.1 Line Support structures

7.1.1 Material ___________

7.1.2 Protective Coating or Treatment ___________
7.1.3 Loading Criteria:-
7.1.3.1 Conductors ___________ N per
phase
7.1.3.2 Shield wires ___________ N per
conductor
7.1.3.3 Equipment weight ___________ kg
7.1.3.4 Wind and ice loads (see Sections 2.3.3) ___________
7.1.3.5 Seismic (describe) ___________
7.1.4 Overload Factor ___________
7.1.5 Unit Stress Limit ___________
7.1.6 Deflection Limits ___________
7.1.7 Fasteners (describe) ___________

7.2 Equipment Support structures

7.2.1 Material ___________

7.2.2 Protective Coating or Treatment ___________
7.2.3 Loading Criteria:-
7.2.3.1 Equipment weight ___________ kg
7.2.3.2 Short circuit force ___________ N/m
7.2.3.3 Wind and ice loads (see Sections 2.3.3) ___________
7.2.3.4 Seismic (describe) ___________
7.2.4 Unit Stress Limit ___________
7.2.5 Deflection Limits ___________
7.2.6 Rigidity Considerations ___________
7.2.7 Fasteners (describe) ___________

8 FOUNDATIONS

8.1 Soil

8.1.1 Type ___________

2
8.1.2 Allowable Soil Bearing Pressure ___________ N/m
8.1.3 Describe Other Soil Capability Limitations ___________
8.1.4 Depth Below Grade to Groundwater ___________ m

8.2 Description of Concrete

8.2.1 Type ___________

2
8.2.2 Minimum 28-Day Compressive Strength ___________ N/cm

8.2.3 Depth Below Grade to Withstand Frost ___________ m

8.3 Description of Reinforcing Bar

Describe the reinforcing bar used in each type of foundation.

8.4 Oil Pollution Abatement

Describe methods for oil pollution abatement.

8.5 Foundation types

Describe each type of foundation (drilled shaft, spread footing, slab) and its function.

9 GROUNDING

9.1 Soil Resistivity Measurements

9.1.1 Data from soil testing on (date) ___________

9.1.1.1 Uniform Soil Assumption
a) Mathematical average of the measured apparent resistivity data, ρ ___________ ohm-
meter

9.2 Area of the Earth Grid

9.1.1 Describe geometric shape of ground grid including dimensions ___________

2
9.1.2 Calculated total ground grid area, A ___________ m

9.3 Ground Fault Current

9.3.1 Maximum Symmetrical rms Value of Zero Sequence Fault Current

(single phase-to-ground), Io ___________ kA
9.3.2 Initial rms Symmetrical Ground Fault Current, If ___________ kA
9.3.3 Symmetrical Grid Current, Ig ___________ A
9.3.4 Determined Split Factor:- ___________
9.3.4.1 Substation ground resistance, Rg ___________ ohms
9.3.4..2 Split Factor, Sf ___________
9.3.5 Determine Decrement Factor:- ___________
9.3.5.1 Time duration of fault, tf ___________ seconds
9.3.5.2 Dc offset, Ta ___________ seconds
9.3.5.3 Decrement factor, Df ___________
9.3.6 Maximum Grid Current, IG ___________ A
9.3.7 Asymmetrical Fault Current, IF ___________ kA

9.4 Selection of Conductor Material

9.4.1. Material ___________

9.4.2 Area of Conductor:-
2
9.4.2.1 Main Grid ___________ mm
2
9.4.2.2 Perimeter ___________ mm
2
9.4.2.3 Risers (tails) ___________ mm
9.4.3 Length of Conductor
9.4.3.1 Main Grid ___________ m
9.4.3.2 Perimeter ___________ m
9.4.3.3 Risers (tails) ___________ m

9.4.4 Ground Rods:-

9.4.4.1 Diameter ___________
9.4.4.2 Length ___________
9.4.4.3 Quantity ___________

9.5 SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS

9.5.1. RMS magnitude of the current through the body, IB ___________ A

9.6 TOLERABLE TOUCH AND STEP VOLTAGES

9.6.1. Maximum tolerable step voltages, Estep ___________ V

9.6.2. Maximum tolerable touch voltages, Etouch ___________ V

9.7 PROTECTIVE SURFACE MATERIAL AND REDUCTION FACTOR

9.7.1. Type of protective surface material ___________

9.7.2. Resistivity of protective surface material, ρs ohm-
___________ meter
9.7.3 Reflection factor, K ___________
9.7.4 Reduction factor, Cs ___________

9.8 Design of a Substation Earthing System

9.8.1. Grid Design ___________

9.8.2. Calculated Design Mesh Voltage
9.8.2.1 Calculate total length of grid conductor LR ___________ m
9.8.2.2 Calculated total length ground rod LC ___________ m
9.8.2.3 Calculated Design Mesh Voltage, Em ___________ V
9.8.3 Calculated Design Step Voltage, ES ___________ V
9.8.4 Ground Potential Rise, VGPR ___________ V

10 INSULATED CABLES AND RACEWAYS

10.1 Cables Itemise as listed below for each type of cable.

10.1.1. Type (control or power) ___________

10.1.2. Voltage Rating ___________ V
10.1.3 Conductor Size, Type, and Material ___________
10.1.4 Number of Conductors ___________
10.1.5 Quantity ___________ m
10.1.6 Insulation:-
10.1.6.1 Type ___________
10.1.6.2 Thickness ___________ mm
10.1.7 Jacket:-
10.1.7.1 Type ___________
10.1.7.2 Thickness over each conductor ___________ mm
10.1.7.3 Thickness over entire cable ___________ mm

10.2 Raceways Itemise as listed below for each type of raceway.

10.2.1. Conduit
10.2.1.1 Material ___________
10.2.1.2 Size ___________ cm

10.1.2 Duct Bank

10.2.2.1 Size
a) Width ___________ m
b) Depth ___________ m
c) Number of conduits
i) Width ___________ mm
ii) Depth ___________ mm
d) Size of conduits ___________ cm
10.2.3 Cable Trench
10.2.3.1 Type (concrete block, cast-in-place concrete, or precast concrete)
a) Width ___________ cm
b) Depth ___________ cm

11. CORROSION

11.1 State Rationale for the Provision (or Lack) of a Cathodic Protection System

11.2 Cathodic Protection System

11.2.1. Summary of Soil Resistivity Survey ___________
11.2.2. Summary of pH Survey ___________
11.2.3 Basic Description of Protection System ___________

12 PROTECTIVE RELAYING

12.1 General Philosophy

State the general philosophy of the protective relaying systems: coordination required with other parts of the system,
expected fault currents for various conditions, speed of interruption sought for various cases, etc.

12.2 Transmission Line Protection Itemise as listed below for each line.

12.2.1. Line Destination or Description ___________

12.2.2. Nominal Voltage ___________ kV
12.2.3 Protection Scheme (phase comparison, directional comparison, direct
under-reach, permissive under-reach, permissive overreach, overcurrent;
describe) ___________
12.2.4 Automatic Reclosing (yes or no; describe) ___________
12.2.5 Relays (list) ___________
12.2.6 Communication Channel (Power Line Carrier, Microwave, Fibre Optic, ___________
Leased Line)

12.3 Transformer and reactor Protection Itemise as listed below for each transformer and reactor.

12.3.1. Transformer or Reactor Number or Description ___________

12.3.2. Nominal Voltages (Primary/tertiary/secondary) ______/ ______/ ______ kV
12.3.3 Protection Scheme (differential, sudden pressure, directional phase
distance, earth overcurrent; describe) ___________
12.3.4 Relays (list) ___________

12.4 Busbar Protection Itemise as listed below for each busbar system.

12.4.1. Busbar Number or Description ___________

12.4.2. Nominal Voltage ___________ kV

12.4.3 Protection Scheme (current differential, voltage differential; describe) ___________

11.4.4 Relays (list) ___________

12.5 Breaker Failure Protection

12.5.1. Where applied (describe) ___________

12.5.2 Relays (list) ___________

12.6 Distribution Line Protection Itemise as listed below for each line.

12.6.1. Line Destination or Description ___________

12.6.2. Nominal Voltage ___________ kV
12.6.3 Protection Scheme (overcurrent relaying, automatic circuit reclosers,
sectionalizers, fuses; describe) ___________
12.6.4 Relay and Equipment (list) ___________

13 INSTRUMENTS, TRANSDUCERS, AND METERS

Describe metering systems and list equipment for each system.

14 SUBSTATION AUTOMATION

Define the application by completing the following information:-

14.1 Functions to be Performed

14.1.1. Describe the functions to be performed:- ___________

14.1.1.1 Automatic control ___________
14.1.1.2 Supervisory control ___________
14.1.1.3 Monitoring ___________
14.1.1.4 Human - machine ___________

14.2 Develop Architecture Philosophy

Justify whether a proprietary or open system is needed.

14.3 Architecture Definition

14.3.1 Top layer—user interface where data and control prerogatives are ___________
presented to the end user.
14.3.2 Intermediate layer—implemented with discrete elements or ___________
subsystems.
14.3.3 Bottom layer—electrical power substation and field devices
(transformers, breakers, switches, etc.)
___________

14.4 Basic Elements

14.4.1. Will a local substation host processor be used (single or multiple

computers)? Describe rationale. ___________
14.4.2. Describe the type of redundancy that is needed for this application. ___________
14.4.3 Describe any Intelligent Electronic Devices (IEDs) to be used:-
14.4.3.1 Function ___________
14.4.3.2 Communications medium ___________
14.4.3.3 Protocols supported ___________
14.4.3.4 Data acquisition method ___________
14.4.4 Will a data concentrator be used? Describe its purpose and functions. ___________

14.4.5 If a LAN is used, describe:-

14.4.5.1 What access method will be used (CSMA/CD, token ring, token bus, ___________
or FDDI)? Develop rationale.
14.4.5.2 What is the expected load of the network? ___________
14.4.5.3 Do any functions require a deterministic access method? Describe. ___________
14.4.5.4 What is the desired data rate? ___________
14.4.5.5 Define the physical locations of nodes or communicating devices. ___________
14.4.5.6 Describe the physical media that will be used (coaxial cable, UTP, or
optical fibre). ___________
14.4.5.7 Describe any serial data interfaces to be used (RS-232, RE-422/423
or RS-485). Define type, location, and purpose. ___________
14.4.6 What is the communications protocol(s) being utilized (IEC 970-5, DNP
3.0, MODBUS, MMS, ASCII, Landis & Gyr 8979, or other)? ___________

15 AC AND DC AUXILIARY SYSTEMS

15.1 AC System

15.1.1. Connected AC Load ___________ kVA

15.1.2. Overall Demand Factor ___________ %
15.1.3 Auxiliary Transformer: ___________
15.1.3.1 Rating kVA
15.1.3.2 Voltage (primary/secondary) _______/ _______ kV
15.1.4 Normal Source (describe) ___________
15.1.5 Alternative Source (describe) ___________
15.1.6 Auxiliary System Voltage (480/277 volts, wye-connected, three-phase,
four-wire; 208/120volts, star-connected, three-phase, four-wire;
240/120 volts, delta-connected, three-phase, four-wire; 240/120 volts,
open delta-connected, three-phase, four-wire; 240/120 volts, single-
phase, three-wire) ___________
15.1.7 Transfer/Chop-over Switch (describe) ___________
15.1.8 Asymmetrical Fault Current at Main Panelboard or Switchboards ___________ kA
15.1.9 Panelboards and Switchboards (describe) ___________
15.1.10 Outdoor Lighting:-
15.1.10.1 Objective (describe) ___________
15.1.10.2 Luminaires (describe) ___________
15.1.10.3 Switching method (describe) ___________
15.2 DC System
15.2.1. DC System Loads (list) ___________
15.2.2. Nominal Voltage ___________ Vdc
15.2.3 Battery
15.2.3.1 Cell type ___________
15.2.3.2 Ampere-hours ___________
15.2.3.3 Number of cells ___________
15.2.4 Battery Charger (describe)
15.2.4.1 DC amps ___________

16. CONTROL Building

16.1 Inside Dimensions

16.1.1. Length ___________ m

16.1.2. Width ___________ m
16.1.3 Clear Height ___________ m

16.2 Basement (yes or no) ___________

16.3 Foundation

16.3.1 Footing:-
16.3.1.1 Width ___________ cm
16.3.1.2 Depth ___________ m
16.3.1.3 Depth below Grade ___________ m
16.3.2 Foundation Walls:-
16.3.2.1 Type (cast-in-place concrete or concrete block) ___________
16.3.2.2 Perimeter Insulation (yes or no) ___________
a) Type
b) Thickness cm
c) Location (inside or outside of walls)
16.3.3 Floor:-
16.3.3.1 Thickness ___________ cm
16.3.3.2 Reinforcing (describe) ___________
16.3.3.3 Cast-in-Concrete Cable Trench (yes or no) (describe) ___________

16.4 Superstructure

16.4.1 Type (pre-engineered metal or concrete block) ___________

16.4.2 Roof Type (precast, pre-stressed concrete panels, or steel joists and ___________
steel decks)
16.4.3 Doors (itemise as listed below for each door size):-
16.4.2.1 Size _________ x _________ cm
16.4.2.2 Quantity ___________
16.4.3 Windows (itemise as listed below for each window size):-
16.4.3.1 Size _________ x _________ cm
16.4.3.2 Quantity ___________

16.5 Control Panels

16.5.1 Type (single, double, or duplex) ___________

16.5.2 Function (list each panel) ___________
16.5.3 Size _________ x _________ cm

16.6 Cable Trays

16.6.1 Size ___________ cm

16.6.2 Method of Support (describe) ___________

16.7 Lighting
2
16.7.1 Average illumination ___________ lumens/m
16.7.2 Luminaires (describe) ___________

16.7.3 Emergency lighting (describe) ___________

16.8 Air Conditioning Equipment

16.8.1 Number of units ___________

16.8.2 Type of units ___________
16.8.3 Rating ___________

16.9 Heating equipment

16.9.1 Number of units ___________

16.9.2 Type of units ___________
16.9.3 Rating ___________

17. COMMUNICATIONS

17.1 Communications Channel Plan (Completing the following information for each channel needed):-

17.1.1 Application (relaying, SCADA, telemetering, voice, other) ___________

17.1.2 Bandwidth or capacity (may be expressed in bits/second) ___________
17.1.3 End-to-end channel delay constraints ___________
17.1.4 Remote terminating point(s) ___________
17.1.5 Reliability/redundancy requirements ___________

17.2 Total Channel Capacity

Define total channel capacity.

17.3 Expansion Requirements

Define expansion requirements or future capabilities that need to be accommodated.

17.4 Communications Technology (Select a communications technology based on the parameters defined
above):-

17.4.1 Power line carrier ___________

17.4.2 Audio tone ___________
17.4.3 Carrier or audio tone on shield wire ___________
17.4.4 Microwave (analogue, digital, or MAS) ___________
17.4.5 Fibre optics ___________
17.4.6 Wire lines ___________
17.4.7 Satellite ___________

SLDG 10-1

SINGLE-LINE DIAGRAM DEVELOPMENT

1. INTRODUCTION

A Single-Line Diagram (SLD) is a drawing that shows symbolically and in a single line form, the main electrical three-
phase power circuits and associated protective relays and monitoring devices. A substation single-line diagram forms
the basis of the substation layout, protection and metering design.

Figure 10-1.1 illustrates the substation design sequence. A substation design is started after the planning group
identifies the need for either a new substation, or for the extension or up-rating of an existing substation. Based on the
requirements specified by the planning group, a preliminary one-line diagram drawing is prepared as a working
drawing. This drawing, when finalised, forms the basis for the entire substation design and it is also the seed drawing
for the single-line diagram. Throughout this section, the development process for a sample substation single diagram
will be followed for illustrative purposes.

2. PLANNING THE INPUT

The information provided by the planning group typically includes the following system interconnection requirements for
the substation:

2.1 Identification, number, and voltage of the transmission lines to be connected to the substation

2.2 Transformer capacity and any capacitive or reactive compensation required at the substation

2.3 Future capacity additions planned for the substation

Below is a sample of the planning requirement furnished to the substation design engineer. To prepare a one-line
diagram for the given substation, certain engineering decisions have to be made regarding the arrangement to be
employed for the substation if it is a new one. Some utilities have fixed policies regarding the switching philosophies to
be employed due to familiarity to certain layouts. These decisions are also illustrated below:

Planning Requirements:-

Need a 400/132 kV substation to accommodate the following:

• 2 x 400 kV transmission lines

• 1 x 250 MVA, 400/132 kV auto-transformer

• 3 x 132 kV distribution lines

• Additional future 132 kV distribution lines

Engineering decisions:

• 400 kV arranged as breaker-and-a-half

• 132 kV arranged as double busbar single breaker

• 400 kV circuit breaker: live tank design

• 132 kV circuit breaker: live tank design

Protection &
Metering
Diagram

Single Line Block Schematic Wiring

Diagram Diagram Diagram Diagram

Material &
Terrace Control Plan
Equipment
Design Design
Specifications

Foundation
Planning Input One-Line Equipment Control Layout & Design
(System Studies) Diagram Plans Building Steelwork Complete
Plan Design

Earthing
Design

Equipment
Physical &
Steelwork &
Structural
Foundation
Details
Design

Figure 10-1.1: High Level Substation Design Sequence

3. ONE-LINE DIAGRAM

Figure 10-1.2 is a one-line diagram of the substation specified in paragraph 2 above. A one-line diagram illustrates the
electrical interconnection of the high voltage equipment and typically the following items:

3.1 All voltage busbars

3.2 All feeders

3.3 Power transformers

3.4 All power cable runs

3.5 Circuit breakers

3.6 Isolators and earth-switches

3.7 Freestanding current transformers

3.8 Voltage transformers and coupling capacitors

3.9 Line traps

3.10 Surge arresters

3.11 Shunt reactors and shunt capacitors

4. SINGLE-LINE DIAGRAM

Figure 10-1.3 is a Flow diagram showing the process of developing the single line diagram for the substation shown in
Figure 10-1.2. The process of developing a single-line diagram from a one-line diagram includes the following steps (see
Figures 10-1.4 and 10-1.5).

4.1 Identification of protection zones

4.2 Selection of protection schemes

4.3 Identification of metering points

4.4 Selection of metering schemes

4.5 Selection of voltage and current sources

4.6 Connection of the protection and metering schemes to the voltage and current sources

4.7 Location of power line carrier (PLC) devices

5. PROTECTIVE ZONES

A protection zone is part of the substation high voltage interconnection that is identified to require a dedicated protection
for correct and efficient design of the entire substation protection scheme. The entire substation is divided up into
different protection zones such that every high voltage part of the substation is covered by at least one protection zone,
therefore, any fault in the substation high voltage busbar system or equipment, will be detected by at least one protection
zone. To ensure complete coverage, all adjoining protection zones are overlapped. The overlapping area normally
includes the common switching device for the two zones. The protection zones for the substation in Figure 10-1.2 are
shown in Figure 10-1.6.
There are two basic criteria for selecting a protection zone:-

5.1 A common protection scheme will correctly detect any fault within the zone

5.2 Disconnection of the zone from the balance of the substation will isolate the fault with a minimum impact on the
healthy part of the system.

Feeder 1 Feeder 2 Feeder 3

Busbar 2

Busbar Busbar
1A 1B
Bus Section 1

Bus Bus
Coupler A Coupler B

Transformer 1 Transformer 2 Transformer 3

Figure 10-1.2: Single-Line Diagram Development

Prepare Basic
Planning
One-Line
Requirement
Diagram

Add Surge
Arresters

Add EMVT’s
& CVT’s

Add Line
Traps

Live
No
Tank
Breaker

Yes
Add
Freestanding
CT’s

One Line Diagram

Complete

Identify Identify
Protection Metering
Zones Points

Select Select
Protection Meters
Relays for each
Zones
Locate
Current &
PLC No Voltage Ratio
Required

Yes Connect Relays

& Meters to Select CT &
Current & VT Accuracy
Voltage Class

Locate PLC
Equipment Add Device
I.O’s
Single-Line
Diagram
Complete

Figure 10-1.3: Single-Line Diagram Development

Feeder 1 Feeder 2 Feeder 3

Busbar 2

Busbar
1B
Busbar
1A

Bus Section 1)

Bus Bus
Coupler A Coupler B

Transformer 1 Transformer 2 Transformer 3

Figure 10-1.4: Buszone Protection

Feeder 1 Feeder 2 Feeder 3

Busbar 2

Busbar
1B

Busbar
1A

Bus Section 1

Bus Bus
Coupler A Coupler B

Transformer 1 Transformer 2 Transformer 3

Figure 10-1.5: Feeder Protection

Feeder 1 Feeder 2 Feeder 3

Busbar 2

Busbar
1B

Busbar
1A
Bus Section 1

Bus Bus
Coupler A Coupler B

Transformer 1 Transformer 2 Transformer 3

Figure 10-2.6: Transformer Protection

Generally, each of the following substation components is in a separate protection zone:

6. Transmission line

7. Transmission power cable

8. Main busbars

9. Transformer

10. Shunt or series capacitor bank

11. Shunt reactor

12. Generator connection (plant switchyards)

Special equipment considerations may result in small modifications to these basic zones. A Gas insulted Substation
(GIS) and live tank breaker are two such applications where zone modifications may be required.

In GIS, the normal transmission zones would also include some gas-insulated equipment and busbar. A fault in the gas
insulated chamber area needs to be treated differently compared to a transmission line fault (no auto re-closing for the
GIS faults), therefore it is important for the protection system to segregate fault detection in the two areas. This would
require a separate zone for the gas insulated equipment connected to the line.

In general, a live tank circuit breaker, unlike a dead tank circuit breaker, does not have bushing current transformers
(CT’s). The CT’s required for the live tank breaker is mounted in a separate, freestanding, porcelain or composite
material column. Due to economy, this CT column is only added to one side of the circuit breaker. Therefore, all CT’s
associated with a live tank breaker are on one side, compared to CT’s provided on both sides of a dead tank breaker.
This prevents inclusion of the live tank in the overlapped area of the two adjacent zones and creates a small blind spot
(end zone) for the protection scheme on the CT column side of the breaker.

13. PROTECTIVE RELAYS

A protection scheme is a fault-sensing device. A detailed discussion of the protection schemes was covered in SLDG 6-
1. A refresher discussion of relay and scheme types is provided here to supplement the single-line diagram development.

A protection relay evaluates the currents flowing in and out of the protected zone and decides if the fault is within the
zone or outside of the zone. Some protective relays also require a voltage input for fault detection. If the fault is detected
to be inside the zone, the relay provides tripping signals to the appropriate switching devices to isolate the protected
zone.
The protective relays used in substations can be classified in the following three broad categories:
• Over-current relays
• Differential relays
• Distance relays

6.1 Over-current Relay

An over-current relay measures the current flowing through the CT it is connected to, and based on its settings, provides
a tripping signal if the current exceeds its threshold. Variations of the over-current relay includes directional and non-
directional characteristics. These types of relays are normally used for protection of distribution lines and are also used
as back-up protection for transmission lines, transformers, and various other devices.

6.2 Differential Relay

A differential relay compares the currents flowing into and out of the protected zone, and if the net current is not close to
zero, it evaluates the situation as an internal fault. This type of relay is ideal for protecting busbars, transformers,

reactors, and other protective zones where the current sources in the entire zone can be easily accessed. As a result of
the difference in the electrical characteristics of a busbar fault as compared to a transformer or a reactor fault, these
components require different types of differential relays which dealt with in more detail in SLDG 6-1.

6.2 Distance Relay

A distance relay requires both current and voltage inputs to evaluate a fault, however, it does not require input from all
the terminals of the protected zone to perform its function. Based on the current and voltage inputs, the relay evaluates
the distance of the fault from the measuring terminal, and provides a tripping signal if the fault is within a preset range.
These relays are ideally suited to protect transmission lines, and sometimes, are also used to backup a transformer
protection.

In order to identify the function of various devices, IEEE has established a device numbering system. Table 10-1.1 shows
the IEEE device numbers for the most commonly used substation equipment. These device numbers are used to identify
the protective relay and other equipment on a protection scheme single-line diagram. Prefixes are added to these device
numbers to identify the associated high voltage equipment and clarify the primary or backup application of the protective
device.

Table 10-1.1: Common to Substation Application

2 = Time Delay Relay

21 = Distance Relay
25 = Synchronizing or Synchro-Check Device
27 = Under-voltage Relay
50 = Instantaneous Over-current
51 = AC Time Over-current Relay
52 = AC Circuit Breaker
59 = Over-voltage Relay
67 = AC Directional Over-current Relay
85 = Carrier Pilot-wire Receiver Relay
86 = Lock-out Relay
87 = Differential Relay

INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMERS

Instrument transformers, as applied in substations, are devices that provide a lower level signal proportional to the high
voltage currents and voltages (see SLDG 28-1, 2 and 3 for more detail). Their function is to provide the current and
voltage information for relays, meters, and other measuring devices at a safe level to protect the maintenance and
operating personnel, and to allow economical design of the measuring devices. The accuracy of the instrument
transformers is also very critical to the proper operation of the protective and measuring devices. The instrument
transformers used in a substation are classified in the following two categories:-

• Current transformers
• Voltage transformers

7.1 Current Transformers (See also SLDG 28-2)

For the purpose of developing a single-line diagram, the important items related to CT’s are:-

• Selection of current ratio

• Selection of accuracy classification
• Selection of burden rating

• Connections to measuring devices

In the past, standard CT secondary ratings have been 5 A, but subsequent practice is to have 1 A represent the full
rating. The CT primary rating is generally selected such that the maximum expected load current will result in slightly less
than the 1 A or 5 A secondary output. Relaying CT’s are available with multiple ratios to allow for any future increase in
the load current while an appropriate lower tap is used to match the prevailing load current.

The CT’s are broadly divided in two accuracy classifications:

• Relaying Accuracy for protection purposes
• Metering Accuracy for billing purposes

Revenue metering applications require metering accuracy CT’s. All relaying applications and a majority of the indicating
applications use relaying accuracy CT’s. Standardised CT accuracies for protection and metering purposes is provided
under the detailed chapter on CT’s, SLDG 28-2.

The standard metering CT accuracy addresses the ration error as well as the phase angle error and is defined by
standard combinations of these two errors. A specified CT accuracy is only applicable up-to its rated burden rating;
therefore, it is important to verify that the connected secondary loads will not exceed the rated burden of a CT. It should
be noted that the CT burden rating is based on its maximum ratio; and use of a lower tap will proportionately reduce the
available burden rating.

The direction of the current flow in a CT secondary is determined based on the polarity marking on the CT. Except for
non-directional relays, the protective relays require careful attention to the connection of the CT’s to the relay or assigned
protection scheme contacts. The connections should be such that when the primary current is flowing into the protected
zone, the secondary current should be flowing into the relay. The CT connections for the metering devices are based on
the direction of the power flow the device is expected to measure.

7.2 Voltage Transformers (See also SLDG 28-3)

Although there is development in other technologies taking place at present, two types of voltage transformers are
currently being used in substations:

• Magnetically coupled voltage transformers (EMVT’s)

• Capacitively coupled voltage transformers (CVT’s)

The following are the key properties that determine their application in high voltage substations:
7.2.1 Magnetically coupled voltage transformers (EMVT’s)
• Better accuracy
• Higher burden rating
• Better transient performance
• Expensive at higher voltages in open air applications
7.2.2 Capacitively coupled voltage transformers (CVT’s)
• Less expensive at higher voltage open air applications
• Permit power line carrier coupling
• Not preferred for GIS applications

Based on these features, GIS use EMVT’s at all voltages. In open-air applications, EMVT’s are preferred at voltages of
132 kV and below. For metering applications, there used to be a strong preference for EMVT’s even as high as 330 kV,
however, CVT’s have become accurately and stable enough to fulfil this function. In any event, at above 330 kV, the cost
of VT’s becomes prohibitive for most open-air applications. They are still employed at high voltage for FACTS devices
such as SVC’s due to the very high accuracy required for voltage signal reproduction.

8 PILOT CHANNELS FOR PROTECTIVE RELAYS

Pilot channels are communication mediums used for transmission line protection systems to exchange the fault detection
information between the transmission line terminals.

The distance relays detect a transmission line fault by measuring the distance of the fault location from the protected
terminal. When the fault location approaches the opposite terminal, determination of whether the fault is within the
protected line, or outside of it, becomes quite difficult and often requires slowing down of the trip signal to allow other
relays to operate first. This delay in the fault clearing may not be desirable for system stability. Pilot channels allow the
line relays, at the two terminals, to communicate with each other to determine the fault location, thus speed up the
accurate fault detection for 100% of the protected line. The pilot channels are used for the protection of high voltage lines
and critical lower voltage lines where a high speed clearing of the line faults is critical to the transmission system.

The pilot communication channels used for transmission line protection are:

• Power line carrier (PLC)

• Pilot wire which has virtually completely disappeared in some countries

• Microwave

• Optical fibre ground wire (OPGW)

Only the PLC channel has a major impact on the single-line development since it requires high voltage equipment to
couple a high frequency carrier signal to the protected transmission line.

Figure 10-1.6 illustrates the major components of a PLC channel. The following is a brief description of the function of
each component:

Busbar Line Trap Line Trap Busbar

Line

Vp Vp

T T
Relay Relay
R R

Line Tuner CVT CVT Line Tuner

Figure 10-1.6: Major Components of Power Line Carrier Channel

8.2.1 Line Trap (LT) (See also SLDG 30-1)

The line trap is an inductor in parallel with a tuning capacitor circuit. It is tuned to present high impedance to the carrier
frequency, but negligible impedance at the system frequency. A line trap serves two functions:

• It prevents carrier energy from flowing into the substation busbar

• It prevents external earth faults from short-circuiting the carrier signal

8.2.2 Coupling Capacitor (CC) (See also SLDG 31)

A coupling capacitor is made up of a series of stacked capacitors mounted inside porcelain or composite material units. It
is used to couple the carrier signal to the power line. By adding a relatively lower voltage transformer to the last capacitor
stack of the coupling capacitor, the device becomes a CVT and doubles as a line voltage source for the relays and
meters.

8.2.3 Line Tuner (CC)

A line tuner is a combination of impedance matching transformers, capacitors, and inductors. It is tuned to offset the
capacitive reactance of the coupling capacitor, at the carrier frequency, to provide a low loss path for the carrier signal. It
also provides an impedance match between the coaxial cable and the transmission line.

APPENDIX A
ACRONYMS

BCT = Bushing Current Transformer

CVT = Capacitor Voltage Transformer
CT = Current Transformer
GIS = Gas Insulated Substation
IM = Interchange Metering
LTU or TU = Line Tuning Unit
LTC = Load Tap Changer
TCUL = Tap Changing Underl Lad
PLC = Power Line Carrier
RM = Revenue Metering
SYN = Connection to Synchronising Equipment
EMVT = Magnetically coupled Voltage Transformer
PT = Potential Transformer

SLDG 11 - 1

AESTHETIC INFLUENCE OF HIGH VOLTAGE OUT-DOOR SUBSTATIONS ON THE ENVIRONMENT

1. INTRODUCTION

High voltage outdoor substations influence the environment in many ways. This influence encompasses the inclusion of
ground and soil, the aesthetic effect on the countryside or town, the noise produced in high voltage installations, and
disturbances caused by electric and magnetic fields etc. The design engineer must attempt to take these issues into
consideration as far as possible. Although there exist for example, standard measurement procedures, allowable limits
etc. for the evaluation of impulse and continuous noise levels, there is to our knowledge no engineering or possibly
objective methods for the evaluation of the aesthetic effect of technical installations on their surroundings. In the
following article, criteria by which the aesthetic influence on the environment can be determined are discussed.

The effects of high voltage substations on the environment can be very different. Some are hardly noticed, while others
are found to be very disturbing. The extent of the effect is largely depended on the location of the substation, the
requirements of the area, the voltage level, the operating methods etc. The noise pollution and the encroachment on
the town and countryside play a particularly big role (See Figure 11-1.1).

Due to, on the one hand, the increase in transmission voltage, power handling capacity and the number of high voltage
substations and on the other hand the necessity to construct these substations in the immediate vicinity of towns,
disregarding these effects could result in considerable difficulties or high additional costs.

After an overview of the problem and establishment of several base philosophies, criteria are discussed which should be
used to evaluate the aesthetic environmental impact.

VISIBLE APPEARANCE

Disturbance of the harmony Many in-feeds in the Restriction on development

of the surroundings proximity of the substations in the surrounding area

Obstruction of sun Transformers and

and wind inductors

Radio and telecom-

munnication interference Switching operations

Other Galvanic, capacitive and Compressed air

High Voltage
Effects inductive effects equipment Noise
Substation
Pollution of soil and
underground water (Oil) Discharges

Noise during building

Vibrations

Concern about increased

Fear of high voltages lightning activity Danger of fire

Safety of residents

Figure 11-1.1: Effect of High Voltage Substations on the Environment

1.1 Problem Statement

High voltage outdoor substations fall into the category of high rise technical establishments, whose shape and size must
conform to practical and technical aspects. A change in the environment for the purpose of improvement is as a rule not
accepted. The judgement of the aesthetic effects that the substation creates differs from observer to observer. It
depends on the personality of the observer, the observation point, and the attitude of the observer towards the object.

In principle the observation and evaluation of buildings and installations occurs as follows:-

1.1.1 Recognition of the building and installations as part of the human environment

1.1.2 Recognition of the order of this human environment

1.1.3 Recognition of the construction materials used and how they were used

1.1.4 Recognition and acknowledgement of the usefulness of the buildings and installations

Independently of the outcome of the above evaluation, the observer makes an aesthetic judgement, which can be
positive or negative.

During the evaluation of the aesthetic influence of a high voltage substation on the environment, the incoming overhead
lines, and the existing environmental conditions at the site must be taken into account.

For the evaluation of the influences it is necessary to determine the position of the observer, and to define what can be
considered to be the affected environment.

The position of the observer should be chosen at a point outside the high voltage substation.

The effect that the image of the substation creates on an observer inside the installation will not be considered now.

The environment that is influenced by the high voltage substation is considered as the surrounding area for which the
installation is generally visible. The size of this area, defined as the visually affected area (see Figure 11-1.2), is
dependent upon the height of the busbars or tower structures carrying the overhead conductors (determined by the
transmission voltage), as well as the topography of the land. Visual barriers for example reduce the affected area and
should be used wherever possible (see Figure 11-1.3).

Transmission
Tower

Visual Concealment
Distance very limited
Reasonable

High

Very High
Horizontal Extent of the Visually Affected Area
Figure 11-1.2: Definition of the Visually Affected Area

Nominal Voltage Type of Horizontal Extent of the Visually Affected Area Depending on
Transmission Tower Tower Type and Increased Concealment from the Affected Area
Transmission Open Lattice 1) 0,4 km to 2,5 km
Network 220 kV – Structure
765 kV Closed Lattice
Large Distribution Structure 2) 0,7 km to 4 km
Network 66 kV – Solid Steel Towers 1) 0,3 km to 1,5 km
132 kV Concrete Towers
Large Distribution 2) 0,5 km to 2 km
Network 1 kV – Wood Pole Structures 1) 0,1 km to 0,4 km
44 kV
Large Distribution 2) 0,2 km to 0,5 km
Network 66 kV –
132 kV

Notes:-

1) Visibility against a background with relief (undulating ground)

2) Visibility against a background of free air

Overhead Line
Extent of Forest
Affected Area

Visually
Affected
Area
{ Visible Distance
Avenue

a): Zigzag Line Arrangement

b): Selection of Tree Types

Figure 11-1.3: Use of Visual Barriers to Reduce the Visually Affected Area

1.2 Basic Principles

If the problem cannot be handled comprehensively in the realm of man - society - environment, then it involves
engineering criteria, and principles, and several basic principles must now be defined.

Nowadays, for transmission voltages up to 765 kV, and as an alternative to outdoor, i.e. Air Insulated Substations, the
possibility exists technically to build the high voltage substation, including transformers, “indoors”, either air insulated or
SF6 insulated. The possibility even exists theoretically, to build an SF6 substation underground, using cables as in-
feeds. The knowledge of alternatives influences the attitude of the observer considerably.

However, this technology is not yet generally available, except in a few instances e.g. Up to 110 kV, where the economic
expense can only be justified by further reasons e.g. high environmental impact in industrial areas or essential space
saving. Thus indoor or underground installations will not be discussed further here.

For outdoor installations it should be a goal, alongside the technical objective, to find a solution, that enables one to
show the technical installation to observers, perhaps even with pride. Otherwise an attempt is made from the beginning
to conceal it. A subsequent improvement usually involves additional expenses, possibly leaving an unacceptable
solution.

1.3 Attempts to Evaluate Buildings Using Information Aesthetics

In 1967 Kiemle consolidated the attempts of various authors who used the mathematical methods of signal theory,
information theory, information psychology etc. to evaluate the creative process of the mind. He considers the
assimilation, comprehension and processing capacity of the human brain. During this period of attention of a human of
8 - 12 seconds (short time memory) an attempt is made, to evaluate criteria such as

- Order

- Surprise value

- Conspicuous value

- Originality (style)

and even aesthetic beauty mathematically and to formulate limits. By applying his theory to residential and office
buildings Kiemle concludes the following: “The intellectual enjoyment of aesthetic observation consists of the conscious
mind being inundated with recognising and comprehending ordered structures and relationships . . . modern buildings
are often lacking information”.

Examples of the application of Information aesthetics to technical objects are not known.

2 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR EVALUATION

2.1 Criteria for the Evaluation of Aesthetic Influence

The following criteria are taken into consideration:-

K1 Height

K2 Surface area

K3 Arrangement of construction

K4 Arrangement of colours

K5 Boundary with the environment

K6 Conductors in-feeds

Each of these criteria is given a value between 0 and 5. The value given depends on the environmental influence the
criterion has. The effect each criterion has at a fixed location is determined by a weighting factor for the location FL
(Table 11-1.1) and weighting factor for the visibility FS. The weighting factors for a location FL can vary for each of the
different criteria, as can be seen in Table 11-1.1.

Table 11-1.1: Weighting Factors for the Evaluation of the Environmental Impact of High Voltage Substations.

Criterion Weighting Factors For Location

Urban Areas Environmentally Rural Industrial
Protected Areas Areas Areas
FL1 FL2 FL3 FL4
Height (K1) 0,8 - 1,2 0,8 - 1 0,4 - 0,8 0,6 - 0,8
Surface area (K2) 0,8 - 1,2 0,8 - 1 0,4 - 0,8 0,8 - 1,0
Construction (K3) 0,8 - 1,2 0,8 - 1 0,6 - 0,8 0,4 - 0,8
Colour (K4) 0,8 - 1,2 0,8 - 1 0,6 - 0,8 0,6 - 0,8
Boundary (K5) 0,8 - 1,2 0,8 - 1 0,6 - 0,8 0,6 - 0,8
Conductor in-feeds (K6) 0,8 - 1,2 0,8 - 1 0,6 - 0,8 0,4 - 0,8

2.2 Explanation of criteria

2.2.1 Height (K1)

If the height of a high voltage substation is equal to or smaller than the eaves of the surrounding buildings or the tops of
the surrounding trees, then the environmental influence due to height is negligible. It is given a value of 0. If the height
is a multiple of the reference height then the environmental influence can be evaluated as very negative, and should be
given a value of 5.

2.2.2 Surface area (K2)

With this criterion, it should be considered that with an expansion in area of the high voltage substation, as a rule the
effect on the environment will increase.

The surface area must be considered as the absolute area in square meters, i.e. the area of the substation including
access roads, storage areas, etc.

It is recommended to use the following measures for evaluation:-

Table 11-1.2: Weighting Factors for the Surface Area Covered by High Voltage Substations

Surface - Area Value

2
Up to 500 m 0
2
500 - 1000 m 1
2
1000 - 2500 m 2
2
2500 - 5000 m 3
2
5000 - 7500 m 4
2
Over 7500 m 5

2.2.3 Arrangement of Construction (K3)

Inside the installation, the internal structure of the buildings, the tower structures, the busbars, the foundations,
arrangement of roads and paths etc. is evaluated. Few, clearly arranged buildings, tower heights that match the heights
of the buildings and low foundations are generally positively evaluated. Figure 11-1.4 is provided as an example. This
is probably the most problematic factor to evaluate.

275 kV Busbar

Transformers

Control Building

88 kV Circuit Breakers

a) View from the East

88 kV
Towers
Control Building

275 kV Circuit breakers

b) View from the South

Figure 11-1.4: Example of the Simulation of the Busbars and Buildings of a 275 kV Substation

2.2.4 Arrangement of Colours (K4)

In the first instance the match of the colours of the outdoor structures and buildings with the surrounding must be
considered.

Besides this, the condition of the paint-work at the time of observation must be evaluated. For evaluation, values of
between 0 and 5 are used again. Generally, an inconspicuous arrangement of colours of the installation paint-work that
is in good condition, and use of building materials that are appropriate to the surroundings, should be positively
evaluated.

In particular cases, colours that give prominence to individual devices that show the function of the installation, can give
an overall positive effect.

2.2.5 Boundary with the Environment (K5)

This criterion should be used to evaluate how well the substation has been situated in its surroundings, from an external
point of view. The location can be altered by landscaping; planting rows of trees, shrubs or bushes or by construction of
walls that conceal the installation (see Figures 11-1.5 and 11-1.6).

The aim of the arrangement of the substation within its surroundings should be to make it as inconspicuous as possible.
Depending on how well this aim is achieved, it should be evaluated with a value of between 0 and 5.

a) At the Time of Commissioning.

b) After 3 to 5 Years.

Figure 11-1.5: Example of the Ecological Planning for a High Voltage Substation.

2.4.2.6 Conductor in-feeds (K6)

To evaluate the impact of the substation on its surroundings, the conductor in-feeds for a distance of 1 km away from
the installation should be considered. From a visual point of view the best in-feed is the underground cable. If all in-
feeds are cables for a distance of 1 km from the substation, then this criterion should be given a value of 0. Few in-
feeds that approach the substation directly should be positively evaluated, while in-feeds that approach the substation
from several different directions, or with differing heights, or different tower structures should be evaluated negatively.
Values of between 1 and 5 should be use for this. See Figure 11-1.6: Proposed Use of Visual Barriers to Reduce
Visually Affected Areas around Substations

Figure 11-1.6: Proposed Use of Visual Barriers to Reduce Visually Affected Areas around Substations

2.4.3 Calculation of a weighting factor B

It is recommended that an overall evaluation based on the value of each criterion and its corresponding weighting factor
should be calculated as follows:-

 K 1 .FLK1 + K 2 .FLK2 + K 3 .FLK3 + K 4 .FLK4 + K 5 .FLK5 + K 6 .FLK6 

B =  .FS eq. 11-1.1
 6 
where:-

B = Aesthetic influence of the substation on the environment

KV = Evaluated values for each criterion
FLKV = Weighing factors for the location, corresponding to each criterion
FS = Weighting factor for the visibility

Table 11-1.3: The Overall Evaluation B ( given in the following interpretation)

excellent 0 - negligible environmental impact

very good 1 - limited environmental impact
good 2 - some environmental impact
sufficient 3 - tolerable environmental impact
bad 4 - unfavourable environmental impact
very bad 5 - very negative environmental impact

The application of this procedure to various substations has shown that the calculated value, B, is neither suited to be
used as a value for comparison, nor a value that one can set limits on. If one looks for opportunities to improve the
impact of the object, then one must consider each criterion and its impact from a particular observation point.

2.5 Recommendation

Recommended guidelines for procedures to be followed for the construction of high voltage transmission lines and
substations are shown pictorially below (see Figure 11-1.7)

Guidelines on the definition of the visually affected area have already been discussed (see Figure 11-1.2 and 11-1.3).

Suitable Sites

Figure 11-1.7: Examples of Locations for Substations

Single Terrace

a) To Be Avoided

Multiple Terrace
to be Recommended

b) To Be Recommended

Figure 11-1.8: Examples for Substations

a) To be Recommended b) To be Avoided

Figure 11-1.9: Examples for Overhead Lines

Afforestation
Planting of shrubs, bushes

Planting of Greenery
Landscaping

Figure 11-1.10: Examples for Overhead Lines and Substations

2.6 Conclusion

The procedure discussed attempts to evaluate the environmental impact of high voltage outdoor substations.

The complex effect that the factors in Figure 11-1.1 have on an observer, as well as his personal opinion of the object
under consideration, has not been covered by a procedure.

The final aim remains, however, by the calculation of an obligatory evaluation scheme, to achieve consensus between
project teams, observers and state authorities.

SLDG 11 - 2

APPLICATIONS TO MINIMISE ASTHETIC INFLUENCE OF HIGH VOLTAGE OUTDOOR SUBSTATIONS ON THE

ENVIRONMENT - TRANSFORMER ACOUSTIC NOISE ABATEMENT

1. INTRODUCTION

Perceived sound comprises the mechanical oscillations and waves of an elastic medium in the frequency range of the
human ear of between 16 Hz and 20 000 Hz. Oscillations below 16 Hz are termed infra-sound, and above 20 000 Hz,
ultra-sound. Sound generally propagates spherically from the source.

Disturbing noise is propagated as air - and solid borne sound. When these sound waves strike a wall, some is thrown
back by reflection, while some is absorbed by the wall. Air borne noise striking a wall causes it to vibrate and so the
sound is transmitted into the adjacent space. Solid borne sound is converted into audible air borne sound by radiation
from the boundary outfaces. Ducts, air shafts, piping systems and the like, can transmit sound waves to other rooms.

A typical complaint by residents and farmers has been about the disturbing noise levels produced by large power
transformers in nearby substations. Extensive investigations in finding solutions to abate transformer noise have been
carried out with special attention being paid to these aspects right at the design stage.

Excessive noise levels can not only be a hindrance, but can reduce the value of property in the neighbourhood of the
noise source. According to laws governing “noise pollution”, the acceptable loudness of noises must on average not
exceed the values indicated in Table 11-2.1, at the point of origin.

Table 11-2.1: Acceptable Loudness of Noise

Daytime Night-time
Area (6 - 22 hrs) (22 - 6 hrs)
dB(A) dB(A)
Industrial 70 70
Commercial 65 50
Composite 60 45
Generally Residential 55 40
Purely Residential 50 35
Therapy (Hospitals) 45 30

Recommended noise levels are also contained in the ISO Recommendation R1996 “Acoustic”.

2. HOW TO ANALYSE THE PROBLEM

An acoustic study for the planned substation should be carried out to determine the acoustic conditions of the various
items of equipment chiefly the transformers and their working equipment and, if necessary, the circuit breakers.

Table 11-2.2 gives typical noise levels emitted by various sizes of transformers.

Table 11-2.2: Sound Levels Generated by Various Sizes of Transformers (As Specified In NEMA PUB. NO. TR 1 -
1974, PART 0)

Table 11-2.2.1: Audible Sound Levels for Oil-Immersed Power Transformers

1
Average Sound Equivalent Two-winding Rating [kVA] )
350 kV BIL and Below 450, 550, 650 kV BIL
Level (Decibels)
1 2 3 1 2 3
57 700 - - - - -
58 1000 - - - - -
59 - - - 700 - -
60 1500 - - 1000 - -
61 2000 - - - - -
62 2500 - - 1500 - -
63 3000 - - 2000 - -
64 4000 - - 2500 - -
65 5000 - - 3000 - -
66 6000 - - 4000 - -
2 2
67 7500 6250 ) - 5000 3750 ) -
68 10000 7500 - 6000 5000 -
69 12500 9375 - 7500 6250 -
70 15000 12500 - 10000 7500 -
71 20000 16667 - 12500 9375 -
72 25000 20000 20800 15000 12500 -
73 30000 26667 25000 20000 16667 -
74 40000 33333 33333 25000 20000 20800
75 50000 40000 41667 30000 26667 25000
76 60000 53333 50000 40000 33333 33333
77 80000 66667 66667 50000 40000 41667
78 100000 80000 83333 60000 53333 50000
79 - 106667 100000 80000 66667 66667
80 - 133333 133333 100000 80000 83333
81 - - 166667 - 106667 100000
82 - - 200000 - 133333 133333
83 - - 250000 - - 166667
84 - - 300000 - - 200000
85 - - 400000 - - 250000
86 - - - - - 300000
87 - - - - - 400000
88 - - - - - -
89 - - - - - -
90 - - - - - -
91 - - - - - -
Column 1: Without cooling fans.
Column 2: With cooling fans ; natural cooling ≥ 75 %.
Column 3: With cooling fans ; natural cooling < 75%.
1
) The equivalent two-winding rating is defined as one-half the sum of the kVA ratings of all windings.
2
) 67 decibels for all kVA ratings equal to this or smaller.

Table 11-2.2.2: Audible Sound Levels for Oil-Immersed Power Transformers

1
Average Sound Equivalent Two-winding Rating [kVA] )
Level (Decibels) 750 and 825 kV BIL 900 and 1050 kV BIL
1 2 3 1 2 3
57 - - - - - -
58 - - - - - -
59 - - - - - -
60 - - - - - -
61 - - - - - -
62 - - - - - -
63 - - - - - -
64 - - - - - -
65 - - - - - -
66 3000 - - - - -
2
67 4000 3125 ) - - - -
68 5000 3750 - - - -
69 6000 5000 - - - -
70 7500 6250 - - - -
71 10000 7500 - - - -
72 12500 9375 - - - -
73 15000 12500 - 12500 - -
74 20000 16667 - 15000 - -
75 25000 20000 20800 20000 16667 -
76 30000 26667 25000 25000 20000 20800
77 40000 33333 33333 30000 26667 25000
78 50000 40000 41667 40000 33333 33333
79 60000 53333 50000 50000 40000 41667
80 80000 66667 66667 60000 53333 50000
81 100000 80000 83333 80000 66667 66667
82 - 106667 100000 100000 80000 83333
83 - 133333 133333 - 106667 100000
84 - - 166667 - 133333 133333
85 - - 200000 - - 166667
86 - - 250000 - - 200000
87 - - 300000 - - 250000
88 - - 400000 - - 300000
89 - - - - - 400000
90 - - - - - -
91 - - - - - -
Note 1 : For intermediate kVA ratings, Use the average sound level of the next larger kVA rating
Note 2 : For column 2 and 3 ratings, the sound levels are with the auxiliary cooling equipment in operation.
1 2
) & ) See Notes

Table 11-2.2.3: Audible Sound Levels for Oil-Immersed Power Transformers

1
Average Sound Equivalent Two-winding Rating [kVA] )
Level (Decibels) 1175 kV BIL 1300 kV BIL and above
1 2 3 1 2 3
57 - - - - - -
58 - - - - - -
59 - - - - - -
60 - - - - - -
61 - - - - - -
62 - - - -- - -
63 - - - - - -
64 - - - - - -
65 - - - - - -
66 - - - - - -
67 - - - - - -
68 - - - - - -
69 - - - - - -
70 - - - - - -
71 - - - - - -
72 - - - - - -
73 - - - - - -
74 12500 - - - - -
75 15000 - - 12500 - -
76 20000 16667 - 15000 - -
77 25000 20000 20800 20000 16667 -
78 30000 26667 25000 25000 20000 20800
79 40000 33333 33333 30000 26667 25000
80 50000 40000 41667 40000 33333 33333
81 60000 53333 50000 50000 40000 41667
82 80000 66667 66667 60000 53333 50000
83 100000 80000 83333 80000 66667 66667
84 - 106667 100000 100000 80000 83333
85 - 133333 133333 - 106667 100000
86 - - 166667 - 133333 133333
87 - - 200000 - - 166667
88 - - 250000 - - 200000
89 - - 300000 - - 250000
90 - - 400000 - - 300000
91 - - - - - 400000
1
) See Notes

Table 11-2.2.4: Audible Sound Levels for Oil-Immersed Power Transformers

1 2
Equivalent Two-winding kVA ) ) Average Sound Level, Decibels
125 kV BIL and Below
0 - 50 48
51 - 100 51
101 - 300 55
301 - 500 56

Table 11-2.2.5: Audible Sound Levels for Network Transformers

1 2
Equivalent Two-winding kVA ) ) 350 kV BIL and Below Average Sound Level, Decibels
300 55
500 56
700 57
1000 58
59
1500 60
2000 61
2500 62
1
) See Notes
2
) Without cooling fans

Table 11-2.2.6: Audible Sound Levels for Dry-type Transformers 15000 - volt Insulation Class and Below

Average Sound Level, Average Sound

Decibels Level,
Decibels
Equivalent Two- Self-cooled Self-cooled Equivalent Two- Ventilated Forced
2
winding ventilated Sealed winding Air Cooled )
1 1
kVA ) 1 1a 2 kVA ) 3
0 - 50 50 - 50
51 - 150 55 53 55
151 - 300 58 55 57 3 - 300 67
301 - 500 60 57 59 301 - 500 67
501 - 700 62 60 61 501 - 833 67
701 - 1000 64 62 63 834 - 1167 67
1001 - 1500 65 63 64 1168 - 1667 68
1501 - 2000 66 64 65 1668 - 2000 69
2001 - 3000 68 66 66 2001 - 3333 71
3001 - 4000 70 - 68 3334 - 5000 73
4001 - 5000 71 - 69 5001 - 6667 74
5001 - 6000 72 - 70 6668 - 8333 75
6001 - 7500 73 - 71 8334 - 10000 76

Notes for Tables 11-2.2.2 to 11-2.2.6

Column 1 : Cooling method AN

Column 2 : Cooling method ANAN
Column 3 : Cooling method AF
Column 1a : Highest guaranteed values for GEAFOL cast-resin dry type transformers

1
) The equivalent two-winding rating is defined as one-half the sum of the kVA ratings of all windings.
2
) Does not apply to sealed-typed transformers

With the framework of this study, the nature, distribution and number of sources of noise for the final installation and at
intermediate stages has also to be considered.

If the acoustic study shows that the natural attenuation of the sound level is not enough to meet the permissible agreed
noise criterion, three courses of action are open:-

a) Use a low noise transformer.

b) Modifying the installation plan of the substation, e.g. position of transformers, direction of oil cooler fans.

c) Provision of one or more noise attenuation devices.

3. FORMULATING A SOLUTION

A number of materials have been identified as being good acoustic barriers. The most commonly used sound
absorbent materials are porous substances, plastics, cork, glass-fibre and mineral wool etc. The main aim is to limit the
high frequency noise components. This is also generally easier to achieve than eliminating the lower frequency noise.
Table 11-2.3 below gives an idea of the effectiveness of such noise absorbing materials.

Table 11-2.3: Attenuation Figures for Some Building Materials and Structures, in the Range 100 Hz to 3200 Hz

Type of Acoustic Insulation Attenuation

dB(A)
Steel plates (4 mm thickness) with sound-absorbing glass fibre or rock-wool, mounted 8 - 10
on the transformer tank.
Screens, (Concrete, plain metal) 10 - 15
Single window without sealing 15
Carefully erected metal enclosure incorporating sound absorbent material 15 - 25
Single door without extra sealing 20
Steel sheeting barrier : 2 mm thick 29
: 4 mm thick 33
Double absorbent metal or double concrete enclosure 30 - 40
Double door without extra sealing 30
Double door with extra sealing 40
Brick build enclosure : 12 cm thick 45
: 25 cm thick 50
Concrete built enclosure : 10 cm thick 42
: 12 cm thick 45
: 15 cm thick 47
: 20 cm thick 49
Wood wool-mat, 8 cm thick 50

>1 m >1 m

(a) (b)

>1 m >1 m

Figure 11-2.1: Some Typical Acoustic Barrier Arrangements

a) Simple solid wall

b) Sound absorbing wall out of “finish building fabric”

c) Solid wall out of sound absorbing material

d) Sound absorbing wall with roof structure out of “finish building material”

The barriers are placed at least 1 metre away from the apparatus. Some apparatus requiring sound abatement may call
for barriers only on one side of the sound source, but more often than not, sound barriers around transformers totally
enclose the transformers - see Figure 11-2.1.

Figure 11-2.2: Barrier Totally Enclosing Transformer

Additionally, the propagation of acoustic frequency into supporting structures may be limited by spring, rubber or
hydraulic dampers.

4. DESIGN CALCULATIONS

4.1 Theory

∆L) is a functional relationship of the total transformer surface area (AT),

Sound amplification within an enclosed area (∆
α).
the total inside surface area of the enclosure (or room) (AR), and the effective acoustic absorption factor (α

 4.(1 + α ) 
∆L = 10.log 1 + .AT [dB(A)] eq. 11-2.1
 α.AR 

Where enclosures are made up of different types of materials, an effective acoustic absorption factor has to be
calculated.

(αwalls.Awalls) + ( αceiling, floor . Aceiling, floor) + (αdoor . Adoor)

e.g. αeff = eq. 11-2.2
AR

where:-

αwalls = absorption factor of walls

αceiling, floor = combined absorption factor of ceiling and floors
αdoor = absorption factor of the door
Awalls = total area of walls
Aceiling, floor = combined area of ceiling and the floor
Adoor = area of the door

L = LT + ∆L [dB(A)] eq. 11-2.3

where:-

L = total acoustic sound intensity in the enclosure

LT = Acoustic sound intensity generated by transformers (plant)

Table 11-2.4: Acoustic Absorption Factors for Different Materials

Material α)
Acoustic Absorption Factor (α
at:

125 Hz 500 Hz 2000 Hz

Concrete 0,01 0,01 0,01

Brick wall without plaster 0,024 0,03 0,05
Brick wall with plaster 0,024 0,06 0,06
Fibre glass plate (3 cm thick) on hard back wall 0,22 0,88 1,0
See also Table 5-1.1 for the Effectiveness of Acoustic Barriers (SLDG 5-1)

40
Attenuation in surrounding air [dB(A)]

30
25

20
15
10
5
0

1 3 5 10 20 50 100 15
Distance [m]

Figure 11-2.3: Attenuation vs. Distance

4.2 Example:

A 600 kVA transformer generates noise (LT) with an intensity of 56 dB(A) (measured). The total transformer surface
2
area as supplied by the manufacturer is 13,5 m . The transformer is to be housed in an enclosure which has
dimensions L.B.H of 4,1 m x 3,2 m x 2,95 m respectively. The door has dimensions 2,5 m x 2,95m. The brick walls
are 24 cm thick, the roof and floor, which is concrete, is 20 cm thick. Determine how effective this enclosure is in
attenuating the noise.

3,35 (H)

2,5

2,95

4,1 (L)

3,2 (B)

Effective Surface Areas

Total wall area : AD+W = 2 . [3,35 . (4,1 + 3,2)]

2
= 48,91 m
Area of the door : AD = 2,95 . 2,5
2
= 7,38 m
Resultant wall area : AW = 48,91 - 7,38
2
= 41,53 m
Combined area of the ceiling and floor : AC+F = 2 . [3,2 . 4,1]
2
= 26,24 m

α) from eq. 11-2.2

Effective Acoustic Absorption Factor (α

αeff =
 (0,024.41, 53) + (0,01.26,2 4) + (0,1 + 7,38) 
 41,53 + 26,2 + 7,38 

=
 42,55 
 75,15 

αeff = 0,03

The values of α for the different materials were obtained for Table 11-2.4.

Sound is amplified within an enclosed area, from eq. 11-2.1.

 (1 + 0,03).13,5 
∆L = 10.log
1 + 0,03.75,15 

~ 14dB(A) (change in dB(A) due to enclosed room)

Total acoustic sound intensity (L), from equation 11-2.3

L = 56 + 14

= 70 dB(A)

From Table 11-2.3, normal damping of a double door without sealing is 30 dB(A) (i.e. door has the smallest damping
effect)

The loudest sound comes from the door = 70 - 30

= 40 dB(A)

As one moves orthogonally away from the door area, the noise level drops by 6 dB(A) for every 5 metres (see Figure
11-2.3)

At 150 metres, the noise level would have dropped to = 40 - 37

= 3dB(A)

At 155 metres, the level of the noise generated by the enclosed transformer would have dropped to zero.

SLDG 11-3

BIOREMEDIATION

1. INTRODUCTION

Probably the most emotive subject on environmental pollution is that of oil pollution. A fact that is not always realised is
that considerable amounts of hydrocarbon materials have always found their way into the ecosystem. These situations
may come about as a result of oil seepage from oil fields following ecological disturbances, or it may be hydrocarbon
material formed bio-synthetically.

The ecosystem has always been able to cope with naturally occurring amounts of hydrocarbon, mainly because it is
spread over a wide area. The major problem facing the environment at present is dealing with the stress of massive
local pollution over a short period of time following a serious accident. Eskom faces the same problem due to the large
volumes of oil being handled. Of particular concern are transformer oil spills that pose a fire hazard, or where the soil
penetration rate leads to ground water contamination.

Conventional treatment methods involve the removal of the contaminated soil and replacement with clean top-soil. This
is a costly process and the contaminated soil must be transferred to a waste holding site thereby merely transporting the
problem from one site to another. Micro organisms such as bacteria and fungi are capable of biodegrading a wide
variety of compounds both in oil and water. Bio-remediation is a process whereby organic wastes are biologically
degraded under controlled conditions to an innocuous state, or to levels established by law.

In South Africa with it’s unique soils and semi-arid climate, bio-remediation becomes an increasingly attractive option for
dealing with selected waste problems and should seriously be considered as a viable option for waste treatment with
minimal impact and liability.

2. MICRO-ORGANISMS INVOLVED IN BIOREMEDIATION

There are two types of bacteria - aerobic and anaerobic. Aerobic bacteria require oxygen to fuel their naturally slow
degradation activities. Anaerobic bacteria work in the absence of oxygen, but degrade organic material at an even
slower rate. They are both found naturally all over the planet. Bacteria produce enzymes which are used to breakdown
large complex molecules into smaller components which can be used by the micro-organisms as their carbon and
energy source. However, this carbon source will be of no use to the micro-organisms if other macro-nutrients such as
phosphorus and nitrogen are inaccessible to them. The micro-nutrients are generally provided by the soil.

There are six basic requirements for bio-remediation:-

1. Substrate to microbe content

2. Oxygen
3. Nutrients
4. Water
5. PH
6. Temperature

3. THE BIODEGRADATION PROCESS

Microbes consume and “eat” the oil

Converted oil becomes a fatty acid

Microbes perish after the oil is consumed.

End products: Carbon

Energy for higher organisms
Carbon dioxide
Water

4. TREATMENT MECHANISMS

There are at present three approaches to the implementation of bio-remediation.

4.1 Bio-augmentation

Also known as seeding and involves the addition of high numbers of pollutant degrading micro-organisms to the
contaminated site.

4.2 Bio-stimulation

This involves the addition of nutrients and supports the concept stimulating the existing microbial community by
supplying it with nutrients, thereby improving its ability to degrade and render harmless the target waste constituents.

4.3 Enhanced Natural Degradation

This is the reintroduction of bacteria that were taken from the contaminated site and strengthened in the laboratory prior
to reintroduction at that site.

5. TYPES OF BIO-REMEDIATION TECHNOLOGIES

When choosing a bio-remediation treatment system, it is important to consider the physical, chemical and biological
properties of the product, the site contaminant, clean up criteria and the legal requirements. There are three commonly
used technologies:-

5.1 Solid-phase Bio-remediation

5.1.1 Land-farming

This is an enhanced bio-remediation technique where by the waste is spread on the soil and biodegraded by microbes.
To optimise the rate of biodegradation by increasing the availability of nutrients, oxygen and moisture to enhance

microbial activity, processes such as ploughing, fertilisation and irrigation of the soil are used after the contaminants
have been spread on the surface.

‘Land-farming’ makes use of the indigenous bacteria in the soil as they include micro-organisms which have already
adapted to the contaminant and have the ability to biodegrade them.

5.1.2 Composting

This is similar to ‘land-farming’ but includes the addition of a soil amendment to supply energy for microbial growth and
degradation of hydrocarbon products. The addition of a soil amendment, increases soil permeability, improves oxygen
transfer, improves soil amendment, increases soil structure and provides an energy source to rapidly establish a large,
active microbial population.

5.2 Slurry-phase Bio-remediation

This is a process where contaminated soils are treated in an aqueous slurry in a large bio-reactor system. The system
is usually situated close to the contaminated site. Intimate mixing and contact of the micro-organisms with the
contaminants provides the best environmental conditions for the microbial biodegradation of the contaminants.

5.3 In-situ Bio-remediation

The in-situ process allows for on going business operations at the contaminated site, while clean up takes places. The
applicability of this process will depend on the soil hydraulic permeability, contaminant concentration, soil temperature,
soil nutrient level and indigenous microbial population.

6. FACTORS CONTROLLING BIOREMEDIATION

• Accessibility of the target compounds

• Types of micro-organisms

• Nutrients present

• Electron acceptors present

• Soil chemical conditions

7. FACTORS AFFECTING THE RATE OF BIOREMEDIATION

7.1 Site Characteristics : Water table

Run-off potential / Water balance
Depth of contamination
Site soil temperature
7.2 Soil Characteristics : Texture, pH, Nutrient availability
Competing carbon sources, Oxygen depletion
Porosity / Permeability
Organic matter / Organic carbon content
Clay content
Dissolved oxygen
Heavy metals
Alkalinity and moisture content of the soil

Microbial population
7.3 Waste Characteristics : Physical / Chemical characteristics
Whole wastes
Hazardous constituents
Distribution in the soil environment

8. HOW TO HANDLE AN INCIDENT

Personnel should be trained and equipped to handle and contain spillages. Generally the emergency procedures
usually address the visible phase of the spill. However, there is still the environmental long term impact associated with
the contaminated soil. Spills should be reported to the appropriate officer as soon as possible. This will increase the
chances of oil recovery and minimise subsurface infiltration of the contaminant. The cost of cleaning up the spill will
also be minimised.

9. REFERENCES

9.1 Block R et al - (Aug 1993) Bio-remediation - Why doesn’t it work sometimes? Chemical Engineering Progress, pp
44-50

9.2 Sims M (Oct 1991) Bio-remediation - Nature’s clean up tool. Edited by Tricia Clark and Charles Worth Ward

9.3 Stegman P et al - (Mar/Apr 1994) Implementing Bio-remediation - Ongoing improvements in an effective solution
to coping with hydrocarbon wastes. Chemical Technology, pp 22-27.

SLDG 11 - 4

CONSTRUCTED WETLANDS FOR WASTE WATER TREATMENT

1. INTRODUCTION

The application of wetlands in the purification of water could be successfully applied in the substation context. This
section covers the basic aspects relating to wetland waste water treatment and should be seen merely as a guide and
an indication to determine whether a wetland could be successfully implemented at a particular substation.

2. GENERAL

There is no single “correct” definition of wetlands for all purposes. The US Fish and Wildlife Service broadly recognises
wetlands as a transition between terrestrial and aquatic systems, meeting one or more of three conditions:-

* Areas supporting predominantly hydrophytes (at least periodically)

* Areas with predominantly un-drained hydric soil (wet enough for long enough to produce anaerobic conditions that
limit the types of plants that can grow there).

* Areas with non-soil substrate (such as rock or gravel) that are saturated or covered by shallow water at some time
during the growing season.

AQUATIC WETLAND TERRESTRIAL

HIGH WATER
WATER TABLE
IMPORT EXPORT
EXPORT Cattai
LOW WATER
Floating IMPORT
Submergents
IMPORT
DEEP WATER CYCLING

SINK SINK

Figure 11-4.1: Wetlands: Transition Zones between Terrestrial and Aquatic Environments

Wetlands Are Transition Zones between Terrestrial and Aquatic Environments and Benefit from Nutrient, Energy, Plant
and Animal Inputs from Neighbouring Systems. Wetlands receive, hold and recycle nutrients continually washed from
upland regions. These nutrients support an abundance of macro- and microscopic vegetation, which converts inorganic
chemicals into the organic material required, directly or indirectly, as food for plants, animals and human beings.

The micro-system created by such a wetland includes zoo-plankton, worms, insects, crustaceans, reptiles, amphibians,
fish, birds and mammals, all feeding on plant material or one another.

It is apparent that the wetland is a very sensitive ecological system with the least understood function of improving water
quality. Wetlands can effectively remove or convert large quantities of pollutants from point sources such as municipal
and certain industrial waste water effluents and non-point sources such as mine, agricultural and urban runoff, including
organic matter, suspended solids, metals and excess nutrients.

Pollutants are removed through filtration, sedimentation and through absorption and assimilation whereby nutrients are
removed for bio-mass production. As one of the by-products is oxygen, mainly contained in the water, the capacity of
the system for aerobic bacterial decomposition of pollutants is increased, as well as supporting a wide range of oxygen-
using aquatic organisms, some of which directly or indirectly utilise additional pollutants. (See Figure 11-4.2)

New Shoot
Water Surface

Root
Oxidized
Zone

Reduced
Rhizome Zone
ROOT HAIR ENLARGED

Figure 11-4.2: Wetland Plants Have The Unique Ability To Transport Oxygen To Support Their Roots Growing In
Anaerobic Substrates.

Many nutrients are held within the wetland system and recycled through successive seasons of plant growth, death and
decay.

3. CONSTRUCTED WETLANDS FOR WASTEWATER TREATMENT

Constructed wetlands are defined as designed and man-made complex of saturated substrates, emergent and
submergent vegetation, animal life and water that simulates natural wetlands for human use and benefit.

Most natural or constructed wetlands have five principal components:-

(i) substrates with various rates of hydraulic conductivity;

(ii) plants adapted to water in saturated anaerobic substrates

(iii) a water column (water flowing in or above the surface of the substrate)

(iv) invertebrates and vertebrates

(v) an aerobic and anaerobic microbial population

Wetlands appear to have 2 important but indirect functions:-

(i) stems and leaves significantly increase the surface area for attachment of microbial populations within the water
column.

(ii) wetland plants have the ability to transport atmospheric gasses including oxygen down into the roots to enable
their roots to survive in an anaerobic environment.

Certain plant/substrate combinations appear to be more efficient in constructed wetland treatment systems and others
may be more tolerant of high pollutant concentrations.

It is recommended to have a mix of plant/substrate combinations based on:-

(i) a mono-culture could be damaged by an insect pest outbreak, whereas a mixed species system may be more
resistant to pest attack and fluctuating loading rates;

(ii) a mixed system may remove a broader variety of pollutants;

(iii) fostering growth of a single species may require operational practice with substantial changes in water levels that
would essentially remove part or all of the system from operation. Conversely, a mixture of three plants - e.g.
cattail, reeds & bulrush, tend to create and/or maintain single-species stands by inhibiting or out- competing
other plants.

Constructed wetlands offer an attractive alternative to conventional treatment plants as far as :-

(i) the relatively inexpensive construction and operation;

(ii) little maintenance and very easy performance thereof;

(iii) provide effective and reliable wastewater treatment;

(iv) are relatively tolerant of fluctuating hydrologic and contaminant loading rates and;

(v) may provide indirect benefits such as green space, wildlife habitats and recreational and educational areas.

As with all systems, the disadvantages should also be considered.

(i) a relatively large land area is required for advanced treatment

(ii) current design and operating criteria is imprecise

(iii) complexity of biological and hydrological systems and the lack of understanding the dynamics of the process

(iv) possible problem with pests, mosquitoes or other pests could be a problem with wetland systems that are
improperly designed or managed

(v) steep topography, shallow soils, a high water table or susceptibility to flooding may limit their use

(vi) dumping of chemicals could kill the whole system as would be the case with other systems

(vii) two or three growing seasons could be required before optimal efficiency is achieved

4. HYDROLOGIC FACTORS IN WETLAND WATER TREATMENT

The hydrologic system may not be treated as a steady-state process because:-

* the large surface area in an outdoor location, wetland systems interact strongly with the atmosphere via rainfall
and evaporation

* high vegetation density, plants influences water movement, both overland and evapo-transpiration

* times are long with respect to the time scales of rainfall and microbial dynamics but short with respect to
seasonal processes

4.1 Flow Resistance

(i) For flow in fully saturated, fine grained soils, sands and gravels, Darcy’s law holds true :-

δP
v = −k. eq. 11-4.1
δx

where:-

v = Linear velocity in m/s

x = Distance travelled in m
P = Pressure in Pa

This is the preferred calculation for infiltration.

Precipitation

Evapotranspiration

Width = W L = Length

Depth =0

V = velocity

Q = volume flow
S = slope

Figure 11-4.3: Terminology for Wetland Treatment Systems

(ii) For lateral free surface flow through coarse gravels and rocks, Ergun’s equation is appropriate:-

2
µ.v.(1 − Ε) 1,75.ρ .v .(1 − E)
ρ.g.S = 150. 2
+ eq. 11-4.2
2
D p .Ε D p .Ε

where:-

S = Slope of the free surface

ρ
3
= Density in kg/m
2
g = 9.8m/s
µ = Viscosity in Pa.s
E = Porosity or void fraction dimensionless
Dp = Particle diameter in m

(iii) Contact times τ are calculated by dividing the water volume in the wetland by the volumetric flow rate Q:-

L.Wd .Ε
= eq. 11-4.3
Q

4.2 Evaporation and Transpiration

It is desirable to obtain a water balance in the system as various factors influence the evaporation and transpiration
(evapo-transpiration). These factors include:-

(i) vegetation - type and density

(ii) seasonal effects - wind, relative humidity, etc.

(iii) solar radiation

(iv) surrounding microclimate

The above factors should form the basis in determining the water balance.

4.3 Atmospheric Augmentation

Flow through a wetland system is augmented by precipitation and evapotranspiration. Precipitation records are
normally available for nearby sites and the above outlines the considerations for evapotranspiration.

The expected range of fractional augmentation is ±1.00. Evapotranspiration slows water flow and increased contact
times, whereas rainfall has the opposite effect. For a wetland operated at constant depth, the actual contact time is
given by:-
....
aaaa

 1  1 
τ =τ  .ln 1 −  eq. 11-4.4
  

where:-

α = Fractional augmentation
τ = Nominal contact time, based on nominal depth and wastewater addition rate in s

4.4 Water Quality Consequences

Water quality improvements in wetlands would be affected by the amount of contaminants and the contact time within
the system. As both of these factors can vary significantly over a period of time, it would be logical to measure

concentrations along sections down the wetland length to obtain the contact time effect in order to get a correlation with
the design assumptions.

4.5 Substrate Properties

The substrate consists of a matrix of mineral and organic solids, arranged in a structure that determines the pore sizes,
affecting the hydraulic conductivity (K), an indicator of the water movement through the substrate.

Sandy and gravely soils have high K values, and water moves rapidly through the soil, providing little opportunity for
soil-water contact.

The physical composition of the soil structure is by far the most important aspect of the substrate, with the chemical
composition playing a relatively lesser role, removing wastewater constituents by :-

(i) ion exchange/non specific adsorption

(ii) specific adsorption/precipitation

(iii) complexation

No further discussion on the above topics or discussions on vegetation and microbiological aspects will be done as it is
beyond the scope of this document.

5. DESIGN GUIDE

Depending on the fact whether raw sewerage is treated or whether the method is used as tertiary treatment, certain
assumptions and data is required for the design.

2
As a guide, 3-4m /ρe is required to achieve an effluent with less than 20mg BOD5/l on a 95% basis,

where:-

ρe = Population equivalent based on 56 g BOD5/person/day (and 170 l/person/day)

BOD5 = Biochemical oxygen demand

Phragmite
Sewage
Level or
Surface effluent

Effluent
Roots
Soil or gravel and
Outlet
rhizomes Inlet stone
Height
Depth of distributor
variable
bed 0,6 m
Impervious Slope 2 to 8

Figure 4: Typical Arrangement for a Reed Bed Treatment System

5.1 Sizing of Beds

The size of the bed for crude or settled sewerage is calculated from:-

A h = 5,2.Q d .(Ln C o - Ln C t ) eq. 11-4.5

where:-
2
Ah = Surface area of bed, m
3
Qd = Daily average flow rate, m /d
Co = Daily average BOD5 of the feed, mg/ll
Ct Required average BOD5 of the effluent, mg/ll (usually < 20 mg/ll)

Q
Typical values for initial porosity range from 0.18 to 0.35 for coarse gravel to fine gravel. Unit flow velocity ( ) through
A
3
the cross section should not exceed 8.6 m /d.

2
Commonly used emergent plants can transmit from 5 to 45 g 02/day/m of wetland surface.

Most beds should be designed as tertiary treatment systems until maturity of the system is reached, when they could be
switched to treating settled or screened sewerage.

The cross-sectional area of the bed (Ac) can be established through Darcy’s Law:-

Qs
Ac = eq. 11-4.6
∂H
kf.
∂S

where:-
3
Qs = Average flow rate of sewerage, m /s
kƒ = Hydraulic conductivity of fully developed bed, m/s
∂H = Slope of bed, m/m
∂S

-3 -4
kƒ could vary between 3 . 10 and 10 m/s, and some overland flow is expected. This is typical for a gravel substrate.

-4
Kichuth recommended limiting horizontal velocity to a maximum of 10 m/s, irrespective of the slope, to avoid disrupting
the mosaic of aerobic, anoxic/anaerobic zones in the bed, and to prevent erosion and surface channelling.

5.2 Depth

The depth of the bed could be assumed as 600 mm as the roots start to weaken beyond 600 mm. This also makes
allowance for anticipated settlement.

5.3 Slope Hydraulic

The hydraulic conductivity has a substantial influence on calculations of the bed slope. Bed slopes should be limited to
between 2 to 8%, ideally to suit the natural topography.

5.4 Growth Medium

It is recommended that a gravel or coarse sand be used as growth medium.

5.5 Plants and Planting

The common need would probably always form a part of any wetland system and should be planted at densities of 2 to
2
4 rhizomes/zones or stems/m . A variety of plants could be used as tested successfully in pilot projects.

Practical case studies indicate that septic tank effluent from single homes can be treated to advanced secondary levels
2
or better by using a 37m gravel filter, 0.3m to 0.46m deep, with the wastewater level maintained 150 mm below the rock
surface. Aesthetic plants such as canna lily, elephant ears, yellow iris and ginger lily can be planted into the rock
medium. Point discharge could be done in the form of a perforated leach field tubing dispersing the water beneath the
soil.

This same principle could be successfully applied in the substation environment with very little maintenance, if any.

5.6 Weed Control

It is essential to exercise weed control - hand weeding is recommended as chemical control could retard or kill growth of
the other species.

5.7 Feed Distribution

A 0.5m inlet distributor zone filled with 60 - 100 mm stones is recommended to distribute the effluent into the beds,
although some literature maintains that it is not necessary to have such a zone in a gravel bed.

5.8 Liner

In most cases, a plastic liner, normally 2mm HDPE, has been used. It could be possible in some instances to make use
of a clay liner with or without chemical treatment to make it impermeable.

5.9 Data Collection

To evaluate the effectiveness of the treatment system, influent and effluent should be collected and analysed. Sample
should be analysed to determine changes in the concentrations of the parameters listed below:-

Frequently Regularly

· biochemical oxygen demand (BOD5) · cadmium

· chemical oxygen demand · chromium

· total organic carbon · copper

· total Kjildahl nitrogen · lead

· ammonia nitrogen · nickel

· nitrate + nitrate nitrogen · zinc

· phosphorus · calcium

· iron · potassium

· manganese · magnesium

· pH · toxic organics

· temperature

5.10 Removal of Concentrations

Biochemical oxygen demand is reduced via diffusion from the atmosphere through the plants to the root zone
(rhizosphere). Plants effectively applied in this instance are cattails (Typha Latifolia), reeds (Phragmites Australis) and
bulrushes (Scirpus Validus).

Suspended solids removal occurs within the first few metres of the bed thorough filtration and sedimentation.

Nitrogen is removed primarily through nitrification/denitrification, requiring oxygen, supplied by leakage from plant roots
and surface flow. Plants only remove a fraction of the nitrogen and since the root system plays an important role, it is
essential that the roots of the plants extend to the bottom of the bed. Nitrification cannot be completed without adequate
alkalinity, ideally with a pH between 7 and 8.

Phosphorus removal occurs from adsorption, absorption, complexation and precipitation, mainly through subsurface
flow with the medium containing iron, aluminium and calcium, enabling plants to absorb phosphorus though their roots
and transport it to growing tissues.

Metals removal will not be covered as this occurs predominantly in the mining environment.

6. CONCLUSION

From the preceding section it is evident that a wetland system could be a feasible alternative to sewerage treatment at
substations, but that the design initial monitoring and maintenance programme should be compiled by someone
knowledgeable in this field.

7. REFERENCES

7.1 Hammer, Donald A. Constructed Wetlands for Wastewater Treatment. Municipal, Industrial and Agricultural.
1989. Lewis Publishers, Inc. Chelsea, Michigan.

SLDG 12-1

SELECTION OF SITE

1. INTRODUCTION

“Site Selection” in this context means the process of identifying and determining the optimal location of a substation.

The choice of a site for a substation requires the consideration of a number of factors and constraints which results in
the designer having to make a compromise between technical, economic, environmental and administrative factors.
Obviously if any of these compromises are too extreme, then it would require the search for a new site. It is for this
reason that it is good practice to consider more than just one site. It is in fact an environmental requirement to choose as
many as three different sites for evaluation.

A flow-chart covering site selection for a substation is shown in Figure 12-1.1.

In simple terms the problem is to find one place within a fairly large geographic region, where the substation can be built,
given the total number of circuits, the destination of the lines and the rated nominal power of the transformers.

Typically, in the whole region, climate and altitude are almost the same, but earthquake hazard and pollution may vary.

The first step is to locate possible sites that are as level as possible, with enough available area, at reasonable costs,
with easy access and without important restrictions on line corridors where the substation can be erected. It is
advantageous to locate sites near to existing line corridors or even at crossing points. Sometimes such places simply
do not exist and the choice will be confined to places that have only some of the above characteristics.

The selection of a substation site should conform to the following requirements and determined on the basis of a
comprehensive evaluation:-

a) To be near the load centre or optimised position as determined by load flow and switching studies

b) Take into account future expansion on the site

c) To save on land, occupy less cultivated land or not to occupy any cultivated land or the land with good economic
returns

d) To be in harmony with the planning of country, provincial, town and or industrial enterprises, so as to be convenient
for the overhead and incoming and outgoing of overhead lines

e) To be accessed easily for communication and transportation

f) To be in the surrounding having no apparent pollution; if there is air pollution; the site of substation should be at the
location with least pollution

g) To be located at a good geological, topographical and geomorphic place (e.g. being away from the places of fault,
landslide, collapse zone, solution cavity zone, wind valley in mountainous area and the place with dangerous rocks or
liable to have rolling stones), the substation site should not be at the place where there are important cultural relics or
minerals underground, since, if the minerals are mined, it would affect the substation, unless approval has to be
obtained from the authority concerned

h) The elevation of the substation site should be above the highest water level of once in 50 years, or, reliable flood
protection measures for the site shall be provided or the same standard for the local (industrial enterprises) flood
protection in the area where the substation located should be met;

i) To take into consideration of the life convenience the staff members and the water source conditions

j) To give consideration to the inter-effect of the substation and the surrounding environment and the adjacent facilities

There are always the associated concerns that are raised by affected parties, and these need to be addressed
comprehensively to avoid law-suite:

a) Permanent disfiguration of beautiful scenery

b) Visual impact of high structures

c) Devaluation of the adjacent properties

d) Potential impacts to their building structure

e) Adverse impacts to environment, such as noise and heat

f) Perceived hazards to health and safety due to the plant facilities

g) Nuisances and dangers caused by construction activities

The influence of the most important site characteristics on substation design and their consequences are shown in Table
12-1.1.

LINE
AVAILABLE ACCESS
TOPOGRAPHY CORRIDORS
AREA

NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO
IS IT
RETAIN SITE? END GOOD RETAIN SITE? END UNRESTRICTED RETAIN SITE? END GOOD RETAIN SITE? END
SUFFICIENT?

YES YES YES YES YES

YES YES YES
CONSIDER CONSIDER CONSIDER
GEOGRAPHICAL GEOGRAPHICAL GEOGRAPHICAL
ORIENTATION ORIENTATION ORIENTATION

NO YES
PERFORM NECESSRAY ESTIMATE
COMPATIBLE? RETAIN SITE? MODIFICATIONS OF
PLATFORM
AREA
YES NO END
GEOLOGY
FEASIBILITY STUDIES AND
TO EVALUATE GEOTECH
NECESSARY AREA

LAND COST NEIGHBOUR-

HOOD

NO YES PERFORM NECESSRAY

COMPATIBLE? RETAIN SITE? MODIFICATIONS
NO NO
REASONABLE? RETAIN SITE? END
YES NO
END

YES COMPUTATION OF COSTS

YES OTHER
TO COMPARE WITH
CONDITIONS
OTHER SITES

Table 12-1.1: The Influence of the Site Characteristics on Substation Design

Site Characteristics Influence on Substation Design Main Associated Consequences

Available area Layout Land Cost
Topography Number of Terraces Volume of soil displacement
3
Geological and Geo- Foundations and earth grids Levelling costs per m and foundations
technical characteristics of
soil
Hydrology Usually small Drainage Costs
Access Usually small (in some cases Construction and improvement costs
geographical orientation)
Line Corridors Layout and geographical Cost of Interconnections and influence on
orientation reliability
Pollution Creepage distances insulator Equipment costs and influence on
cleaning techniques and period reliability
Environmental concerns From landscaping measures to Site preparation costs, HV equipment
change of substation type costs, building costs
Seismic Level Special design required Equipment, structures and foundations
costs
Altitude Increase electrical clearances. Equipment costs.
Additional cooling required

2. AVAILABLE AREA – SIZE OF THE SITE

A first estimate of the area required to install the substation can readily be made by taking into account previous practice
and experience, and the main connections arrangement chosen and producing a preliminary general arrangement key
plan of the substation. This estimate has to be reviewed and adapted to the particular site conditions, for instance,
possible line corridors and access constraints. The available land area may dictate that an SF6 substation be selected
over an open-air substation. A restricted site area may also pose difficulties for the equipment “lay-down” areas that may
be required during construction.

Figure 12-1.2: Checking the Available Area for the Substation

3. COST OF THE SITE

The cost of the site is most certainly a major factor in the selection process. Usually it does not make economic sense to
pay a premium price for a piece of land on which to construct a substation.

4. TOPOGRAPHY AND TERRACING COSTS

It is convenient, for reasons of standardisation of supporting structures, economy of space, access to equipment, even
distribution of stresses between equipment terminals and easy connection of equipment, to level the ground where the
substation is to be built. (Small slopes, to allow necessary drainage, must, of course, be provided).

Sites that require substantial earthworks are less desirable from a cost point of view than sites that require minor
earthworks. Sites that require large amounts spoil material to be hauled away, or that require large amounts of fill to be

hauled in should be avoided if possible. Levelling of the area required by a substation may be a costly and time
consuming task, so it is better to choose a site as flat as possible but not subject to flash floods.

Sites that are located on a flood plain should be avoided to minimise the chances of the site being flooded during heavy
rains.

Taking into account topographic characteristics it is convenient to evaluate the consequences, concerning levelling
works, of small displacements and changes of geographic orientation.

In mountainous regions, where the substation must be placed as far as possible from mud, rock and snow avalanche
corridors, levelling costs may force the reduction of the dimensions of the substation.

Another way of reducing levelling costs is to divide the substation into various terraces usually increasing the total
levelled area but reducing the volume of soil displacements. A significant distance between terraces may create
difficulties with regard to operation and interconnection, but usually allows line entries from various directions, and can
help to solve problems related to line corridors.

5. GEOLOGICAL AND GEO-TECHNICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF SOIL (SEE ALSO SLDG 13-1)

2
The soil must allow the construction of roads and foundations. The minimum bearing load is usually about 50 N/m .
Poor soils will require expensive foundations to provide proper support of equipment and minimise the settlement of the
foundations. Layers of subsurface rock close to the surface may require excessive effort and cost to permit the
installation of below grade conduits and cable trenches.

The existence of geological faults is usually sufficient reason to reject a particular location.

Siting a substation in areas where there are disused mines can lead to severe problems due to ground subsidence and
earth tremors, and such locations are best avoided.

In zones subject to earthquake hazards, a careful study is essential, as earthquake intensity may vary dramatically in
places located only some kilometres apart.

A high water level may require the construction of drainage facilities, increasing costs and causing construction delays.
Terracing costs and maximum possible inclination of the talus are a consequence of geological and geo-technical
characteristics of soil and a comparison of costs is given in Table 12-1.2.

A low value of soil resistivity is desirable and this should be measured before erection of the substation. Poor electrical
conductivity will increase the cost of the earthing system design. Additional actions such as increasing the site area and
inputting additional earthing facilities will be necessary.

Low soil resistivities may indicate high corrosive soils. This needs to be considered in regard to all bare, below grade
material, particularly the earthing grid where remedial action may be required, such as the attachment of sacrificial
anodes to protect it (see SLDG 19-2).

Poor electrical conductivity is usually associated with poor thermal conductivity and will require special measures (e.g.
thermal backfill) to ensure that excessive de-rating of any underground power cables is avoided.
3
Table 12-1.2: Comparative Terracing Costs per “m ” and Gradient of Slopes on Various Types of Soil

3
Type of soil Handling Terracing cost (relative) per m Gradient of slope
Sandy Bulldozer 1 1:2
Clay Bulldozer 1,5 - 2 1 : 1,5
Rock (half disaggregated) Bulldozer 2 - 2,5 1:1
Hard rock Explosives 4 - 5 1 : 0,5

6. ACCESS

The most difficult equipment, as far as access is concerned, are power transformers and large reactors, the other
equipment being of a shape compatible with any common transportation network.

Power transformers, on the contrary, have large irregular shapes and very heavy weights thus making it necessary to
study the complete route between factory and substation.

The transport procedure must be checked both ways (to and from substation site) and measures taken to maintain it
during the substation lifetime. It may be prudent to consider other transport options such as rail if the site is close to
railroad facilities.

Small difficulties may be solved by changing the type of transformers (shell and core type transformers have small
differences in shape and weight); by the use of a different low loader; or by the temporary reinforcement of bridges.

In the most difficult cases, single phase instead of three phase transformers, the use of transformers with less rated
power (thus increasing the total number), or even improvements in the transport network may be necessary.

Another aspect to be considered is the daily access of operators (for manned substations) and maintenance and
emergency teams (for unmanned substations).

7. LINE CORRIDORS – ACCESS TO INCOMING AND OUT GOING LINES

The substation will be connected to the network through overhead lines making it necessary to study the vegetation of
line corridors in the vicinity of the substation. It is desirable to locate the substation so that the connections to the
incoming and outgoing lines are easily realised.

The cost of modifications to existing lines to allow their connection to the substation must also be evaluated. In extreme
cases it may not be possible to make the connection to the substation directly by overhead line, and a cabled entry must
be considered. A new substation should, if at all possible, be constructed near the existing transmission lines
which are to be looped into it. The orientation of the substation is important with respect to the direction of
all the incoming and out-going HV and MV or LV lines. It is pointless and bad design practice to have the
substation so orientated that the LV busbar, for example, is on the opposite site to the direction in which the
majority of the feeders are to be routed to their load centres. Line corridors have great influence on the
geographical orientation of the substation and may impose the choice of a substation layout.

The consideration of future extensions with additional line entries may have different consequences upon the various
sites being analysed.

Difficulties in the establishment of line corridors may be overcome by the use of multi-circuit pylons or, in extreme cases,
changing from overhead line to underground cables.

8. POLLUTION

8.1 Atmospheric Pollution

Pollution causes the deposition of small particles on the insulators. The relationship between creepage distances and
pollution level is indicated in S.L.D.G. 4-3. As pollution levels may change (increase) with time a small over-
dimensioning is usual. Location of the substation downwind of a cement plant, refinery, coal mine, cooling tower, etc.,
can cause excessive maintenance in the cleaning of insulators and equipment bushings. Accumulation of conductive
pollutants on substation insulators invariably result in flashovers of the insulators, bushings, surge arresters, etc., which
would result in unscheduled service outages. In extreme cases, in heavily polluted or dry zones, cleaning facilities or the
use of protective products may be necessary. However, where possible, substations should be located upwind of or
away from sources of contamination.

GIS is preferable in these cases as it greatly reduces the number of insulators exposed to pollution.

Saline and some types of industrial pollution can cause corrosion in supporting structures, and protective coating may
therefore be needed.

Pollution can also affect equipment installed indoors as the protection offered by buildings, cubicles and cabinets is not
100 % effective. A careful choice of equipment and, in extreme cases, the use of filters or an overpressure ventilation
system will reduce the consequences. It is also necessary to take measures to avoid condensation so that pollution
problems are not exacerbated, e.g. by heating.

Nevertheless, whatever measures are taken, the risk of failure and the equipment and maintenance costs will always
increase with the pollution level.

Whenever possible the prevailing winds should flow through the substation towards the origin of the pollution (sea,
industrial zones, highways, etc.) or, the substation should be protected by some natural barrier (e.g. hills or trees).

8.2 Proximity to Rivers, Streams, Navigable Waterways and Wetlands

The concern here is again with flooding and debris that may be carried into the substation in the floodwaters. However,
besides the flooding issue, there is concern about the containment of any oil that is spilled in the substation.
Contamination of any wetland or waterways with even an oil film is no longer permissible and would bring about legal
action by environmentalists. Oil spills that escape from a substation can result in costly cleanup measures.

8.3 Sources of Heavy Icing

In colder climates, proximity of substations to shaded areas and such equipment as cooling towers can cause excessive
ice build up on substation equipment. This can cause malfunctioning of the equipment such as the isolators due to
improper closure of contacts, or can cause the failure of overhead wires and strain conductors. It may also result in the
flashover of insulators, bushings and the like.

9. ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS (SEE ALSO SLDG 11)

Substation landscaping may be covered by local regulations and should be considered in detail when siting the
substation. The best site, as far as landscaping is concerned, is such that the substation is not visible for the most
common viewpoints.

The use of conductors on only two levels, with equipment spread over a large surface, the choice of the right colour for
insulators, and some thought given to supporting structures, eventually painting them, can contribute making the
substation less intrusive.

Screens of trees, bushes along the enclosure, and the use of natural soil instead of gravel (if the allowable step and
touch potentials are obtained) may help to disguise the substation.

The type of neighbourhood around the substation site may pose some interesting design difficulties. A residential
environment may dictate special aesthetic treatment of the substation. The effects of the EMF from the substation in a
residential area or near a school will certainly generate substantial opposition on the part of the residents. Noise is
generally a problem and noise from transformers carries a long distance. This can be a real nuisance for the
neighbourhood residents on a nice spring or summer evening when they would like to sleep with their windows open.
Many municipal areas have noise by-laws that require special treatment of the equipment that generate noise in a
substation. It may be necessary to adopt low noise transformers, enclosed by walls, and to pay special attention to the
corona effect that causes interference on radio and TV transmissions.

Substations are better located far away from:-

• airports and aeronautic corridors, as there are usually restrictions on the maximum height of structures in their
vicinity;

• installation with special risk such as fire or explosion;

• pipelines;

• telephone cables and water pipes.

10. OTHER FACTORS

Other factors that need to be considered are whether or not condemnation of the site is required, and if there is any
“political” sensitivity associated with the site. For example it would be unwise to try and build a substation on ancestral
burial ground and other historical site. Negative public relations and lack of cooperation created by these measures
would most certainly delay and completely destroy chances of ever building a substation on the site.

10.1 Landowner Consultations

Landholder consultation is extremely important and may involve several meetings and telephone discussions and need
to be present within the Final Alignment.

The purpose of these meetings is to inform the landowners about the background and details of the Project, and discuss
the location of the preliminary alignment on their properties with respect to potential impacts on farming operations,
including conflicts with existing infrastructure (i.e. windmills, pumps, dams, cattle yards, buildings etc). Close consultation
regarding the design constraints associated with infrastructure development around the alignment, and the final
connection points for the transmission lines to the substation is necessary to allay any fears of deviations from the plan.

11. SUBSTATION TYPES

There are two basic types of substations as defined by insulating medium used. These are air-insulated substations
(AIS) and gas insulated substations (GIS). Air insulated substations are the conventional, open air substations that
consist either of rigid tubular conductor buswork supported on insulators, or strained stranded flexible conductor
buswork strung between structures. The AIS uses air as the insulation medium between phases, and from phase-to-
earth. The AIS requires more land area than a GIS of the same electrical configuration due to the distances required to
maintain proper electrical clearances in the AIS. Air insulated substations are by-enlarge located outdoors due to the
space required for the substation, however, substations up to 44 kV can be located indoors using outdoor equipment or
metal clad switchgear. Air insulated substations of 220 kV and higher have been installed indoors (e.g. Fordsburg 275
kV and 88 kV, however, the 88 kV was subsequently replaced by GIS). The building that is used to enclose the AIS,
however, becomes excessively large and expensive.

11.1 Air Insulated Substations (AIS)

The AIS can be of either the high or low profile design. The high profile design uses multiple levels of strain busbar or
combinations of strain busbar and rigid busbar.

Figure 12-1.3: High Profile Substation

High profile means that to uppermost conductors in the substation are at a high elevation, are readily visible, and are
difficult to camouflage.

Figure 12-1.4: Ecological Planning for a High Profile Substation

In the low profile design, generally rigid tubular busbar conductors supported on post type insulators are used, and the
number of different levels of buswork is minimised to equipment lever and busbar level conductors in the substation.
This makes it easier to conceal the substation with landscaping, wall, etc. These days, the aesthetics of the substation
are of major concern, and the substation designer needs to do as much as possible to make a substation not look like a
substation.

Figure 12-1.5: High Profile Substation

11.2 Gas Insulated Substations (GIS)

The GIS is constructed so that the busbar conductors, isolators etc., are within earthed metal enclosures. The
conductors are supported within the enclosures on insulators made of an epoxy-based material. The space between the
energised or “live” parts and the earthed enclosures is filled with sulphur hexafluoride (SF6) gas or a mixture of SF6 and
nitrogen (N2), depending on the application. Since the gas or gas mixture has a much higher dielectric strength than air,
the spacing (electrical clearance) between live parts and the earthed enclosure can be significantly reduced. This
reduction in the electrical clearances results in significantly smaller space to accommodate the “footprint” of the
substation. In addition, the SF6 gas provides medium for heat transfer so as to facilitate the flow of heat from the current
carrying parts to the enclosure (also see SLDGs 46-1 and 46-2.

400kV AIS

192

400kV
GIS
~10%
69
275kV
GIS

275kV AIS

Figure 12-1.6: Comparative Size of AIS and GIS Substation

GIS substations can either be located outdoors or, due to their smaller “footprint” and for maintenance purposes to avoid
contamination when opened, can and is usually accommodated indoors for essentially all voltages, including 800 kV and
1100 kV.

Figure 12-1.7: Outdoor GIS Substation

Figure 12-1.8: Indoor GIS Substation

Since the GIS has a minimum amount of exposed insulation, usually gas-to-air bushings for making the transition from
GIS to overhead lines or other equipment having exposed connections, it is ideally suited to locations that are subject to
airborne contamination. The minimum amount of exposed insulation means that there is a minimum amount to be
contaminated. In addition, the gas-to-air transition from the GIS can be totally eliminated if underground GIL or power
cables are used for connection to the GIS and all other equipment installed such that connection points are enclosed
(i.e. no exposed insulation).

The cost of GIS is much higher than that for an equivalent AIS configuration. Each individual case is, however, unique
and there may be other factors that forces one to go the GIS route rather than that of AIS. These factors may include a
very small substation site, the requirement to place the substation within a building in a metropolitan area, or severe
airborne contamination, amongst others.
This class will be covered separately.

12. TOPOGRAPHICAL SURVEY AND PLOT/KEY PLAN (CONTOUR SITE PLAN)

In order to access whether a site is large enough, a topographical survey of the proposed site and a plot /key plan of the
substation is required.

12.1 Topographical Survey

The topographical survey of the substation site shows the site elevations or contours, and gives a picture of how the
water would drain off the site, or if it drains at all. Figure 12-1.9 shows a case where the substation is sited on a local rise
with fall in all four directions. This is an exceptional case where the topography provides good drainage. Contour lines on
a topographical map are usually given for height intervals of 0,5 metres, but this can vary depending on the user’s
requirements. Close spacing of contour lines indicate a steep gradient while further spaced contour lines indicate flatter

areas. A study of the survey will indicate whether or not there are any peaks that need be avoided so as to minimise the
amount of ‘cut’ on the site. It will also indicate whether or not there are large depressions or basins that need to be
avoided to minimise the amount of ‘fill’ required as well as minimise the chances of flooding the substation.

12.2 Plot (Key) Plan

The essential details of the plot plan should have the property lines of the site along with the line corridors that enter and
exit the site. The closest roads for access to the site should also be shown. By reviewing the plot plan, it is possible to
get a good idea for what the substation layout should look like, e.g. if the site is rectangular, orientate the long dimension
of the substation along the long dimension of the site, if all the lines of the same voltage enter and exit the station from
one side, an arrangement that suites that should be chosen such as double busbar with or without by-pass, if not, the
arrangement could be modified to suit, or a different scheme altogether, such as breaker-and-a-half, may have to be
used.

12.3 Contour Site Plan

The “fitting” of the plot plan used to be done without the use of a computer programme. This was done by making a
transparency of the plot plan and overlay this on the topographical map. Off course, the two should be at the same
scale. Having the plot plan of the substation on a transparency allows one to move the arrangement around on the
topographical map to achieve a best fit so as to align with the line corridors and contour lines. It is current practice to
rather use computer programmes to do this. The digital survey data is imported into suitable software and converts it to
a contour map that can be displayed in 2-D or 3-D. A digitally created plot plan is also imported and overlaid
electronically onto the contours as a reference drawing. The plot plan is then translated and rotated as required to find
the best fit for the site. The software also includes being able to raise or lower the terrace levels in order to calculate the
cut and fill volumes for the earthworks.

Future HVDC
Corridors

Future HVDC
Inverter Station

275kV Yard
275kV Line
400kV Yard Corridors
400kV Line
Corridors
132kV Yard

132kV Line
Corridors

Figure 12-1.9: Key Plan Fitting and Substation Orientation

Substation layout design is an iterative process requiring several trials and arrangement adjustments to be made in
order to achieve a “good fit” on the substation site. Arriving at a “good fit” is essential since the substation layout plot
plan will govern the rest of the design work such as positioning of foundations, structural steel, power equipment plinths,
etc. The final layout will dictate maintainability and operability for the life of the substation, therefore careful initial
planning is vital.

12.4 Aesthetics and Transformer Noise

Having arrived at the best fit layout for the site, a review of the aesthetics of the site needs to be carried out. At this point
it can be determined what will need to be done to make the substation sufficiently “invisible” to satisfy adjacent land
owners, residents and the local municipality as applicable.

LV Yard Road, Control HV Yard

Building and
Transformers

a): Single Terrace

Road, Control
Building and
LV Yard Transformers

HV Yard

a): Multiple Terrace

Figure 12-1.10: Single verses Multiple Terraces

The placement of transformers on the site needs to be reviewed from a noise point of view, particularly if any residences
are located close to the substation. Sound walls or sound barriers may have to be installed to minimise the sound levels
transmitted beyond the substation fence. Location of these sound absorbing/blocking measures need to be incorporated
and should become an integral part of the substation design.

12.5 Proximity to Wetlands

Proximity of substations to wetland areas should be reviewed to terms of requirements that may be imposed by local
and national authorities on the substation. It is extremely costly to have to make alterations to the layout once the
substation is under construction. Worst still is that failure to follow the correct procedures and adherence to restrictions
will result in problems in obtaining the required permits and clearances to construct the substation, or may even result in
the project delayed or terminated.

12.6 Civil and Geotechnical Requirements

The substation designer cannot operate without the input and assistance of other disciplines. Coordination with civil and
structural designers is essential to properly review cut-to-fill and drainage considerations of the site. The substation may

layout may be ideal from an electrical point of view, however, the location of the site may require having to hauling off
large amounts of spoil material or hauling in large amounts of fill material in order to prepare the site for the substation.

In addition to the civil and structural considerations is the geographic positioning of the substation with respect to fault
lines and seismic activity. Failure to consider these fault lines could cause severe disruption to or even destruction of the
substation when an earthquake occurs.

SLDG 13-1

GEOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATIONS

1. INTRODUCTION

Foundations are the structures that transmit the loads of equipment, equipment supports and buildings to the soil. Soils
may consist of rock, rock particles, minerals derived from rock, organic matter or a mixture of two or more of these
materials. Any of these materials or mixtures may extend from the surface down to the bedrock. or they may lie in layers
with several layers of different types between the surface and bedrock. Since soil profiles vary extensively from site to
site, many different foundation types and soil improvement methods have been developed to properly support
equipment, structures and buildings.

2. SOIL TYPES

Soils can generally be classified one of the following “load bearing” or “non-load bearing” types:

a) Load Bearing

2.1.1 Bedrock

Bedrock is sound, hard rock lying in position where it was formed and underlain by no other material but rock. Bedrock is
usually capable of withstanding high pressures and is therefore very desirable as a load bearing surface when it can be
reached economically.

2.1.2 Weathered Rock

Weathered rock is some stage in the deterioration of bedrock into overburden or soil. It is usually found at the interface of
bedrock and overburden. Weathered rock can generally support moderate foundation pressures.

2.1.3 Boulders

Boulders are rock fragments over 250 mm in maximum dimension. They are encountered in soil, cannot be counted on
to carry heavy loads, and cause interferences when driving piles or installing drilled shafts.

2.1.4 Cobbles and Peddles

Smaller sized rock fragments of between 25 mm to 250 mm are classified as cobbles, while pebbles range in size from 4
mm to 50 mm.

2.1.5 Gravel

Gravel is an unconsolidated rock fragment from 2 mm to 150 mm in size. It makes a good bearing surface if it is
composed of hard, sound rock and is not underlain by a weak stratum.

2.1.6 Sand

Sand consists of rock particles from 0,05 mm to 2 mm in size. Compact sands usually make a good bearing surface,
especially if confined.

2.1.7 Silt

Silt consists of rock particles from 0,005 mm to 0,05 mm in size. Silt cannot be made plastic adjustment of water content,
and has little or no strength when air-dried. Silt generally is capable of withstanding only small bearing pressures.

2.1.8 Clay

Clay consists of inorganic particles less than 0,005 mm in size. Clay can be made plastic by the adjustment of water
content and has considerable strength when air dried. Clays are usually classified as soft, medium or stiff, depending on

moisture content and prior consolidation. Soft clays do not provide competent bearing surfaces for foundations, whereas
stiff clays can withstand moderate bearing pressures.

2.1.9 Hardpan

Hardpan consists of cohering material depends on its consolidation and characteristics of underlying strata. Hardpans
overlying bedrock are usually capable of withstanding moderate to high bearing pressures.

2.1.10 Till

Till is a glacial deposit of mixtures and pockets of clay, silt, sand, gravel and boulders. Hard tills provide excellent bearing
surfaces, whereas loose tills may be susceptible to uneven settlements.

2.1.11 Loess

Loess is uniform, cohesive, wind-blown deposit of fine-grained sand that becomes impervious and difficult to compact
when worked. It can stand unsupported on nearly vertical cuts, but inclined cuts erode badly. Loess can only support
small bearing pressures.

2.2 Non-Load Bearing

2.1.12 Loam

Loam or topsoil is a mixture of humus (organic matter) and sand, silt, or clay. While good for agricultural purposes, it is
not desirable for a bearing surface.

2.1.13 Gumbo

Gumbo is a clay like material, very sticky when wet and should not be used as a bearing surface.

2.1.14 Mud or Muck

Mud or muck is a sticky mixture of earth and water that is very weak or fluid.

2.1.15 Peat

Peat consists partly of decayed organic material as found in swamps, with very poor bearing capacity.

3. SUB-SURFACE SOIL EXPLORATION

Soil borings are made to determine the soil profile at the substation site. Laboratory tests of samples obtained from the
soil borings are usually performed to provide additional information on the geotechnical parameters necessary for
foundation design. If existing soil boring logs and laboratory tests are not available, the following steps should be
followed:

3.1 Locate borings beneath the most heavily loaded structures of equipment.

3.2 Locate borings in a pattern that will allow sub-surface soil profiles to be drawn for approximating soil strata beneath
other structures and equipment.

3.3 Specify laboratory testing, after borings are complete, based on:-

3.3.1 Type(s) of soil encountered (review field boring logs)

3.3.2 Type of structures, magnitude of expected loads, and settlement tolerances.

The soil boring logs should clearly identify the soil strata encountered, water evaluation, and blow counts (Standard
Penetration Test N-Values). The blow counts and water table evaluation are sufficient to determine the allowable bearing
pressure in sands. However, in other materials such as clays, silts, clayey sands, silty sands all require laboratory testing
to determine the allowable bearing capacity. Common laboratory tests include Atterburg Limits, Soil Classification,

Unconfined Compression and Water Content. These tests are used to accurately classify the type and condition of the
soils and predict settlement potential in addition to determining the allowable bearing capacity.

Soil resistivity is also required for substation earthing calculations, so it is advantageous to take these readings at the
same time as the soil borings are taken.

4 FOUNDATION TYPES (ALSO SEE SLDG 16)

Substation foundations fall into one of three categories, footings or mats or pads, piles, or drilled shafts, and mass
concrete.

4.1 Footings (Pads) or Mats (Rafts)

The purpose of spread footings (pads) and mats (rafts) is to distribute loads over a large enough area so that the soil can
support the loads without excess settlement. Footings are constructed of reinforced concrete and are used as follows:-

4.1.1 Independent or isolated spread footings are often placed under concentrated loads such as columns or piers.
These footings are typically square or rectangular.

Figure 13-1.1: Isolated Spread Footings

4.1.2 Combined footings support two or more. Concentrated loads and are commonly used when two piers or
columns are so close that isolated footings would overlap or nearly overlap.

Figure 13-1.2: Combined Footings

4.1.3 Continuous footings are used under walls or to support a row of columns or piers.

Figure 13-1.1: Continuous Footings

4.1.4 Mats or Raft foundations are continuous under an entire structure. They may be used to ensure water-tightness.
They may also be used when bearing capacity of the soil is low and isolated spread footings would be so large
that it becomes economical to join them.

Figure 13-1.1: Mat and Raft Footings

4.2 Piles

Piles are slender underground columns, generally placed in groups. They may support their loads through bearing at the
tip, friction along their sides, cohesion to the soil, or a combination of these means. Rigid reinforced concrete pile caps
are generally placed over the pile group to distribute the column, pier or wall load to the piles. Piles may be made of
wood, steel, concrete or a combination of these materials. Piles are used as follows:

4.2.1 Wood piles are generally economical when friction piles are required to resist light loads. If kept permanently
below the water table, they will not decay.

4.2.2 Cast-in-situ concrete piles can carry heavier loads in end bearing than timber and, therefore, can be less costly
for heavier loaded structures. Cast-in-situ concrete piles usually are constructed by placing concrete in permanent
steel piles or mandrel-driven thin corrugated steel shells.

Figure 13-1.1: Cast In-situ Piles

4.2.3 Pre-cast concrete piles are not usually used on substations as the required pile length must be accurately
determined prior to casting in order for them to be economical. Cutting off piles that are too long is wasteful and
costly, while splicing piles that are too short is time consuming and costly.

4.2.4 Steel H-piles are commonly used as they can carry heavy loads and serve as friction and end bearing piles.
These piles can be used in very long lengths since they are relatively easy to splice.

Figure 13-1.1: Steel H Piles

4.3 Drilled Shafts

Drilled shafts (commonly referred to as caissons or drilled piers) are underground columns that are created by auguring a
hole in the ground and filling it with reinforced concrete. The diameter of drilled shafts can be as small as 460 mm, or as
large as 3 m (3000 mm). Drilled shafts in cohesive soils can be underlined, whereas those constructed in non-cohesive
soils require a lining or special construction technique such as the slurry method.

Figure 13-1.1: Drilled Shaft Foundation

When it is impossible or uneconomic to locate footings, piles or drilled shafts under the columns or piers that support the
equipment or structures, grade beams are used to span between the footings, piers, or drilled shafts. Grade beams are
usually constructed slightly below grade so that only the piers supporting the equipment or structure are visible after
construction.

5 SOIL IMPROVEMENT TECHNIQUES

It is sometimes more economical to improve sub-grade soils and use shallow foundations, than it is to use deep
foundations. The following soil improvement techniques have often been used on substations:-

5.1 Compaction

Weak soil strata near the surface can be excavated and re-compacted to improve its strength. This is normally
accomplished by over-excavating (excavating beneath the bottom of footing or pad elevation), replacing the soil in layers
of around 200 mm thick, and compacting each layer to 95% of its maximum density before placing the next layer.

5.2 Vibroflotation or Vibrocompaction

Loose granular soils can be compacted by a process called “Vibroflotation” or “Vibrocompaction” without excavating. A
vibrating probe is jetted into the ground and withdrawn slowly allowing the soil to compact laterally. When a crater forms
at the surface, additional soil is added and compacted to achieve the desired grade. When one place has been
compacted, the probe is relocated to the next grid point and the process is repeated until the entire area has been
densified.

5.3 Vibroplacement

Some non-granular soils such as soft silts and clays can be compacted by the “Vibroplacement” process, which is similar
to “Vibroflotation”. A vibrating probe is jetted into the ground creating a hole that is then filled with stone and compacted
as the probe is slowly removed. By repeating this process on a grid pattern, the site is densified by creating a network of
stone columns and consolidating the material between the stone columns.
6. REFERENCES

SLDG 14-1

SITE DEVELOPMENT

1. INTRODUCTION

Site development is the work necessary to prepare the area properly for its new use.

Development of a substation site usually includes regarding the existing terrain, building access roads and fences, and
installing oil containment facilities.

2. SURVEYING

Information on the existing site conditions is required to prepare site-work plans. This information can be obtained from
various types of surveys. Substation surveys are required to define the property’s legal boundary and extent, determine
the topography of the site, and locate any existing pertinent items. The legal boundary and property extent are required
to layout and accurately locate the substation relative to the property lines and associated transmission lines.

National geographical survey topographical maps are often obtained to determine the overall drainage in the vicinity of
the substation. Topographical surveys are required to develop the substation grading and drainage plan and to establish
foundation elevations. Topographical information can be in the form of a contour map (usually made from an aerial
survey) or grade elevations on a grid pattern.

The area to be surveyed should extend at least 15-20 m beyond the substation site boundaries to provide the minimum
data necessary to ensure that the site grading and drainage plan will not adversely affect neighbouring property.
Elevations are to be taken at, at least 0,5 m intervals with a 10 m square grid pattern for relatively flat sites. A finer grid
spacing can be specified for hilly sites. Coordinates and elevations need to be determined for all existing features such
as manholes, telephone lines, electric poles, roads, etc., that may be located within the surveyed area.

3. GRADING AND DRAINAGE

3.1 General

Grading is the act of levelling off a land area to a smooth, horizontal, or sloping surface. Drainage is the flow of storm
water from one point to another.

The purpose of grading the substation site is to provide a suitable surface for installing the various substation
components. The purpose of good drainage is to allow proper disposal of storm water without eroding the surface or the
embankments. Good drainage needs to prevent any accumulation of water in the yard, trenches or pits, and should be
natural and maintenance free.

3.2 Design Considerations

The grading and drainage system should:

3.2.1 Create no adverse effect on the natural drainage of an adjacent property

3.2.2 Have no adverse effect on bodies of water

3.2.3 Storm sewer and sub-grade drainage system design usually conform to the following criteria:-

Material:-

• Reinforced Concrete Pipe (RCP) for pipe diameters of 300 mm and larger

• Concrete Pipe (CP) or Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) less than 300 mm in diameter

• Minimum pipe diameter to be 150 mm

• Minimum slope on the pipes to be 0,5% (1:200)

• Minimum design velocity = 1 m/s

• Maximum design velocity = 3 m/s

• Maximum manhole separation = 90 m

4. EARTWORKS

One of the major factors affecting the cost of the grading and drainage work is the volume of earth involved in the
construction. To minimise cost, the volumes of cut (earth being removed) and fill (earth being added) should be
balanced. Therefore, after the preliminary grading and drainage drawings have been prepared, cut and fill quantities
should be calculated, taking into account any cut material that is unsuitable as fill (top soil, organic material, buried
debris, etc.). Although site constraints sometimes make it impossible to completely balance cut and fill, consideration
should be given to adjusting the preliminary grade elevations to minimise any excess cut or fill. With the advent of
Computer Aided Design (CAD) and commercially available software programmes, optimisation of earthwork quantities
can be accomplished very quickly.

5. ROADS

5.1 General

Access roads and interior substation roads usually conform to the following minimum requirements:-

• Design Loading : Per AASHTO HS-20

• Minimum road width :6m

• Minimum turning radius : 40 m

• Maximum slope : 5% (1:20)

Slopes greater than 5% could be used if necessary however, this may force the equipment hauler to make special
provisions for transporting heavy equipment such as transformers.

5.2 Pavement Cross Section

The road cross section will vary in thickness depending on the soil conditions at the substation site. The road should
consist of the following layers as a minimum:

• Compacted sub-grade

• Base course (150 mm thick crushed stone)

• Surface course (150 mm thick crushed stone)

• Surface treatment (Calcium Chloride for dust control)

The gradation requirements for the base course and surface course should be in accordance with the applicable road
specifications.

6. FENCES (SEE ALSO SLDG 16-2 AND SLDG 16-3)

6.1 General

Fencing is provided around the perimeter of substations for security and is sometimes used to beautify a substation area.

6.2 Security Fence

The perimeter area means of ensuring public safety at substations is by erection of a suitable barrier such as a metal
fence. Unless local restrictions are more conservative such as the National Key Points code, the fence should meet the
minimum requirements specified in the applicable design standards. Security fencing usually consists of 2,1 m high chain
link mesh stretched between steel posts and hung from a top rail with three or more stands of barbed wire supported
o
from 45 extension arms at the top of each post. All posts are embedded in concrete and are spaced no further than 3 m
apart. Lockable sliding or swing gate are provided at each access road.

6.3 Aesthetic Fence

Aesthetic fencing, which improves the appearance of a substation by screening substation equipment that is considered
unattractive, may be required at some substations to obtain permits or to satisfy property owners or governing agencies.
This type of fencing can be constructed from treated lumber, fluted or split face block or bricks, metal panels, or pre-cast
concrete depending on the preference of the neighbouring property owners or local requirements.

7. FIRE PROTECTION AND OIL SPILL CONTROL (SEE ALSO SLDG 15-2)

7.1 General

To satisfy fire protection and environmental requirements on fire protection and oil spill containment, provisions are
usually made at substations to:

• Isolate an oil fire from nearby equipment and buildings, and extinguish the fire rapidly

• Retain any spilled oil on the site and prevent pollution of nearby waterways and adjoining property, as described in
the applicable environmental regulations.

Since the fire protection and environmental requirements allow the owners a great deal of flexibility, and since substation
fires and oil spills are extremely rare, the owners have elected to address these issues in a wide variety of ways. One or
more of the following devices may be employed at a substation depending on the general philosophy of the utility, the
substation location and the types of equipment in the substation:

• Fire barriers

• Deluge systems

• Oil containment pits

• Oil retention ponds

• Oil separators

7.2 Fire Barriers

Fire barriers are required to reduce the risk of having a transformer fire damaging the adjacent building or equipment.
Fire barriers are used when transformers are located close to a building or one another. The minimum clearance
distance required between transformers to eliminate the need for a fire barrier and the required size and fire resistance
rating of the barrier, depends on the insurance company requirements. There are guidelines available based on
transformer oil capacity or on kVA/MVA rating.

Fire barriers may be constructed of either concrete or masonry, depending on the substation arrangement and owner
preferences.

7.3 Deluge Systems

The use of fire deluge systems (fixed-pipe fire extinguishing systems) on substations varies from utility to utility
depending on their philosophy and the requirements of their insurance company. Deluge systems are most frequently
used when transformers are located extremely close to one another and when transformers are located indoors. Deluge
systems are not usually used on substations in rural areas due to the difficulty and expense associated with providing the
enormous amount of water that is necessary.

7.4 Oil Containment

There are many types of oil containment pits in use at substations these days. The four most common types are:-

7.4.1 Seepage Pits

These are pits constructed on sites with cohesive soils or pits constructed with clay liners that are filled with clean
crushed stone or washed gravel. They are typically not drained and rain water is assumed to evaporate or seep slowly
through the liner. Spilled oil will also seep slowly through the liner and could contaminate the ground water if not promptly
cleaned up. In the event of an oil spill, the stone fill and cohesive soils surrounding the pit needs to be excavated and
hauled to a suitable site and bioremediated, or hauled to a hazardous waste disposal site. Therefore, although this
method is very inexpensive to construct, it provides minimal protection and could lead to very expensive cleanup costs.

7.4.2 Concrete Pits

Concrete pits filled with crushed stone or wasted gravel, are designed to drain oil away from equipment rapidly and
prevent, or extinguish combustion by limiting the supply of oxygen to the spilled oil. The pits need to be laid out so that
the pit is outside the equipment yard, but still within the substation perimeter. The disadvantage with containment type is
that in time, the rock voids may become clogged with fines, after which the rock cannot quickly adsorb and drain away a
large, rapidly occurring oil spill and subsequently applied water. Consequently, with this type of installation, the liquids
may flow away and involve adjacent transformers, buildings, or equipment. This situation can also occur during winter in
cold regions when the rock voids are filled with ice and the rock cannot absorb spilled oil or fire water.

7.4.3 Curbed Containment Area

This is a concrete or membrane lined area without any rock fill. These areas, which are large in width and length but
shallow, are designed to drain oil away from the equipment rapidly, however, the lack of rock fill eliminates the ability to
prevent combustion.

7.4.4 Concrete Basin

This is similar to the concrete pit except that it is not filled with rock. This basin can, therefore, be smaller in plan area
than the concrete pit. Galvanised grating can be provided over the basin for transformer maintenance.

7.5 Oil Pit Drainage

Drainage from the containment pits is usually handled by one of the following methods:-

7.5.1 Pipe to Oil Separator/Holding Dam

When oil containment pits are drained to an oil separator or oil holding dam, the oil separator/oil holding dam should be
designed to contain 120% of an oil spill from the equipment containing the greatest volume of oil. If a fire deluge system
is provide, the volume of the oil containment pit and oil separator capacity should be increased to handle the additional
flow of water from the deluge system. This method allows rain water to continually pass through containment pits and the
oil separator.

7.5.2 Pit Discharge Valve – Oil Separator

A normally open valve is placed in the discharge pipe from the oil containment pit. This valve is designed to close if a
loss of oil pressure is sensed in the transformer however this method is not practical when a deluge system is used due
to the large pit size that would be required.

7.5.3 Pit Discharge Valve - Manual

A normally closed valve is placed in the discharge pipe from the oil containment pit. This valve must be opened to
discharge impounded water after inspecting the pit for the presence of oil. The method is not desirable due to the need to
inspect for oil and open the discharge after every significant rainfall. As a result of the large pit size that would be
required, this method is not practical when a deluge system is employed.

SLDG 14 - 2

EARTHWORKS DESIGN OF A SUBSTATION TERRACE

(A WORKED EXAMPLE)

1. INTRODUCTION

The purpose of this document is to introduce the fundamental steps in the structural design of a substation terrace. The
purpose of the design is to create a working platform where-upon one could house the various structures and services
associated with a substation terrace. This is done by obtaining the most cost effective earthworks operation to construct
the terrace through the re-use of suitable cut material in the fill areas without falling short of material or left with the
scenario where excess cut has to be spoiled.

2. POSITIONING OF TERRACE

2.1 Carry out geo-technical and topographical surveys of the area in which the substation is to be built. The geo-
technical information should be detailed enough to give the designer the required soil properties to carry out the
design for the structural layer works. The topographical survey is normally carried out to an accuracy of ± 100 mm.
A contour plan is then produced from this data, as in Figure 14-2.1.

2.2 Decide upon the area of land to be purchased to accommodate the substation and draw this boundary on the
contour plan. See Figure 14-2.2.

2.3 Using the electrical layout of the substation as a base, determine the outer edges of the terrace required to
accommodate the equipment, including fences, patrol roads etc. See Figure 14-2.3.

2.4 Position this terrace to suit the topography of the land (i.e. flat areas require less earthworks) and any specific
features which should be avoided (i.e. streams, graves etc.). Allow space for an access road and possible future
extensions within the purchased land. See Figure 14-2.4.

2.5 The orientation of the terrace can be adjusted slightly but should always suit the direction of the incoming and
outgoing power lines, which in this case run from NE to SW.

3. EARTHWORKS VOLUME ESTIMATION

3.1 The volume estimation should be done with reference to the information provided by the geo-technical engineer.
Depth of topsoil, levels of poor and good material and rock levels must be known in order to calculate volumes of
topsoil to be stripped, cut material, fill material, and rock excavation.

3.2 Cross sections through the proposed terrace must be drawn at regular intervals (varying from 20 m to 50 m,
depending upon the uniformity of the geology) showing the original ground level, the level of material which must
be spoiled and the rock level. A spacing of 40 m has been used in this case to give the odd number of sections
required to use Simpson’s rule for the volume calculations. See Figure 14-2.5.

3.3 The terrace is given a slope across the width to facilitate good drainage. The closer this slope correlates with that
of the existing ground, the smaller will be the earth-works volumes. However, the slope should ideally be in the
range of 1:100 to 1:200 with a slope of 1:70 being used only under exceptional circumstances, as flow velocities
may become too high and thereby promoting erosion. See Figure 14-2.6.

3.4 Should the depth of cut and / or fill become excessive, or if deep rock cutting is to be avoided, vertical steps can be
introduced across the terrace which will reduce these depths, as illustrated in Figure 14-2.7. This makes the
drainage design and electrical layout more complicated.

3.5 In order to obtain a balance between the usable cut material and the required fill material, a terrace level is chosen
as the first step in the trial and error process to determine the balance of the volumes, i.e. the optimum solution.

3.6 The proposed terrace level is then introduced into the cross sections. See Figure 14-2.8.

3.7 The volume of topsoil to be stripped is calculated:-

= (Projected plan area of terrace) . (thickness of topsoil) eq. 14-2.1

= [(225 . 84,5) + (280 . 99)] . 0,1
3
= 4 700 m

3.8 The volume of the band of unsuitable material is then calculated from the cross sections using Simpson’s rule:-

= 40/3 [(area 1 + area 9) + 4(areas 2 + 4 + 6 + 8) + 2(areas 3 + 5 + 7)] eq. 14-2.2

3
= 20 615 m

The volume of topsoil must be deducted from this amount:-

= volume of spoil - volume of topsoil eq. 14-2.3

= 20 615 - 4 700
3
= 15 915 m

3.9 The volume of the cut which can be used as fill material (suitable material) is calculated in a similar matter to
that used in Paragraph 3.8, without the deduction for topsoil:-

3
= 11 280 m

3.10 This volume is then adjusted by a bulking factor to allow for the re-compaction of the material when used as fill.
The bulking factor is the ratio of the in-situ density of the material vs. the re-compacted density of the material. For
3 3
the purpose of this exercise, an in-situ density of 1540 kg/ m and compact density of 1925 kg/ m @ 93% MOD
AASHTO will be assumed. This results in a factor of 0,8.

PIn − situ Density of Material

Bulking Factor =
Re − compacted Density of Material
1540
= eq. 14-2.4
1925
= 0,8

Adjusted suitable cut volume = (suitable cut) . (bulking factor) eq. 14-2.5

= 11 280 . 0,8
3
= 9 024 m

3.11 The volume of rock excavation is also calculated using Simpson’s rule. This is usually a spoil volume, but the
rock can be used in areas of deep fill in which case it will be an additional volume of suitable material.

3
Rock to spoil volume = 100 m

3.12 The volume of material required to construct the final terrace level once all topsoil stripping and cutting is
completed (fill volume) is then calculated using Simpson’s rule. (See Figure 14-2.9).

3
Volume of fill required = 8 822 m

3.13 The optimum level of the terrace is found when the adjusted suitable cut volume is slightly greater than the
required fill volume. This allows for variations which could be found in site conditions when it would be better to
spoil rather than import a small amount of good material.

Suitable cut = 9 024 > fill required = 8 822

However, factors such as rock excavation must be taken into account as it may be cheaper to raise the level of the
terrace and import fill that the cost of blasting rock.

3.14 Should the volumes in paragraph 3.13 not be acceptable then the terrace level must be adjusted accordingly and
paragraphs 3.6 to 3.12 are the repeated until the conditions in paragraph 3.13 is satisfied.

3.15 The following items have not been addressed and normally adds to the complexity of the design:-

3.15.1 The terrace must be cut below its final level, even in areas of rock and suitable material to allow for the
construction of the terrace layers. Therefore extra cut volumes will be incurred with a similar increase in the fill
requirements.

3.15.1 It is assumed that all unsuitable material across the terrace is removed and spoiled. However, in some cases the
unsuitable material in the fill areas may only need to be removed to the depth of the layer work. This will reduce
the spoil volumes but could result in special foundations being required for the equipment should they be
founded on poor material. This method should be adopted after close liaison with the geo-technical and
structural engineers.

This design is obviously grossly simplified, but should give a better understanding of the process involved in the design
of a substation terrace. It is always advisable to call for professional advice on the design of terraces and roads as
inexperience or incompetence could result in disastrous results.

Figure 14-2.1: Contour Plan

Figure 14-2.2: Boundary of Ownership

Figure 14-2.3: Terrace Layout

Figure 14-2.4: Positioning of Terrace

Figure 14-2.5: Cross Sections

Figure 14-2.6: Sloped Terrace

Figure 14-2.7: Stepped Terrace

Figure 14-2.8: Terrace Cross Sections

Figure 14-2.9: Fill Volume

4. REFERENCES

4.1 Van Heerden, W.M., “Standard Intensiteit Krommes Vir Rëenval Van Kort Duurtes” Siviele Ingenieur in Suid Afrika,
Maart 1979.

4.2 Report No. 1/72, Hydrological Research Unit, University of the Witwatersrand, “Design Flood Determination In
South Africa”, University of the Witwatersrand, Department of Civil Engineering, December 1972.

SLDG 15 - 1

SUBSTATION TERRACE DRAINAGE

1. INTRODUCTION

The terrace drainage is based on the principle of storm water flowing through the yard stone on terrace level. The storm
water is caught into a network of subsoil drains with perforated pipes, sloping towards concrete storm water pipes that
discharge into the veld or natural water course.

3. HYDRAULIC CALCULATIONS

The determination of the area (A) which can be drained by perforated pipes is obtained from the following formula:-

Q.I.A
Q= eq. 15-1.1
3600

where:-

Q = Peak flow (ltr/s)

C = Run off coefficient
I = Average rainfall intensity (mm/h)
2
A = Effective area of catchment (m )
3600 Conversion factor

Determine the run off coefficient (C) through the stone on a flat compacted terrace, as for built up areas, railway yards,
from Appendix A, A3-Report No 1/72, C = 0,4. This value would normally be an average value of two values, from A1
and A3, or A2 and A3. A1 and A2 give the size of land being considered, and A3 the type of infrastructure on this area.

Time of concentration for overland flow (Tc), from the Kerby formula:-

0,467
 r.L 
Tc = 0,604. eq. 15-1.2
 S 0,5 

where:-

Tc = Time of concentration for overland flow in minutes (min)

r = Roughness coefficient
L = Distance the water traverses (shortest course of water) in metres (m)
S = Slope or gradient of the site

H
S= eq. 15-1.3
1000.L

where:-

H = Height difference from start to end of flow in metres (m)

Once Tc has been calculated, one can obtain the rainfall intensity (I) for a 1:25 year return period from Appendix B,
curve No 1, Van Heerden WM, 1979:-
thus:-

3600.Q
A= eq. 15-1.4
C.I

where:-
2
A = The land area that can be drained in square metres (m )
Determining the sizes of the concrete pipes collecting the subsoil drain water is based on the following:-

Table 15-1.1: Capacity of Varies Concrete Pipes

Pipe Diameter (mm) Slope Full Capacity (ltr/s)

450 1:100 290
525 1:100 430
600 1:100 560
675 1:100 770
750 1:100 1100
825 1:100 1350
900 1:100 1800

The capacity of the perforated pipes:-

1 x Ø150 pipe at 1:100 slope = 15 ltr/s (This is a value obtained from data sheets)

Once Tc has been calculated, one can obtain the rainfall intensity (I) for example for a 1:x year return period from see
Figure 15-1.1, from the appropriate Curve, Van Heerden WM, 1979.

Example 1

This example refers to Figure 15-1.2 where the distance between slotted pipes is given as approximately 20m and is
therefore the shortest course of water (L). The height difference across 20m is calculated at 286mm. Ø150mm slotted
pipes are to be used to drain the water running through the yard. The calculation is to be based on a 1:25 year return
period. The terrain roughness factor (r) is 1,924
H
S=
1000.L
0,286
= (from eq. 15-1.3)
1000.0,02
= 0,014

Time concentration for overland flow:-

0,467
 r.L 
Tc = 0,604. 0,5
 S 
0,467
 1,924.20 
= 0,604. (from eq. 15-1.2)
 0,014 0,5 
= 9 min

Tc has been calculated at 9 mins, one can obtain the rainfall intensity (I) for example for a 1:25 year return period from
Figure 15-1.1 (see also Appendix B), Curve No 1, Van Heerden WM, 1979

220

Figure 15-1.1

Figure 15-1.1: Rainfall Intensity (I) vs. Duration in Minutes 1:x Years, Van Heerden WM, 1979

I = 220 mm/h

Since 1 x Ø150 pipe at 1:100 slope can drain15 ltr/s, then:-

3600.Q
A= (from eq. 15-1.3)
C.I

3600 . 30
=
0,4 . 220
2
A = 600 m

2 2
That is 1x Ø150 pipe can drain an area of 600 m , thus, two pipes can drain an area of 1200 m .

See attached Figure 15-1.2 for the layout from MH D1 to outlet 1, calculated in the following table:-

Table 15-1.1: Actual Runoff from the Varies Manholes (Refer to Figure 15-1.2)

Manhole No. Inflow (ltr/s) Accumulated Flow Pipe Size % of Pipe

(ltr/s) (mm)
D1 683 - for future ext.’s - 750 62
D2 45 728 750 66
D3 45 773 750 70
D5 54 from store yard - 450 18
D4 54 + 60 887 750 80
D6 40 927 750 84
D6 to outlet

The maximum length of perforated pipe to be installed before it needs to drain into a manhole and then off into a larger
concrete pipe is found by dividing the total area of drainage (A) by the pipe separation (ℓsep):-

A
l pipe =
l sep

1200
=
20
= 60 m

i.e. 60 m is the maximum length of the 2 x perforated pipes, after which they need to drain into a manhole.

The invert levels of the manholes are determined by the slope of the terrace, with a minimum slope in the pipe of 1:100
as indicated by the capacity ratings of the pipes in Table 15-1.1. A flatter slope will require adjustment in the number of
pipes, i.e. requiring more pipes. The process of choosing perforated pipe separation and the number of pipes in relation
to rainfall intensity and the maximum perforated pipes is somewhat of an iterative process, and is best done using a
spread-sheet that allows optimisation.

Figure 15-1.2: Terrace Drainage

Manhole 1 Manhole 2
Datum = 0

IL1 = 0,75 m 1:100

x
ℓpipe= 60 m IL2 = 1,35 m

Figure 15-1.3: Invert Levels of Manholes

Since the pipes are to be laid at a slope of 1:100, it is relatively easy to calculate the invert levels of the manholes, for
example, the maximum length of pipe is 60 m as calculated above. By Proportion then:-

1 x
=
100 l pipe

1 x
=
100 60
60
=x
100
x = 0,6 m

Assuming a minimum invert level of 0,75 m and a datum of ‘0’, then the IL of the next manhole will simply be:-

IL2 = IL1 + 0,600

= 0,750 + 0,600
= 1,350 m

If the datum was some other value, then the IL’s need to be subtracted from the datum value, e.g. terrace level (TL)
datum = 3,310 m:-

IL1 = 3,310 - 0,600

= 2,710 m

IL2 = 3,310 - 1,350

= 1,960 m

Through a number of iterations it was found that the actual length of the double pipe section was reduced to 38,75 m,
then:-

1 x
=
100 l pipe

1 x
=
100 38,75
38,75
=x
100
x = 0,388 m

The terrace level was 3310 mm:-

IL1 = 3,310 - 0,750

= 2,560 m

IL2 = 3,31 – (0,75 + 0,388)

= 2,172 m

Dimensioning of the main outlet pies requires a calculation of all the inflow rates into the manholes and these must be
summed all the way down, starting at the highest point. As one progresses down the drainage system, the main pipes
will increase in size in order to accommodate larger volumes of water.

This procedure is repeated for all the storm water lines, placed to avoid any clashes with foundations and other services
in the yard. Attached Figures 15-1.4 to 15-1.6 gives details of a section through a subsoil drain, typical headwall details
and a typical manhole detail.

Off terrace storm water drainage should also be catered for as the construction of the terrace naturally disturbs the
runoff characteristics. Lined cut off drains have performed well on the sites implemented and is normally placed on the
edges of the road and terrace to divert run off water. Appendix B contains a completed example of a substation storm
water layout.

As stated previously, this mainly served as an introduction into storm water design as this is a highly specialised field
and impossible to cover to the full.

300 300
YARD STONE

TL.

STONE Ø50mm
TO Ø75mm
VARIES

200mm LONG
100

COMPACTED SELECTED
GRANULAR MATERIAL
35
100 100
600min 800max

Ø150mm PERFORATED PIPES

NUMBER VARIES – 1, 2 OR 3
(PERFORATION TO THE UPPERMOST)
FILTER GRADE GEOFABRIC:
- THROUGHFLOW (100mm HEAD) – 210 Ltrs/s/m2
- PERMEABILITY UNDER 2 kPa – 3x10-3 m/s

Figure 15-1.4: Substation-Soil Drain

Figure 15-1.5: Typical Concrete Headwall And Stilling Basin

Figure 15-1.6: Manhole Detail

2. REFERENCES

2.1 Van Heerden, W.M., “Standard Intensiteit Krommes Vir Rëenval Van Kort Duurtes” Siviele Ingenieur in Suid Afrika,
Maart 1979

2.2 Report No. 1/72, Hydrological Research Unit, University of the Witwatersrand, “Design Flood Determination In
South Africa”, University of the Witwatersrand, Department of Civil Engineering, December 1972.

SLDG 15-1 APPENDIX A

RECOMMENDED RUNOFF COEFFICIENTS - REPORT 1/72

TABLE 1: RECOMMENDED RUNOFF COEFFICIENTS, C, IN THE RATIONAL FORMULA: Q = C.I.A

2
A1.OPEN AREAS - less than 5 km

Cover Slope
Flat Undulating Steep
<5% 5 % to 10 % > 10 %
Lawn, sandy soil 0,08 0,13 0,17
Lawn, heavy soil 0,15 0,20 0,30
Cultivated land 0,50 0,60 0,70
Grassland (veldt) 0,30 0,35 0,45
Timber 0,15 0,18 0,20
2
A2.AREAS over 5 km
2
Size Range km Coefficient
5 - 13 0,3 - 0,2
13 - 130 0,2 - 0,1

A3.BUILD-UP AREAS

Cover Coefficient
Streets, pavements 0,80 Refs :
Playgrounds 0,30 1) Ven te Chow.
Parks (see A) 0,1 - 0,30 Handbook of Hydrology 1964, p. 14-8.
Railway yards 0,30 2) Horner & Flynt.
Roofs 0,90 Relation between rainfall and run-off from small
Industrial areas : urban areas. Trans. ASCE, Vol. 101, 1936.
Open development - up to 50 % 3) Vorster, J.A. The Rational Method for determining
covered 0,70 maximum runoff. Farming in South Africa. Vol.
Dense development - more than 50 % 15, August 1940.
covered 0,80
Residential areas :
Special residential - (One dwelling per
plot) 0,40
High density townships 0,60
Neighbourhood shopping centres
Central business district 0,60
0,85

SLDG 15-1 APPENDIX B

DURATION VS INTENSITY CURVES - VAN HEERDEN WM, 1979

SLDG 15-1 APPENDIX C

DRAWING OF COMPLETED STORM WATER LAYOUT

MH TERRACE UP STREAM DEPTH DOWN DEPTH PIPE LENGTH SLOPE CLASS

STREAM
No LEVEL DIA IL (m) DIA IL (m) (m) PIPE BED
D1 303,625 - - - 750 902,095 1,530 D1 -D2 = 45,0 1:150 50D B
D2 903,310 750 901,795 1,515 750 901,795 1,515 D2 - D3 = 19,0 1:100 50D B
D3 903,120 750 901,605 1,515 750 901,605 1,515 D3 - D4 = 19,5 1:100 50D B
D4 902,915 750 901,410 1,505 750 901,260 1,655 D4 - D6 = 18,0 1:100 D50 B
- 902,915 450 901,410 1,505 - - - FROM - D5
D5 902,915 - - - 450 901,818 1,097 D5 - D4= 40,75 1:100 D50 B
D6 902,735 750 901,080 1,665 750 900,600 2,135 D6 - END 1 = 20,0 1:83 50D B
END 901,500 750 900,500 1,000 - - - -
D7 905,252 - - - 450 904,050 1,200 D7 - D8 = 30,5 1:64 50D B
D8 904,947 450 903,600 1,350 450 903,600 1,350 D8 - D9 = 44,2 1:147 50D B
D9 904,505 450 903,300 1,206 525 903,220 1,285 D9 - D10 = 30,0 1:136 50D B
D10 904,205 525 903,000 1,205 525 903,000 1,205 D10 - D11 = 31,5 1:100 50D B
D11 903,890 525 902,685 1,205 600 902,420 1,470 D11 - D19 = 47,8 1:152 50D B
- - 450 902,420 - - - - FROM - D12
D12 903,625 - - - 450 902,595 1,030 D12 - D11 = 26,3 1:150 50D B
D13 905,252 - - - 450 904,050 1,200 D13 - D14 = 30,5 1:95 50D B
D14 904,947 450 903,730 1,220 450 903,730 1,220 D14 - D15 = 44,2 1:103 50D B
D15 904,505 450 903,300 1,205 525 903,220 1,285 D15 - D16 = 30,0 1:100 50D B
D16 904,205 525 902,920 1,205 525 902,820 1,255 D16 - D17 = 22,5 1:105 50D B
D17 903,990 525 902,605 1,385 525 902,445 1,545 D17 - D19 = 36,7 1:108 50D B
- - 450 902,545 1,445 - - - FROM - D18
D18 903,960 - - - 300 902,628 1,332 D18 - D17 = 12,4 1:150 50D B
D19 903,890 525 902,105 1,785 750 901,955 1,935 D19 - D20 = 26,3 1:150 50D B
- - 600 902,105 1,785 - - - FROM - D11
D20 903,625 750 901,780 1,847 750 901,780 1,847 D20 - D21 = 21,95 1:150 50D B
D21 903,408 750 901,633 1,708 825 901,553 1,855 D21 - D22 = 28,75 1:150 50D B
D22 903,120 825 901,361 1,759 825 901,361 1,759 D22 - D23 = 19,5 1:150 50D B
D23 902,915 825 901,231 1,684 900 901,231 1,684 D23 - D24 = 18,0 1:150 50D B
D24 902,735 900 901,111 1,624 900 901,111 1,624 D24 - END 2 = 10,0 1:150 50D B
END 902,000 900 901,025 0,975 - - - -
D25 905,252 - - - 450 904,050 1,200 D25 - D26 = 30,5 1:95 50D B
D26 904,947 450 903,730 1,217 450 903,730 1,217 D26 - D27 = 44,2 1:103 50D B
D27 904,505 450 903,300 1,205 525 903,220 1,285 D27 - D28 = 30,0 1:136 50D B
D28 904,205 525 903,000 1,205 525 903,000 1,205 D28 - D29 = 31,5 1:100 50D B
D29 903,890 525 902,685 1,205 600 902,605 1,285 D29 - D30 = 34,7 1:100 50D B
D30 903,625 600 902,258 1,367 675 902,160 1,465 D30 - D32 = 21,95 1:114 50D B
- - 300 902,230 1,395 - - - FROM - D31
D31 903,625 - - - 300 902,230 1,395 D31 - D30 = 25,7 1:150 50D B
D32 903,408 675 901,968 1,440 675 901,968 1,440 D32 - D33 = 17,5 1:125 50D B
D33 903,268 675 901,828 1,440 750 901,748 1,520 D33 - D34 = 17,62 1:100 50D B
D34 903,090 750 901,572 1,518 750 901,572 1,518 D34 - D35 = 16,63 1:100 50D B
D35 902,915 750 901,406 1,509 750 901,406 1,509 D35 - D36 = 18,0 1:100 50D B
D36 902,735 750 901,226 1,509 750 901,226 1,509 D36 - END 3 = 20,0 1:200 50D B
END 902,650 750 901,125 1,525 - - - -
D37 905,252 - - - 450 904,050 1,200 D37 - D38 = 30,5 1:80 50D B
D38 904,947 450 903,670 1,277 450 903,670 1,227 D38 - D39 = 44,2 1:114 50D B
D39 904,505 450 903,285 1,220 525 903,205 1,300 D39 - D40 = 30,0 1:136 50D B
D40 904,205 525 902,985 1,220 525 902,900 1,305 D40 - D41 = 31,5 1:126 50D B
D41 903,890 525 902,650 1,240 600 902,570 1,320 D41 - D42 = 32,47 1:100 50D B
D42 903,625 600 902,245 1,380 675 902,165 1,460 D42 - D45 = 23,95 1:120 50D B
- - 450 902,230 1,395 - - - FROM - D44
D43 903,625 - - - 300 902,620 1,005 D42 - D43 = 1,80 1:90 50D B
D44 903,625 450 902,600 1,025 450 902,600 1,025 D44 - D42 = 37,0 1:100 50D B
D45 903,388 675 901,966 1,440 675 901,966 1,440 D45 - D46 = 29,62 1:94 50D B
D46 903,090 675 901,650 1,440 675 901,650 1,440 D46 - D47 = 16,63 1:95 50D B
D47 902,915 675 901,475 1,440 750 901,400 1,515 D47 - D49 = 18,0 1:100 50D B
- - 450 901,645 1,270 - - - FROM - D48
D48 902,915 - - - 450 901,818 1,097 D48 - D47 = 17,3 1:100 50D B
D49 902,735 750 901,220 1,515 750 899,825 2,910 D49 - END 4 = 15,0 1:200 50D B
END 900,900 750 899,750 1,150 - - - -
D50 903,440 - - - 450 901,340 2,100 D50 - END 5 = 17,0 1:50 50D B
END 901,000 450 901,000 0,000

TERRACE DRAINAGE SCHEDULE

SLDG 15 - 2

POWER EQUIPMENT OIL DRAINAGE AND PASSIVE FIRE PROTECTION

1. INTRODUCTION

The objective of the passive fire protection for oil filled equipment in substations is to take the necessary steps to
minimise damage to surrounding equipment and to isolate combustible material form the fire. Figure 15-2.1 shows the
burning of a transformer where the oil was contained in the bund area. If the bund area had an oil drainage system, the
oil would have been drained away and the fire starved of its fuel.

Figure 15-2.1: A Transformer Fire – Oil Contained in the Bund Area

2. OBJECTIVES

The following objectives shall be achieved:-

2.1 Prevent oil spillage from a unit of equipment spreading to adjacent units of equipment, buildings, other structures,
etc.

2.2 Minimise exposure to the main oil-filled equipment during a fire involving an oil spillage from the auxiliary
equipment.

2.3 Minimise the severity and duration of fire in an oil catchment area.

2.4 Prevent oil conveyed by the oil drainage system from polluting the environment.

2.5 Prevent the spread of fire from a unit of equipment to adjacent units, buildings, etc.

3. DESIGN CRITERIA

3.1 The catchment area of the particular unit of equipment shall be large enough to contain the total volume of oil for
such equipment.

3.2 Refer to Figure 15-2.2 for drainage of the catchment area.

3.3 Refer to Figure 15-2.3 for a typical drainage layout.

3.4 Refer to Figure 15-2.4 for a typical oil holding dam.

3.5 Refer to Figure 15-2.5 for direct flame impingement and heat radiation clearance.

3.6 Refer to Appendix A for a detailed explanation of requirements.

4. TYPICAL EXAMPLE

4.1 Transformer Catchment

Total volume of oil = 60 000 litres

3
= 60 m (from transformer manufacturer’s data sheet)

Volume of catchment = 12 m . 5,5 m . 1,2 m deep

3
= 79,2 m

3
Minus volume of transformer plinth and bases = 12,8 m

∴Total volume = 79,2 - 12,8

3
= 66,4 m

4.2 Pipe Layout and Details

Minimum diameter of 300 mm, placed on a minimum slope of 1:200. The shortest possible route is chosen to avoid
clashes with equipment bases and other services.

4.3 Oil Holding Dam

The dam should contain 120 % of the volume of oil contained in the largest transformer, i.e.:-

3
Volume of largest transformer = 60 m

∴Minimum capacity of dam = 60 . 1,2 = 72 m

Appendix B contains a worked example drawing of the passive fire protection layout.

Figure 15-2.2: Transformer Plinth Application

Figure 15-2.3: Transformer Drainage - General Philosophy

Figure 15-2.4: Oil Holding Dam

H
0,2H

Figure 15-2.5: Fire Barrier and Bund Area

5. REFERENCE DOCUMENTS

5.1 South African Bureau of Standards, SABS 0160 - 1989, "The General Procedures And Loadings To Be
Adopted In The Design Of Buildings", The Council of the South African Bureau of Standards, 1989.

5.2 South African Bureau of Standards, SABS 0100 - 1992, "The Structural Use Of Concrete. Part 1 : Design",
The Council of the South African Bureau of Standards, 1992.

5.3 Prokon Software Consultant, "Prokon Structural Analysis and Design Package", Prokon Software Consultants,
Groenkloof, Pretoria.

SLDG 15-2 APPENDIX A

DETAILED REQUIREMENTS FOR PASSIVE FIRE PROTECTION OF OIL-FILLED EQUIPMENT IN HIGH VOLTAGE
YARDS

1. INTRODUCTION

This guideline cannot cover every situation that will be encountered in a high voltage yard. The recommendations in this
guideline should therefore be used with judgement of awareness of the rationale for the passive fire protection objectives
to be achieved. The figures referred to in the sections below are contained in the sections preceding this appendix.

2. PASSIVE FIRE PROTECTION

2.1 Oil Catchment Area: (Objective 1)

2.1.1 An oil catchment area should be provided for oil-filled equipment. The provision of an oil catchment area for
auxiliary equipment should, however, be subject to the guidelines under 2.2 of this appendix.

2.1.2 Oil catchment areas should have a positive slope (minimum 1:50) towards the drainage as indicated in Figure
15-2.2.

2.1.3 The maximum depth of an oil catchment area should preferably be not more than 500 mm and the volumetric
capacity should be 100 percent of the total liquid content of oil-filled equipment within the catchment area.

Note: Where any auxiliary oil catchment area is connected to the catchment area for the main transformer, the
separating bund wall should be lower than the perimeter bund walls. This allows oil from a main transformer
incident to fill the total catchment area, but will prevent oil from the auxiliary equipment flowing around the main
transformer.

2.1.4 Crushed stone should preferably not be used in oil catchment areas.

2.1.5 Oil catchment areas should comprise of liquid-tight bund walls with a fire resistance rating of not less than two
hours.

2.1.6 Bund walls should be a minimum height of two courses of brickwork (approximately 150 mm) above the concrete
runway and located at a distance of 0,2.H metres (minimum distance of 1,5 m) from the oil-filled equipment (see
Figure 15-2.5). H is the height of the highest point where oil is contained, usually the conservator.

Note: Since the total convective and radiative heat release rates are proportional to the burning surface area, the area
formed by bund walls surrounding oil-filled equipment should be kept to a minimum.

2.1.7 Bund walls should extend over concrete runways.

2.1.8 Openings in bund walls of oil catchment areas should be sealed with a material having a fire resistance rating of
not less than two hours.

2.1.9 Cable trenches should be filled with sand to a distance of 10 m from oil catchment areas and if within the oil
catchment area, such trenches to be capped with a weak mortar mix.

2.2 Auxiliary Equipment (Objective 2)

2.2.1 An auxiliary transformer or any other oil-filled equipment presenting a potential fire threat to the main equipment,
should be located a minimum distance of 3 m from the main equipment, and accommodated in a separate oil
catchment area (refer to Figures 15-2.2 and 15-2.5).

2.2.2 Should such auxiliary equipment be located 8 m or more from the main equipment, no oil catchment area will be
necessary for the auxiliary equipment, provided that there is no potential for burning oil spreading to or
endangering the main equipment, adjacent units of equipment, buildings or switchgear.

2.2.3 Where the oil cooler bank is separate from the main transformer, a bund wall should be erected between the oil
cooler bank and the main transformer within any single oil catchment area. This wall should be lower than the
exterior bund walls and should preferably not exceed a height of two courses of brickwork i.e. approximately 150
mm (refer note under 2.1.3).

2.3 Oil Drainage System (Objective 3)

2.3.1 All oil catchment areas, including catchment areas around auxiliary equipment, should be provided with an oil
drainage system.

2.3.2 The oil drainage system from catchment areas to be separate from the storm water drainage for the high voltage
yard. The drainage pipes should have a minimum diameter of 300 mm and a gradient of not less than 1:200
(depending on site terrain).

2.3.3 The oil drainage system should be designed to prevent the conveyance of oil from the fire origin to oil catchment
areas of adjacent units of equipment (refer Figure 15-2.3).

2.4 Open Holding Dam (Objective 4)

2.4.1 An open holding dam should be provided at the termination point of the drainage pipes from oil catchment areas
(refer Figure 15-2.4).

2.4.2 The open holding dam should be designed to prevent pollution of the environment by oil should the total oil
content of the largest unit of equipment on site be released.

2.4.3 The open holding dam should be located so as not to expose other equipment or buildings to an increased fire
hazard.

2.5 Spatial Separation (Objective 5)

2.5.1 Units of oil-filled equipment (refer 4.4 of standard) should be separated from each other, adjacent buildings and
switchgear by means of a minimum separation distance of 23 m (refer Figure 15-2.5).

2.5.2 Where the distance of 23 m cannot be achieved, a heat radiation barrier should be provided between the
relevant hazards.

2.5.3 Heat radiation barriers between units of oil-filled equipment should preferably be constructed to a minimum
height of 0,5 m above the highest transformer bushing and at least to the width of the oil catchment area. Safe
electrical clearances should be maintained at all times.

2.5.4 Direct flame impingement on heat radiation barriers should be prevented by allowing a minimum clearance of
1,5 m between the bund walls and the barrier.

3. GENERAL

Where necessary, precautions should be taken to ensure the safety of personnel who may come into contact with or work
within oil catchment areas.

SLDG 15-2 APPENDIX B

DRAWING OF COMPLETED FIRE PROTECTION LAYOUT

Figure 15-2.B1: A Completed Fire Protection Layout

SLDG 16-1

FOUNDATIONS

1. GENERAL

Foundation design primarily depends on the in-situ density and strength/strain properties of the soil on or in which
the foundations are located. The heterogeneous characteristics of soils or their localized variability make
foundation design a much less exacting engineering problem than structural design or some facets of electrical
design, but the inexactness of soil mechanics need not be a reason for ultraconservatism and costly foundations.
Further, with the enhancements of convenient computer programs, tedious repetition of design practices for
foundation design has been reduced. While this chapter is intended as a general guide, it cannot serve as a
guarantee against foundation problems.

A thorough knowledge of geotechnical subsurface engineering parameters is essential to providing a reliable and
cost-effective foundation design. Geotechnical engineering or soil analysis is beyond the scope of this document
and generally requires the services of a geotechnical engineer to prepare site specific recommendations. When
designing foundations, it is important to address the following design issues:

• The allowable load-bearing capacity of the subsurface materials

• The allowable deformations permitted upon the structure/foundation under loading

In addition to site-specific borings and laboratory testing, additional data may be gathered pertinent to the site
through reference to country geologic mapping, aerial photos, natural resource conservation services mapping,
and other hydrological references. A number of governmental agencies frequently have information available that
can be consulted and will provide either regional or localized data to supplement a site subsurface investigation.

2. SOIL INFORMATION

2.1 General

A subsurface investigation should be conducted for each site. Temporary installations and small distribution
substations may only require a minimal amount of information. At these locations, augured probe borings, in-situ
quasi-static cone penetrations (ASTM D3441), vane shear tests (ASTM D2573), or the pressure meter (ASTM
D4719) can be used to provide an indication of the soil’s engineering characteristics.

Soil probes or borings should be taken primarily at critical foundations. These normally are for line termination
portal columns (i.e. dead-ends) and heavy power equipment such as transformers and reactors. The number of
borings may vary from three at small substations to six or ten at larger substations. The depth of borings should
be about 10 metres below the final grade of the substation yard, but may vary dependent upon:

2.1.1 Intensity of structural loads

2.1.2 Softness or wetness of subsurface soils

2.1.3 Depth of groundwater level

A sample specification for procurement of soil borings is included as an Appendix E to this chapter.

2.2 Soil Classification

Due to design considerations, the geotechnical engineer would typically determine whether to design the
foundation as if the soil behaves as a cohesive (fine-grained clay-like) soil or as a granular or cohesion-less
(coarse-grained sand-like) soil. The material from the soil boring log is to be described in accordance with the
“Unified Soil Classification System”, (ASTM D2487 and D2488), [see Table 6.2 in Chapter 6].

Material described as “sandy clay” can, for example, be assumed to behave predominantly as cohesive material,
whereas “clayey sand” will probably behave as granular material. The relative quantities of cohesive and granular
materials can appreciably affect the soil properties and cause concern. When in doubt, the design should be
carried out for both, and the most conservative design used.

Specific index classification tests can be performed to assist with the visual classification of soil types. Typical
index classification tests for cohesionless and cohesive soils are as follows:

2.2.1 Cohesionless

Grain Size Sieve Analysis ASTM D422

Moisture Content ASTM D2216

Specific Gravity ASTM D854

2.2.2 Cohesive

Atterberg Limits ASTM D4318

Moisture Content ASTM D2216

Specific Gravity ASTM D854

Unit Weight ASTM D2216

Hydrometer ASTM D422

Index tests provide data that can frequently be correlated with other engineering characteristics of the soils such
as strength, swell potential, collapse potential, consolidation, and degree of compaction.

Although index tests should not be viewed as a total replacement to undisturbed engineering tests, they
frequently can be used to supplement an investigation programme and confirm either consistency or validity at
site.

Specific references are available in research that relate index properties to engineering properties; these should
be reviewed by an expert familiar with geotechnical engineering design who understands their limitations and
appropriateness for use. Typically, it is not recommended to simply utilize presumptive engineering properties
from tables or texts that rely on standard penetration tests, visual classifications, and limited index tests alone,
particularly for cohesive soils where greater variability in strength and deformation may occur locally.
Presumptive values for allowable bearing pressures on soil or rock should be used only as a means of guidance
or for preliminary or temporary design. Further, the degree of disturbance to soil samples, whether standard

penetration test samples or relatively undisturbed samples, have to be kept to a minimum prior to laboratory
testing through the use of apparatus drilling, sampling, and transportation methods.

2.3 Bearing Values

Bearing values or engineering parameters developed for laboratory tests upon cohesive soils are to be obtained
from relatively undisturbed samples in accordance with “Practice for Thin-Walled Tube Geotechnical Sampling of
Soils”,, ASTM D1587, or “Practice for Ring-Lined Barrel Sampling of Soils”, ASTM D3550.

Engineering parameters for granular soils can generally be estimated reliably by correlations with standard
φ). Unconfined
penetration blow counts. The parameter obtained is usually the internal friction angle (φ
compressive strengths for cohesive or clay-like soils are best determined using “Test Method for Unconfined
Compressive Strength of Soil” (ASTM D2166), although rough correlations relative to standard penetration tests
have been developed.

In-situ strengths derived from the quasi-static cone penetrometer (ASTM 3441), vane shear (ASTM D2573), or
pressure-meter (ASTM D4719) are frequently more reliable, particularly in very soft soils, due to their
minimization of sample disturbance and testing of the soils in place.

Rock coring to obtain sample recovery, Rock Quality Designation (RQD), and unconfirmed strengths may be
required for sites with anticipated rock formations. It is also important to be familiar with local engineering
characteristics of not only the individual rock formations present, but also their global or rock mass properties.
Special design consideration needs to be given to swelling shale, steeply dipping rock, highly weathered or
decomposed rock units, fractured or jointed rock, or clay or bentonite seamed rock units. These conditions may
impact both the strength and deformation performance of structures founded in or upon rock.

2.3 Groundwater Level

The elevation of the groundwater level is important in foundation design for several reasons. Open-cut
excavations below it within permeable strata require dewatering and increased costs. The water level also has
considerable influence on the bearing capacity and total settlement in granular soils. The bearing capacity of a
spread footing in granular soil is derived from the density of the soil below the footing and the density of the soil
surrounding the footing (backfill or surcharge). A rise of the water level above a depth greater than the width of
the footing up to the top of the surcharge in effect reduces the effective overburden pressures within the sand to
roughly half their original values, and further reduces the stiffness or strain carrying capacity of the granular soils.
Therefore, the footing pressure that is expected to produce a 25 mm total settlement when the water is at the
surface is only about half that required to produce a 25 mm total settlement when the water is at a depth equal to
the footing width below the base of the footing.

The effect of the water level is to reduce the effective overburden pressure or density of the granular soil due to
buoyancy. The submerged density of granular soil is about half of the moisture of the moist or dry density. If the
water level is at, or exceeds a depth equal to the footing width below the base of the footing, the bearing capacity
is not affected. If the water level is at the bottom of the footing or may rise to the ground surface, the portion of
bearing capacity obtained by the density of soil below the footing is reduced by half. If the water is at the top of
the backfill, the portion of bearing capacity obtained by the density of the surcharge is also reduced by half.

2.4 Differential Settlement

Minor differential settlement between foundations is generally acceptable. There are, however, certain soils and
conditions that have to be carefully reviewed and avoided if possible. Silts and silty sands are usually problem
soils, both from strength relationships and degree of compaction. Weak strata of soil under a thin layer of dense
or good soil need to be carefully examined and taken into consideration regarding settlement. Organic or swamp-
like soils, or un-compacted fills, pose a risk to differential long-term settlement to structures. Soils that expand,
collapse, or disperse upon wetting, require special attention for design by a geotechnical engineer.

2.5 Chemical Tests

Soils may impact foundations and other buried systems as a result of chemical attack on concrete, corrosion of
steel, and other detrimental weathering. A corrosion specialist who is familiar with these chemical tests needs to
be consulted to determine the appropriate cement type based on prevailing soluable sulphate and chloride ion
concentrations within the soil or groundwater. Resistivity of the soil, pH, sulphides, Redox readings, and nitrates
may also have detrimental effects on concrete, steel, or ground structures. These conditions require localized
testing and design.

2.6 Seismic Evaluation

Seismic evaluation of substation sites is currently beyond the scope of this document, but should be reviewed
locally by a geotechnical engineer, and geologist, where required. Delineating the location of faults and surface
disruptions, and the potential for sand boils, sand flows, slope slides, and liquefiable soils, is essential to
designing foundations that remain stable under extreme seismic events. If liquefaction is determined to be likely
at a site under certain seismic events, then design of the foundations to extend beyond such zones or mitigation
measures to improve the soils will need to be pursued in final design. Hand calculation techniques or
commercially available computer programmes performed by a geotechnical engineer can evaluate liquefaction
potential, based on probable earthquake criteria.

3. FOUNDATION TYPES

The various types of foundations for substation structures and equipment include drilled shafts (augured piers),
spread footing (pad), piles, slabs on grade, rock anchors, and direct embedded for wood or concrete poles.

3.1 Drilled Shafts (Piers)

The drilled shaft is constructed by auguring, or coring a hole in the ground, placing reinforcing steel, and filling
with concrete. The anchor bolts may be cast in the shaft at this time or set in a cap constructed at the same time.
Drilled shaft construction and design has been developed by a number of institutions, each of which has
developed typical standard specifications for their construction. Further, design and construction procedures are
documented through extensive research in the “Drilled Shaft Manual” (Publication No. FHWA Implementation
Package 77-21) and “Drilled Shafts” (Publication No. FHWA-HI-88-042).

When there is a sufficient number of foundations, the drilled shaft foundations are usually more economical when
soil conditions are not wet and sandy, although with care and quality control oversight during construction,
casings, bentonite slurries, and polymer muds are currently available to promote their construction.

If wet and sandy soil is below a level where a spread footing would bear, the spread footing should be evaluated
and may be selected. However, if wet sandy conditions also exist above the spread footing level, the drilled shaft
should be considered, allowing additional costs for encasement. This design may be more economical than
attempting to install a spread foundation in wet, sandy soil, requiring dewatering to stabilise the excavation or
pumped concrete below water.

Drilled shafts are best suited to resist overturning shears and moments. Uplift and compressive forces are also
adequately resisted by drilled shafts. Where soils permit belling of the shaft, additional uplift or compressive
capacity is often gained economically.

Common sizes for substation foundations range from 610 mm to 1 520 mm in diameter, in 150 mm increments.
Drilled shafts above 2 130 metres in diameter are typically installed in 300 mm increments with a maximum
diameter of 3 050 mm available for extreme substation applications.

An attempt should be made to utilise the same shaft diameter for as many foundations as practically possible for
economic and time reasons. Belling of the shaft is less frequently performed for substations, but has cost
advantages when permissible.

For most substation equipment support structures and columns, the foundations are required to resist moderate
shear forces and overturning moments. For A-frame and lattice-type columns, shear, uplift, and compression are
typical design loads. Drilled shafts also provide improved performance against differential settlement for critical
power equipment (transformers and reactors) structures and have been used to provide support against
overturning loads from wind or seismic design conditions.

3.2 Drilled Shaft Design

Drilled shaft foundations derive their support to carry loads based on the shafts shape (straight versus belled),
soil/rock stratification, groundwater level, and applied loads. Generally, compressive loads are carried by a
combination of skin friction along the shaft’s perimeter and end bearing at the base. In cases where shafts bear
upon or in rock, the overlying soil skin friction is typically discounted for design. Uplift loads are carried as skin
friction alone the straight shafts. Shafts with bells require special review as their capacity and the load
transference mechanism based upon soil strata types and depth-to-diameter ratios of shaft and bell embedment.
Lateral loads (shear and/or moment) are carried by the lateral resistance of soil/rock against the shaft’s section.

The spacing of shafts for adjacent structures, commonly referred to as group action, should be evaluated to
prevent or minimize stress overlap from skin friction or lateral stresses. A common rule of thumb is to maintain a
minimum shaft spacing (centre-line to centre-line) of not less than three times the diameter, although selected
research has indicated that some soil types may require a greater shaft spacing. Typically, compression and
uplift loads are designed separate from lateral design analyses. Conventional factors of safety are applied to
compression and uplift soil resistance to account for potential variability of subsurface conditions. Depending on
the method of lateral load analysis used for design, the lateral design may or may not use factors of safety.
Methods employed that evaluate shaft deflection and rotation performance typically do not use factors of safety
since they are determining the predicted load/deformation characteristics of the drilled shafts under the design
loading.

Specific techniques for design of shafts have been documented quite thoroughly by others. One useful source in
performing final design is IEEE Std. 691, “IEEE Trial-Use Guide for Transmission Structure Foundation Design”,
which was jointly authored by the IEEE and ASCE.

For purposes of lateral design of drilled shaft foundations, several techniques exist to evaluate shaft
performance. With the advent of computers and the ability to evaluate multiple length and diameter shaft
combinations readily, lateral analysis of shafts has been performed by methods employing computer stress/strain
relationships rather than the older rough calculations by hand using ultimate strength of a passive pressure
wedge.

The design of drilled shafts for lateral loads should account for the effects of soil/rock-structure interaction
between shaft and subsurface strata to account for deflection and rotation of the shafts. Final design methods
employing this conventional process are described under Method A presented below. Preliminary selection of
embedment depths for concrete and steel poles is briefly described under Method B also presented below.
Previous procedures are provided and described under Method C. It is recommended that the Method C
procedures for evaluating the ultimate capacity and deflection, based on hand calculation procedures be used
primarily for preliminary design or cost estimating purposes. Final designs should be based on computer-
modeled finite difference procedures like those described in Method A.

3.2.1 Method A – Lateral Drilled Shaft Design (Computer-Modeled Soil Interaction Curve)

Drilled shaft response is dependent upon the applied load, the soil/rock stratigraphy (including groundwater
level), and the dimensional and physical features of the drilled shaft. Under applied load, soil-structure interaction
behaves in either a linear-elastic, elastic-plastic, or ultimate-plastic state, depending on the soil subgrade
modulus. The resulting load-displacement relationship has been described in FHWA publications as nonlinear
subgrade modulus P-Y curves. A similar design/analysis model has been prepared and developed by EPRI
(Project RP-1280-1).

The use of the P-Y curves describing the relationship between lateral pressure P and lateral displacement Y at
individual substations along the length of the shaft permits the computer programme to solve for deflected
shapes of the shaft, as developed for the specific stratigraphic soils present. It is possible to assign rock fixity
(with Reese’s programme) at any point along the shaft and to account for traditional restraints, such as grade
beams or slab inter-ties.

Output from the computer analysis includes deflections, rotations, internal moments, internal shears, and soil
reactions along the entire shaft length. Moments and shears generated by the programme are used by structural
engineers to design the amount and spacing of longitudinal tie steel. The programme permits evaluation of shaft
performance under cracked section analysis, resulting in a more accurate representation of shaft and structure
movement under load.

3.2.2 Method B – Lateral Shaft Resistance Design (Hansen Approach)

With the increasing use of both concrete and steel (light duty) poles as replacements for wood poles in selected
instances, a method has been documented for evaluating pole embedment using and earlier referenced
approach prepared by Hansen in 1961 for stratified soils.

The design analogies applied to direct-embedded poles can be further extended through Hansen’s methodology
to drilled shafts installed in stratified soils.

3.2.3 Method C – Lateral Drilled Shaft Design (Equipment Support Structures)

Equipment support structures designed by the working stress method having overturning moments at the column
bases may be easily designed by a method developed and published in the Journal of the Structural Division of
the Proceedings of ASCE in March 1957.

Convenient nomographs and soil values make the tedious formulas unnecessary. Some formulas are presented
here for purpose of illustration and as an aid in design.

3 H 0 .L M0
L − 14,14. − 18,85. = 0 for round piers
R R
eq.16-1.1

where:-

L = Embedment length in metres (m)

H0 = Lateral force per metre of pier in Newtons per metre (N/m)
M0 = Moment per metre of pier diameter, applied at the resisting surface in Newton-metre per metre
(N.m/m)
2
R = Allowable lateral soil resistance in Newtons per square metre per metre depth (N/m /m or Pa/m)

Lateral soil pressure (R) values for design are given in Table 16-1.1.

Mt
M0 =
D

Ht
H0 =
D

where:-

Mt =
Ht =
D = Shaft diameter in metres (m)

The maximum bending moment in the shaft is obtained from equation 16-1.2:-

M MAX = C M .H 0 .L.D
eq.16-1.2

where:-

CM = Moment coefficient

Table 16-1.1: Recommended Lateral Soil Pressure (R)

Material Allowable Lateral Soil Resistance

2
(Rock in Natural Beds – Limited by the Stress in the Pier) (N/m /m or Pa/m)
Medium Hard Cliche 78 500
Fine Cliché with Sand Layers 62 800
Compact Well-Graded Gravel 62 800
Hard Dense Clay 62 800

Compact Coarse Sand 55 000

Compact Coarse and Fine Sand 47 100
Medium Stiff Clay 47 100
Compact Fine Sand 39 300
Ordinary Silt 31 400
Sandy Clay 31 400
Adobe 31 400
Compact Inorganic Sand and Silt Mixtures 31 400
Soft Clay 15 700
Compact Organic Sand and Silt Mixtures and Muck or Bay Mud 0

CM, the moment coefficient, can be calculated from equation 16-1.3:-

3 4
 E + X  −  4.E + 3 . X   3.E + 2 . X 
CM = L L   L L + L  eq.
      L  
16-1.3

M0
E=
H0

where:-

X = Distance from supporting surface to point of maximum bending moment (for the
force diagram shown X = 0,35.L±)

Table 16-1.2: Moment Coefficients

E/L 0 0,25 0,5 0,75 1,00 1,25 1,50 1,75 2,00

CM 0,26 0,48 0,70 0,92 1,16 1,40 1,64 1,88 2,12

A drilled shaft foundation design example is illustrated in Figure 16-1.2 for a busbar support structure

Ht = 2,27 kN

Mt = 12,42 kN.m

Assume:-

2
R = 39,3 kN/m /m

D = 0,61 m

Supporting

E
M0 Surface
H0

X
MX

L
Force Diagram Moment Diagram

Figure 16-1.1: Drilled Shaft Force and Moment Diagrams

Mt
150

Ht Finished
Grade
L + 150

Dimensions in mm

610

Figure 16-1.2: Drilled Shaft Elevation - Example

Mt
M0 =
D
12,42 + 0,15.2,27
=
0,61
= 20,92kNm/m

Ht
H0 =
D
2,27
=
0,61
= 3,72kN/m

M0
E=
H0

20,92
=
3,72
= 5,62m

3 H 0 .L M0
L − 14,14. − 18,85. =0
R R

3 (3,72).L (20,92)
L − 14,14. − 18,85. =0
39,3 39,3

Solving for L:-

L = 2,37 m; say 2,4 m

E 5,62
=
L 2,4
= 2,3

X = 0,35.L

= 0,35.2,4

= 0,84

Calculating CM:-

3 4
 E X   4.E + 3 . X 
=  + −
 3.E + 2 . X 
+
CM L  L
L L   L    L  
3 4
 0,84   0,84   0,84 
=  2,3 +  − (4.2,3 + 3 ).  + (3.2,3 + 2 ). 
 2,4   2,4   2,4 
= 2,2889

MMax = CM.H0.L.D

= 2,2889.3,72.2,4.0,61

= 12,2 kN.m

For this foundation, 6 x ∅15,9 mm bars at equal spacing for reinforcement should be used (see Tables 16-1.3
and 16-1.4). ∅9,55 mm bars should be used for ties.

Table 16-1.3: Maximum Moment in kN.m for Augured Piers with 6 Straight Bars

Diameter of
6 x 15,9 mm 6 x 19,1 mm 6 x 22,2 mm 6 x 25,4 mm
Augured Pier (m)
0,305 7,8 11,1 15,0 19,9
0,457 14,6 20,7 28,2 37,1
0,610 21,4 30,3 41,4 54,4
0,762 28,1 39,9 54,5 71,7
0,914 34,8 49,5 67,5 88,9
1,067 41,6 59,1 80,7 106,2
0,219 48,4 68,7 93,8 123,5
2 2
Fy = 27,6 kN.cm , fc’ = 2060 N/cm
(Based upon simplified working stress assumptions)
Table 16-1.4: Maximum Moment in kN.m for Augured Piers with 8 Straight Bars

Diameter of
8 x 15,9 mm 8 x 19,1 mm 8 x 22,2 mm 8 x 25,4 mm
Augured Pier (m)
0,305 11,4 16,3 22,1 29,2
0,457 21,3 30,2 41,2 54,2
0,610 31,0 44,2 60,2 79,3
0,762 40,9 58,0 79,2 104,3
0,914 50,7 72,0 98,2 129,3
1,067 60,6 86,0 117,3 154,4
0,219 70,4 99,9 136,3 179,4
2 2
Fy = 27,6 kN.cm , fc’ = 2060 N/cm
(Based upon simplified working stress assumptions)

3.3 Drilled Shaft Design (Terminal Portal Column or Line Support Structure)

For pole-type line support structure foundations, a different method of foundation is employed. These structures
are designed on the basis of yield stress, and appropriate overload factors are applied to the structure loads. To
compliment these loadings, a foundation design is used utilizing the ultimate strength in the soil. A very
satisfactory method is illustrated below.

D/2 - 3¾”
¾”
D/2 - 3” 3”

X/3

X
d1 = 0,902D - 4, 25”
D/2
d = 0,933D - 4,75”

0,866.d

0,866.d1
D
D/2 - 1½”

N
0,707.(D/2 -3¾”)
D/2 -3¾”

6 Bars 8 Bars

Figure 16-1.3: Drilled Shaft Section

Some of this information is presented here as an aid in design.

kp = Coefficient of passive earth pressure

2
= tan (45 + φ/2)
φ = Angle of internal friction of soil
o
≅ 28,5 + N/4
N = Number of blows per 305 mm from standard penetration test
3
γ = Effective unit weight of soil in kilograms per cubic metre (kg/m )
c = Cohesive strength of soil, ½ unconfirmed compressive strength (qu), in Newtons per square
2
metre or Pascals (N/m or Pa)
qu = Unconfirmed compressive strength
≅ N/4

H = M/Q
q = Q
9.c.D

For drilled shaft foundations in cohesive soil:

 (4.H + 6.D) 
L = 15.D + q 1 + 2 +  eq.
 q 
16-1.4

Q2
M Max = M + 15.D.Q + at 15.D + q below top of foundation eq.
18.c.D
16-1.5
Reveal

M Q
Finished
Grade
L + Reveal

Dimensions in mm

Figure 16-1.4: Drilled Shaft Elevation – General

For drilled shaft foundations in granular soil:-

3 200.Q.L 200.M
L - − =0 eq.
k p .γ .D k p .γ .D
16-1.6

0,545.Q. Q Q
M Max bending = M + at 0,817 below top of foundation eq.
0,010.k p .γ .D 0,010.k p .γ .D
16-1.7

Standard design procedures are to be utilised to determine the required area of reinforcing steel

Foundation design using Brom’s Theory for granular soil:-

Given:-

Q = 47,6 kN
M = 535 kN.m
N = 26 blows per 305 mm from standard penetration test
φ = Angle of internal friction of soil
≅
o
28,5 + N/4
o
= 28,5 + 26/4
o
= 35
γ
3
= 1 762 kg/m
D = 1,22 m
2 o
kp = tan (45 + φ/2)

2 o o
= tan (45 + 35 /2)

= 3,69

3 200.Q.L 200.M
L - − =0
kp .γ .D kp .γ .D

3 200.47,6.L 200.(535 + 0,15.47,6)

L - − =0
3,69.1 762.1,22 3,69.1 762.1,22

L = 2,56

L’ = 2,56 + 0,15

= 2,7 m for reveal

0,545.Q. Q
M Max bending = M +
0,010.k p .γ .D

0,545.47,6. 47,6
= 535 + 0,15.47,6 +
0,010.3,69.1 762.1,22
= 562 kN.m

At:

Q
0,817
0,010.k p .γ .D

47,6
= 0,817 below top of foundation
0,010.3,69 .1 762.1,22
= 0,63 m

3.4 Compression and Uplift Capacity (Drilled Shafts)

When designing drilled shaft foundations for loads that consist of compression or uplift, the type of soil (cohesive
or granular) will govern the design philosophy employed.

As a reference in IEEE Std. 691, drilled shaft resistance is typically derived from the strength relationship of the
cohesive or granular soil stratigraphy. Further, the depth of water will impact these design capacities.

3.4.1 Compression Capacity

Axial compression loads applied to drilled shaft are resisted by both skin friction and end bearing. Initially, as
loads are applied, they are generally transferred as skin friction to the soil with increasing depth, and then
redistributed from the top of the shaft down as loads increase. With increased axial compression loads, the
relative percentage of load carried at the base as end bearing increases. This load transfer mechanism is
impacted by such factors as type of soil, depth of strata along the shaft, base support material, water level, in-situ
stresses, construction methods employed, and relative size and shape of the shaft.

An extensive amount of research has been performed on drilled shafts utilising full-scale load tests to analyse the
soil/structure interaction. Although numerous approaches have been documented, the generally accepted
procedure for straight shafts in cohesive soils is described as the “Alpha” Method and in cohesionless soils as the
“Ko” Method

3.4.1.1 Cohesive (Un-drained) Soil (“Alpha” Method)

Q T = Q SF + Q EB eq.
16-1.10

H α.c.L i
Q SF = π.D. ∑ eq.
i =0 FS
16-1.11

2
π.D B N c .c
Q EB = . eq.
4 FS
16-1.12

where:-

D = Diameter of shaft, in metres (m)

DB = Diameter of shaft base, in metres (m)
α = Alpha, shear strength reduction factor
c = Cohesion, un-drained shear strength (½ unconfirmed compressive strength), in Newtons per

2
square metre or Pascals (N/m or Pa)
Li = Increments of shaft in different strata, in metres (m)
H = Total length of shaft in metres (m)
Nc = Bearing capacity factor for deep foundations
FS = Factor of safety

For drilled shaft foundations where the depth-to-diameter ratio exceeds approximately 4,0; the value for Nc for
deep foundations may be assumed as equal to 9,0 according to Adams and Radhakrishna et al. At depth-to-
diameter ratios less than 4,0; the Nc factor has to be adjusted toward shallow foundation design in accordance
with Vesic, but will not be less than 5,14.

The Alpha factor has been developed from numerous studies by researchers and is generally considered to be
similar to Figure 16-1.5 for drilled shafts (dependent upon shear strength).

Due to the variability of soils, even with a comprehensive subsurface investigation, a factor of safety in
compression of 2,0 to 3,0 is typically used for cohesive soils. A higher factor of safety in cohesive soils is justified
to recognize the greater long term tendency of cohesive soils to experience settlement.

1,2

1,0 Uplift
Compression

0,8
Adhesion Factor, α

0,6

0,4

0,2

0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
2
Un-drained Shear Strength (kPa or N/m )

Figure 16-1.5: α-Function for Drilled Shafts

3.4.1.2 Cohesionless (Drained) Soil (“Ko” Method)

Q T = Q SF + Q EB eq.
16-1.13

H K o .σ v .tanφ
Q SF = π.D. ∑ eq.
i=0 FS
16-1.14

π.D B2 γ .H.N q.c

Q EB = . eq.
4 γ
16-1.15

where:-

D = Diameter of shaft, in metres (m)

DB = Diameter of shaft base, in metres (m)
Ko = Coefficient of lateral earth pressure (generally between active and at-rest states
and dependent upon shaft installation method and soil in-situ density)
3
ã = Effective unit weight of soil in kilograms per cubic metre (kg/m )
σv = Effective vertical pressure at point of interest in Newtons per square metre or
2
Pascals (N/m or Pa)
φ = Friction angle shaft/soil interaction (generally not in excess of angle of internal
friction of soil strata)
H = Total length of shaft in metres (m)
Nq = Bearing capacity factor for deep foundations
FS = Factor of safety

The effective vertical stress in cohesionless soils for both the skin friction and the end bearing components are
typically limited to their “critical depth”. Based on research performed by Vesic. The critical depth factor depends
on soil density and generally varies between 10 to 20 times the shaft diameter. In theory, the crushing of sand
grain particles and the shaft strength exceeds these critical depth factors, and therefore the maximum effective
stress has to be limited in the calculations.

Due to the relatively great depth of drilled shafts, the bearing capacity factor Nq is generally discounted in the
equation for end bearing and the relatively small percentage of overall capacity.

The total shaft settlement due to axial compressive loads need to be considered. Settlement depends on the
elastic shortening of the shaft and soil characteristics. Consolidation from un-compacted fills, landfills, organic
layers, or collapsible or dispersive soils may result in unacceptable settlement or long term negative skin-friction
(down drag) of shafts. Rock formations should be evaluated to determine the mass formation properties such as
weathering, joints and fractures, and clay filled cracks.

Belled shafts are frequently used where local soil conditions permit short term stability of the bell. Where soils
permit belled construction, typically cohesive soils and some shale, and total settlement is not anticipated to be
excessive under higher loading, the base diameter may be used when determining the end bearing capacity.
Typically, the length of the shaft occupied by the bell is discounted when determining the skin friction component.

A factor of safety in compression of 2 is typically used for cohesionless soils.

3.4.2 Uplift Capacity

3.4.2.1 Cohesive (Un-drained) Soil

Axial uplift capacity of straight shafts is derived from the skin friction or adhesion component of the shaft
compressive capacity calculated in equation 16-1.13. In addition, the effective dead weight of the shaft may be
added (un-factored) to resistance to uplift. This effective weight consists of the total weight of the shaft above the
ground water level and the buoyant weight of the shaft below.

Dependent upon the shaft depth-to-diameter ratio, and whether the shaft is belled, other failure surface concepts
have been developed. For relatively shallow shafts or belled shafts, the methodology introduced by Meyerhof and
Adams is recommended. This approach considers the shaft base to perform as an inverse bearing capacity
failure without skin friction support, as either a cone-shaped or curved surface failure mode.

The factor of safety in uplift of 1,5 is typically used for cohesive soils.

3.4.2.2 Cohesionless (Drained) Soil

Axial uplift capacity of straight shafts is derived from the skin friction component of the shaft compressive
capacity in equation 16-1.14.

An alternative method by Meyer and Adams for cylindrical shear has been proposed for comparable shaft design.
However, the construction of belled shafts within a cohesionless soil is impractical and minimises the likelihood of
this approach, except for shafts that are backfilled entirely after an open excavation.

A factor of safety in uplift of 1,5 is typically used for cohesionless soils. The effective weight of the shafts (total
above the groundwater level and buoyant below) may be added as an un-factored component.

3.5 Spread (Pad) Footings

When designing drilled shaft foundations for loads that consist of compression or uplift, the type of soil (cohesive
or granular) will govern the design philosophy employed.

3.5.1 General

Spread or pad footings comprised of a vertical pier or wall seated on a square or rectangular slab located at
some depth below grade have long been used in substation design.

They are usually preferred for transformers, breakers, and other electrical equipment, and are economical where
only a small number of foundations are required. They are reliable and easy to design.

The installation time and costs for spread footings are greater than for augured piers due to the excavation,
forming, form stripping, backfilling, and compacting.

Compaction of backfill around spread footings should at least be equal to that of the undisturbed soil before the
footing was installed.

Spread footings should always be seated at a depth below the average frost penetration of the area (see Figure
8.6).

CAUTION: The engineer should determine if the average depth will be sufficient for the prevailing conditions.
Deeper footings may be warranted.

3.5.2 Design For Compression

In designing a spread or pad footing for only downward loads, the net load is divided by the allowable soil-bearing
capacity to obtain the area of the footing required.

CAUTION: In granular soils the water table location may have significant effect on the allowable soil capacity.

Total Nett Load

A= eq.
P
16-1.16

where:-
2
A = Area of footing base in square metres (m )
Total Nett = LL + DL – Wt of displaced soil
Load
LL = Maximum weight or force exerted on footing by equipment or structure
DL = Weight of foundation
2
P = Allowable soil bearing pressure in kilograms per square metre (kg/m )

300 610 1830

1830 1220
910 1520
2130 1520
1220
910

0
910

910
610

300

Figure 16-1.6: Approximate Frost Depth Contours of the United States

3.5.3 Design For Uplift

For the design of a spread footing for uplift only, the ultimate nett uplift force (based on design times the
appropriate OLF) should be exceeded by the weight of the foundation and the weight of the soil that rests on the
slab. Several sizes may be selected before one is obtained that will result in the desired safety factor, 1,5
minimum.

CAUTION: In granular soils the water table location may reduce the weight of the soil being relied upon for the
uplift resistance.

3.5.4 Design For Moment

A spread footing subject to overturning may be designed as follows:-

Assume:-

• All resistance to overturning is furnished by the vertical load, weight of the concrete footing, and the weight of
the soil block above the footing, the sum of which equals N.

• The footing is rigid and tips about edge A.

M Soil Block
Ht

(N)
h

Figure 16-1.7: Spread Footing - General

Overturning Moment

M ot = M + H t.h eq.
16-1.17

where:-

Mot = Overturning moment in kilo-Newton.metres (kN.m)

M =

Ht =

h = Total height of the structure from base to top of concrete in metres (m)

Resisting Moment

N.b
MR = eq.
2
16-1.18

where:-

MR = Resisting moment in kilo-Newton.metres (kN.m)

N =

b = Length of footer in metres (m)

Factor of Safety

MR
FS = eq.
M ot
16-1.19

FS between 1,5 and 2,0 is adequate for external stability

Eccentricity is measured from the centreline.

M ot
e= eq.
N
16-1.20

where:-

e = Eccentricity in metres (m)

b N M ot
If e < then p = ± eq.
6 A S
16-1.20

where:-

p = Eccentricity in metres (m)

2
A = Area of the footing in square metres (m )
S = Section modulus of the bottom of the footing about the axis which the moment is acting
2
d.b
S= eq.
6
16-1.21

where:-

d = Width of footer in metres (m)

Ht M

N/A + Mot/S

b/6
CL
N/A - Mot/S

Figure 16-1.8: Spread Footing – (e < b/6)

b 2.N
If e > then p = eq.
6 b 
3.d − e 
2 
16-1.22

Ht M

2.N
p=
b 
d.3.− e
2 

N = RR

e b/2 - e

3.(b/2 – e)

Figure 16-1.9: Spread Footing – (e > b/6)

Moments and shears are calculated for the concrete design of the slab and pier, and the conventional concrete
design is employed to complete the design:-

2 2
 l.p  l  l.p  l
Mz = p −  + 
 3.x  2  3.x  3

l
 l.p   l.p  l
V = p −  + 
 3.x   3.x  2

where:-

Mz = Bending moment about point z per unit width, in Newton-metres per metre (N.m/m)
l = Distance from toe of footer to bending moment point in metres (m)
x = Distance from toe of footer to the resultant reaction RR in metres (m)

RR X

Figure 16-1.10: Spread Footing –Elevation

3.5.4.1 Design Example 8.2: Given

2
Allowable bearing capacity of soil = 140 kN/m

M = 40 kN.m, Ht = 4,5 kN, P = 11,0 kN

γ = 1 600 kg/m (assumed weight of soil)

Assume the water table is very deep and is not a factor

2 3
Weight of pier = (0,6 m) .1,5m.2 400 kg/m = 1 300 kg

2
Weight of slab = (2 m) .3m.2 400 kg/m3 = 2 880 kg

2 2
Weight of soil = (4m -0,36m ).1,35m.1 600 kg/m3 = 7 860 kg

Weight of structure & equipment = (11,0 kN/9,81 N/kg) = 1 120 kg

N = 13 160 kg

Unit Width
Strip

Figure 16-1.10: Spread Footing – Plan

11 kN

40 kN.m

4,5 kN
1 500

600
600
300

600

2 000
2 000

Figure 16-1.11: Spread Footing – 3D Example

Mot = 40 kN.m + 1,8 m.4,5 kN

= 48,1 kN.m

MR = 1 m.9,81 N/kg.13 160 kg

= 129,4 kN.m

129,4 kN.m
FS =
48,1kN.m
= 2,7 > 1,5 (ok)

Locate Resultant Force

48,1
e=
13,16.9,8
b
= 0,37m > = 0,33
6

Therefore:

 2 . 129,4kN
p= 3
  (1m - 0,37m ).2m
kN kN
= 68,5 2
< 140 (ok)
m m2

Determine Bending Moment in Slab for use in calculating reinforcing steel:

kN  (0,6m )
2


kN
M = 68,5. 2 −
0,6m
.68,5. 2
 2 (
+ 0,6m )2  0,6m
.68,5.
kN  1 2
2 
. .
 m 3(1m - 0,37m) m   3(1m - 0,37m) m  2 3
= 11,0 kNm

The footing as shown above is slightly over designed. Additional trials could be made to reduce the size, if
desired. Other steps for completing the reinforced concrete design should be completed by the engineer.

Determine Bending Moment in Pier for use in calculating reinforcing steel:

Assume that the pier is a vertical cantilever beam.

4,5 kN M = 40 kN.m
1,5 m

MO = 40 kN.m + 1,5m.(4,5 kN) =46,8

Figure 16-1.12: Spread Footing – 2D Example

3.6 Slabs on Grade

3.6.1 General

Slabs on grade are sometimes used as foundations for miscellaneous equipment supports, switchgear, breakers,
and power equipment such as transformers and reactors. Slabs on grade should be used with caution where
there is a chance of frost heave. This may cause problems with equipment that has rigid busbar connections or in
some other way result in an operational malfunction of the equipment.

Slabs on grade may be satisfactory in frost-prone climates if the sub-grade is essentially granular and well
drained.

3.6.2 Sub-grade Preparation

An important part of a slab on grade is the preparation of the sub-grade. The soil should be thoroughly mixed and
compacted to provide a nearly homogeneous, firm bearing surface. Proper preparation may help prevent
objectionable settlement.

Slabs usually vary in thickness between 300 mm and 600 mm depending on the various design parameters. The
slab should bear on the prepared sub-grade and not on site stone or stone in oil retention sumps.

3.6.3 Applied Loads

The types of loads (compression and overturning) that are typically present in spread footings are also present in
slab-on-grade foundations for equipment. Compression loads include the equipment weight and, in soil pressure
calculations, the foundation weight. In the case of transformer foundations (plinths), the equipment weight plus
the weight of the contained insulating oil has to be included. For transformers, jacking loads also have to be
considered. The jacking loads are considered by the structural engineer in a check for local punching failure
through the slab. Jacking loads are “point” loads generated as hydraulic jacks are used to raise and level the
transformer on the slab. There are typically four jacking points, one in each corner of the transformer.

Overturning loads occur when horizontal loads act on the equipment at the top of the slab on grade. While
overturning moments in a spread footing are transferred to the base slab through the concrete pedestal,
overturning loads on a slab on grade are transferred through the base of the equipment. Wind loads, seismic
loads, and horizontal dynamic loads are included in the list of loads that would contribute to overturning. This is a
case where the centre of gravity of the equipment is not in line with the centre-line of the slab.

3.6.4 Design for Stability

As with spread footings, slab-on-grade foundations have to be designed to not exceed the allowable soil pressure
for the site. The allowable soil bearing pressure is site specific and should be determined by a geotechnical
engineer following a sub-surface investigation. In the absence of sub-surface formation, a reasonable range can
2 2
be taken between 48 kN/m and 72 kN/m . This, however, may or may not be a conservative range for the given
site.

In addition to keeping the soil pressure below the slab under an allowable limit, an adequate safety factor against
overturning has to be maintained. The approach is similar to that for spread footings.

3.6.4.1 Design Example 8.3: Given

Check the soil bearing pressure and the factor of safety against overturning for a transformer slab based on the
following assumption:-

132/11 kV transformer weight = 110 900 kg

Insulating Oil = 58 060 kg

Total transformer Mass = 168 960 kg

Total weight 168 960.9,8 = 1 656 kN

Transformer base dimensions = 5 840 mm x 3 200 mm

Foundation size = 6 500 mm long x 4 000 mm wide x 600 mm thick

3
Weight of foundation = (6,5 m x 4,0 m x 0,6 m).23,6 kN/m

= 368 kN

Total vertical load (N) = 1 656 kN + 368 kN

= 2 024 kN

2
Given allowable soil bearing pressure (P) based on soil report = 144 kN/m

Calculate overturning moment (Mot)

For a transformer in a seismically active area, seismic load usually controls rather than wind load because of the
transformer’s relatively large mass. For this example, assume the transformer is in seismic zone such that it has
been determined that seismic loads are dominant.

Calculating the horizontal seismic load as follows:-

Based on IEEE Std. C57.114, “IEEEE Seismic Guide for Power Transformers and Reactors”, for given seismic
region with seismic acceleration of 0,2, where the weight of the transformer (Wtr) is 1 656 kN,

Horizontal Load (0,2.Wtr) =331 kN

Vertical Load ⅔.(0,2.Wtr) =221kN

Calculating the overturning moment due to the seismic load

Given:

Centre of gravity of the transformer is 1 500 mm above the top of the foundation.

The slab is 600 mm thick

The centre of gravity of the transformer is 100 mm off the longitudinal centre-line of the foundation

Overturning moment (seismic)

Horizontal Moment =331kN.(1,5m + 0,6m)

= 695 kN

Vertical Moment =221kN.0,1m

= 22 kN.m

Total seismic overturning load (695kN + 22 kN) = 717kN.m

Calculating the overturning moment due to equipment eccentricity

Overturning moment (eccentricity) = 1 656 kN.0,01m

= 166 kN.m

Calculating the total overturning moment

Mot = 717kN.m + 166 kN.m

= 883 kN.m

Calculating the soil bearing pressure

M ot
Eccentricity (e) =
N

883kN.m
=
2 024 kN

= 0,44 m

b 4,0m
=
6 6

= 0,67 m

b
e =0,44 (m) < 0,67(m) =
6

Therefore:-

N M ot
p= ± from eq.
A S
16-1.20

A = 6,5(m).4,0(m)

2
d.b
S=
6
2
6,5m.(4,0m )
= from eq.
6
3
= 17,3 m
16-1.21

2 024kN 883kN.m
p = ± 3
max (6,5m.4,0m ) 17,3m
kN kN
= 77,8 2
± 51,0 2
m m
kN kN
= 128,8 2
< 144,0 2
(ok)
m m

Calculating the safety factor against overturning (needs to be greater than 1,5)

Mot = 883 kN.m

Calculating the moment that resists overturning (MR)

Weight of transformer = 1 656 kN

Weight foundation = 368 kN

MR = [1 656(kN).1,9(m)] + [368(kN).2(m)]

= 3 882 kN.m

MR
FS =
M ot

3 882kN.m
=
883 kN.m
= 4,4 > 1,5 (ok)

3.6.5 Minimum Reinforcing Steel

Although reinforcing steel is beyond the scope of this chapter, a certain minimum level of reinforcing has to be
maintained. A steel area of at least 0,0018 time the gross concrete area (ACI 318) has to be provided. This is
provided to prevent shrinkage cracks from forming as the concrete dries. For the foundation in the example
above, the minimum area of reinforcing (AS) for a unit width strip of 1 metre would be:

AS = 0,0018.1m.0,6m

2
= 0,00108m /m of slab length

2
= 1 080 mm /m of slab length

One combination that would satisfy the above minimum requirement would be:

2
#5 bars (200 mm ) at 300 mm on centre, top and bottom, each way.

2 1 000mm
A S = 2.200mm . .300mm
1m
2
= 1 333 mm /m > 1 080 mm /m
2
(ok )

Transformer
Centre of
Gravity

0,01m

Horizontal
Seismic
1,5m

Transformer
Weight + Vertical
Seismic
0,6m

Slab Weight

2
P = 128,8 kN/m
(Soil Bearing
Pressure)

0,2m 0,2m

Figure 16-1.14: Transformer Slab Loading

4. OIL POLLUTION

Oil pollution from transformers and other substation equipment is discussed in Chapter 2.

Environmental legislation requires the containment of potential oil spills for any facility that contains oil stored.
IEEE Std. 980, “Design Guide for Oil Spill Prevention and Control at Substations”.

If oil pollution abatement is necessary, the degree of reliability that is desired has to be decided. The primary
function of all systems is to prevent oil from reaching prohibited areas, including the ground water table and any
rivers and stored bodies of water.

A determination has to be made as to whether the system will be self-operating or should be monitored
periodically or seasonally.

4.1 Basic Retention System

This system should include an impervious, lined, open or stone-filled sump around the oil containment vessel
(transformer). Usually stone of 50 mm to 90 mm is desirable in the sump area to provide operators and
maintenance personnel easy access to and around the transformer. The size and gradation of the stone affects
the percentage of voids available to store oil. Stone and the size mentioned above may provide 25 to 40 percent
voids. Perforated pipe placed in the bottom of the sump will convey, by gravity flow, water and oil to an
underground storage tank. The tank has to have a sump pump to periodically pump out the water that has
collected from rainfall. The pump may be regulated to cut on and off by a float valve or pressure switches. The
transformer should also have a low-oil-level alarm that deactivates the ump pump.

At the cut-off position, there should be at least 150 mm of water covering the bottom of the tank. This enables
small or slow leaks to be stored on top of the water. The storage tank should be designed to retain all the oil in
the largest transformer, plus 20 percent, between cut-off water level and inlet pipe.

The oil is removed from the tank by pump trucks.

The system is costly, but extremely reliable. Mechanical failure of the sump pump is a disadvantage.

A variation of the approach discussed above is the utilization of a special oil-sensing control unit that works with a
submersible drainage pump. The pump is placed in a vault outside the sump as described above. The pump
discharges rainwater from the system, but is deactivated by the control unit when oil is detected.

4.2 Oil Separation Tank

This system is feasible only where there is sufficient gradient for gravity discharge from the underground tank
(see Figure 8.15).

The oil or water is collected from the transformer area as it was in the basic retention system. It is discharged into
an oil separator tank. The principle upon which this system operates is that oil is lighter than water and floats on
top of it.

The oil separator tank should be designed to contain all the oil in the largest transformer, plus 20 percent, should
a major rupture occur. This system allows the water to continuously pass through but retain the oil. The oil
retained in the tank has to be pumped into a tanker truck and disposed of.

This system is costly but quite reliable.

The oil separator tank principle may be applied to above-grade diked basins where freezing temperatures are not
prevalent.

Modification to the above-grade separator system may be considered when regular inspection is anticipated. It
could consist of a transformer area that is lined and diked with impervious material. A short piece of 100 mm pipe
passes through the dike and contains a shutoff valve that may be left open for continuous drainage and closed in
an emergency when alarms occur or inspection indicates.

Water and Oil Discharge

Transformer
Oil Capacity
of Largest
Volume =
Water

Figure 16-1.15: Oil Separator Tank

An alternative approach is to leave the valve closed and then open it as necessary to drain the collected water at
periodic inspections.

This system is relatively economical but requires a greater level of maintenance.

4.3 Summary

Each solution to the oil abatement problem is not without its own problems. These should be evaluated along
with system costs when deciding on the most desired system at each substation. The ultimate goal is to make
sure all oil within the substation remains on site.

5. REFERENCES

5.1 40 CFR 110, “Discharge of Oil”

5.2 40 CFR 112, “Oil Pollution Prevention”

5.3 Adams, J.L., and Radhakrishna, H.S., “The Uplift Capacity of Footings in Transmission Tower Design”.,
Reprint of Paper Recommended by IEEE Transmission and Distribution Committee of IEEE/PES. 1975

5.4 American Concrete Institute, Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete (ACI-318-95) and
commentary (ACI-318R-95).

5.5 ANSI/IEEE Std. 980, ‘Guide for Containment and Control of Oil Spills in Substations”.

5.6 ASTM D854, “Test Method for Specific Gravity of Soils”

5.7 ASTM D1586, “Method for Penetrations Test and Split-Barrel Sampling of Soils”

5.8 ASTM D1687, “Practice for Thin-Walled Tube Geotechnical Sampling of Soils”

5.9 ASTM D2113, “Practice for Diamond Core Drilling for Site Investigations”

5.10 ASTM D2166, “Test Method for Unconfined Compressive Strength of Cohesive Soil”

5.11 ASTM D2266, “Test Method for Laboratory Determination of Water (Moisture) Contents of Soil and Rock”

5.12 ASTM D2487, “Classification of Soils for Engineering Purposes (Unified Soil Classification System)”

5.13 ASTM D2488, “Practice for Description and Identification of Soils (Visual-Manual Procedure)”

5.14 ASTM D2573, “Test Method for Field Vane Shear Test in Cohesive Soil”

5.15 ASTM D3441, “Test Method for Deep, Quasi-Static, Cone and Friction-Cone Penetration Test of Soil”

5.16 ASTM D3550, “Practice for Ring-Lined Barrel Sampling of Soils”

5.17 ASTM D4318, “Test Method for Liquid Limit, Plastic Limit, and Plasticity Index of Soils”

5.18 ASTM D4719, “Test Method for Pressure-meter Testing in Soils”

5.19 Bowles, Joseph E., “Foundation Analysis and Design”, New York: McGraw-Hill Company, 1988.

5.20 Broms, B.B., “Design of Laterally Loaded Piles”, Journal of Soil Mechanics and Foundation Division, ASCE,
May 1965, pp. 79-99

5.21 Broms, B.B., “Lateral Resistance of Piles in Cohesionless Soils”, Journal of Soil Mechanics and Foundation
Division, ASCE Proceedings 3909, Vol. 90, SM3, May 1964, pp. 123-156

5.22 Broms, B.B., “Lateral Resistance of Piles in Cohesionless Soils”, Journal of Soil Mechanics and Foundation
Division, ASCE Proceedings 3834, Vol. 90, SM2, March 1964, pp. 27-63

5.23 Broms, B.B., “Tapered Steel Poles Caisson Foundation Design”, Journal of Soil Mechanics and Foundation
Division, ASCE 1964-1965

5.24 Czerniak, E., “Resistance of Overturning of Single Pile”, Journal of the Structural Division, ASCE, March
1957.

5.25 Davisson, M.T. and Shnisher Prakash, “A Review of Soil Pole Behaviour”, Highway Research Board No. 39,
1963.

5.26 GAI Consultants, Inc. “Laterally Loaded Drilled Pier Research”, Vol. 1 Design Methodology, Final Report,
Project RP_1280-1. Palo Alto, Cal.: Electric Power Research Institute, 1982.

5.27 Hansen, J.B., “Ultimate Resistance of Rigid Piles Against Transversal Forces”, The Danish Geotechnical
Institute, Bulletin No. 12, 1961.

5.28 IEEE Std. C57.114, “IEEE Seismic Guide for Power Transformers and Reactors”.

5.29 IEEE Std. 691, “Draft American National Standard – IEEE Trial-Use for Transmission Structure Foundation
Design, “Transmission and Distribution Committee of the IEEE Power Engineering Society, September
1985.

5.30 Kulhawy, Fred H., and Christina Stas Jackson, “Some Observations on Undrained Side Resistance of
Drilled Shafts”, Foundation Engineering: Current Principles and Practices, ASCE, 1989, pp. 1014-1025.

5.31 Meyerhof, G.G., “The Ultimate Bearing Capacity of Foundations”, Geotechnique 2(4): 301-332 (1951).

5.32 Meyerhof, G.G., and J.I. Adams, “The Ultimate Uplift Capacity of Foundations”, Canadian Geotechnical
Journal 5(4): 225-244 (1968).

5.33 Naik, T.R., and Alain Peyrot, “Analysis and Design of Laterally-Loaded Piles and Corrosions in a Layered
Soil System”, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, 1980.

5.34 Reese, L.C., “Laterally Loaded Piles: Programs Documentation”, Journal of Geotechnical Engineering
Division of the American Society of Civil Engineering 103(GT4): 287-305 (April 1977).

5.35 Reese, L.C., and M.W. O’Neill, “Drilled Shafts: Construction Procedures and Design Methods”, U.S.
Department of Transportation, Office of Implementation Publication No. FHWA-HI-88-042, August 1988.

5.36 REA Bulletin 65-1, “Design Guide for Rural Substations”, 1978.

5.37 RUS Bulletin 1724E-200, “Design Manual for High Voltage Transmission Lines”.

5.38 RUS Bulletin 1724E-205, “Design Guide: Embedment Depths for Concrete and Steel Poles”, 1995

5.39 RUS Bulletin 1724E-302, “Design Guide for Oil Spill Prevention and Control at Substations”.

5.40 Terzaghi, Karl, Theoretical Soil Mechanics, New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1943.

5.41 University of Florida-Gainsville, McTRANS (Centre for Microcomputers in Transportation), COM624P,

Version 2.0 and Documentation, Developed for FHWA.

5.42 U.S. Department of Transportation, Office of Research and Development, Drilled Shaft Manual, Vol. II –
“Structural Analysis and Design for Lateral Loading”. Publication No. FHWA Implementation Package 77-
21. Washington USDOT, July 1977.

5.43 Vesic, A.S., “Bearing Capacity of Deep Foundations”, Highway Research Board, Record No. 39, 1963, p.
112-153.

5.44 Woodward, R.J., W.S. Gardner, and D.M. Greer, “Drilled Pier Foundations”, New York: McGraw-Hill, 1972.

SLDG 16 – 2

FOUNDATIONS AND STRUCTURES

1. INTRODUCTION

The purpose of this document is to introduce the basic design assumptions and principles to enable the designer to
perform basic designs. The designer has to ensure that the structure or part thereof is designed to possess sufficient
structural capacity to resist safely and effectively all loads and influences that may reasonably be expected to act upon
it, having regard to the expected life of such structure and the associated risks of failure.

The structural capacity of the structure generally applicable to substation structures, are:-

1.1 Stability, whereby adequate provision is made for overturning, uplift, sliding and foundation failure.

1.2 Integrity, i.e. the ability of the structure or elements thereof, to withstand local damage without causing or initiating
widespread collapse.

2. LIMIT-STATES DESIGN (SABS 0160 - 1989)

A structure, or part of a structure, is considered unfit for use or to have failed when it exceeds a particular state, called a
limit state, beyond which its performance or use is impaired. The limit states are classified into two categories:-

2.1 Ultimate limit states are those concerning safety and correspond to the maximum load-carrying capacity,
including:-

2.1.1 Loss of equilibrium e.g. overturning, uplift

2.1.2 Exceeding load-bearing capacity of members e.g. buckling, fatigue, etc.

2.1.3 Overall instability of structure

2.1.4 Large deformation e.g. forming a mechanism

2.2 Serviceability limit-states are those which restricts the normal use and occupancy or effect durability. These
conditions include:-

2.2.1 Excessive deflection or rotation affecting the use of the structure

2.2.2 Excessive local damage - cracking, spalling, etc.

2.2.3 Excessive vibration.

The criterion of failure or unfitness for purpose is expressed as follows:-

Rd < Qd eq. 16-2.1

Qd = Σ (Ψ
Ψ i . γi . Qni) eq. 16-2.2

Rd = Φ Lr(fk/γγm) eq. 16-2.3

where:-

Qd = Design load or action effect

Rd = Design resistance
Φl = Resistance factor
R( ) = Function defining resistance for particular limit-states
fk = Characteristic material strength
γm = Partial material factor which allows for uncertainly in the material strength
Ψi = Load combination factor - Appendix B (Table 2 - SABS 0160)
γi = Partial load factor - Appendix B (Table 2 - SABS 0160)
Qni = Effect of the nominal action

The design load effect pertaining to the ultimate or serviceability limit states is Ln obtained from equation 16-2.2. For
self weight Dn, imposed loads or live loads and wind loads, Wn, the most common forces acting on structures in the
substations, the following combinations can be used at the ultimate limit states:-

• Load Case 1 : 1,5 . Dn eq. 16-2.4

• Load Case 2 : 1,2 . Dn + 1,6 . Ln eq. 16-2.5

• Load Case 3 : 1,2 . Dn + 0,5 . Ln + 1,3 . Wn eq. 16-2.6

• Load Case 4 : 0,9 . Dn + 1,3 . Wn eq. 16-2.7

The following combinations could be applicable to serviceability limit states:-

• Load Case 1 : 1,1 . Dn + 1,0 . Ln eq. 16-2.8

• Load Case 2 : 1,1 . Dn + 0,3 . Ln + 0,6 . Wn eq. 16-2.9

3. DESIGN LOADS

3.1 Self Weight (Dn)

The self weight or dead load relates to all permanent loads on the structure and consists of:-

3.1.1 the weight of the member itself

3.1.2 weight of all finishes and materials of construction

Calculate self weight from actual known masses of the materials to be used.

3.2 Nominal Imposed Loads (Ln)

The imposed load or live load relates to loads of a temporary nature, other than loads inflicted by wind. This could
include short circuit loads, operating loads e.g. breaker, etc. These loads are obtained from manufacturers details and /
or from short circuit calculations. The calculation thereof is not covered in this document, as it is covered elsewhere.

3.3 Wind Loads (Wn)

Nominal wind forces on a structure is obtained from the following:-

F = Cf.qz.Ae [eq 5(c) SANS 0160 - 1989] eq. 16-2.10

where:-

Cf = A force coefficient
2
qz = Free steam velocity pressure of wing at height z in N/m
2
Ae = Projected or effective area of element in m

The calculation of qz and the resultant force, F, is explained by means of a worked example:-

4. EXAMPLE 1

Determined the foundation loads for a 2,5 m equipment support structure, as depicted in Appendix B situated at Illovo
Substation, 96 m above sea level. The structure is to accommodate a new current transformer (CT) as illustrated.

4.1 Dead Load (Dn)

2
CT : 2050 kg . 9,81 m/s = 20 kN (Manufacturers data)

2
Structure : 2,5 m . 6,38 kg/m . 9,81 m/s . 4 + 0,793 m . 3,38 kg/m . 9,81 m/s2 . 4 . 4

= 1 kN

4.2 Live Load (Ln)

Assume the live load as the maximum cantilever force the CT can withstand.

∴ Ln = 1,72 kN (Manufacturers data)

4.3 Wind Load (Wn)

Assume the following, in terms of SABS 0160-1989:-

• Mean return period of 1:25 yrs § 5.5.2.3 SANS 0160-1989

1:25 yr selected for 132 kV and less

1:50 yr selected for 275 kV and higher

• Terrain category 1, without change in category § 5.5.2.4 & 5.5.2.6 SANS 0160-1989

• Class B structure § 5.5.2.6 SANS 0160-1989

• Basic regional wind speed V = 40 m/s Figure 3 SANS 0160-1989

• Correction factor kr = 0,952 Figure 4 SANS 0160-1989

• kz = 1,02 to 1,08 Table 5 SANS 0160-1989

•
2
kp = 0,592 kg/m § 5.5.3.1 SANS 0160-1989

∴Vz = V.kr.kz [eq. 5(a)] eq. 16-2.11

= (40)(0,952)(1,08)

= 41.1 m/s at 10 m level

2
∴qz = kp . (Vz) [eq. 5(a)] eq. 16-2.12

2
= (0,592)(41,1)

2
= 1000 N/m at 10 m level

With the aid of modern technology, the wind pressure profiles could be determined by simply keying in the required
information and calculating the wind pressure profile as illustrated in Figures 16-2.1a) and 16-2.1b).

The force, F, obtained through the simplistic approach, is expressed as:-

F = Cf.qz.Ae [eq. 5(g)] (from eq. 16-2.10)

where:-

Ae = projected area normal to the wind direction

Where it is necessary to allow for the variations of qz over the height of the structure, Ae may be subdivided into height
zones and the appropriate value of qz allied to each zone. For simplicity, however, we would assume a uniform
distribution of the pressure.

F1 is obtained as follows:-

Determine the Solidity Ratio (φ):- § 5.5.4.2.2 SABS 0160-1989

Aproj = 2,5 m.0,07 m.2+ 0,793 m.0,045 m.4.2

2
= 0,635 m

Ae = 0,61 m . 2,5 m

2
= 1,525 m

∴φ = 0,635 / 1,525

= 0,42

Aerodynamic Solidity Ratio:-

Β = φ.a, eq. 16-2.14

where:-

a = 1,6 for flat sided members

∴β = 0,42 . 1,6 = 0,672

and Shielding Factor:-

η = 0,512 Table 18 SABS 0160-1989

Cf = 1,7 Table 17 SABS 0160-1989

∴ F1 = η.Ae.Cf.qz eq. 16-2.15

2
= 0,512.1,525 m .1,7.0,92 kPa

= 1,22 kN

Figure 16-2.1a): Wind Pressure Profile - Prokon Package

Figure 16-2.1b): Wind Forces Acting On Structure

F2 is calculated next:-

h/b = 1000/600

= 1,67

and:-

b/d = 600/600

∴Cf = 0,95 Table 14 SANS0160-1989

and:-

Ae = 0,6.1,0

2
= 0,62m

∴F2 = Cf.Ae.qz (from eq. 16-2.10)

2
= 0,95 . 0,6 m . 0,92 kPa

= 0,59 kN

F3 : φ = 1

D . Vz = 0,55.41,1 m/s

2 2
= 22,6 m /s > 6 m /s

∴Cf = 1,9 Table 17 SANS 0160-1989

∴F3 = Cf . Ae . qz (from eq. 16-2.10)

= 1,9 . 1,247 . 0.92

= 2,2 kN

F4 : φ = 1

2
D . Vz = 6 m /s

∴Cf = 1,9 Table 17 SANS 0160-1989

Ae = 0,4 . 0,7

2
= 0,28 m

∴F4 = Cf.Ae.qz

= 1,9 . 1,9 . 0.92

= 2,5 kN (from eq. 16-2.10)

The moments and shear, un-factored, as a result of the wind load:-

Mwind = F1 . l1 + F2 . l2 + F3 . l3 + F4 . l4 eq. 16-2.16

= 1,22 . 1,25 + 0,53 . 3 + 2,2 . 4,95 + 0,5 . 6,6

= 17 kN.m

Vwind = ∑ Fi eq. 16-2.17

= 1,22 + 0,53 + 2,2 + 0,5

= 4,45 kN

With all the forces acting on the structure known, we can go ahead and determine the load combinations. Load cases 1
to 4 would be the loads at the ultimate limit state, with load cases 5 and 6 at the serviceability limit state. Each load
case has been analysed using the

Prokon software analysis package - The serviceability load cases are taken into account by the programme
automatically.

4.4 Load Case 1: 1,5 . Dn

Axial : A = 1,5 . (20+1)

= 31,5 kN (↓)

Shear : V =0

Moment : M =0

Axial : (1,2)(21) = 25,2 kN (↓)

Shear : (1,6)(1,72) = 2,75 kN (→)

Moment : (1,6)(1,72)(6,95) = 19 kNm ()

4.5 Load Case 2: 1,2 . Dn + 1,6 . Ln

Axial : (1,2)(2,1) = 25,2 kN (↓)

Shear : (1,6)(1,72) = 2,75 kN (→)

Moment : (1,6)(1,72)(6,95) = 19 kNm ()

4.6 Load Case 3: 1,2 Dn + 0,5 . Ln + 1,3 . Wn

Check to see if cantilever force is greater than wind load - C.T. can only withstand 1,72 kN. It would therefore be
senseless to design for more than that.

Mresistance : (4,45)(1,72) = 7,65 kN

Mwind : (0,5)(0,53) + (2,45)(2,2) + (4,1)(0,5) = 7,7 kN ≈ Mresistance

Axial : (1,2)(21) = 25,2 kN (↓)

Shear : (4,4)(1,3) = 5,72 kN (→)

Moment : (17)(1,3) = 22,1 kN ()

4.7 Load Case 4: 0,9 . Dn + 1,3 . Wn

Axial : (0,9)(21) = 19 kN (↓)

Shear : (4,4)(1,3) = 5,7 kN (→)

Moment : (17)(1,3) = 22,1 kNm ()

4.8 Load Case 5 : 1,1. Dn + 1,0 . Ln

Axial : (1,1)(21) = 23,1 kN (↓)

Shear : (1,0)(1,72) = 1,72 kN (→)

Moment : (1,0)(17) = 17 kNm ()

Figure 16-2.2: Foundation Size for Load Case 1

Figure 16-2.3: Foundation Size for Load Case 2

Figure 16-2.4: Foundation Size for Load Case 3

Figure 16-2.5: Foundation Size for Load Case 4

4.9 Load Case 6: 1,1 . Dn + 0,3 . Ln + 0,6 . Wn

Axial : ↓)
(1,1)(21) = 23,1 kN (↓

Shear : (0,6)(4,4) = 2,6 kN (→)

Moment : (0,6)(17) = 10,2 kNm ()

4.10 Foundation Design

From the above exercise, it is apparent that load case 4 is the worst case scenario and this load case will be used to
determine the steel required in the concrete. The principle design steps in the calculation are as follows:-

4.10.1 Calculate the plan size of the footing using the permissible bearing pressure and the critical loading arrangement
for the serviceability limit state

4.10.2 Calculate the bearing pressures associated with the critical loading arrangement at the ultimate limit state

4.10.3 Determine the pad thickness of the base in order to develop the anchorage bond for the column dowels

4.10.4 Check the thickness for punching shear, assuming the probable value for the ultimate shear stress, Vc.

4.10.5 Determine the reinforcing required to resist bending

4.10.6 Check the local bond stress

4.10.7 Make a final check of the punching shear, having established Vc previously

4.10.8 Check the shear stress at the critical sections

4.10.9 Check foundation for overall stability at the ultimate limit state

The completed foundation is as depicted in Figure 16-2.6. The foundation holding down bolt details are obtained from
Table 4.8 - SASCH 1992 and is displayed for convenience in Figure 16-2.7

o
It is important that the designer should take cognisance of other load cases that could possibly occur, e.g. wind at 45 on
structure, vibration loads, seismic activity, etc.

Figure 16-2.6: Completed Foundation - Load Case 4

Table 16-2.1: (SASCH 1992 Table 4.8) - Holding Down Bolts with Anchor Plates

Bolt and washer plate material: Grade 43; Welds E70XX.

If pockets are not used, bolts should be positioned by means of

template.

Round washer to be used under nut and to be of sufficient size to

provide adequate bearing around clearance hole in column base
plate.

Bolt shanks to be degreased before embedding in concrete.

Bolt details based on concrete strength of 20 MPa at 28 days.

Tabulated dimensions in mm.

Bolt Anchor Plate Pocket

Shank Nut Tensile Bond Pro- Size Thick- Hole Weld Size Depth Dia
Dia Resistance Length trusion ness
Size Dia.

kN εb e a t Under-side Top Side b c

20 M20 67.9 320 10 70 12 21,5 6 - 150 75

24 M24 97.8 384 12 80 14 25,5 6 - 200 75

30 M30 153 480 12 110 14 32 6 6 250 100

40 M36 272 640 12 120 16 42 6 6 300 100

45 M42 344 720 16 140 20 47 6 6 - -

50 M48 424 800 20 160 22 52 8 8 - -

60 M56 611 960 20 200 25 62 8 8 - -

65 M64 717 1040 25 230 30 67 10 10 - -

75 M72 955 1200 30 260 35 77 10 10 - -

5. REFERENCES

5.1 South African Bureau of Standards, SABS 0162-1 : 1993. THE STRUCTURAL USE OF STEEL PART 1 : LIMIT-
STATES DESIGN OF HOT-ROLLED STEELWORK. The council of the South African Bureau of Standards, 1993

5.2 South African Bureau of Standards, SABS 0160 - 1989. THE GENERAL PROCEDURES AND LOADINGS TO BE
ADOPTED IN THE DESIGN OF BUILDINGS. The Council of the South African Bureau of Standards, 1989

5.3 The South African Institute of Steel Construction, SOUTH AFRICAN STEEL CONSTRUCTION HANDBOOK (LIMIT
STATES DESIGN), The South African Institute of Steel Construction, Second Edition, 1992.

5.4 South African Bureau of Standards, SABS 0100 - 1992. THE STRUCTURAL USE OF CONCRETE. PART 1 :
DESIGN. The Council of the South African Bureau of Standards, 1992

5.5 Prokon Software Consultants, PROKON STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS AND DESIGN PACKAGE, Prokon Software
Consultants, Groenkloof, Pretoria

SLDG 16-2 APPENDIX A

Table 16-2.1: Partial Load Factors and Load Combination Factors (SANS 0160 - 1989)

1 2 3 4
Type Of Load Partial Load Factor γi Load
Ultimate Limit Serviceability Combination
State Limit State Factor ψ I
Permanent Loading
a) Maximum self-weight load acting in isolation (eq.
4(e)) 1,5 - -
b) Maximum self-weight load acting in combination
with other loads (eq. 4(f))
c) Minimum self-weight load 1,2 1,1 1,0
0,9 1,0 1,0
Imposed Loading
d) Wind load *1,3 0,6 0
e) Loads on floor (other than garages, filing or storage
areas) 1,6 1,0 0,3
f) Loads on floor for garages, filing or storage areas
g) Loads on roof (other than those in (d) and (h) - (l) 1,6 1,0 0,6
1) Inaccessible roof 1,6 1,0 0
2) Accessible roof 1,6 1,0 0,3
h) Earthquakes 1,6 - 0
i) Loads from fluids 1,3 1,0 1,0
j) Imposed deformations
1) Temperature, settlement, etc. 1,2 1,0 See Table 3
2) Pre-stressing 1,0 1,0 1,0
k) Accidental loads 1,0 - 0
l) Other types of imposed loads not considered above
(e.g. material loads, cranes) in the absence of more
detailed information
1,6 1,0 See Table 3

* 1,5 for slender non-redundant structures such as chimneys and free standing towers that exhibit significant
cross-wind response.

SLDG 16-2 APPENDIX B

SUPPORT STRUCTURE AND CURRENT TRANSFORMER

S.L.D.G. 16 - 3

SUBSTATION FENCING - APPLICATION GUIDE

1. INTRODUCTION

Substations should be safe for people who may have occasion to be near them. The primary means of ensuring public
safety at substations is by the erection of a suitable barrier such as a metal fence. Unless local restrictions are more
conservative, the fence needs to meet minimum requirements to ensure safety clearances for the location of the perimeter
fence with respect to live parts. A safety clearance zone is required to keep a person outside the substation from striking an
object through the fence and coming into contact with live parts or getting close to cause a flashover to occur.

Figure 16-3.1: Fence Safety Clearance for Public

Table 16-3.1: Dimensions for Use with Figure 16-3.1 – Fence Safety Clearances

System Nominal Voltage (kV) Dimension A (m) Dimension B (m)

3,3 - 44 4,6 3,1
66 4,9 3,7
88 5,1 4
132 5,2 4,3
220-275 5,8 4,9
330-400 6,5 5,5
500 7,6 6,4
765 9,1 7

Notes:-

1. Dimension A is equal to the vertical working clearance of conductors above spaces and ways subject to pedestrians
or restricted traffic only

2. Dimension B is equal to the horizontal working clearance plus the effective length of a rod or pole that could be
inserted through the electric station fence.

The safety clearances provided in Table 16-3.1 are for cases where the public can approach live apparatus. Where safety
fences are located within a security fence, the normal horizontal working clearances would apply, i.e. for HV yards and
fenced off apparatus such as capacitor banks.

Metal fences need to be properly earthed. Additional means of protecting the public is through adequate design of all
facilities inside the fence and the addition of peripheral earth outside the fence. Protection that alleviates possible potential
differences is discussed in SLDG 19-1. Appropriate warning signs should be posted on the substation’s peripheral barrier
fence, the location and design to be specified. No matter how small the substation, one sign per side should be attached to
the fence as a minimum requirement. Special multilingual signs may be a requirement in some areas.

This document sets out the requirements of fencing at all Main Transmission Substations (M.T.S.).

The fencing installations are for:-

• Site Boundary,

• Security, and

• Substation Yard Safety

1.1 Site Boundary Fencing

The site boundary fence is a low level farm type fence that is used to demarcate the boundary of thes property.

1.2 Security Fencing

There are three levels of security fencing to protect Eskom's installations. These levels are governed by criteria as
specified within Eskom's standard “Physical Security Measures applied at the M.T.S. Stations”, Ref. OPS latest revision.
The security level applications in a nutshell are:-

LEVEL 1 HIGH Security manned. Electrified double barrier fences with alarms and
PRIORITY lighting.

LEVEL 2 MEDIUM Electrified double barrier fences but not security manned and
PRIORITY without alarms or lighting.

LEVEL 3 LOW Single barrier fencing with electrified fences.

PRIORITY

1.3 Safety Fencing

The substation electrical installation yards must be within a secure area to prevent accidental encroachment by persons or
animals as defined by the “Machinery and Occupational Safety Act, 1983 (Act 6 of 1983)” Latest Amendment.

A 1,8 m mesh fence is normally installed to achieve this requirement.

2. GENERAL PARAMETERS APPLICABLE TO ALL FENCING

a) The security level for the substation is generally decided upon by the protective services of the utility.

b) The substation barrier fence is to on the substation terrace.

c) The substation main earth-mat needs to extend beyond the outer barrier fence. All fences are to be connected to the
earth-mat.

d) The stoned verge with kerbing is to be on the outside of the outer fence.

e) The safety fencing should be installed 2 m from the non-lethal electrified fence protecting a transformer. Only under
exceptional circumstances may this clearance be reduced to 1,5 m.

g) Some drawings have referred to the electrified fence as the “ADB”.

“ADB” = Additional Defence Barrier

“BBTC” = Barbed Bayonet Tape Concertina.

Figure 16-3.2: Inner and Outer Barrier with ADB and BBTC

2.1 Security Level 1

Figure 16-3.3: A Typical Security Level 1 Fencing System

2.1.1 Yard Safety Fencing

a) The yard safety fence is to be constructed to the following drawings:-

Figure 16-3.4: General Arrangement, 6 m Removable Panel and 1,2 m Stoned Verge with Kerb 0.54/394

Figure 16-3.5: Arrangement of 6 m Gate, Fence Corners and Tee Offs 0.54/395

Figure 16-3.6: Fence Post Details and R.P. Fixing 0.54/396

Figure 16-3.7: Arrangement of 1 m Gate and Fencing Details 0.54/397

Figure 16-3.8: Arrangement and Details of Concrete and Aluminium Fencing 0.54/399

b) 1 m Gates to be Type ‘A’

6 m Gates to be Type ‘B’

c) A 1,2 m stoned verge with kerb should be placed around the outside of the yard fencing and the outside of the outer
fencing.

Figure 16-3.9: Stoned Verge

d) Concrete ramps are required at gates and removable panels.

e) Yard fences can be constructed without the anti-climb.

f) The concrete kerbing directly underneath the fence can be omitted in areas where it does not form part of the Security
Barrier fence, provided that there is no possibility of erosion caused by storm-water. Areas where fences form part of
the Barrier fence system, the kerbing is a requirement as shown in Figure16-3.10 for anti tunnelling.

Figure 16-3.10: Concrete Kerbing Below Barrier Fence

2.1.2 Site Boundary Fencing (“Boer” fencing)

a) To demarcate the site boundaries a 1,2 m high fence with 6 m wide gates at road accesses is to be installed.

Figure 16-3.11:Site Boundary Fence

Figure 16-3.12: 6m Site Boundary Gate

2.1.3 Barrier Fencing - Security Level 1 Requirements

Notes:-

a) Dogs and kennels on approval only.

b) Drains secured.

c) Double barrier fencing.

d) Non-lethal sectorised electrified fence between barrier fences.

e) Electrified gates with special locks and an Access Control Building at access to substation.

f) Security lighting on alarm.

g) Microwave detectors at access gates.

h) Patrol road.

i) Transformers to have electrified and safety fencing.

j) Screens and security doors fitted to control and battery rooms. Air conditioners to have screens.

k) A typical Level 1 barrier system comprises an Outer barrier and Inner barrier fence. Extra high fence posts for the
inner barrier fence can be used to support security lights at intervals to suit requirements. The supply cable can be
supported on top of standard fence posts

Figure 16-3.13: Inner and Outer barrier fence 0.00/4585.

l) For barrier fencing details refer to Drawing Numbers:-

Figure 16-3.14: Stoned Verge

Figure 16-3.15: Various Types of Barrier Fencing

Figure 16-3.16: A Typical Barrier Fence Gate

m) Access to the substation through the double barrier fence requires a 6 m double leaf gate on each fence. A Type 12
barrier fence to connect the outer and the inner barrier fences are required either side of the road. Each of these
connecting fences has an isolating panel fitted.

An electrified sliding gate is to be installed in between the outer and inner barrier fences to connect the electrified
fence ends to close the access break required in the electric fence. Personnel gates to be installed to suit
requirements

2.2 Security Level 2

Figure 16-3.17: A Typical Security Level 2 Fencing System

2.2.1 Yard safety fencing

a) Where the inner barrier fence does not form part of the yard safety fence, the safety fence can be constructed to the
Figures 16-3.4 to 16-3.8.

j) The inner barrier fencing is normally standard yard safety fencing without anti-climb while the outer barrier fence is
more elaborate.

Figure 16-3.18: A Typical Security Level 2 Fencing System

2.3 Security Level 3

Figure 16-3.19: A Typical Security Level 3 Fencing System

2.3.1 Yard Safety Fencing

a) Where the inner barrier fence does not form part of the yard safety fence, the safety fence can be constructed to the
Figures 16-3.4 to 16-3.8.

2.3.3 Barrier Fencing - Security Level 3 Requirements

Notes:-

a) Unmanned (security personnel)

b) Drains secured.

c) High tensile steel outer fence only.

d) No security lighting.

e) Gates to have special locks.

g) Screens and security doors fitted to control and battery rooms. Air conditioners to have screens.

h) Single barrier fence.

Figure 16-3.20: A Typical Security Level 3 Fencing System

SLDG 17-1

THE LIGHTING OF HIGH VOLTAGE SUBSTATIONS FOR OPERATIONS AND MAINTENANCE

1. SCOPE

This document details the basic requirements of the user that is the Operating and Maintenance personnel, as a guide
to planning design and construction personnel to enable them to provide necessary adequate and effective lighting
systems at an acceptable financial cost.

The document covers the requirements for the three main types of lighting, namely:

1.1 Operational lighting

1.2 Maintenance lighting

1.3 Security lighting

2. DEFINITIONS

2.1 Substations

For the purpose of this document a substation has the following definition:-

A site on which is situated any transforming, switching or linking apparatus forming part of the Power System and on
which no generating equipment is situated, other than auxiliary generating sets. The term “substation” includes
compressor stations, distribution stations, capacitor stations and switching stations.

2.2 H.V. Yard

HV yard means any outdoor area enclosed in a security fence in which is situated any combination of transforming,
switching and / or linking apparatus, together with any associated strung or solid busbar arrangement. It excludes any
single ground-mounted switch, isolator or transformer or any single pole-mounted transformer, switch or isolator as
encountered in reticulation systems (that is where the primary voltage is less than 33 kV) or line section points on the
distributions system.

2.3 Diversity Factor

The Diversity Factor is defined as the ratio of the maximum to minimum illumination within the normal access areas of
the H.V. Yard.

2.4 Average Illumination

Average illumination is the total average lumen output of the light sources throughout their useful life, divided by ground
2 2
area in (mm ) under consideration; measured in lux (lumens / m ).

2.5 Operational Lighting

This is that lighting system which is provided to enable any authorised person to move safely throughout the H.V. Yard.

2.6 Maintenance Lighting

This lighting, which is in addition to any operational lighting, is required to enable operating and / or maintenance
personnel to carry out detailed inspectional and / or maintenance work on apparatus installed within the H.V. Yard.

2.7 Security Lighting

This lighting system is required to:-

2.7.1 Assist Security personnel in their duties

2.7.2 Provide a light screen so that the apparatus within the confines of the security fence cannot readily be seen or
identified from outside the security fence and

2.7.3 Illuminate the area outside the security fence to ensure ready observation of any one approaching the security
area.

3. LIGHTING SYSTEMS REQUIREMENTS

3.1 Operational Lighting

The system needs to provide a floodlighting effect which gives an average illumination of 10 lux with a maximum
Diversity Factor of 5 throughout the area. The light sources provided must have a suitable colour index to enable
satisfactory differentiation between, in particular, phase colour plates.

The illumination must be sufficient for personnel to observe obstructions and other hazards while moving within the H.V.
yard and to read high voltage apparatus identification labels mounted at a height not exceeding 2 metres above
ground level on high voltage apparatus and thus enable personnel to identify any apparatus on which they are required
to operate.

Note: Operational lighting is not required to provide sufficient illumination for detailed work or inspections
within the H.V. yard. For this purpose additional lighting, namely Maintenance lighting, will be required.

3.2 Maintenance Lighting

Maintenance Lighting systems are required to provide adequate lighting for detailed inspection and / or work within H.V.
yards. The level of illumination required will vary considerably but should be in excess of 50 Lux in the area of
maximum illumination.

3.3 Security Lighting

Requirements for Security lighting systems are that a high intensity light is produced which will form a band of equal
illumination around the area outside the security fence giving no backward illumination into the security area. The main
characteristic must be a high glare source that results in a dazzling effect in any intruder’s eyes. The light source must
maintain its high level of intensity in spite of large supply voltage fluctuations. Separate electrical supplies should be
provided to adjacent lighting sources so that damage to one lighting source will not jeopardise supplies to adjacent
sources.

4. LIGHTING SYSTEMS INSTALLATIONS

4.1 Operational Lighting

Floodlight type fittings for operational lighting should be mounted on one or more structures at a height necessary to
provide optimum effectiveness of the light source.

Light fittings may be mounted either on high voltage apparatus steelwork or on special structures provided solely for the
purpose of supporting light fittings the latter being the preferred solution. In all cases, however, the positioning of the
light fittings and, where applicable, the lighting support structures should be such that access to the fittings, associated
supply cables, etc., may be attained without maintenance personnel being required to approach within dangerous
proximity to live high voltage apparatus.

Where special light support structures are used they shall be of such a design and finish as to require the minimum
amount of maintenance and should be specifically chosen bearing in mind the environmental conditions pertaining the
site. Instant starting and re-starting of the light source is vitally essential. Normal system voltage and frequency
fluctuations should, as far as possible, not cause lamp outages of either a permanent or temporary nature.

Note : The fitting of Operational light fittings on existing high voltage yard steelwork is generally acceptable
as Operational lighting will not normally be switched on except when operating or maintenance work
is being performed in the yard and thus should not normally provide a target for vandals

4.2 Maintenance Lighting

Maintenance lighting systems will normally consist of self-supporting (e.g. tripod mounted) portable spotlight fittings
powered by battery packs, portable generating sets, trailing cables from power points, or by hand held or cap-mounted
torches and lanterns.

4.3 Security lighting

Light sources for Security lighting systems must be mounted on special structures.

The light fitting shall be of a type that requires little or no maintenance and should be so constructed as to be difficult to
destroy.

The mounting position is to be such as to ensure that any missiles aimed at the light source should not easily strike
major H.V. apparatus, e.g. transformers, breakers, current transformers, etc.

5. PROVISION OF LIGHTING SYSTEMS

5.1 Operational lighting

Operational lighting systems that by definitional are required being of a fixed installation type should be installed at all
High Voltage Yards where the primary voltage is 88 kV or above. At all yards where the primary voltage is less than 88
kV, the provision of operational lighting should be at the discretion of the Design Engineer concerned.

In the interests of safety of personnel it is desirable that all high voltage yards be provided with fixed
operational lighting systems as discussed in this document.

Approval of the omission of installation of operational lighting systems at all substations where installation of this system
is mandatory as indicated above should be obtained from senior operations personnel.

5.2 Maintenance Lighting

It should be the responsibility of the area manager to ensure that adequate portable maintenance lighting is available to
all staff requiring this in the course of their duties.

5.3 Security Lighting

All High Voltage Yards and Substations which are manned continuously during the hours of darkness by either
operating staff or security staff should be provided with security lighting.

Security Lighting Systems should be installed at all other HV yards as determined by the operations manager or by the
Area Manager in consultations with national security authorities.

6. MAINTENANCE OF LIGHTING SYSTEMS

Lighting systems continue to operate efficiently only when they are well maintained.

For a given power input the light output of a light source falls with time. The light output normally quoted by
manufacturers is referred to as the Lighting Design Lumens. This is a value representative of light output over a typical
lamp replacement cycle and is measured after an agreed operating period.

The light output should preferably be measured at regular intervals by appropriate instruments. However, as these
instruments are not normally available to operating and maintenance personnel the deterioration in light output can
normally be assessed by visual observation. The replacement of lamps and the maintenance of fittings, particularly the
cleaning of reflectors and diffusers, etc., should be decided upon by the local supervisory staff in each case.

Lamps should be replaced as a group, particularly in large installations. Individual replacement can result in adjacent
lamps being noticeably different in luminance and colour. Group replacement is more economic than individual
replacement especially if the lamps are changed on one of the dates scheduled for cleaning the luminaires so that the
two operations are carried out simultaneously.

SLDG 17-2

OPERATIONAL LIGHTING DESIGN PRINCIPLES

1. GENERAL

SLDG 17-2 specifies in broad terms the design criteria for operational lighting at substations. These criteria are also laid
down in the SANS and other codes of practice.

2. AN OVERVIEW OF THE DESIGN PROCEDURE

2.1 Ascertain area to be illuminated and indicate on a Floodlight Parameter drawing (Appendix A).

2.2 Ascertain positions were operational lighting masts and poles can be sited taking clearances and access into
account (Appendix A).

Note: Cost efficiency indicates that a central position is always more efficient than a peripheral position.
Indicate these positions of the Floodlight Parameter drawing.

2.3 Calculate approximately the power required to illuminate the area from the following factors:-
2
2.3.1 High Pressure Sodium 0,25 Watts / m ) or as supplied
2
2.3.2 Mercury Vapour 0,25 Watts / m ) by
2
2.3.3 Tungsten halogen 1,50 Watts / m ) manufacturer

If insufficient power is available, then reduced illumination levels must be specified or the area to be illuminated must be
cut.

2.4 Indicate the maximum mast heights as per applicable substation standards on the Floodlight Parameter drawing.

2.5 Submit copies of the marked up Floodlight Parameters drawing to luminaire suppliers for computer aided design
(see SLDG 17-3 Appendix ‘A’ for a typical printout)

2.6 Upon receipt of the completed initial designs from the luminaire supplier they must be checked for the following:-

2.6.1 Minimum Average Horizontal Illuminance Levels (10 Lux - SANS 0114, Part I - 1973)

Some contractors tend to over-design and the number of luminaires can frequently be reduced.

2.6.2 Number of Masts

It is generally more cost effective to have the minimum number of masts even if this means increasing the total number
of luminaires in the installation or reducing the overall efficiency of the installation.

2.6.3 Shading Structures

Check that there is sufficient illumination on either side of large objects such as Transformers i.e. ensure that
illumination is from two sources (directions).

2.6.4 Areas without Equipment

By examining the design critically with respect to areas where the illumination level is not critical i.e. corners of yards
where there is no equipment, and hence no operating is required, it is frequently possible to reduce the number of
luminaires required, or sometimes even the number of masts.

2.6.5 Inter-yard Illumination

The illumination design for the various voltage yards is generally done separately, and they must be examined as a
whole, i.e. the masts in one yard will frequently suffice to illuminate a lower voltage yard or the Power Station terrace
masts can be used to illuminate the one side of the H.V. Yard.

2.6.6 Redesign

If any of the above problems are identified in the original design, and manual calculations indicate that improvement is
possible, the contractor should be asked to submit a revised design, which is again subject to the same scrutiny and
checks.

2.7 Cabling

After satisfactory completion of the operational lighting design, the designer’s cable runs should be checked for:-

2.7.1 Efficient Utilisation of cables, i.e. designers at times propose to running separate cables to masts where it is
possible to loop to several masts.

2.7.2 Cable Size - proposed cables are frequently generously sized and can be reduced whilst still maintaining the
statutory volt drop.

2.8 Final Design

When layout and cabling proposals are deemed satisfactory, the design must be submitted to the substation layout
design engineer to check that the original parameters are still applicable, i.e. that there has been no change to the
substation layout in the intervening period.

2.9 Drawings

When approval of the layout has been obtained, then layout drawings must be revised to include the dimensional
positions of the operational lighting masts.

2.10 Data

2.10.1 Lamp current

Wattage Type Running Starting

(W)
400 High Pressure Sodium 2,2 A 3,8 A
400 Mercury Vapour 2,5 A 3,8 A

2.10.2 Luminaire Aiming Angle

o
80 Max

Figure 17-2.1: Luminaire Aiming Angle

2.10.3 Lamp Output Depreciation

Dirt = 80 %

2.10.4 Illumination of a Point

2.10.4.1 Basic Illumination formula

Ι θ .cosθ
E = 2
(Lux) eq. 17-2.1
P r

where:-

EP = Iluminance of light source at point P in lux (lx)

Iθ = Intensity of Light Source in Candela (cd)
r = Distance between light source and point P in metres (m)
o
θ = Angle of elevation of light source I degrees ( )

Figure 17-2.2: Illumination of a Point

2.10.4.2 Horizontal Iluminance

The horizontal Iluminance at point P can be calculated by using the following formula:-

3
Ι θ .cos θ
E = 2
(Lux) eq. 17-2.2
PH h

where:-

EPH = Horizontal Iluminance of light source at point P in lux (lx)

h = Vertical distance between S and P in metres (m)

2.10.4.3 Vertical Iluminance

The vertical Iluminance at point P can be calculated by using the following formula:-

2
Ι θ .cos θ.sinθ
E = 2
(Lux) eq. 17-2.3
PV h

where:-

EPV = Vertical Iluminance of light source at point P in lux (lx)

S
Iθ

r Components of E
h

EPV
EP
EPH

Figure 17-2.3: Vertical or Horizontal Iluminance

Vertical or Horizontal Luminance

This is the reflected light that enables us to see objects.

Ε P .ρ 2
L= (cd/m ) eq. 17-2.4
π

where:-
2
L = Vertical or horizontal luminance candela per square metre (cd/m )
ρ = Reflectivity of surface
E = Vertical or horizontal Iluminance

Horizontal Iluminance
3
I θ .cos θ
E PH = 2
eq. 17-2.5
h

where:-

EpH = Illumination on surface at point P in Lux

Iθ = Intensity of Source in Candela (Cd)
h = Vertical height above the surface in metres (m)

where:-

S = Light source
P = Measurement point

3. DETAILED DESIGN REQUIREMENTS

3.1 High Voltage Yard Illumination

The operational floodlighting design must provide a minimum average horizontal illuminance of 10 lux (Refer to SANS
0114, Part I-1973, Table I) at yard-stone level within the substation high voltage yards.

3.2 Floodlighting Luminaire

The floodlight luminaire required for the operational floodlight design shall comply with the specification provided.

X = Height of Mast Platform above Ground Level

Case A) Area to be implemented where a fair level of light uniformity is required throughout

4.X

4.X Area to be Illuminated

a) Plan

4.X
4.X

b) Isometric View

Figure 17-2.4: Masts Set at Perimeter Corners for Small Areas

For small lighting areas, lighting mast separation should not be more than four times the flood light mounting height on
the lighting mast, regardless of the number of flood lights per mast.

Case B) Area to be implemented where a fair level of light uniformity is required throughout

2.X 4.X 2.X

4.X Area to be Illuminated

a) Plan

2.X

4.X 4.X

2.X

b) Isometric View

Figure 17-2.5: Masts Set in from the Corners

For perimeter masts set in from the corners, lighting mast s should be no further than twice the flood light mounting
height, and the separation of the masts should not be more than four times the flood light mounting height on the
lighting mast, regardless of the number of flood lights per mast.

Case C) To be implemented wherever possible to reduce the number of floodlight masts required and thus the total cost
of the installation.

2.X 4.X 2.X

2.X

Area to be Illuminated

2.X

a) Plan

2.X

4.X
X
2.X

2.X

b) Isometric View

Figure 17-2.6: Masts Set in the Centre of Yard

For large areas at up to 5 fc (53,8 lux), lighting masts fitted with multi-luminaire mountings located in the centre of the
area and set in from the corners, lighting mast should be no further than twice the flood light mounting height from the
perimeter, and the separation of the masts should not be more than four times the flood light mounting height on the
lighting mast, regardless of the number of flood lights per mast.

Case D) Area to be implemented where a high level of light uniformity is required throughout.

4.X 4.X

4.X Area to be Illuminated

a) Plan

4.X

b) Isometric View

Figure 17-2.7: Masts Set on the Perimeter of the Yard

For levels above 5 fc (53,8 lux), masts should not be more than four times the mounting height apart. This applies both
across area lighted and between masts.

4.X

Figure 17-2.8: Filament or Fluorescent Corridor-type Lighting

For corridor-type lighting, whether filament of fluorescent sources are used, lamps should not be further than four times
the distance above the surface illuminated

3.3 Electrical Installation

3.3.1 Point of Supply

The point of supply should be provided for at the 400/230 V main AC board which is a stand alone panel situated within
the control room, and indicated on the substation’s AC block diagram drawing.

3.3.2 Point of Control

The point of control will be dependent on the customer’s requirements.

a) For operating and maintenance requirements the circuits can be controlled from:-

i) The point of supply

ii) An independent floodlighting board inside the control room

iii) A floodlighting kiosk situated outside, having its circuits remotely controlled from a switch box situated within
the control room.

b) For security operating requirements the circuits can be controlled remotely from:-

i) A switch box for the floodlighting board can be situated within the Access Control Building if there is one, or the
kiosk can be situated inside or outside the control room.

ii) A normally open potential free contact present within the security fence monitoring equipment. This contact
shall close when a break in the security fence has been detected.

3.4 Cable Reticulation

The cables should be positioned in existing cable trenches where possible. Where the cables are buried other services
such as the terrace drainage should be avoided where possible. Cable junction boxes should be positioned in trenches
to reduce the quantity of cable required. Where the cables are buried, the required depth should be 500 mm below the
finished terrace level. Cable route markers should be positioned on the surface above the cable while cable marker tape
shall be buried 200 mm above the cable to indicate its presence when digging. All reticulation cables should have cable
number tags attached to both ends.

Four core PVC insulated PVC bedded SWA PVC sheathed 600/1000V need to be used for all cables whether they are
buried, lie in trenches, or inside the floodlighting masts. Three of the four cores should carry the line currents while the
fourth shall be the neutral conductor, carrying current only when the phase conductors have a current imbalance.

The cable conductor must be adequately sized, so that the running and starting currents drawn by the floodlighting
luminaires do not exceed its current rating, and the volt-drop occurring between the point of supply and the point of
consumption does not exceed the statutory.

3.5 Mast Foundations

The soil bearing pressure must be considered at each site to ensure the mast foundations have been adequately
designed to support fully laden floodlighting masts.

The mast foundations should be shown on the substation Foundation, Trench and Earth-mat Layout drawings as
indicated in Appendix E-1.2.

3.6 Earthing

The steel wire armouring should be used as the earth continuity conductor between the point of supply and the point of
consumption. The steel wire armouring must be connected to the main substation earth-mat at the point of supply and
the floodlighting mast at the point of consumption. The floodlighting mast should further be connected to the main
substation earth-mat.

The earth-mat connections is to be shown on the substation Foundation, Trench and Earth-mat Layout drawings as
indicated in Appendix E-1.2.

3.7 Mast Steelwork

The design is to provide for masts of varying heights according to the type of high voltage yard present at the substation.
Mast heights are chosen to correspond with the height of the main steelwork within the high voltage yard.

Table 17-2.1: Typical Mast Heights

High Voltage Yard (kV ) Mast Height

(m)
400 24
275/220 18
132 14
88/66 10

The mast can be of the tubular type with caged ladder and fixed platform to safely service the floodlight luminaires.

The mast steelwork is shown on the substation Steelwork Plan drawing as indicated in Appendix E-1.3.

4. DETAILED DESIGN PROCEDURE

4.1 Mast Location Layout

The substation layout design engineer must indicate all the possible areas within the substation high voltage yards
where the masts can be erected. When determining the possible mast positions, future extensions are considered as
well as electrical and working clearances to live high voltage conductors within the substation high voltage yards. (Refer
to Appendix B) Access to existing high voltage equipment as well as available space for the mast erection must also be
considered. A site visit and input from the site personnel needs to ensure that the mast positions do not clash with any
existing services. Generally the mast height is be chosen to correspond with the height of surrounding main steelwork.

All mast positions and heights need to be indicated on the substation Key Plan and Operational Floodlighting Cable
Route and Mast Location Layout drawings. (Refer to Appendix E-1.1)

4.2 Floodlighting Design

Ideally, the mast must be positioned within the areas indicated by the layout design engineer with the following scheme
in mind:-

- Distance between masts should not exceed a length of four times the mast height

- Distance between masts and the substation high voltage yard fence should not exceed a length twice that
of the mast height.

- Centrally positioned masts can reduce the overall quantity of masts required for the design.

The practical implementation of the above scheme where possible, must ensure a uniform illumination level throughout
the high voltage yards. (Refer to paragraph 3.2 above)

Following the positioning of the masts, computer aided floodlighting designs can be performed. These designs shall
determine the quantity and orientation of floodlighting luminaires required at each mast platform, to provide a minimum
average horizontal illuminance level within the high voltage yard of 10 lux at yard-stone level. (Refer
to SANS 0114,1973, Part 1, Table 1) The final design can be produced after examining designs submitted from various
approved floodlight luminaire manufacturers, using floodlight lamps and luminaires of a similar lumen output and beam
spread as requested. (Refer to SLDG 17-3 Appendix A)

The floodlighting designs are generally performed separately for each yard but should be examined as a whole, as there
can be large quantities of light spilling from one yard into another. This can reduce the total quantity of floodlight
luminaires and possibly the number of masts required for the complete floodlighting design.

Vertical illumination needs to be considered at critical high voltage equipment, such as transformers, capacitor banks,
and reactor banks. Sufficient illumination at these critical high voltage devices should be provided from different masts
where possible, so as to reduce shadows.

The level of illuminance in areas of substation high voltage yards, where no high voltage electrical equipment will be
installed, can be reduced below the minimum level. This implies that the number of luminaires and possibly the number
of masts can be reduced.

Floodlighting masts shall be utilised completely to reduce their number to a minimum, as this will be the most cost
effective design. By minimising the number of masts and fully utilising those remaining, the illumination level should
differ greatly throughout the yard, thereby implying a reduction in the overall efficiency of the design.

Ideally, the maximum diversity factor (Eave/Emin) should not exceed 5:1, while Emax/Emin should not exceed 20:1, so as to
prevent excessive glare and discomfort to personnel performing operating and maintenance work after dark.

The luminaire schedule showing type and quantity to be installed at each mast platform must be included on the
Operational Floodlighting Luminaire Orientation drawing together with the recommended orientation of each
luminaire and its angle of elevation. This drawing needs to be read in conjunction with the Operational Floodlighting
Cable Route and Mast Location Layout or the Key Plan drawings so as to correctly orientate the floodlight luminaires
on the mast platform concerned.

4.3 Electrical Design

After establishing the following details, the Cable Route and Mast Location Layout and the 400/230 V AC Schematic
and Cable Block Diagram drawings need to be produced:-

4.3.1 Point/s of Supply and Control

The point/s of supply the point/s of control needs to be determined by the customer, according to the possible design
requirements previously discussed.

4.3.2 Load Calculation

After having establishing the number of floodlight luminaires at each mast platform and which masts that are to be
included within each circuit, the connected loads of each circuit can be determined as well as the total connected load of
the complete floodlight installation. The floodlight luminaires should be distributed as evenly between the phases as
possible at the mast platform, so as to reduce unbalance where possible.

Power rating of high pressure sodium lamp:-

PLAMP = 400 (W) (usually)

Add 25% of PLAMP to take into account the control circuit.

Therefore:-

PLUMINAIRE = 1,25.PLAMP (W) eq. 17-2.6

where:-

PLUMINAIRE = Power drawn by luminaire in watts (W)

The normal operating supply current drawn by the complete installation can be calculated as follows:

PLUMINAIRE .n
In = (A) eq. 17-2.7
3 .Vpp .cosφ

where:-

In = Phase-to-neutral supply current through n luminaires in amperes (A)

n = Number of luminaires
Vpp = Phase-to-phase voltage in volts (V) (=400 V)
φ
cosφ = p.f. = 0.85 ( For all floodlight luminaires)

The starting supply current can be calculated as follows:-

IS = 3 .I n (A)

where:-

IS = Starting supply current in amperes (A)

4.3.3 Volt-drop Calculation (SEE, SANS 0142:1993)

The volt-drop due to a conductor can be calculated as follows:

4.3.3.1 Pure Resistive Load

FV .I.R.L
VD = (V) eq. 17-2.8
1000

where:-

VD = Drop in voltage in volts (V)

FV = Factor due to an unbalanced load (See 4.3.4)
I = Current drawn by load in amperes (A)
R = Resistance of conductor ( Ω/km )
L = Length of conductor ( m )

4.3.3.2 Resistive and Reactive Load

FV .I.(R.cosφ + X.sinφ).L
VD = (V) eq. 17-2.9
1000

where:-

X = Reactance of conductor (Ω/km )

o
φ = phase angle ( )

Note: The volt-drop for a given current at unity power factor will in most cases represent the worst case volt-
drop.

4.3.4 Unbalance: (See, SANS 0142: 1993)

The loads at mast platforms are to be balanced to prevent an inflated volt-drop, caused by currents flowing along the
neutral conductors, due to load imbalances.

IH − IL
Unbalance = eq. 17-2.10
IH

where:-

IH = Largest phase current at point of consumption drawn by load in amperes (A)

IL = Lowest phase current at point of consumption drawn by load in amperes (A)

If Unbalance < 0.75 then FV=1

If Unbalance > 0.75 then FV=2

The neutral current (INEUTRAL) flowing within the neutral conductor due to an unbalanced system, can be calculated as
follows:-

2 2 2
I neutral = IR + IW + I B − ( I R .I W ) − I R .I B ) − ( I W .I B ) (A) eq. 17-2.11

where:-

IR,IW,IB = Phase currents at the point of consumption drawn by load in amperes (A)

4.3.3 Cable Determination

After establishing by measurement the length of each cable, and having previously calculated the connected load of
each circuit, the cable size is determined as follows:-

a) Initially choose the size of cable conductor that is sufficient to carry that circuit’s starting and running currents, taking
installation conditions into account. (Refer to Table 1 & 2 in Appendix C)

b) Determine the impedance of the chosen cable conductor (Refer to Table 3 in Appendix C).

c) Calculate the volt-drop between the point of supply and the connected load (Refer to paragraph 4.3.3 above), taking
into account the possible unbalanced loading of phases (Refer to paragraph 4.3.4 above).

d) This volt-drop shall not exceed 5% of the supply voltage (11,5 V for the statutory single phase supply voltage of 230
V AC). (Refer to SANS 0142: 1993)

e) If a volt-drop of 5% of the supply voltage is exceeded, the cable size shall be increased or the possible unbalance of
phase loads shall be improved and the volt-drop re-calculated.

f) Cable number of the installation’s supply cable/s, is a requirement.

5. INSTALLATION WORK REQUIREMENTS

5.1 Working Drawings

Drawings with the following titles are suggested for that specific substation’s operational floodlighting installation, to
enable the contractor to perform the installation work:-

a) Operational Floodlighting Cable Route and Mast Location Layout drawing should indicate the cable size and
routes to be used throughout the installation including the mast locations and their heights. A cable schedule is used
to indicate the lengths of all reticulation cables laid to be laid in the cable trenches or buried underground.

b) Operational Floodlighting 400/230 V AC Schematic and Cable Block Diagram drawing should indicate the
electrical schematic layout of the installation.

c) Operational Floodlighting Luminaire Orientation drawing needs to indicate the quantity and direction of all
luminaires at each mast.

The following suggested substation drawings need to be marked up to include the operational floodlighting masts,
foundations and earthmat connections:-

(Refer to Appendix F)

a) Key Plan

b) Foundation, Trench and Earth-mat Layouts

c) Steelwork Marking Plan

Suggested standard drawing required for the complete substation operational floodlighting installation are
listed in Appendix G.1.

5.2 Installation Specification

This document should be provided to ensure that the standard of electrical and installation work to be carried out,
including the quality of materials and components used, is acceptable to the utility. A full list of the necessary standard
drawing and specifications need to be included to ensure all standards and requirements are adhered to.

All specifications relevant to the handling and/or manufacture of components and materials used in the
complete operational floodlighting installation are listed in Appendix F.2.

6. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The above design guide outlines the most important requirements and procedures necessary for the design of an
acceptable operational floodlighting installation within the high voltage yards of a transmission substation. The design
guide provides a step by step procedure for the successful and acceptable design of the complete installation. All
necessary specifications, formulae, tables and references are provided.

It is recommended that the contractor performing the work needs to submit any changes to the owner for approval.
Marked up drawings of these changes should be submitted once the installation has been completed to ensure
drawings correspond to the as built installation. This will ensure that future additions and changes can easily be made.

Following the completion of the installation the designer should visit the site to establish by measurement the actual
illumination level within the high voltage yards so as to ensure that the operational floodlighting installation produces an
average horizontal illumination level of 10 lux at yard-stone level and to make necessary adjustments where required.

6. REFERENCES

6.1 Tyler G. Hicks, Standard handbook of engineering calculations, Chapter 4

6.2 Trotter D.A., The lighting of underground mines, Chapter 11

SLDG 17-2 APPENDIX B

ACCEPTABLE ELECTRICAL & WORKING CLEARANCES

System Voltages Minimum Electrical Clearance Minimum Working Clearance

System Nominal System Phase to Phase to Vertical Horizontal
Voltage Highest Earth Phase
(kV) Voltage (m) (m)
(kV) (m) (m)
3,3 3,6 0.08 0.11 2,58 1,18
6,6 7,2 0.15 0.20 2,65 1,25
11 12 0.20 0.27 2,7 1,3
15 17,5 0.23 0.31 2,73 1,33
22 24 0.32 0.43 2,82 1,42
33 36 0.43 0.58 2,93 1.53
44 48 0.54 0.73 3,04 1,64
66 72 0.77 1,05 3,27 1,87
88 100 0.84 1,15 3,34 1,94
(1.00) (1,35) (3,5) (2,1)
132 145 1,20 1,65 3,7 2,3
220 245 1,85 2,30 4,35 2,95
275 300 2,35 2,95 4,85 3,45
330 362 2,90 3,60 5,4 4,0
400 420 3,20 4,00 5,7 4,3
765 800 5,50 8,00 8,0 6,6

Notes: Bracketed figures for 88 kV are for full insulation and to be used only where the system is not
effectively earthed.

Typical man to be considered when performing a design (See also SLDG 4):

Live Component
Cwh

Ce
1100 Ce

Live
Component
Cwv
2438

Average height of man : 1,75 m

Average vertical reach of man : 2,438 m

Average horizontal reach of man : 1,100 m

SLDG 17-2 APPENDIX C

CABLE AND CONDUCTOR DATA

Table 17-2C.1: Standard rating for armoured 600/1000 V extruded solid dielectric CU insulated cables:
o
Maximum conductor temperature 70 C

( Refer to table 14, SABS 0198 : Part IV 1988)

area Current rating for standard conditions of installation ( A )
2
(mm ) in ground in pipes in air
(3 or 4 cores) (3 or 4 cores) (3 or 4 cores)
1.5 24 20 20
2.5 32 26 26
4 42 34 36
6 53 43 45
10 70 58 62
16 91 75 82
25 119 96 109
35 143 116 133
50 169 138 162
70 210 171 205
95 251 205 252
120 285 234 291

INSTALLATION CONDITIONS
Depth of burial: 500 mm
o
Soil temp. : 25 C
Thermal resistance of soil : 1,2 K,m/W

Table 17-2C.2: Current Carrying Capacity Of PVC-Insulated Copper Cables (Refer to Table 5 of SABS 0142: 1993)
Nominal cross- Current carrying capacity
sectional area of (A)
o
conductor 35 C ambient temperature
2
(mm ) 25% neutral imbalance for 3 & 4 core cables
1 & 2 cores relate to single - phase conditions
3 & 4 cores relate to three - phase conditions
Installation Method Of Cable
1 2 3 4 5
1-2 3-4 1-2 3-4 1-2 3-4 1-2 3-4 1
core core core core core core core core core
1,0 12,5 10,5 12 10 14 12 15,5 13
1,5 16 13,5 14,5 12,5 18 15,5 20,5 16,5
2,5 22 18,5 19 17 24 21 28 22
4 30 25 26 23 32 28 37 30 32
6 38 32 31 29 43 37 47 38 41
10 53 45 47 41 59 51 65 54 55
16 71 61 63 55 79 68 88 72 74
25 94 80 84 69 105 86 111 91 99
35 117 100 103 85 129 107 139 113 123
50 141 120 125 106 157 129 170 138 150
70 180 154 157 134 200 166 218 176 194
95 218 186 188 161 242 201 265 214 238
120 252 215 218 185 281 233 308 249 277

Type Installation Method Of Cable

1 Cables in trunking, wire-ways or conduit
2 Multi-core cables in trunking or conduit mounted on a wall or on a floor
3 Single and multi-core cables
- mounted direct on wall
- mounted direct on floor
- mounted on un-perforated cable trays
- mounted under plaster
4 Single and multi-core cables installed in free air or on perforated racks or ladders
5 Single cores in trefoil on a rack

o
Table 17-2C.3: Impedance Of Various Sizes Of 600/1000 VCU Conductors That Comply With SABS 1507 At 70 C
Conductor Temperature (Refer to Table C.1 - SABS 0142: 1993)

Area Conductor Resistance (R) Conductor Reactance (X) SWA cable used according to :
2
(mm ) (ohms/km) (ohms/km) drawing 0.00/1310

1 21.9 0.107 -
1.5 14.6 0.1 BVX4CCV
2.5 8.7 0.095 BVX4DCV
4 5.5 0.093 BVX4ECV
6 3.6 0.09 BVX4FCV
10 2.2 0.084 BVX4GCV
16 1.4 0.08 BVX4HCV
25 0.87 0.079 BVX4KCV
35 0.63 0.076 BVX4LCV
50 0.44 0.076 BVX4MCV
70 0.31 0.074 BVX4NCV
95 0.23 0.073 BVX4PCV
120 0.18 0.072 BVX4QCV

Each cable is thermally independent

o
Ambient air temp. : 30 C

CU conductors

SLDG 17-2 APPENDIX D

QUICK FLOODLIGHTING DESIGN GUIDELINES

1. Maximum height of floodlighting masts within high voltage yards are as follows:

High Voltage Yard (kV) Mast Height ( m )

400 24
275/220 18
132 14
88/66 10

2. Minimum average Horizontal Illuminance (Eave) at crusher stone level within the high voltage yard shall be 10 lux.

3. Eave/Emin should not exceed 5:1.

4. Emax/Emin should not exceed 20:1 to prevent excessive glare and discomfort.

5. Vertical Iluminance needs to be considered at transformers, capacitor banks, reactors, etc.

6. Distance between the sides of high voltage yards and mast bases should approximately be twice the luminaire
mounting height.

7. Distance between adjacent masts should approximately be four times the luminaire mounting height

8. 400 W high pressure sodium luminaires with clear tubular lamps having a narrow beam should be used throughout
the high voltage yard.

9. The supply current and floodlight luminaire requirements can be estimated by assuming that for High Pressure
2
Sodium floodlight luminaires approximately 0.25 W / m will be required to suitably illuminate the substation high
voltage yards.

10. Data for High Pressure Sodium floodlight luminaire with 400W clear tubular lamp to be used:-

o o
Beam spread : 71-100 horizontal, 19-29 vertical
Starting current : 3,8 A
Running current : 2,2 A
Starting time : 3-5 minutes
Luminous flux of lamp : 48 000 lm
Supply : 230V / 50 Hz

11. The various circuits consist of a number of four core cables running in existing cable trenches where possible and
otherwise buried. These cables run from the main point of supply to and between mast termination boards in the
bases of floodlighting masts. From here a 4 core cable is run up the inside of the mast to a platform junction box.
The single phase loads (luminaires) are connected from busbars within the platform junction box and balanced
where possible.

Watertight trench junction boxes need to be used to reduce unnecessary cable lengths where possible.

12. The statutory voltage drop of 5% between the point of supply and the mast junction box on the mast platform must
not be exceeded while cables must be adequate for the running and starting currents.

SLDG 17-2 APPENDIX E

FLOODLIGHT MAST SYMBOLS & DETAILS

1.1 Operational floodlighting mast details should be added to the Key Plan / General Arrangement, and the Cable
Route and Mast Location Layout drawings as follows:-

SYMBOL HIGH VOLTAGE YARD (kV) MAST HEIGHT (m)

66/88 10
OLMXX

132 14
OLMXX

220/275 18

OLMXX

400 24
OLMXX

Example of details added to the legend:-

SYMBOL NOTE

INDICATES 24 METER OPERATIONAL

FLOODLIGHTING MAST POSITION

INDICATES 14 METER OPERATIONAL

FLOODLIGHTING MAST POSITION

1.2 Operational floodlighting mast foundation details shall be added to the Foundation, Trench and Earth-mat
Layout drawing as follows:-

SYMBOL HIGH VOLTAGE YARD MAST HEIGHT

(kV) (m)

66/88 10

OLMXX

132 14

OLMXX

220/275 18

OLMXX

400 24

OLMXX

Example of details to be added to the main base foundation schedule:-

275 kV MAIN BASES SCHEDULE ‘A’

ITEM MARK TYPE NO FOUND. LEVEL REMARKS
OFF (EXCL. GROUT)
Operational OLM01 to 18m 3 150mm above Located in
Floodlight OLM03 terrace level 275 kV yard
Masts
Addition to notes:-

SYMBOL NOTE
INDICATES OPERATIONAL
FLOODLIGHTING MAST FOUNDATIONS HAVING 4
CABLE ENTRY PIPES AND
OLMXX EARTH MAT CONNECTIONS

1.3 Operational floodlighting mast details to be added to the Steelwork Marking Plan drawing as follows:-

SYMBOL HIGH VOLTAGE YARD MAST HEIGHT (m)

(kV)

66/88 10

OLMXX

132 14

OLMXX

220/275 18

OLMXX

400 24

OLMXX

Example of details to be added to the main steelwork schedule:-

400 kV MAIN STEELWORK SCHEDULE

ITEM MARK TYPE No OFF
Operational OLM01.OLM02& 24m 6
Floodlight OLM04 to OLM07
Masts

Addition to notes:-

SYMBOL NOTE

INDICATES OPERATIONAL
FLOODLIGHTING MAST POSITION AND
ORIENTATION OF CAGED LADDER
OLMXX

SLDG 17-2 APPENDIX F

STANDARD SPECIFICATIONS

SPECIFICATION TITLE
SABS 0142 - 1993 Code of practice for the wiring of premises.
SABS 0198, Part I to XIV Selection, handling and installation of electric power cables.
NWS 1582 Eskom Standard Specification for labelling.
NWS 1530 Eskom Standard Specification for submission of drawing for approval.
SABS 1186-1993 Labelling requirements
SABS 1091 - 1975 Paint.
BS 158 Switchgear, busbars, main connections and auxiliary wiring.
SABS 1195, BS 159 Busbar and busbar connections.
SABS 1507 Cables.
SABS 791 - 1975 Unplasticised PVC pipes.
SABS 1200- 1979 Earth works (pipe trenches).
BS 4360 Mild steel.
SABS 763 Corrosion protection, hot-dip galvanised.
SABS 152 Air break switches.
SABS 1092 Contactors.
IEC 157 Circuit breakers.
SABS 156 Moulded-case circuit breakers.
SABS 161 LV porcelain insulators.
SABS 171 Surge arrestors for LV distribution systems.
SABS 1266/7 Ballasts for high intensity discharge lamps.
SABS 1222 Ingress protection rating.
SABS 791 PVC piping
SABS 1250 & Capacitors for use with discharge lamp ballasts
IEC DOC NO. 566
SABS 1277/8/9-1980 Street & floodlighting luminaires
IEC 439 - 1 LV switchgear assemblies.
IEC 144 Degrees of protection of enclosures of LV switchgear.

SLDG 17-2 APPENDIX G

FLOODLIGHTING LUMINAIRE

1. GENERAL REQUIREMENTS

The floodlighting luminaire CAN be supplied according to the following specification with lamp, control gear, wiring,
and an adjustable mounting bracket having protractor scales for accurate vertical and horizontal adjustments when
fixed to the platform of the mast.

2. SUPPORTING SPECIFICATIONS

SANS 1277/8/9-1980 : Street & Flood lighting luminaire requirements.

SANS 1266/7 : Ballasts for high intensity discharge lamps.
SANS 1250 & IEC Doc. no. 566 : Capacitors for use with discharge lamp ballasts.
SANS 0142 - 1993 : Code of practice for the wiring of premises.
SANS 1222-1985 : Ingress protection rating of enclosures for electrical equipment.
NWS 1582 : Eskom Standard Specification for labelling.
SANS 1186-1993 : Labelling requirements.

3. ESKOM DRAWINGS

0.00/1310 : Power/control cable code.

0.00/5007 : Labelling requirements.

4. BEAM SPREAD

0 0
The beam spread shall be H5V2 [71-100 horizontal, 19-29 vertical] according to SABS 1279 - 1980 (Appendix E)

5. LAMP REQUIREMENTS

A single 400 W clear tubular high pressure sodium lamp should be used for normal operational floodlighting
requirements, while a single 400 W clear tubular twin-arc standby high pressure sodium lamp should be used where
the operational floodlighting installation is controlled remotely by the security fence monitoring equipment.

6. SUPPLY VOLTAGE

The voltage at the supply terminals shall be 230 V AC, 50 Hz. The power factor must be 0.85 at the supply terminals.

7. LUMINAIRE REQUIREMENTS

a) Control gear is to be integral or be accommodated in a robust non-corrodible container attached to the luminaire
mounting bracket.

b) Ballasts must comply with SANS 1266/7. Capacitors must comply with SANS 1250 & IEC Document No. 566.

c) The electronic ignition device is to be suitable for the ballast and lamp supplied and also suitable for use with any
other 400 W high pressure sodium lamp currently available on the local market. Pulsing of the ignitor on a failed
lamp must not have a deleterious effect on ignitor, ballast, lamp holder or wiring.

d) Luminaires should comply with SABS 1277/8/9 and are to be so designed and constructed that they are capable
of providing the service for which they are intended without undue deterioration in their safety, performance or
appearance during normal life and under normal conditions.

e) Luminaires need to be designed to facilitate easy installation and maintenance. All connections, components,
and screws are to be easily accessible. Screws should be of the captive type.

f) The luminaires body with all toggles, fixing screws, hinges, clips etc. must be manufactured from non-corrodible
materials.

g) Positive and substantial means of fixing the luminaire to its mounting bracket. The mounting bracket provided
shall be designed to allow adjustment and to ensure that once set in the required position the luminaire remains
fixed.

h) Protractor scales need to be firmly fixed to floodlighting luminaire allowing for horizontal and vertical angular
settings. The angular setting must not be prone to alteration during re-lamping and cleaning operations.

i) Wiring between the control gear and lamp-holder housings must be suitable for the voltage transients and
temperatures involved. BVV3ECV wiring should be used on the mast platform between the mast junction box and
the luminaire control gear housing (See Figure 0.00/1310).

j) Cable entries to lamp-holder and control gear housing should be made through nylon compression glands
suitable for outdoor use.

k) The luminaire must have a ingress protection rating of IP55 according to SABS 1222-1985.

l) The luminaire body and control gear housing should be made from die cast aluminium alloy and be suitably
coated for extra corrosion resistance where required.

m) The luminaire front lens need to be armoured glass and suitably heat resistant..

n) The luminaire specular reflector and deflector blades should be manufactured from pure anodised aluminium.

o) The lamp replacement should be made through a side mounted cast aluminium lamp-holder housing.

8. LABELLING

a) All labelling needs to be as specified in accordance with SABS 1186:1993 and the utilities standards.

b) The luminaire control gearbox is to be labelled indicating manufacturer, luminaire catalogue number, and size
and type of lamp used.

c) The label plate should be fabricated from sheet aluminium with a minimum thickness of 1 mm and firmly attached
to the luminaire’s control gear box using “Pratley kwikset” or equal white glue. The surfaces are to be cleaned
with acetone before application of glue.

9. ALTERNATIVES

The insertion of a name of any firm in this specification is for the purpose of obtaining a class or quality of material,
workmanship, and design. This shall be used as a basis for pricing only. The tenderer is be at liberty to offer goods of
equal quality of material, workmanship and design, provided that such alternatives are approved by the utility before
the order is placed. The alternatives should be indicated in the tender documents.

10. LIGHTING TERMINOLOGY

10.1 Luminous Flux

Unit: Lumen (lm). Symbol ∅

The total light emitted by a light source, whether a lamp or a luminaire. A

Lumen is a measure of light flux irrespective of direction.
10.2 Luminous Intensity Unit: Candela (cd). Symbol I

The power of a light source to emit light in a given direction. It is the

luminous flux within a very small angle in a specified direction.
10.3 Iluminance Unit: Lux. Symbol E

The density of luminous flux falling on a surface. It is an indication of the

Quantity not the Quality of illumination.
10.4 Luminous Efficiency Unit : Light Output Ratio (LOR)

The ratio of the total luminous flux from a luminaire compared to the
luminous flux of the bare lamps used in it.

A luminaire reflector, or any other light control system, is designed to direct

the light from a bare lamp in the direction where it will be most useful.
Such a system absorbs some of the light emitted by the lamps. The total
LOR of a luminaire is often taken as it’s “efficiency”, however, this tells us
nothing about how the light is distributed.

10.5 Coefficient of Utilisation The ratio of the total luminous flux from a luminaire received on the working
(Utilisation Factor.) plane compared to the luminous flux of the bare lamps used in it.

The proportion of the light emitted by the lamps which actually reaches the
working plane is determined by multiplying the total lamp lumens by the co-
efficient of utilisation (Utilisation Factor) contained in the photometric data
sheets. These allow for the light distribution of the luminaire, the
proportions of the room in which it is used and the reflection factors of
walls, ceiling and floor.

10.6 Polar Curve or Polar Graphs A graphical representation indicating the variation of luminous intensity of a
light source measured through the light centre at set angles in the same
plane. The values are given as candelas per thousand lumens (cd/klm) of
lamp output.

For luminaires having a symmetrical distribution, only one curve is shown.

For asymmetrical luminaries, there are usually three - transverse, axial and
average.
10.7 Isolux Curves A line plotted on a set of co-ordinates which shows all the points on a
surface where the illuminance is the same. A series of such lines for
various illuminance values is called an isolux diagram.

This provides a simple method of determining the illuminance over an area

from a specific floodlight mounted at a known height and aimed at a
specific angle. Tables are given showing actual values at different
mounting heights for the same aiming angle. Isolux diagrams can be
superimposed on one another to determine the illuminanace from an array
of luminaries.

10.8 Lamp Life Lamp life values set out in the Lamp Operating Data table are based upon
test results obtained from a large batch of laps operated in free-air under
clearly specified conditions during which the supply voltage and ambient
temperatures are controlled within narrow tolerances. The European
industry from which most lamps are obtained, indicates a “usefull” life
based upon a failure rate which includes such considerations as lumen
maintenance and the economics of lamp replacement. This is in contrast
to the American lamp industry whose rated life values are much higher
because they are simply based upon a 50 % failure rate.

10.9 Lamp Lumens All lamp lumen output data are average values based on technical
information published by the different lamp manufacturers from whom
supplies are obtained. Slight deviations from the stated values are
therefore possible.

10.10 IP (Ingress Protection) IP rating is a system which gives a clear indication of the ability of an
Rating enclosure - in our case a luminaire - to withstand both the ingress of solid
objects of various sizes and water under different conditions of force i.e.
IP45 indicates protection against the entry of solid objects with a granular
size greater than 1 mm and against the entry of water sprayed on to it by a
water jet. The system is described in SABS 1222-1985 “Enclosures for
electrical equipment” (Incorporating EC 529-1976).

Table 17-2G.1: IP Protection Rating

Degree of protection against contact Degree of protection against

and against foreign bodies ingress of water

First Description Second Description

numeral numeral

IP 0 - Non-protected IP 0 - Non-protected

IP 1 - Protected against solid objects greater IP 1 - Protected against dripping water

than 50 mm

IP 2 - Protected against solid objects greater IP 2 - Protected against dripping water when
o
then 12 mm tilted up to 15

IP 3 - Protected against solid objects greater IP 3 - Protected against spraying water

than 2,5 mm

IP 4 - Protected against solid objects greater IP 4 - Protected against splashing water

than 1,0 mm

IP 5 - Dust-protected IP 5 - Protected against water jets

IP 6 - Dust-tight IP 6 - Protected against heavy seas

IP 7 - Protected against the effects of

immersion

IP 8 - Protected against submersion.

Table 17-2G.2: The Information Set Out In the Table Refers Only To the Types of Lamps Described Here
2
Lamps and Graphical Lamps Lamp Watts Line Current (Amps)
Life
1
Representation Type Lumens Hours Lamp Circuit Starting Running
Mercury Vapour - coated
elliptical 80 MVE 3800 12000 80 96 0,90 0,45
125 MVE 6300 12000 125 144 1,35 0,68
250 MVE 13000 12000 250 275 2,60 1,35
400 MVE 22000 12000 400 430 4,20 2,10
Mercury Vapour Blended
- coated elliptical
500 MB 1400 6000 500 500 - 2,20

High Pressure Sodium -

coated elliptical 70 HPSE 5600 12000 70 88 0,72 0,45
150 HPSE 14000 12000 150 184 1,30 0,88
250 HPSE 25000 12000 250 280 2,10 1,42
400 HPSE 47000 12000 400 440 3,80 2,20
High Pressure Sodium - 150 HPST 14500 12000 150 184 1,30 0,88
clear tubular 250 HPST 27000 12000 250 280 2,10 1,42
400 HPST 48000 12000 400 440 3,80 2,20
1000 HPST 130000 8000 1000 1100 8,80 5,50
High Pressure Sodium -
coated elliptical twin-arc
Standby 150 HPSE-SBY 14000 21000 150 184 1,30 0,88
250 HPSE-SBY 26000 21000 250 280 2,10 1,42
400 HPSE-SBY 47000 21000 400 440 3,80 2,20

High Pressure Sodium -

clear tubular twin-arc 150 HPST-SBY 14500 21000 150 184 1,30 0,88
Standby 250 HPST-SBY 28000 21000 250 280 2,10 1,42
400 HPST-SBY 48000 21000 400 440 3,80 2,20

Metal Halide - coated

elliptical 250 MHE 17000 8000 250 280 3,00 1,35
400 MHEH 24000 8000 400 440 3,80 2,20
400 MHEV 26000 8000 400 440 3,80 2,20

Metal halide -clear 250 MHT 19000 8000 250 280 3,00 1,35
tubular 400 MHTH 25000 8000 400 440 3,80 2,20
400 MHTV 28000 8000 400 440 3,80 2,20
1000 MHT 80000 4000 1000 1100 9,6 5,20
Tungsten Halogen -

single ended 250 3800 2000 250 250 - -

500 9500 2000 500 500 - -

Tungsten Halogen - 500 9500 2000 500 500 - -

double ended 1500 33000 2000 1500 1500 - -

Note:

1. After 100 hours burning.

2. Based on a power factor of 0,85 or better.

For isolux curves, see Page 15

Pressure Sodium Watts

L14ST - 250 HPST 250

L14ST - 400 HPST 400

Metal Halide Watts

L14ST - 250 MHT 250

L14ST - 400 MHT 400

ISOLUX DIAGRAMS FOR LIGHT-LINE 14 ST

1 x LIGHTLINE 14 ST - 400HPST 2 x LIGHTLINE 14ST - 400HPST 6 x LIGHTLINE 14ST - 400HPST

o o o
aiming angle 78 aiming angle 78 aiming angle 78

LIGHTLINE 14 ST - 400 HPST

o o
8 x LIGHTLINE 14ST - 400HPST Beam spread : 79 horizontal x 29 1 x LIGHTLINE 14ST - 400HPST /
o
aiming angle 78 vertical HAM (Hammered Reflector) aiming
o
angle 78
Maximum luminous intensity :
o o
2360 cd/klm at 27 top and 0
horizontal

MOUNTING HEIGHT CONVERSION TABLES

Lux Values (Horizontal) for Isolux Lines

LIGHTLINE 14ST - 40 HPST MOUNTING

A B C D E F G H HEIGHT

Hm in m

0,5 1,0 2,0 3,0 4,0 6,0 8,0 10,0 15

0,4 0,7 1,4 2,1 2,8 4,2 5,6 7,0 18
0,3 0,5 1,0 1,5 2,0 3,0 4,1 5,1 21
0,2 0,4 0,8 1,2 1,6 2,3 3,1 3,9 24
0,2 0,3 0,6 0,9 1,2 1,9 2,5 3,1 27
0,1 0,3 0,5 0,8 1,0 1,5 2,0 2,5 30

LIGHTLINE 14ST - 400 HPST / HAM (Hammered reflector) MOUNTING

A B C D E F G H HEIGHT

Hm in m

1,4 2,8 5,6 8,3 11,1 16,7 22,2 27,8 6

0,8 1,6 3,1 4,7 6,3 9,4 12,5 15,6 8
0,5 1,0 2,0 3,0 4,0 6,0 8,0 10,0 10
0,4 0,7 1,4 2,1 2,8 4,2 5,6 6,9 12
0,2 0,4 0,9 1,3 1,8 2,7 3,6 4,4 15

SLDG 17 - 3

AN EXAMPLE OF OPERATIONAL LIGHTING SPECIFICATION, DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION

1. TECHNICAL SPECIFICATION (APPENDIX ‘A’)

The Technical Specification precisely defines the extent of the work that the “contractor” has to undertake. It also
describes the technical criteria and parameters within which this work is to be carried out. An example of such a
specification is given in SLDG 17-3 Appendix ‘A’. The example given is for a large new substation and should therefore
cover most of the aspects, if not all, that would be required in the case of extensions or refurbishments.

2. FLOODLIGHTING DESIGN REPORT (APPENDIX ‘B’)

This report is produced by a computer software package called AUTO-SITE-LITE which is copy righted and maintained
by:-

Lighting Sciences Inc., Arizona, USA. It calculates the number and positions of lighting masts of given heights and
types of luminaires, also giving the angles and direction at which luminaires should be directed to optimise the lighting
intensity. Finally, it provides a graphical representation of the layout as shown in SLDG 17-3 Appendix ‘B’.

APPENDIX ‘A’

ATHENE SUBSTATION

OPERATIONAL FLOODLIGHTING FOR 400 kV AND 132 kV YARDS

PART 2C : TECHNICAL SPECIFICATION

SECTION 10.4 : LV RETICULATION AND MISCELLANEOUS WORKS

UTILITY: ESKOM
TRANSMISSION SUBSTATION TECHNOLOGY
CIVIL SECTION
MEGAWATT PARK
OCTOBER 1994

ATHENE SUBSTATION
OPERATIONAL FLOODLIGHTING FOR 400 kV AND 132 kV YARDS
PART 2C : TECHNICAL SPECIFICATION
SECTION 10.4 : LV RETICULATION AND MISCELLANEOUS WORKS

1. EXTENT OF WORK

1.1 The supply, delivery, off-loading, installation, testing, commissioning, handing over and 3 months free
maintenance of all material and equipment specified or implied in the following pages and drawings for the
complete LV cable reticulation and miscellaneous works for the operational floodlighting, except those materials
and equipment which are under a separate contract.

1.2 The design of LV distribution kiosk, kiosk plinth or mounting plate, adjustable mounting bracket with protractor
scales for the vertical and horizontal adjustment of luminaires, and junction box on platform of each mast, shall be
the contractor’s responsibility.

2. ESKOM’S OR OTHER RESPONSIBILITIES

2.1 Supply Delivery and Installation of:-

2.1.1 TP100A circuit breaker at point of supply in 400/230 V AC main board in control building.

2.1.2 All cable trenches

2.1.3 Bonding of the masts to the main earth mat

2.1.4 All floodlighting masts with the following heights:-

(a. 400 kV yard - 24 m

(b. 132 kV yard - 14 m

2.1.5 Mast plinths with cable entry sleeves

2.1.6 Access caged ladder, platform, and lockable door at mast termination board, for each mast

2.1.7 Mounting rails suitable for fixing luminaire brackets on platform of each mast

2.1.8 Welded brackets with bolts inside and near the bottom of each mast for the fixing of mast termination board rails

2.1.9 Mounting bracket at the centre of each mast platform, for the fixing of the mast junction box

2.1.10 Cable entry point at the top of each mast beneath platform

3. INTERPRETATION

Supporting specification for electrical works:-

SANS 0142 – 1993 : Code of practice for the wiring of premises.

SANS 0198 -
Part I to XIV : Selection, handling and installation of electric power cables.

NWS 1582 : Eskom Standard Specification for labelling.

NWS 1530 : Eskom Standard Specification for submission of drawing for approval.

4. MATERIALS

Electrical work, materials, etc, shall comply with the following specifications and requirements:-

SANS 1091 - 1975 : Paint.

BS 158 : Switchgear, busbars, main connections and auxiliary wiring.

SANS 1195, BS 159 : Busbar and busbar connections.

SANS 1507 : Cables.

SANS 791 - 1975 : Unplasticised PVC pipes.

SANS 1200 - DB 1979 : Earth works (pipe trenches).

BS 4360 : Mild steel.

SANS 763 : Corrosion protection, hot-dip galvanised.

SANS 152 : Air break switches.

SANS 1092 : Contractors.

IEC 157 : Circuit breakers.

SANS 156 : Moulded-case circuit breakers.

SANS 161 : LV porcelain insulators.

SANS 171 : Surge arrestors for LV distribution systems.

SANS 1266/7 : Ballasts for HPS lamps.

SANS 1277/8/9 : Street lighting luminaires.

IEC 439 - 1 : LV switchgear assemblies.

IEC 144 : Degrees of protection of enclosures of LV switchgear.

5. SITE CONDITION OF SERVICE

5.1. Climatic Conditions

5.1.1 Altitude of site : 30 m

5.1.2 Maximum peak air temperature : 40ºC

5.1.3 Maximum daily average air temperature : 30ºC

5.1.4 Minimum air temperature : 12ºC

5.1.5 Climate : Humid

5.1.6 Lightning area : Low

5.2 Site Access

The site is situated at Athene Substation, approximately 5 km from Empangeni.

Rail Access : There are no rail facilities at the site

Road Access : Yes

6. SYSTEM CONDITIONING

6.1 Frequency : 50 Hz
6.2. High voltage : 11 kV 3-phase (existing)
6.3 Normal low voltage supply : 400/230 V, 3-phase, 4-wire
6.4 Network characteristic : Cable
6.5 Fault current : At 400/230 V AC main board : 10 kA
At kiosk : 10 kA
Termination board at masts : 5kA

7. POINT OF SUPPLY

7.1 LV distribution kiosk that is located outside the control building shall be supplied from the existing 400/230 V AC
main board in control building. For details refer to 400/230 V AC Schematic and Cable Block diagram.

7.2 The contractor shall terminate and connect the LV cable to the existing TP100A circuit breaker. The cable gland
shall be fixed to the existing cable gland plate at the bottom of the main board.

7.3 It will be the contractor’s responsibility to arrange with the Eskom site representative for the connection of the
cable.

8. LOW VOLTAGE ARMOURED CABLE AND TERMINATION

8.1 The contractor shall supply, install, terminate and connect all LV armoured cables including cable pipes,
excavation and backfilling where cables are buried.

8.2 Type of cable - PVC sheathed, single wire armoured, and PVC served, 1000 V general purpose grade, with
copper conductors in accordance with SANS 1507 as amended and Eskom standard drawing; 0.00/1310. For
size and schedule of cables refer to the Cable Route and Mast Location layout and 400/230 V AC Schematic
and Cable Block diagram.

8.3 Route of cables shall be in accordance with the Cable Route and Mast Location layout, and shall be installed as
follows :

8.3.1 In control building, in existing cable trench on existing horizontal cable rack next to the existing cables. The
contractor shall arrange with the Eskom site representative for the exact location of cables.

8.3.2 In substation yard, at the bottom of existing cable trenches, next to the existing cables. Where the cables must
exit the existing cable trenches into open excavations, the cables shall pass below the existing cable trench wall
foundation. Where required existing cable trench covers shall be removed and after the installation of the
cables these covers shall be replaced in the original position. Any damage to the trench and/or trench covers
shall be the contractor’s responsibility.

8.3.3 In cable pipes at the mast and in any additional cable pipes where crossing other services, if required.

8.3.4 In masts, from the mast termination board near the bottom to the junction box on the mast platform.

8.4 Cable Termination

“Pratley” or equal cable gland shall be used for all cable terminations.

9. CABLE PIPES

Shall be of heavy duty class unplasticised PVC pipes, 110 mm outside diameters, to SANS 791. Cable pipes shall be
laid where required.

10. DEPTH OF CABLES

All low voltage cables outside cable trenches shall be laid at a depth of 500 mm below finished ground level.

11. CABLE ROUTE MARKERS, MARKER TAPE, AND CABLE TAGS

11.1 Cable Route Markers

11.1.1 Shall be provided by the contractor at all points where the cable routes deviate from the existing cable
trenches. The position of cable route markers shall be established with the Eskom site representative.
Possible positions have been indicated on the Cable Route and Mast Location layout.

11.1.2 Cable route markers shall be in accordance with Eskom standard drawing: 0.00/1286.

11.2 Marker Tape

11.2.1 Yellow PVC marker tape shall be provided by the contractor and laid directly above all cables that run outside
the existing cable trenches.

11.2.2 Shall be laid at a depth of 300mm below finished ground level.

11.3 Cable Number Tags

11.3.1 Shall be supplied and installed on the cables at termination points before cable glands. The cable numbers as
indicated on 400/230 V AC Schematic and Cable Block diagram, shall be punched on the cable number
tags.

11.3.2 Cable number tags shall be in accordance with Eskom standard drawing: 0.00/1290.

12. WORKING SITE

It will be the responsibility of the contractor to ascertain at the time of laying of cables what the finished ground level will
be, as Eskom will not be held responsible for damage by grading machines or other equipment, to cables that are
incorrectly laid.

Before commencement of actual digging, the Contractor is to peg out the proposed cable routes for the Eskom site
representative’s approval. The onus is on the contractor to ascertain what other services are likely to be encountered
when digging trenches. Due care shall be taken by the contractor not to damage such services. Any costs incurred for
the repairs to these other services shall be charged to the contractor’s account.

The working site shall be kept as clean and tidy as possible at all times. Disfiguring marks and stains resulting from
handling and making off of cable ends, earthing etc., shall be removed. Cable trenches shall be maintained in a clean
condition. Where required, water shall be pumped out.

13. CABLE LAYING

Cables shall be drawn into position using approved rollers and apparatus for negotiating corners without excessive
bending or damage to the cable servings etc. Horizontal spacing in ground for armoured power cables shall be 100
mm.

14. EXCAVATION OF CABLE TRENCHES

Shall be carried out in accordance with SANS 1200 DB “Earth Works”. All excavation in soft material shall be cut and
trimmed to size and level.

Prices are to include for risk of collapse to sides of excavation, keeping excavation free of water and the removal and
replacement of HV yard crusher stone where necessary. Prices are also to include the removal and replacement of
paving where necessary.

15. BACKFILLING

Shall be done with the soil excavated from the trench. Stone or other material which may cause damage to the cable
serving shall be removed. Backfilling shall be compacted to 93% MOD AASHTO in layers not exceeding 150 mm in
depth.

16. CABLE ENTRY POINTS

Where cables enter the control building cable entry duct or culvert from the open excavation, a slot shall be broken
through the side of the duct or culvert at a depth of 500 mm below ground level to accept the cables. After cables have
been correctly positioned, the slot shall be sealed using a vermiculite plaster or other approved non-flammable
equivalent material for the full thickness of the culvert wall and made good.

17. EARTHING

17.1 General

The installation shall be earthed in accordance with the latest addition of SANS - 0142 and the Eskom earthing
standards were applicable.

17.2 The metalwork including LV kiosk, luminaires, control gear boxes, mast termination board in masts, junction box
on mast platforms, and luminaire mounting brackets shall be bonded to an earth continuity conductor.

17.3 The contractor shall supply, install, terminate and connect all earth continuity conductors as shown on the
400/230 V AC Schematic and Cable Block diagram.

17.3.1 Earthing of LV kiosk

(a) A 10 mm diameter bare copper earth wire shall be used. The conductor shall be connected to the existing flat
copper earth conductor running within the cable trenches inside the control building.

(b) A brazed T-joint shall be made to connect the existing flat copper earth conductor in the control building, to the
10 mm diameter bare copper earth continuity conductor from the LV kiosk standing outside.

17.3.2 Earthing of mast termination boards

2
(a) A 4mm stranded bare copper earth wire shall be used for the earthing of:-

(i) cable gland plate;

(ii) terminal rail;

(iii) MCB rail.

(b) All connections shall be made to the existing earth stud in the masts.

17.3.3 Earthing of junction box on mast platforms

(a) Cable wire armouring of the incoming 4 core cable to the junction box shall be used as an earth continuity
conductor.

(b) Cable wire armouring shall be connected inside “Prately” or equal termination box.

17.3.4 Earthing of luminaires and control gear boxes

(a) Shall be done by using the third core of a 3 core cable and the cable wire armouring.

18. LV DISTRIBUTION KIOSK

18.1 Kiosk with concrete plinth or mounting plate shall be supplied, delivered and installed by the contractor. Position
of kiosk shall be established with the Eskom site representative. A possible position has been shown on the
Cable Route and Mast Location layout.

18.2 Construction

18.2.1 Design

(a) The kiosks shall be of weatherproof hot dip galvanised metal construction. The mild steel sheet metal shall have
a minimum thickness of 2 mm.

(b) Corrosion protection: In accordance with SANS 763.

(d) Degree of protection: IP 54.

(e) The kiosks shall be well ventilated.

(f) Dust-proof seals shall be provided on all doors. Rubber seals will not be accepted.

(g) The kiosk shall be vermin proof.

The contractor shall cover the cable entry of the concrete plinth with vermiculite cement to vermin proof the bottom of
the kiosk.

18.3 Access

18.3.1 Access shall be provided by means of side-hung doors. Panels removable from the outside shall not be
accepted.

18.3.2 All doors shall be capable of being locked using a 8 mm padlock. Padlock shall be provided by Eskom.

18.3.3 All hinges and fasteners shall be of non ferrous material and the fasteners shall be designed to draw the panel
closed.

18.3.4 Panel fasteners shall be in accordance with Eskom drawing; 0.52/1038.

18.3.5 Pad-Lockable lever lock shall be in accordance with Eskom drawing; 0.52/1037.

18.4 Internal Arrangement

18.4.1 Design

(a) The kiosk shall be complete with the specified equipment, the necessary connections, interconnection wiring,
supporting steelwork, labels and necessary sundries to make a complete assembly.

(b) The kiosk shall have adequate space for working on the electrical connections.

18.4.2 Busbars

(a) All busbars and connections shall be shrouded using “Dolaron” or equal material and shall be capable of
withstanding the full test voltage of 2000 Volt.

(b) All busbars and connections shall be of suitable cross-section to comply with BS 159 with regards to temperature
rise at the specified altitude, and mechanical strength for normal and fault conditions.

(d) All joints and tees in busbars and busbar connections shall be made with galvanised bolts, nuts and washers
which shall be not less than 12 mm diameter.

(e) All AC busbars and circuit connections shall be indelibly marked along their entire length to indicate to which
phase of the supply they are connected and shall have the phases coloured red, white and blue, and the neutral
black.

18.4.3 Earthing

All metal parts other than those forming part of an electrical circuit shall be connected to a copper earth bar. The
minimum section of the earth bar shall be 25 mm x 3 mm. Connection of the earth bar to an earth continuity conductor
shall be carried out by the contractor.

18.4.4 Contactors for HV yard operational floodlighting

(a) The contactor shall comply with IEC 158-1: low voltage control gear for industrial use - Part - 1.

(b) All contactors shall be of the electro-magnetically operated air-break type.

(d) Latched contactors shall be capable of being tripped at 50 percent of the specified voltage.

18.5 Concrete plinth for LV Kiosk shall be erected by the contractor and shall be suitable for the type of kiosk. Depth
of plinth shall be 400 mm. (250 mm in ground and 150 mm above finished ground level).

18.6 Warning safety sign

(a) The kiosk shall have a warning safety sign fixed to the door.

(b) The sign shall be fabricated from sheet aluminium with minimum thickness of 1 mm.

(d) For detail refer to SANS 1186-1993.

19. CONTROLLING OF HV YARD OPERATIONAL FLOODLIGHTING

19.1 The Contractor Shall Supply, Install Terminate and Connect The Following:

19.1.1 Flush 100 x 100 x50 switch box with four single pole 16 A switches in control building. The switch box shall be
installed on the left side of existing DB2 - 400/230 AC air conditioning board, at a height of 1350 above
finished floor level.

19.1.2 Control cable from LV kiosk to the switch box

(a) The cable shall run in ground outside control building, in existing cable trench inside control building, in existing
spare cable pipe between cable trench and DB 2 and in new 25 diameter PVC conduit from DB 2 to the switch
box.

(b) The chasing in the existing wall for PVC conduit shall be done by the contractor including making good (plastering
and painting).

(c) The colour of the switch cover shall be white.

20. ELECTRICAL INSTALLATION INSIDE THE MASTS

20.1 The Contractor Shall Supply, Install and Connect the Following:

20.1.1 Termination board

(a) In accordance with 400/230 V AC Schematic and Cable Block diagram.

(b) Cable gland plate, terminal rail and circuit breaker rail which shall be fixed to the existing 10 mm diameter welded
bolts on the brackets.

(d) “CBI” or equal miniature circuit breaker with shrouded cover shall be used.

20.1.2 Cable from mast termination board to the junction box

2
(a) Shall be BVX4ECV (4 core 4mm ) and terminated with cable glands.

20.1.3 Junction box

(a) In accordance with 400/230 V AC Schematic and Cable Block diagram.

(b) Construction of junction boxes shall be in accordance with clause 18.2 and 18.3 for LV kiosk.

20.1.4 Cables from junction box to luminaires

2
(a) Shall be BVV3ECV (3 core 4 mm ) and terminated with cable glands.

20.1.5 Luminaires

Shall be complete with control gear, lamp and mounting brackets with protractor scales. For orientation on platform and
schedule of luminaires refer to Luminaire Orientation diagram.

(a) Manufacturer : “Lascon” or “Beka”

(b) Catalogue number : L14ST-400HPST or Bekabeam 400 W-HPST-MB

(d) Beam Spread : 79º horizontal by 29º vertical

(e) Material and finish of :

(i) Luminaire body and control gear housing : Die cast aluminium LM6
(ii) Luminaire diffuser : Armoured glass
(iii) Luminaire reflector and : Pure anodised aluminium
deflector blade
(iv) Lamp replacement : Side mounted cast aluminium lamp-holder housing
(v) Degree of protection : IP55

(f) General requirement for the luminaires:

(i) Luminaires shall comply with SABS 1277/8/9 and shall be so designed and constructed that they are capable of
providing the service for which they are intended without undue deterioration in their safety, performance or
appearance during normal life and under normal conditions.

(ii) Luminaires shall also be designed to facilitate installation and maintenance. All connections, components, and
screws shall be easily accessible. Screws shall be of the captive type. Luminaires shall be weatherproof and
designed to inhibit ingress of dirt and moisture.

(iii) The luminaires body with all toggles, fixing screws, hinges, clips etc. shall be manufactured of non-corrodible
materials.

(iv) Positive and substantial means of fixing to the luminaire mounting brackets shall be provided and designed to
allow adjustment and to ensure that once set in the required position the luminaires remain fixed. Protractor
scales shall be firmly fixed to floodlighting luminaires allowing for horizontal and vertical angular settings. The
angular setting shall not be prone to alteration during re-lamping and cleaning operations.

(v) Control gear shall be integral or be accommodated in a robust non-corrodible container attached to the luminaire
mounting bracket.

(vi) Ballasts shall comply with SANS 1266/7. Capacitors shall comply with IEC Document No. 566.

(vii) The electronic ignition device shall be suitable for the ballast and lamp supplied and also suitable for use with any
other 400 W high pressure sodium lamp currently available on the local market. Pulsing of the igniter on a failed
lamp shall not have a deleterious effect on igniter, ballast, lamp holder or wiring.

(viii) Wiring between control gear and luminaires shall be suitable for the voltage transients and temperatures involved.

(ix) Luminaire enclosures shall be of armoured glass and suitably heat resistant.

(x) Luminaires shall be directed as shown on the Luminaire Orientation diagram, so as to achieve a minimum
average Horizontal Illuminance level of 10 Lux within the HV yards.

21. LABELLING

21.1 All labelling shall be as specified in accordance with Eskom standard; NWS 1582, and Eskom standard
drawings; 0.00/5007; 0.00/1290; 0.00/1286, and SANS 1186:1993.

21.2 English labelling shall be provided by the contractor. The position of these labels and the printed text required
upon them are indicated on the 400/230 V AC Schematic and Cable Block diagram.

21.3 The following items of the electrical installation shall be labelled by the contractor:

21.3.1 LV kiosk, kiosk door and equipment in kiosk.

21.3.2 Switch box control cover inside the control building.

21.3.3 Mast termination board equipment inside the masts.

21.3.4 Junction box on mast platforms.

21.3.5 Luminaires.

21.3.6 All cables at both ends.

21.3.7 All yard operational lighting masts.

21.4 Materials and method of attachment of the label plates and warning safety signs.

21.4.1 LV kiosk and junction boxes.

(a) The label plate and warning safety sign outside the kiosk and junction boxes shall be fabricated from sheet
aluminium with a minimum thickness of 1 mm. Pop-rivets shall be used for fixing the label plate.

(b) Warning safety sign on outside kiosk shall be in accordance with SANS 1186:1993, Code WW7.

21.4.2 Yard operational lighting masts.

(a) The label plate shall be fabricated from sheet aluminium with a minimum thickness of 2 mm.

(b) The label plate shall be bolted to the top of the floodlight concrete foundation using two 6 mm dia. aluminium
screws.

21.4.3 Luminaire control gears.

(a) The label plate shall be fabricated from sheet aluminium with a minimum thickness of 1 mm and glued using
“Pratley kwikset” or equal white glue. The surfaces shall be cleaned with acetone before application of glue.

22. ITEMS OF EQUIPMENT TO BE INSPECTED BEFORE DESPATCH

22.1 LV distribution kiosk.

22.2 Luminaires.

22.3 Luminaire mounting brackets with protractor scale for each luminaire.

22.4 Junction boxes.

23. FACTORY INSPECTION

23.1 Eskom will inspect equipment as specified in Clause 22 above before shipment. This inspection will entail a
thorough check to ensure complete compliance with this specification.

23.2 The contractor shall ensure that all equipment is correct and complete before the inspection. Excessive number
of faults may result in the equipment being handed back to the contractor for rectification.

23.3 Eskom shall be informed seven days in advance for any test to be carried out.

24. SUBMISSION OF DRAWING FOR APPROVAL

(a) Manufacturers drawings (in accordance with NWS 1530 Rev 1) have to be submitted for approval to Eskom’s
engineer before manufacturing can start.

(b) All drawings shall have an approved title block in the bottom right hand corner of the drawing.

(c) The title block on the maker’s drawings shall be as per detail “A” as shown on 400/230 V AC Schematic and
Cable Block diagram.

(d) The drawings to be submitted shall show the internal arrangement of equipment for the following:

(i) LV distribution kiosk

(ii) Mast junction boxes

25. TESTING

All installations on completion shall be tested by the contractor’s accredited person. A certificate of compliance and
notice of commencement of installation shall be issued in accordance with the Machinery and Occupational Safety Act
6 of 1983 “Electrical Installation Regulations, 1992”. (Annexure 1 and 2)

26. ELECTRICAL CONTRACTOR

Shall annually register with Electrical Contracting Board of South Africa [PO Box 22368, Jeppestown, 2043 - Telephone
(0110 614-1112)] in accordance with MOS Act 6 of 1983 “Electrical Installation Regulations, 1992” of regulation 5.

27. ALTERNATIVES

The insertion of a name of any firm in this specification is for the purpose of obtaining a class or quality of material,
workmanship, and design. This shall to be used as a basis for pricing only. The tenderer shall be at liberty to offer
goods of equal quality of material, workmanship and design, provided that such alternatives are approved by Eskom
before the order is placed. The alternatives should be indicated in the tender documents.

28. GUARANTEES AND TECHNICAL PARTICULARS OF MATERIALS OFFERED TO BE COMPLETED BY THE

TENDERER

28.1 Cable Glands.

Item Description Name/Catalogue

1. Manufacturer/Supplier
2. PVC cable glands
3. Cable lugs/crimping tools

28.2 Luminaires

Item Description Name/Catalogue

1. Manufacturer/Supplier
2. Luminaire
3. Lamp
4. Control Gear

28.3 LV Distribution board

Item Description Name/Catalogue

1. Manufacturer

28.4 PVC/PVC/SWA/PVC CABLES

CABLE REFERENCE TO 0.00/1310

DESCRIPTION BVX7DCV BVV3ECV BVX4ECV BVX4HCV BVX4KCV BVX4LCV
1. MANUFACTURER
2. VOLTAGE RATING (phase kV/line kV)
3. CORE DETAILS
3.1 Number 7 3 4 4 4 4
2 2,5 4 4 16 25 35
3.2 Area mm
3.3 Conductor material Cu
3.4 DC Resistance at 20°C ohm/km
3.5 50 Hz Resistance at 20°C ohm/km
3.6 Inductive reactance at 50 Hz ohm/km
3.7 Capacitance
(a) All cores to sheath/armour µF/km
(b) Between cores µF/km
3.8 Maximum continuous conductor temperature °C
4. CONSTRUCTION MATERIAL
4.1 Core Insulation
4.2 Core screen
4.3 Core sheath
4.4 Cable armour
4.5 Cable armour wire diameter mm
4.6 cable sheath
5. COMPLETE CABLE
5.1 Diameter mm
5.2 Mass kg/m
5.3 Drum length m
5.4 Maximum symmetrical (bursting) kA

29. DRAWINGS

29.1 Project Drawings

DRAWING NUMBER TITLE

0-EN-332 Athene Substation

Operational Floodlighting

Cable Route and Mast Location layout

0-EN-343 Athene Substation

Operational Floodlighting

400/230 V AC Schematic and Cable Block diagram

0-EN-342 Athene Substation

Operational Floodlighting

Luminaire Orientation

29.2 The following additional drawing shall be supplied to the successful tenderer.

DRAWING NUMBER TITLE

Athene Substation drawings:

0-EN-49 Foundation, trench and earthmat layout.

0-EN-50 Steelwork marking plan.

0-EN-56 Terrace drainage.

Standard drawings:

0.54/4656 132 kV yard.

Floodlighting mast (14m).

0.54/4658 400 kV yard.

Floodlighting mast (24m).

0.54/4659 Floodlighting mast foundations

(14m & 24m)

29.3 Standard Drawings

DRAWING NUMBER TITLE

0.00/1286 Cable route marker details

0.00/1291 Armoured cable cleats

0.00/1290 Cable number tag details

0.00/1310 Power and control cable code

0.00/5007 Engraving and labelling requirements

0.00/3886 Electrical symbols

0.52/1037 Pad lockable lever lock

0.52/1038 Rear panels fastener

0.54/393 Earthing Standards

Sheet C1
Sheet C2
Sheet C3
Sheet C3 A
Sheet C4
Sheet C5
Sheet C6
Sheet C9
Sheet C10
Sheet C20
Sheet C22
Sheet C26

0.54/390 HV yard Civil Work Standard details

Sheet 15
Sheet 17A
Sheet 31
Sheet 32
Sheet 33

APPENDIX ‘B’

REPORT NO. LAC / 3290 / 01

ATHENE SUB
PROPOSED FLOODLIGHTING

* * * Linear Values in meters, Angular Values in degrees * * *

COMPUTED BY LIGHTING SCIENCES INC. PROGRAM AUTO-SITE-LITE

REVISION 1.4

AUTO-SITE-LITE IS COPYRIGHTED AND MAINTAINED BY:

LIGHTING SCIENCES INC. 7830 EAST EVANS ROAD, SCOTTSDALE, ARIZONA 85260

REPORT REPARED EXCLUSIVELY FOR

ESKOM

PREPARED BY:
LIGHTING APPLICATIONS CENTRE

DATE PREPARED: Fri Aug 12 09:02:06 1994

REPORT NO. LAC / 3290 / 01

ATHENE SUB
PROPOSED FLOODLIGHTING

* * * Linear Values in meters, Angular Values in degrees * * *

* * * POLE AND LUMINAIRE LOCATIONS - PAGE 1 of 3 * * *

Pole Number 1 - X = 438, Y = 85, Height = 24
Luminaire IES File Group Number Location
Number Number X Y Z
1-1 1 2 438.0 85.0 24.0
1-2 1 2 438.0 85.0 24.0
1-3 1 2 438.0 85.0 24.0
1-4 1 2 438.0 85.0 24.0
1-5 1 2 438.0 85.0 24.0
1-6 1 2 438.0 85.0 24.0
1-7 1 2 438.0 85.0 24.0
1-8 1 2 438.0 85.0 24.0

Pole Number 2 - X = 265, Y = 85, Height = 24

Luminaire IES File Group Number Location
Number Number X Y Z
2-1 1 2 265.0 85.0 24.0
2-2 1 2 265.0 85.0 24.0
2-3 1 2 265.0 85.0 24.0
2-4 1 2 265.0 85.0 24.0
2-5 1 2 265.0 85.0 24.0
2-6 1 2 265.0 85.0 24.0
2-7 1 2 265.0 85.0 24.0
2-8 1 2 265.0 85.0 24.0

Pole Number 3 - X = 438, Y = 217, Height = 24

Luminaire IES File Group Number Location
Number Number X Y Z
3-1 1 2 438.0 217.0 24.0
3-2 1 2 438.0 217.0 24.0
3-3 1 2 438.0 217.0 24.0
3-4 1 2 438.0 217.0 24.0

Pole Number 3 - X = 438, Y = 217, Height = 24

Luminaire IES File Group Number Location
Number Number X Y Z
4-1 1 2 38.0 217.0 24.0
4-2 1 2 38.0 217.0 24.0
4-3 1 2 38.0 217.0 24.0
4-4 1 2 38.0 217.0 24.0
4-5 1 2 38.0 217.0 24.0

REPORT NO. LAC / 3290 / 01

ATHENE SUB
PROPOSED FLOODLIGHTING
* * * Linear Values in meters, Angular Values in degrees * * *
* * * POLE AND LUMINAIRE LOCATIONS - PAGE 2 of 3 * * *
Pole Number 5 - X = 170, Y = 217, Height = 24
Luminaire IES File Group Number Location
Number Number X Y Z
5-1 1 2 170.0 217.0 24.0
5-2 1 2 170.0 217.0 24.0
5-3 1 2 170.0 217.0 24.0
5-4 1 2 170.0 217.0 24.0
5-5 1 2 170.0 217.0 24.0
5-6 1 2 170.0 217.0 24.0

Pole Number 6 - X = 2, Y = 18, Height = 14

Luminaire IES File Group Number Location
Number Number X Y Z
6-1 1 2 2.0 18.0 14.0
6-2 1 2 2.0 18.0 14.0
6-3 1 2 2.0 18.0 14.0
6-4 1 2 2.0 18.0 14.0

Pole Number 7 - X = 130, Y = 85, Height = 24

Luminaire IES File Group Number Location
Number Number X Y Z
7-1 1 2 130.0 85.0 24.0
7-2 1 2 130.0 85.0 24.0
7-3 1 2 130.0 85.0 24.0
7-4 1 2 130.0 85.0 24.0
7-5 1 2 130.0 85.0 24.0
7-6 1 2 130.0 85.0 24.0
7-7 1 2 130.0 85.0 24.0
7-8 1 2 130.0 85.0 24.0
7-9 1 2 130.0 85.0 24.0

Pole Number 8 - X = 300, Y = 217, Height = 24

Luminaire IES File Group Number Location
Number Number X Y Z
8-1 1 2 300.0 217.0 24.0
8-2 1 2 300.0 217.0 24.0
8-3 1 2 300.0 217.0 24.0
8-4 1 2 300.0 217.0 24.0
8-5 1 2 300.0 217.0 24.0
8-6 1 2 300.0 217.0 24.0
Total Number of Luminaires -----> 50

REPORT NO. LAC / 3290 / 01

ATHENE SUB
PROPOSED FLOODLIGHTING

* * * Linear Values in meters, Angular Values in degrees * * *

* * * LUMINAIRE CROSS REFERENCE INFORMATION * * *

IES FILE CROSS-REFERENCE TABLE

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
IES File No. - IES File Name
1 C:\PHOTO\PFI\L14S400S.IES
Total luminaires using file number 1 ----> 50
------
Total luminaires in layout ----> 50

GROUP NAME CROSS-REFERENCE TABLE

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Group No. - Group Name
1 STANDARD
Total luminaires using group number 1 ----> 0

2 L14ST-400-HPS
Total luminaires using group number 2 ----> 50
-----
Total luminaires in layout ----> 50

REPORT NO. LAC / 3290 / 01

ATHENE SUB
PROPOSED FLOODLIGHTING
* * * Linear Values in meters, Angular Values in degrees * * *
* * * ADDITIONAL LUMINAIRE INFORMATION - PAGE 1 of 2 * * *
NOTE: ORIENTATION is a counter-clockwise rotation about the z-axis towards the new
positive y-axis. Zero degrees is along the positive x-axis.
TILT is a clockwise rotation about the new y-axis away from the new positive x-axis as
determined by the previous orientation.
SPIN is a counter-clockwise rotation about the new z-axis towards the new positive
y-axis as determined by the previous orientation and tilt.
Luminaire Aiming Point Aiming Angles
Number X Y Z Orient. Tilt Spin LLF LLO
1-1 393.2 7.4 0.0 240.0 75.0 0.0 0.8000 48000
1-2 360.4 40.2 0.0 210.0 75.0 0.0 0.8000 48000
1-3 348.4 85.0 0.0 180.0 75.0 0.0 0.8000 48000
1-4 360.4 129.8 0.0 150.0 75.0 0.0 0.8000 48000
1-5 393.2 162.6 0.0 120.0 75.0 0.0 0.8000 48000
1-6 420.9 21.3 0.0 255.0 75.0 0.0 0.8000 48000
1-7 351.5 61.8 0.0 195.0 75.0 0.0 0.8000 48000
1-8 351.5 108.2 0.0 165.0 75.0 0.0 0.8000 48000

2-1 199.1 85.0 0.0 180.0 70.0 0.0 0.8000 48000

2-2 201.7 21.7 0.0 225.0 75.0 0.0 0.8000 48000
2-3 328.3 21.7 0.0 315.0 75.0 0.0 0.8000 48000
2-4 330.9 85.0 0.0 0.0 70.0 0.0 0.8000 48000
2-5 311.6 131.6 0.0 45.0 70.0 0.0 0.8000 48000
2-6 218.4 131.6 0.0 135.0 70.0 0.0 0.8000 48000
2-7 247.9 21.3 0.0 255.0 70.0 0.0 0.8000 48000
2-8 282.1 21.3 0.0 285.0 70.0 0.0 0.8000 48000

3-1 414.8 130.5 0.0 255.0 75.0 0.0 0.8000 48000

3-2 393.2 139.4 0.0 240.0 75.0 0.0 0.8000 48000
3-3 360.4 172.2 0.0 210.0 75.0 0.0 0.8000 48000
3-4 351.5 193.8 0.0 195.0 75.0 0.0 0.8000 48000

4-1 127.2 209.2 0.0 355.0 75.0 0.0 0.8000 48000

4-2 115.6 172.2 0.0 330.0 75.0 0.0 0.8000 48000
4-3 82.8 139.4 0.0 300.0 75.0 0.0 0.8000 48000
4-4 61.2 130.5 0.0 285.0 75.0 0.0 0.8000 48000
4-5 124.5 193.8 0.0 345.0 75.0 0.0 0.8000 48000

5-1 83.5 193.8 0.0 195.0 75.0 0.0 0.8000 48000

5-2 92.4 172.2 0.0 210.0 75.0 0.0 0.8000 48000
5-3 125.2 139.4 0.0 240.0 75.0 0.0 0.8000 48000
5-4 214.8 139.4 0.0 300.0 75.0 0.0 0.8000 48000
5-5 247.6 172.2 0.0 330.0 75.0 0.0 0.8000 48000
5-6 256.5 193.8 0.0 345.0 75.0 0.0 0.8000 48000

REPORT NO. LAC / 3290 / 01

ATHENE SUB
PROPOSED FLOODLIGHTING

* * * Linear Values in meters, Angular Values in degrees * * *

* * * ADDITIONAL LUMINAIRE INFORMATION - PAGE 2 of 2 * * *

NOTE: ORIENTATION is a counter-clockwise rotation about the z-axis towards the new
positive y-axis. Zero degrees is along the positive x-axis.
TILT is a clockwise rotation about the new y-axis away from the new positive x-axis as
determined by the previous orientation.
SPIN is a counter-clockwise rotation about the new z-axis towards the new positive y-
axis as determined by the previous orientation and tilt.
Luminaire Aiming Point Aiming Angles
Number X Y Z Orient. Tilt Spin LLF LLO
6-1 52.5 31.5 0.0 15.0 75.0 0.0 0.8000 48000
6-2 47.2 44.1 0.0 30.0 75.0 0.0 0.8000 48000
6-3 28.1 63.2 0.0 60.0 75.0 0.0 0.8000 48000
6-4 15.5 68.5 0.0 75.0 75.0 0.0 0.8000 48000

7-1 207.6 40.2 0.0 330.0 75.0 0.0 0.8000 48000

7-2 163.0 27.9 0.0 300.0 70.0 0.0 0.8000 48000
7-3 97.0 27.9 0.0 240.0 70.0 0.0 0.8000 48000
7-4 52.4 40.2 0.0 210.0 75.0 0.0 0.8000 48000
7-5 43.5 108.2 0.0 165.0 75.0 0.0 0.8000 48000
7-6 66.7 148.3 0.0 135.0 75.0 0.0 0.8000 48000
7-7 193.3 148.3 0.0 45.0 75.0 0.0 0.8000 48000
7-8 216.5 108.2 0.0 15.0 75.0 0.0 0.8000 48000
7-9 130.0 19.1 0.0 270.0 70.0 0.0 0.8000 48000

8-1 213.5 193.8 0.0 195.0 75.0 0.0 0.8000 48000

8-2 222.4 172.2 0.0 210.0 75.0 0.0 0.8000 48000
8-3 255.2 139.4 0.0 240.0 75.0 0.0 0.8000 48000
8-4 344.8 139.4 0.0 300.0 75.0 0.0 0.8000 48000
8-5 377.6 172.2 0.0 330.0 75.0 0.0 0.8000 48000
8-6 386.5 193.8 0.0 345.0 75.0 0.0 0.8000 48000

SLDG 18-1

AC AUXILIARY SYSTEMS

1. TYPICAL LOADS SUPPLIED

Substation ac auxiliary systems are typically used to supply loads such as:

1.1 Transformer cooling, oil pumps, and load tap changers

1.2 Circuit breaker air compressors and charging motors

1.3 Outdoor device heaters

1.4 Outdoor lighting and receptacles

1.5 Control building and other buildings within the substation perimeter

1.5.1 Lighting and receptacles

1.5.2 Heating, ventilating, and air conditioning

1.5.3 Battery charger input

1.5.4 Water well pump

1.5.5 Motor-operated disconnecting switches

2. DESIGN REQUIREMENTS

2.1 Demand Load

Tabulate the connected kVA of all substation ac loads and apply a demand factor to each. Demand kVA is used to size
the auxiliary transformer(s). Load diversity and load factor need not be considered in this case.

In auxiliary transformer sizing, examine the substation growth rate. If expansion is planned in the near future, consider
the estimated demand load of the expansion in the transformer size. If expansion is in the far future, it may be
economically advantageous to plan for the addition of a transformer at expansion time.

2.2 Number of Primary Feeds

In small distribution substations one auxiliary transformer is usually sufficient. As substation size increases, customer
load criticality increases. A decision has to be made as to redundancy of substation auxiliary services in light of
economics and customer requirements. Large transmission substations, servicing large load blocks, and distribution
stations, should have dual feeders serving two separate auxiliary transformers.

When dual feeds are selected, locate two separate, independent sources so the loss of one will not affect service of the
other. Designate the least reliable as the alternative supply. A popular option to consider in this case is the use of a
tertiary winding of the power transformer as a normal source.

An alternative source could be a distribution feeder at a customer service level, 480 or 240 volts, single or three-phase.
Depending on auxiliary secondary voltage level selected, this could eliminate one transformer.

2.3 Overhead or Underground Entry

The auxiliary source(s) could be either overhead or underground distribution lines. When under-grounding the feeder
within the substation property, direct-buried conduit is recommended, even if the is from an overhead source. A spare,
capped, conduit should be installed to minimize down time if a cable failure occurs. The faulted cable can always be
removed after service restoration.

2.4 Critical Loads

Some low-voltage loads have to be maintained at all times:

2.4.1 Battery chargers which, through the batteries, supply breaker trip and close circuits as well as communication
circuits

2.4.1 Transformer cooling

2.4.2 Power circuit breaker compressors and motors

2.4.3 Trouble light receptacles in the station yard

2.4.4 Security lighting

2.4.5 Breaker control circuits

2.4.6 Fire alarm circuit(s)

2.4.7 Electric heating

2.4.8 Substation automation circuitry

Critical loads for each station should be determined. These loads should be served from a panel(s) fed from the normal
source and representing the minimum load for transfer to alternative supply (chop-over).

2.5 Secondary Voltage Level

Several secondary voltage or utilization levels are available for ac auxiliaries. For the purposes of standardization, on a
given power system it is best that only one level be selected. This is not a limiting rule, however. An exception could be
justified.

Possible secondary voltage levels as illustrated in Figure 18-1 are as follows:-

2.5.1 400/220 Volts, Three-Phase Delta

Three-phase transformer fans and oil pumps need to be specified at 400 volts. In practice, the units are rated at 380/220
volts, but this is inside the NEMA plus 10 percent voltage requirement. Other loads may be specified at either 400 or 230
volts, single phase.

This system is ungrounded and should be used with a ground detection system so that a “fault” or one leg of the system
will cause an alarm. The system should trip when a second leg on the system is grounded.

2.5.2 400/220 Volts, Star Connected, Three-Phase, Four-Wire

Three-phase transformer fans and oil pumps need to be specified at 480 volts. In practice, the motors are rated 400/220
volts, but this is within the NEMA plus 10 percent voltage requirement.

The advantage here is that luminaires can be equipped with 220-volt ballasts, saving lighting transformer costs over use
of more common 110-volt lamped luminaires. Convenience receptacles are fed through small dry-type 400-110 volt
transformers.

a) 440/220 Volts – 3 Phase Delta

b) 400/230 Volts – 3 Phase Star

c) 220/110 Volts – 3 Phase Star

d) 220 Volts – 3 Phase Delta

e) 220/110 Volts – 3 Phase Delta

f) 220/110 Volts – 3 Phase Open Delta

g) 220/110 Volts – 1 Phase 3 Wire

Figure 18-1.1: Typical AC Auxiliary System Secondary Voltages

2.5.3 228/110 Volts, Wye-Connected, Three-Phase, Four-Wire

Three-phase 220 volts or single-phase 110 volts or a combination of the two can be used for transformer cooling.
Combination power and lighting panels can be used, resulting in reduced labour and material costs. This saving could be
offset by higher conductor costs as compared to the 400-volt system. Receptacles can be served with 110 volts directly.

2.5.4 220 Volts, Three-Phase Delta

Three-phase transformer fans and oil pumps need to be specified at 230 volts. In practice, the motors are rated at 220
volts, but this is inside the NEMA plus 10 percent voltage requirements.

This system is unearthed and should be used with a ground detection system so that a “fault” on one leg of the system
will cause an alarm. The system should trip when a second leg on the system is grounded.

2.5.5 220/110 Volts, Delta-Connected, Three-Phase, Four-Wire

This is the most common level in use in moderate-size substations. One phase of the auxiliary transformer is centre
tapped to obtain 110 volts. Combination panels can be used, and 230-volt single-phase loads can be served.

2.5.6 210/110 Volts, Open Delta-Connected, Three-Phase, Four-Wire

This is essentially the same as the closed delta connection except only 58 percent of the kVA capacity of the three
transformers can be used. This configuration will provide construction economy for a medium-size installation or for
temporary use. With single-phase units, the third transformer can be added in the future for increased kVA capacity. It is
frequently used for construction power where both three-phase and single-phase supplies are required.

2.5.7 220/110 Volts, Single-Phase, Three-Wire

This is “residential” service but applicable to small substations. Common panels can be used, with two available
voltages.

2.6 Transfer (Chop-over) Scheme

Where two sources, normal and alternative, are feeding substation auxiliaries, a means to transfer from one to the other
has to be established. At an attended station this can be a manual transfer arrangement. Automatic transfer has to be
provided at an unattended station. Transfer is done on the secondary side for equipment economy. A typical
configuration is shown in Figure 18-1.2.

Transfer switch selection is an important factor in the system design. Operation should be “break before make” double-
throw operation to prevent shorting the two sources. Mechanical interlocking should be provided to ensure the switch can
be in only one of the two positions. The switch should have an ampere withstand capability for faults at points A, B, and
C of Figure 18-1.2. The fault at C will be highest, the feeder impedance to B and A limiting the fault current to an amount
below that at C.

The auxiliary system in Figure 18-1.2 assumes transfer of all loads. The full load current of the 315 kVA transformer is
766 amperes, so a 800-ampere switch would be selected.

Figure 18-1.2: Typical AC Auxiliary System

2
Assuming a 250 MVA source, 2 x 254 mm , 3.05-meter feeders per phase to the switch, and 4 percent transformer
reactance, the fault current is approximately 10,000 amperes. This value is well within manufacturers’ standard ratings
for 400-ampere full load transfer switches.

Automatic transfer switches are built to detect emergency conditions and transfer to the alternative supply when the
normal supply falls to 83 percent of rated voltage. Return to normal supply is accomplished through an adjustable time
delay at approximately 92 to 95 percent of rated voltage. A variety of accessories are available with transfer switches.
Manufacturers’ data is readily available, and the engineer should consult such data when specifying a transfer switch.
Provide means to alarm for loss of voltage from either source.

2.7 Auxiliary System Fault Currents: The determination of fault currents in three-phase ac auxiliary systems is just as
basic as the determination of load currents in sizing circuit breakers or fuses.

The protective device has to operate or open during faults as well as carry load current during normal conditions or
equipment damage could result.

The symmetrical short circuit (fault) current is computed using Equation 18-1.1:-

Un
IF = eq. 18-1.1
3 .X

where:-

IF = Symmetrical short-circuit (fault) current in kilo-amperes (kA)

Un = Phase-to-phase (line-to-line) nominal voltage in kilo-volts (kV)
X = The total reactance of all current-carrying parts from the source to the fault in Ohms (Ω)

In Figure 18-1.2 the 250 MVA source has a reactance of 0.00023 ohms. The 315 kVA transformer reactance is 0.0023
ohms, the current transformer 0.0005 ohms, the 3.05-meter cable about 0.001 ohms, and so forth. All reactance’s are
totalled and used in Equation 18-1.1. The asymmetrical fault current is a function of the fault circuit X/R ratio. A
multiplying factor (1,7) for the asymmetrical current is satisfactory for auxiliary power system calculations.

Fuse and circuit breaker manufacturers have handbooks with X, R, and Z values for transformers, current transformers,
cables, etc., together with methods for determining protective device ratings based on estimated fault currents.

3. EQUIPMENT

3.1 Lighting and Heating Equipment

Outdoor lighting serves two basic purposes: substation security and safety. Depending on the area, certain luminaires
may be used during hours of darkness for substation security and is discussed in SLDG 17. These are photo-electrically
controlled. A microwave tower could require FAA lighting. This would also be controlled photo-electrically.

Lamps for outdoor use are essentially incandescent, mercury, or sodium lamps. Except for an unusual condition, the
lamps presently in use on a given system should continue in use, simplifying inventory. The unusual condition could be a
new large substation where a different source is desirable and a separate, on-station inventory can be kept.

Luminaires for substation use, from the basic flat dome reflector to pattern refractors, are available. Pole-top or bracket
mountings can be used. The engineer, with the proper vendor data, can develop a lighting layout to satisfy the purpose
required. Yard lighting design is dealt with in SLDG 17. The basic requirements are 10 lux in equipment areas.
Convenience receptacles should be in equipment cabinets and also strategically located to serve 150 metre extension
cords with trouble lights. Convenience receptacles in the substation yard should have earth fault interruption protection.

Indoor lighting should be designed for maximum operator convenience. Luminaires should be located to adequately
illuminate relay and control panel fronts. Provide duplex receptacles for extension cord lights for initial panel
interconnection work, relay setting, and plant maintenance.

Provide control house electric heating for comfort and freeze prevention. This can be done with ceiling or wall-mounted
electric unit heaters and/or electric baseboard heating units. Provide powered roof ventilator(s) along with floor-level,
manually operated wall louver(s) to provide for three to five air changes per hour. Louvers should be provided with fusible
links as a means, in case of fire, to keep damage to a minimum. Gravity roof ventilators should always be installed to
prevent concentration of hydrogen in battery rooms.

Air conditioning of the control house, where required, is best provided by packaged through-wall unit(s). Packaged
through-wall units pump an energy-efficient heating/cooling option for most climates and can have supplemental
resistance heat. Built-in resistance heaters are provided in some to provide all-season use. Vendor data is available as
an aid in selecting such units.

4. SUMMARY

A substation ac auxiliary system consists mainly of the following parts:-

4.1 One or two incoming primary feed(s) seldom above the 33 kV level, one designated normal source, the other
designated alternative source. The sources should be as independent as possible.

4.2 One or two auxiliary transformers to reduce the primary voltage to the utilization level.

4.3 A main switchboard, usually located outdoors between the two transformers. This switchboard houses the transfer
switch and fuses or circuit breakers to feed both control house and yard panel boards.

Panel-boards (indoor or outdoor) having circuit breakers or fuses sized for the loads involved should have approximately
20 percent spare breakers or fuses.

All branch circuit breakers feeding ac yard circuits shall be Earth Fault Interrupting type (EFI). Where fused panels are
selected, yard receptacles shall be EFI type.

SLDG 19-1

SUBSTATION EARTHING

1. INTRODUCTION

Regardless of whether an AC substation is intentionally earthed or not, there is by nature of the system some
form of earthing that takes place due to the presence of stray capacitance, i.e. the capacitance that arises as a
result of a voltage that is referenced to earth.

Deliberate earthing of the neutral or one phase of the system allows larger fault currents to flow so that protective
relays or over-current devices can be applied to sense and respond to the fault. The magnitude of the fault
current can be limited by earthing through an impedance which will limit this current and thus reduce the damage
that my have otherwise been caused to the equipment covered by faults while allowing flow of current of
sufficient magnitude for fault sensing. Table 19-1.1 lists the four basic types of system earths.

Table 19-1.1: Types of System Earths

Type of Earthing Magnitude of Earth Fault Current (A)

Effective No Intended Limit
Low Impedance 50 - 1200
High Impedance 1 - 25
Resonant 0

1.1 Effectively (Solidly) Earthed Systems

Effectively (solidly) earthed systems are those where the impedance between the apparatus being earthed is low
enough to prevent a voltage rise on that item of equipment. A system is usually considered effectively earthed
when the following conditions are met:-

X0
≤ 3,0 eq. 19-1.1
X1

and,

R0
≤ 1,0 eq. 19-1.2
X1

where:-

X0 = Zero sequence reactance in ohms (Ω)

R0 = Zero sequence resistance in ohms (Ω)
X1 = Positive sequence reactance in ohms (Ω)
C0 = Stray capacitance (phase-to-earth)

In practice, systems need to be directly connected to earths through a conductor (as opposed to a resistor or
inductor) to meet the above criteria. For example, X0 for an overhead line is typically in the range of 2.X1 and
3.X1. Transmission substations are generally effectively earthed.

Figure 19-1.1: Solidly Earthed Neutral

1.2 Low Impedance Earthed Systems

Low impedance earthing refers to a system in which the neutral is earthed through a small impedance/resistance
that limits earth fault current magnitudes. The size of the earthing impedance/resistance is selected to detect and
clear the faulted circuit. Low impedance/resistance earthing is not recommended on low voltage systems. This is
primarily because the limited available earthd fault current is insufficient to positively operate series trip units and
fuses. These trip units and fuses would be dependent upon both phase-to-phase and phase-to-earth fault
protection on some or all of the distribution circuits. Low resistance earthing normally limits the earth fault
currents to approximately 100-600A (amperes). The amount of current necessary for selective relaying
determines the value of impedance/resistance to be used.

Re C0

Figure 19-1.2: Low Impedance Earthed Neutral

1.3 High Impedance Earthed Systems

High impedance/resistance earthing refers to a system in which the neutral is earthed through predominantly
resistive impedance whose resistance is selected to allow an earth fault current through the resistor equal to or
slightly more than the capacitive charging current of the system. Because earthing through a high resistance
entails having a physically large resistance that is both bulky and costly, high resistance earthing is not practical
and is not recommended. However, high resistance earthing through an earthing transformer is cost effective and
accomplishes the same objective.

R0 C0

Figure 19-1.3: High Impedance Earthed Neutral

High resistance earthing accomplishes the advantage of unearthed and solidly earthed systems and eliminates
the disadvantages. It limits transient over-voltages resulting from a single phase-to-earth fault by limiting earth
fault current to approximately 8A. This amount of earth fault current is not enough to activate series over-current
protective devices; hence no loss of power to downstream loads will occur during earth fault conditions. Special
relaying must be used on high resistance earthed systems in order to sense that a earth fault has occurred. The
fault should then be located and removed as soon as possible so that if another earth fault occurs on either of the
two un-faulted phases, high magnitude earth fault currents and resulting equipment damage will not occur. High
resistance earthing is normally applied in situations where it is essential to prevent unplanned system power
outages, or previously the system has been operated unearthed and no earth relaying has been installed. Once
the earth point has been established through the resistor, it is easier to apply protective relays. The user may
decide to add an earth over-current relay. The relay may be either current actuated using a current transformer or
voltage actuated using a potential transformer. Depending on the priority of need, high resistance earthing can be
designed to alarm only or provide direct tripping of generators off line in order to prevent fault escalation prior to
fault locating and removal. High resistance earthing (arranged to alarm only) has proven to be a viable earthing
mode for 600V systems with an inherent total system charging current to earth of about 5.5A or less, resulting in
an earth fault current of about 8A or less.

This, however, should not be construed to mean that earth faults of a magnitude below this level will always allow
the successful location and isolation before escalation occurs. Here, the quality and the responsiveness of the
plant operators to locate and isolate an earth fault are of vital importance. To avoid high transient over-voltages,
suppress harmonics and allow adequate relaying, the earthing transformer and resistor combination is selected
to allow current to flow that equals or is greater than the capacitive changing current.

1.4 Resonant

A resonant earthed system is earthed through an inductor tuned to resonate with charging capacitance. Zero
current will flow through the earthing circuit when tuned.

Earthing fixes or limits the phase to earth voltage by providing a reference. This can allow for more economical
design of equipment. Less insulation can be applied in portions of the equipment windings which are electrically
close to ground. This is termed the grading of insulation.

L R0 C0

Figure 19-1.4: Resonant Earthed Neutral

1.5 Unearthed Neutral

A system where all transformer neutrals are unearthed is called an isolated neutral system. The only intentional
connection between an unearthed neutral and earth is via high impedance equipment for protection or
measurement such as surge arresters or voltage transformers. In a power system, there are however always
capacitive connections between phase and earth. The strength of the capacitive connection depends on type and
length of the power system circuit. When an earth fault occurs in the system, the capacitance to earth of the
faulty phase is bypassed. Figure 5 shows an earth fault in a system with on unearthed neutral.

Figure 19-1.5: Unearthed Neutral

2. SAFETY EARTHS

These are usually applied in the vicinity of working areas to protect personnel, and are installed on both sides of
the working area. Earthing enclosures reduce voltages applied to individuals who may be in contact with faulted
equipment.

Buried earth conductors or earth-mats reduce the voltage applied to an individual in contact with earthed
equipment during faults.

3. RELATIVE ADVANTAGE/DISADVANTAGE OF NOT EARTHING

Unearthed systems are less susceptible to shut down by over-current devices due to earth faults. At times this
may be desirable, examples of these being DC distribution systems, uninterruptible AC power supply systems,
and power supplied to critical manufacturing production lines.

Some form of earth detection scheme should, however, be utilised in unearthed systems so that maintenance
can be performed promptly after an earth fault has occurred. If an earth fault is allowed to remain on the system,
this effectively results in the system being earthed so that when a second fault occurs this could result in a
shutdown and possible damage to equipment.

Unearthed systems can experience a shift in the neutral potential relative to the phase. The neutral may shift
outside the voltage triangle, resulting in essentially continuous voltage stresses on insulation systems above their
continuous rating. An earth-fault will momentarily earth one phase and expose equipment on the outer two
phases to approximately 170% of the normal phase-to-earth voltage. Re-striking arcs in a fault can produce
severe over-voltages in unearthed systems generated due to charging and discharging of system capacitances,
resulting in increasing voltage on each re-strike. This eventually leads to equipment failure due to over-voltage.

Ferro-resonance can also cause severe over-voltages. This is a phenomenon that occurs as a result of resonant
interaction of phase-to-earth capacitance and a saturable reactor such as the core of a transformer. This situation
can occur when a 3-phase transformer bank is energised one phase at a time or any other combination except
for three phases simultaneously. One circuit and blown fuses on one or two phases can also result in ferro-
resonance. A single-phase transformer used for earth detection (Electromagnetic Voltage Transformers) can also
exhibit ferro-resonance if precautions such as properly sized ballast resistors are not applied.

U'C
U'B

UC UB

Figure 19-1.6: Pre-fault Voltages UA, UB and UC. Neutral Point Displacement Voltage U0 and Voltage of
Healthy Phases U'B and U'C During a Phase-to-Earth Fault in an Isolated System

4. IMPORTANT ITEMS TO REMEMBER

There is great emphasis on personnel safety:-

• Flow of current in earth conductors under normal conditions is not permitted

• The metal frame of a building or structure may under most situations serve as a earth conductor

• In no case shall a circuit-opening device be inserted in an earthing conductor or connection so as to

separate the item being earthed from the main earthing system, unless all sources of energy of the circuit is
disconnected at the same time.

• Exceptions: Temporary disconnection for testing under competent supervision (e.g. earth links).
Disconnection of a surge arrester by a surge arrester disconnecting device.

Various methods, materials, design installation rules for earthing systems are provided, some of which will be
discussed here later in the text.

4.1 Protective Earthing in Supply Stations

All metal equipment enclosures are to be earthed. All conductors and equipment operating above 600V where
work is done occasionally while disconnected shall be provided with a means of earthing.

4.2 Instrument Transformer secondaries need to be earthed where permissible.

4.3 Surge Arrester Earth Conductors

It is necessary for earth conductors to run directly from the surge arrester to the main earth-mat with leads as
short as possible and no sharp bends. The arrester should be mounted close to the equipment to be protected
and connected with shortest possible lead on both the line and earth side to reduce the inductive effects of the
leads while discharging large surge current.

Lightning, by its nature, includes a large high frequency component (Fourier Series, which defines the attributes
of a sharply rising pulse). Therefore, it does not bend corners very well. All lighting conductors are run with long
radius bends, no right angles.

Long Rounded Bends X No Sharp Corners

Figure 19-1.7: Model of Outdoor Earthing System

4.4 Earthing of Circuits, Structures and Equipment for Overhead Lines

Common neutrals for primary and secondary circuits (e.g. auto transformer) shall be solidly earthed. All other
neutrals are to be earthed unless designed for earth fault detection or impedance earthing. The earthing system
is not allowed to be part of a circuit. All metal structures need to be earthed with few exceptions.

4.5 Earthing of Circuits, Structures and Equipment for Underground Lines/Cables

In general, cable sheaths and shields (not conductor shields), equipment frames, lightning poles, duct and riser
guards are to be earthed.

SVL

Figure 19-1.8: Cable Earthing System

Primary, secondary and service neutrals are to be solidly earthed except when earth detection or impedance
earthing is provided.

Various methods, materials, design and installation rules for earthing systems are provided and will be discussed
under the heading of Substation Earthing.
4.6 IEEE 80 – IEEE Guide for Safety in AC Substations Grounding (Earthing)

IEEE 80 provides guidance and information pertinent to safe earthing practices in AC substation design. It is
primarily concerned with outdoor substations, but with caution, it can be applied to partly or wholly indoor
substations. Its provisions are discussed in detail below.
4.7 IEEE 81 – IEEE Guide for Measuring Earth Resistivity, Earth Impedance, and Earth Surface Potential
of an Earthing System

IEEE 81 presents state of the art techniques for testing earth systems and the testing methods covered in the
guide include the following:

• Measurement of the resistance and impedance to earth of earth electrodes

• Earth potential surveys, including measurement of step and touch potentials and potential contour surveys

• Scale model tests for laboratory determination of the earth resistance and potential gradients for an
idealised design

• Measurement of earth resistivity

Transformer or
ZS Other Equipment

IF1
F1
IF2
V
IF1 Etouch = E1 + E2
E1

Earth
IF1 Impedance

Earth
Electrodes E2 Estep

IF1 IF1
Resistance to
Remote Earth

Figure 19-1.9: Model of Outdoor Earthing System

In a substation, electrical systems and equipment are earthed by connections to earth electrodes embedded in
the earth, or to a buried earth-mat.

Figure 19-1.9 illustrates the scenario of an earth fault (F1) occurring in a substation and is fed from a remote
source. Fault current will flow through the point of the fault directly into the earth, or by means of the earth
electrode, then back to the source through the earth.

If there is a remote earth fault (F2), fed by an earth current source in the substation, such as a star connected
transformer, the earth current will flow through the earth into the earth electrode and back to the earth current
source.

Figure 19-1.9 shows some basic earthing system elements such as earth electrodes and earthed conductors.
The earth electrode is a metal conductor buried in the earth to make contact with the soil. It may be as simple as
a cold water pipe or, as typically found in substations, as elaborate as a grid of buried interconnected conductors
and earth rods. Systems, equipment frames, etc. are connected to the earth electrodes by “earthing” or “earth”
conductors. The impedance of the conductor (earth impedance in Figure 19-1.9) may or may not be negligible
depending on actual conditions. System conductors which are connected to earth, such as equipment neutrals,
are referred to as “earthed” conductors.

The difference between earthed conductors and earthing conductors is significant. Earthed conductors are
permitted to carry current under normal conditions, such as unbalanced load currents flowing in an earthed
neutral.

Additional Earthing For Shunt Capacitor Bank

Neutral

a) Earthing System for Capacitor Banks

To a Common Neutral
Rail alongside another
Capacitor Bank

b) Deliberate Separate Earthing of Neutrals

Figure 19-1.10: Earthing of Capacitor Bank Neutrals

By contrast, current is not permitted to normally flow through an earthing conductor. Only earth-fault current is
permitted to flow through an earthing conductor. If circulating currents are found to be flowing in an earthing
conductor, action must be taken to eliminate the current or reduce it to acceptable levels. There are several
technical reasons for not permitting circulating currents in earthing conductors:-

• Earthing conductors, which are allowed to be un-insulated, are normally expected to be at earth potential.
When circulating currents are present, a potential difference arises, which may prove to be hazardous.
2
• Circulating currents in the earthing conductors cause heating (I .R.t) which may lead to higher than
expected temperatures and accelerate aging of conductor insulation. Since earthing conductors may be
interconnected with reinforcing bars or structural steel, continuous circulating currents can cause heating of
the structural elements which can cause damage and even hazardous hot spots.

Earth currents can flow through more than one path and so the total earth current flowing through a fault may not
all flow through earth. If another path exists, a portion of the current will be diverted through the alternative path.

The manner in which the current divides itself between various alternate paths depends on the relative
impedance of the paths. Typical alternate paths are the shield wires of incoming transmission and distribution
lines which are earthed at the substation. They can divert a significant portion of the current away from the earth.
The earthed neutrals on distribution lines are another path. In buildings where the steel frame is used as an earth
plane, up to 90% of earth fault current may flow through the metal raceway containing the faulted conductor (if
the raceway is a continuous path back to the source) rather than through the building steel.

As discussed above, currents that flow through the earthing conductors give rise to potential differences.
Similarly, when earth current flows through earth, potential differences (voltage gradients) are created in the soil.
These voltage gradients, if steep enough, can set up large potential differences between the feet of someone
standing on the ground. The resulting voltage between the feet is called the step potential (Estep in Figure 19-1.9
and 19-1.11).

IF RB

IB RF RF Remote
IF Earth
RB

R1 R2 R0
RF RF
Estep

R1 R2 R0

Estep

Figure 19-1.11: Modelling Step Potential

(
E step = I B . R B + 2.R F ) eq. 19-1.3

where:-

Estep = Step potential in volts (V)

IF = Fault current in amperes (A)
IB = Body Current in amperes (A)
RB = Body resistance ≈ 1000 ohms
RF = Resistance under feet ≈ 3.ρ
ρS ohms
R0 = Resistance to remote earth in ohms (Ω)
R1 = Resistance between structure and feet in ohms (Ω)
R2 = Resistance between feet in ohms (Ω)
ρS Resistivity of ground immediately beneath the feet in ohm-metres (Ω.m)

In like manner, the voltage gradient in the soil can produce a voltage difference between a person’s hand, if
touching a earthed object, and the persons feet. This voltage between the hand and the feet is called the touch
potential (Etouch in Figure 19-1.9 and 19-1.12. If the system is inadequately earthed, the magnitudes of the step
and touch potentials may be dangerously high during fault conditions. It is therefore not necessarily safe to touch
an earthed object unless the earth system is properly designed to reduce these potentials.

IB RB RF/2
IF
IB
RK
Remote
Earth
R1
Etouch IF

Etouch R0
RF RF

R1 R0

Figure 19-1.12: Modelling Touch Potential


E step = I B . R B +
RF 
 eq. 19-1.4
 2 

The earth electrode has a certain resistance to remote earth (R0). When earth fault current flows through this
resistance, a potential difference is induced between the electrode and remote earth. Usually earth potential is
considered zero, but when fault current flows, the earth electrode may be several thousand volts above or below
remote earth. This can give rise to a condition referred to as transferred potential on telephone lines, pipes or
any other electrical conductor leaving the substation (see Figures 19-1.13 and 19-1.14). During faults, thousands
of volts may be impressed between these conductors and earth, at the substation or at remote points, depending
on how the conductor is tied to earth.


E step = I B . R B +
RF 
 eq. 19-1.5
 2 

IB
RB
Cable Armouring
Earthed only at
Remote Station

Remote
RF/2 Earth

Figure 19-1.13: Modelling Transferred Potential

Conductor to Remote
V
Point from Grid
24V
Circuit

Remote
Point

GPR

Earthing
Grid

V = 24V + GPR (Grid Potential Rise)

Conductor to 24V
Remote Circuit
V
Point from Grid

Remote
Point

GPR

Earthing
Grid

Figure 19-1.14: Transferred Potentials

The transferred potential can be hazardous and damaging, however, there are methods for avoiding or offsetting
this potential which will be discussed later in this text.

5. SUBSTATION EARTH GRID DESIGN CALCULATIONS

The primary purpose of an earth grid in a substation is two-fold as stated in IEEE 80.

5.1 To provide a means to carry electric currents into the earth under normal and fault conditions without
exceeding any operating and equipment limits or adversely affecting continuity of service

5.2 To assure that a person in the vicinity of earthed facilities is not exposed to the danger of electrical shock.

Meeting the requirements of item 5.1 is relatively straightforward and simply requires adequate sizing of
conductors providing earth connections at appropriate points on equipment or the electrical system. The
impedance to the earth system (resistance to remote earth) must be within the guideline of the desired system
earthing method as discussed above (i.e. effectively earthed, low impedance earthed, etc.).

Realising item 5.2 requires design and analysis of the grid with the objective of reducing the step and touch
potentials, as well as transferred potentials to acceptable levels.

6. EARTH RESISTIVITY MEASUREMENTS

It is desirable to use the resistivity measurements as made on the site where the electrical installation is to be
built. IEEE 81 describes the methods and procedures for measuring earth resistivity. The most accurate test
method, however, is the four-point method as illustrated in Figure 19-1.15.

b
I

c (a) d (a) c (a)

Figure 19-1.15: Resistivity Measurement

Four electrodes are buried in a straight line at a depth b and spaced at intervals c and d. A test current (I) is
passed between the outer electrodes and the voltage drop (V) is measured between the inner terminals. A value
R is determined by:-

V
R= eq. 19-1.6
I

where:-

R = Soil Resistance between outer electrodes in ohms (Ω)

V = Voltage measured between inner electrodes in volts (V)
I = Current flowing between outer electrodes in amperes (A)
There are two versions of this test:-

6.1 Equally Spaced or Wenner Arrangement

Here all the electrodes are spaced such that d = c = a, then:-

π.a.
4.π
ρ= eq. 19-1.7
 2.a a 
1 + 2 2
−
2 2 
 a + 4.b a +b 

where:-

ρ = Soil resistivity in ohm.metres (Ω.m)

a = Spacing between the four electrodes in metres (m)
b = Depth of the four electrodes in metres (m)

Usually the electrodes are rods that are driven to a depth not greater than 0,1.a, then b = 0 and ρ = 2. π.a.R. ρ is
the average resistivity to depth a.

Earth Current
Electrode Potential
Probe Probe at C
Under Test
(X)

Current Probe
Resistance
Ω)
Resistance (Ω

Earth
Electrode
Resistance

X C
Distance of Potential Probe from X

a) Sufficient Probe Spacing

Earth Electrode Potential Current

Under Test (X) Probe Probe at C
Ω)
Resistance (Ω

X C
Distance of Potential Probe from X

b) Insufficient Probe Spacing

Figure 19-1.16: Fall In Potential Plot

6.2 Unequally Spaced or Schlumberger-Palmer Arrangement

With the Wenner arrangement, the potential may be too low to measure at very wide spacings. The unequally
spaced method compensates for this by placing the voltage probes closer to the current probes so that a larger
potential difference can be measured (d>c). If the depth of burial of the electrodes is small as compared to their
separation, then:-

π.c.(c + d).R
ρ= eq. 19-1.8
d

where:-

ρ = Soil resistivity in ohm.metres (Ω.m)

c = Spacing between the outer and inner electrodes in metres (m)
d = Spacing between the two inner electrodes in metres (m)
R = Soil Resistance between outer electrodes in ohms (Ω)

Measurements should be taken at several points and at various spacings along the same lines. The temperature
and moisture of the soil should be recorded at the same test. The existence of known or suspected buried metal
should be recorded since this can invalidate some measurements. For example, a buried pipeline can influence
measurements. To minimise this influence, the line of readings should be taken perpendicular to the pipeline.

7. INTERPRETATION OF DATA – SOIL MODELS

Soil resistivity is not usually consistent or uniform since soil has varying compositions, and its resistivity varies
with depth and location. Therefore measurements taken at different spots on the same site will tend to be
different. As indicated before, large amounts of buried metal and foundations will affect measurements. Moisture
content will also affect the soil resistivity such that the resistivity can increase abruptly when moisture drops
below 15%. It also increases abruptly when soil freezes. Soluble salts, acids and alkali can affect resistivity
considerably.

Sand, topsoil, clay, silt and rock all have different resistivities, where that of sand and rock tend to be high, and
that for topsoil, clay and silt tend to be low. Soil borings taken at the site will reveal various layers and
combinations of different types of materials. If resistivity measurements are not available, soil borings can be
studied and rough approximations of resistivity can be made. Measurements provide more site specific data, but
are still average values of resistivity at a certain depth and, as stated earlier, measurements can vary. Thus,
interpretation of available data to determine what resistivity values should be used in calculations requires
considerable amount of judgement. Table 2 provides information relating to resistivities of various types of soils.

Table 19-1.2: Resistivity Range for Different Types of Soils

Soil Ω -cm)
Resistivity (Ω
Lower Upper
Surface Soils 100 5000
Clay 200 10000
Sandy Clay 10000 15000
Moist Gravel 5000 70000
Dry Gravel 70000 120000
Limestone 500 1000000
Sandstone 2000 200000
Granites 90000 110000
Concrete 30000 50000

There are two types of soil models generally applied:-

7.1 Uniform Soil Model

Soil is assumed to have the same value of resistivity throughout. In fact, the equations for calculating soil
resistivity from measurements are based on uniform soil, and the average value of all resistivity measurements is
used to determine ρ. This value can be adjusted based on judgement and knowledge of soils from soil borings.
The uniform soil model should yield good results when resistivity measurements do not vary substantially (< 30%
difference).

7.2 Two-Layer Soil Model

When resistivity varies significantly with depth, multiple layers of soils may be present. Generally good results for
safe design can be obtained from an equivalent two-layer soil model. Usually a computer programme is used to
determine model characteristics. EPRI TL Workstation includes a programme that calculates a best-fit
approximation (i.e. a 2-layer model yields close to the same measured resistivities for the same test electrode
spacings) based on resistivity measurement data. The programme determines the resistivities of each layer and
depth of the upper layer. It should be noted that these are models for grid analysis and may not describe the
actual soil structure.

The model used to analyse an earth system may result in different calculated performances relative to other
models. The following cases arise:-

• If the depth of the upper soil layer in a two-layer model is significantly greater than the depth of the earth
system, the calculated performance will approach that for uniform soil.

• If the upper soil resistivity is greater than the lower, the grid resistance, touch and step potentials will tend to
be lower than for a uniform soil with ρ equal to the upper layer ρ.

• For upper layer resistivity less than that for the lower layer, the performance will be worse than the uniform
model

The two-layer model usually requires a computer to analyse the earth grid, but for simple grid arrangements, the
approximations in IEEE 80 may be adequate.

8. CRUSHED ROCK

Crushed rock is usually applied in a thin layer on the substation terrace surface, usually between 100mm to
150mm thick. The latter value is often applied in utility Transmission substations. In addition, the initial applied
thickness may need to be 25mm to 50mm thicker to account for compaction from vehicles and settlement. The
resistivity of crushed rock is dependent upon the type of rock, wetness and contaminants. Earth calculations
usually use the wet resistivity which can range from 1000 Ω-m to 5000 Ω-m. When dry, the resistivity of
crushed rock can be millions of Ω-m. This provides some insulating effects to protect personnel from potential
gradients. Contaminants can reduce the resistivity. When wetted with salt water, resistivity can be as low as 24
Ω-m. IEEE 80 recommends that the resistivity of the rock that the utility typically uses should be measured.

9. DETERMINING TOLERABLE STEP AND TOUCH POTENTIALS

Humans are very sensitive to 50 Hz body currents. As frequency is reduced, human tolerance tends to increase.
Studies have provided information on the effect of 50 Hz currents on the human body and are summarised in
Table 19-1.3.

Table 19-1.3: Human Tolerance to 50 Hz Body Current

Approximate Current Level Effect on Humans

(mA)

1 Threshold of perception

1-6 “Let-go” currents, muscle control tends to be adequate to release

grasp of energising object

9-25 Painful, loss of muscle control preventing release. Breathing may be

difficult.

60-100 Ventricular fibrillation, inhibition of respiration, death

Tolerance of current also depends on its duration; the shorter the duration, the higher the tolerance. However,
some studies indicate that the heart is more susceptible to currents having a duration approaching that of a
heartbeat. The danger is much less for durations below 0,3 seconds, suggesting that high speed clearing of earth
faults is desirable from the viewpoint of earth system safety.

From experimental data the “safe” body current () is a function of time (TS) according to the equation:
2
I B .TS = K' eq. 19-1.9

where:-

IB = “safe” body current in amperes (A)

TS = Duration of current in seconds (s)
K' = Proportionality constant = 0,0135

IEEE 80 provides the following formula:-

K
IB = A eq. 19-1.10
TS

where:-

IB = Current which 99,5% of all persons can survive without ventricular fibrillation in amperes (A)
K = 0,116 for 50kg body weight
0,157 for 70kg body weight

The effect of re-closing after earth faults has not been thoroughly investigated; consequently the total time of
exposure due to re-closing is taken as TS.
To determine the tolerable potentials, IEEE 80 assumes the following:-

• Hand and foot contact resistance is zero

• Resistance of body from hand to hand, and from hand to feet is 1000 Ω

Using these assumptions and the above current equation, the following equations are derived in IEEE 80:-

E step50 =
[1000 + 6.CS .(hS , k r ).ρ S ].0,116 eq. 19-1.11
TS

E step70 =
[1000 + 6.CS .(hS , k r ).ρ S ].0,157 eq. 19-1.12
TS

E touch50 =
[1000 + 1,5.C S .(hS , k r ).ρ S ].0,116 eq. 19-1.13
TS

E touch70 =
[1000 + 1,5.C S .(hS , k r ).ρ S ].0,157 eq. 19-1.14
TS

where:-

Estep50 = Tolerable step potential for a 50kg person in volts (V)

Estep70 = Tolerable step potential for a 70kg person
Etouch50 = Tolerable touch potential for a 50kg person
Etouch70 = Tolerable touch potential for a 70kg person
RB = Body resistance in ohms (Ω) ≈ 1000 Ω
6.CS(hS,kr). ρS = Resistance of two feet in series standing on surface with soil resistivity ρS (Ω-m)
1,5.CS(hS,kr). ρS = Resistance of two feet in parallel
CS(hS,kr) A factor which can be obtained from Figure 8 of Chapter 5, IEEE 80. It is used
when there is a crushed rock layer on the surface. It is a function of hS and kr

16.b ∞
= 1+ ∑ K n .R m (2nhs) eq. 19-1.15
ρS n =1


0,09. 1 −
ρ 

ρS 
= 1−
 eq. 19-1.16
2.h S + 0,09

= 1,0 if there is no crushed stone

The equations for tolerable step and touch potentials would then reduce to:-

E step50 =
[1000 + 6.ρ S ].0,116 eq. 19-1.17
TS

E step70 =
[1000 + 6.ρ S ].0,157 eq. 19-1.18
TS

E touch50 =
[1000 + 1,5.ρ S ].0,116 eq. 19-1.19
TS

E touch70 =
[1000 + 1,5.ρ S ].0,157 eq. 19-1.20
TS

where:-

hS = Crushed rock layer in metres

kr = Reflection factor (dimensionless)

ρ -ρ
k r = +ρS eq. 19-1.21
ρ S

where:-

ρ = Resistivity of soil in ohm-metres (Ω.m)

ρS = Resistivity of crushed stone in ohm-metres (Ω.m)

1,0
kr = -0,1
0,9

0,8

0,7
Surface Layer De-rating Factor, CS

0,6 kr
-0,1
(dimensionless)

0,5 -0,2

kr = -0,95 -0,3
0,4 -0,4
-0,5
0,3 -0,6
-0,7
0,2
-0,8
-0,9
0,1
-0,95

0
0 0,02 0,04 0,06 0,08 0,10 0,12 0,14 0,16 0,18 0,20 0,22 0,24 0,26 0,28 0,30

Thickness of Surface Material, hS (metres)

Figure 19-1.17: CS vs. hS (kr)

0,116 0,157
and are expressions for tolerable IB given earlier.
TS TS

9.1 Sample Calculation

ρS)
Crushed rock resistivity (ρ = 2000 Ω-m

ρ)
Soil resistivity (ρ = 100 Ω-m

Crushed rock depth (hS) = 0,1 m

ρ -ρ
Reflection factor (kr) = + S
ρ ρS

100-2000
=
100 + 2000
= -0,905 (≈ -0,9) (Go to Figure 19-1.17
above)

16.b ∞ n
C S (h S , k r ) = 1 + . ∑ K .R m (2nhS)
ρ S n=1

CS(0,1;-0,9) = 0,7 (from Figure 19-1.17)


0,09. 1 −
ρ 
ρS

= 1−
 
2.hS + 0,09


0,09. 1 −
100 

= 1−
 2000 
(from Figure 19-1.16)
2.0,1 + 0,09
= 0,705

Fault duration (TS) = 0,75 seconds

The choice of TS is based on the judgement of the design engineer.

The tolerable touch potential is typically less than the tolerable step potential. It is recommended that earth
potentials be limited to those tolerable values for a 50kg person.

If crushed rock is used:-

E step50 =
[1000 + 6.C S .(hS , k r ).ρ S ].0,116
TS

=
[1000 + 6.0,7.2000].0,116 (from Figure 19-1.11)
0,75
= 1259 V

E touch50 =
[1000 + 1,5.C S .(hS , k r ).ρ S ].0,116
TS

=
[1000 + 1,5.0,7.2000].0,116 (from Figure 19-1.13)
0,75
= 415 V

If no crushed rock is used:-

CS(hS,kr) = 1,0

E step70 =
[1000 + 6.C S .(hS , k r ).ρ S ].0,157
TS

=
[1000 + 6.1.100].0,157 (from Figure 19-1.12)
0,75
= 2904 V

E touch70 =
[1000 + 1,5.C S .(hS , k r ).ρ S ].0,157
TS

=
[1000 + 1,5.1.100 ].0,157 (from Figure 19-1.14)
0,75
= 208 V

From the above it is clear that percentage wise the tolerable voltages when standing on crushed rock is higher
than when there is no crushed rock, illustrating the significance and importance of its presence in a substation
equipment yard in providing safety to personnel from fault currents.

10. EARTH GRID LAYOUT

A simple grid layout is shown in Figure 19-1.18.

300
50

50
200

Figure 19-1.18: A Basic Grid Layout

10.1 Earthing conductors should encircle the entire perimeter of the substation. The greater the area enclosed by
the perimeter conductor, the lower the grid resistance will be, and the lower the grid potential rise (GPR).

10.2 Cross conductors connected at intersections are used to control step and touch potentials. They do not
significantly change the resistance to earth. It facilitates ease of calculation if the conductors form squares
so as to more easily fit the IEEE equations, however this is not mandatory.

10.3 Earthing rods may be connected around the perimeter of the grid and at interior locations for lightning
arresters, transformer neutrals, etc.

300
50
50
200

Figure 19-1.19: An Earth Grid with Earth Rods

Earthing rods are most effective at the perimeter and should not be closer together than their length. They can be
used to reach lower resistivity soils to lower resistance to remote earth. A typical application is in very cold
climates where the soil may freeze around the grid (i.e. frost line is lower than grid depth). Frozen soil has a
relatively higher resistivity than non-frozen soil as stated before. Earthing rods can be used to reach the unfrozen

soil below the frost line to keep the grid resistance lower.

11. EVALUATION OF RESISTANCE TO REMOTE EARTH

IEEE 80 provides the following approximate formula:-

ρ π
Rg = . eq. 19-1.22
4 ag

where:-

Rg = Grid resistance to remote earth in Ohms (Ω)

ρ = Average resistivity in Ohm-metres (Ω-m)
2
a = Area of the grid in square metres (m )
Applying this to the grid shown in Figure 19-1.8 then gives:-
ρ = 100 Ω-m
2
ag = (200).(300) m
ρ
Rg = 4 . π
ag

100 3,142
= .
4 (200.)(300)
= 0,181 Ω

The above formula should only be used for estimating the maximum fault current during preliminary stages. This
formula gives a first approximation of the minimum value of the substation earthing resistance in uniform soil.

For estimating ground potential rise (GPR) in preliminary stages, an upper limit can be determined from the
following formulas:

ρ π ρ
Rg = . + eq. 19-1.23
4 ag Lc

where:-

Lc = Total length of buried conductor in metres (m)

If the grid is buried at a depth of 0,25 m to 2,5 m, then:-

  
  
Rg = ρ. 
1
+
1 1+ 1  eq. 19-1.24
 c
L 20.a g  20 
  1 + h. ag

  
where:-

h = Depth of in metres (m)

If the grid is buried at a depth of 0,5 m then:-

h = 0,5 m

Lc = 7.200+5.300 = 2900 m

ρ = 100 Ω-m

  
  
Rg = ρ. 
1
+
1 1+ 1 
 c
L 20.a g  20 
  1 + h. ag

  
  
 1 1
 1

= 100. + 1 +  (from eq. 19-1.24)
 2900 20.200.300  20 
 1 + 0,5. 
  200.300 
= 0,217 Ω

12. DETERMINATION OF MAXIMUM GRID CURRENT

In order to determine the Ground Potential Rise (GPR), step and touch potentials, one must determine the worst
case fault current that can flow through the earth considering current division.

Generally, phase-to-earth (P-E) and double phase-to-earth (P-P-E) faults should be considered. More
complicated simultaneous faults may yield higher fault currents at the substation, but due to their very low
probability of occurrence, it is not practical to consider them. The worst fault is the one that produces the highest
value of zero sequence current flow through the grid into the earth.
2
Phase-to-earth faults will be the worst if Z0.Z1 > Z2 . eq. 19-1.25
2
Double phase-to-earth faults will be the worst if Z0.Z1 < Z2 . eq. 19-1.26

Z0, Z1 and Z2 are zero, positive and negative phase sequence impedances respectively of the system as viewed
from the point of fault. The worst fault may be on the high or low side of the transformer, inside or outside the
station, or a certain distance away. There is no set rule for determining the location of the worst fault other than
performing short circuit analyses of the system.

As an example, consider the electrical system illustrated in Figure 19-1.20.

Line 1 Substation Line 2

X1 = 24 Ω X1 = 15 Ω
X2 = 24 Ω 33kV Bus X2 = 15 Ω
X0 = 82 Ω X0 = 50 Ω
L
Source H M Source
A B

F3 F1 132kV 66kV F2 F4
Bus Bus
132 kV 66 kV
Short Circuit Data: Short Circuit Data:
3 Ph – 5000 MVA 132 – 66 – 33 kV 3 Ph – 1250 MVA
1 Ph – 4200 MVA 40 MVA 1 Ph – 1300 MVA

XHM = 5,5%
XHL = 36%

XML = 28%

Figure 19-1.20: Example System

Using a 100 MVA Base:

Description 132 kV 66 kV
Vbase 132 kV 66 kV
Ibase 100MVA 100MVA
= 437,4A = 874,8A
3.(132kV) 3.(66kV)
2 2
Zbase (132kV) (66kV)
= 174,24 Ω = 43,56 Ω
100MVA 100MVA

12.1 Determine Sequence Impedance

12.1.1 Source A

12.1.1.1 Positive (Z1) and Negative (Z2) Phase Sequence Impedances

Z1 = Z 2

Pbase (MVA)
=
P132kV 3ph SC (MVA)
. eq. 19-1.27
100MVA
=
5000MVA
= 0,02 pu

12.1.1.2 Z10 Single Phase Impedance

3.[Pbase (MVA)]
Z 10 =
P132kV 1ph SC (MVA)

3.(100MVA)
= . eq. 19-1.28
4200MVA
= 0,07143 pu

12.1.1.3 Zero (Z0) Phase Sequence Impedance

Z 0 = Z 10 - (Z 1 + Z 2 )

= 0,07143 - 2.(0,02) . eq. 19-1.29

= 0,03143 pu

12.1.2 Line 1

Z1 = Z 2

Z 1or2 ( Ω )
=
Z base (Ω )
eq. 19-1.30
24
=
174,24
= 0,1377 pu

Z 0 (Ω )
Z0 =
Z base ( Ω )

82
= eq. 19-1.31
174,24
= 0,4706 pu

12.1.3 Transformer

 X HM (%) . Pbase MVA 

X HM =   
 100   PHMMVA 
=
 5,5 . 100MVA 
  eq. 19-1.32
 100   40MVA 
= 0,1375 pu

 X HL (%) . Pbase MVA 

X HL =   
 100   PHLMVA 
=
 36 . 100MVA 
  eq. 19-1.33
 100   40MVA 
= 0,9 pu

 X ML (%) . Pbase MVA 

XML =   
 100   PMLMVA 
=
 28 . 100MVA 
  eq. 19-1.34
 100   40MVA 
= 0,7 pu

1
XH = . (XHM + XHL − XML)
2
1
= . (0,1375 + 0,9 − 0,7) eq. 19-1.35
2
= 0,1688 pu

1
XM = . (XHM + XML − XHL)
2
1
= . (0,1375 + 0,7 − 0,9) eq. 19-1.36
2
= - 0,03125 pu

1
XL = . (XHL + XHL − XHM)
2
1
= . (0,9 + 0,7 − 0,1375) eq. 19-1.37
2
= 0,7313 pu

12.1.4 Line 2

Z1 = Z2
Z 1or2 ( Ω )
=
Z base ( Ω )
(from eq. 19-1.30)
15 Ω
=
43,56 Ω
= 0,3444 pu

Z 0 (Ω )
Z0 =
Z base (Ω )

50 Ω
= (from eq. 19-1.31)
43,56 Ω
= 1,1478 pu

12.1.5 Source B

Positive (Z1) and Negative (Z2) Phase Sequence Impedances

Z1 = Z2
Pbase (MVA)
=
P132kV 3ph SC (MVA)
(from eq. 19-1.27)
100MVA
=
1250MVA
= 0,08 pu

Z10 Single Phase Impedance

3.[Pbase (MVA)]
Z10 =
P132kV 1ph SC (MVA)

3.(100MVA)
= (from eq. 19-1.28)
1300MVA
= 0,2308 pu

Zero (Z0) Phase Sequence Impedance

Z0 = Z10 - (Z1 + Z2)

= 0,23 08 - 2.(0,08) (from eq. 19-1.29)

= 0,07077 pu

Figure 19-1.21 shows the Positive/Negative Sequence Impedance Diagram for this system. For Negative
sequence, the voltage sources are shorted.

33 kV Bus

0,7313
F1
V V

0,02 0,125 0, 1688 -0,03125 0,3151 0,08

Source A Line 1 Line 2 Source B
Transformer

Figure 19-1.21: Positive/Negative Sequence Impedance Diagram

Figure 19-1.22 shows the Zero Sequence Impedance Diagram for the system.

33 kV Bus

0,7313
F1
V V

0,03143 -0,4305 0, 1688 -0,03125 1,05 0,07077

Source A Line 1 Transformer Line 2 Source B

Figure 19-1.22: Zero Sequence Impedance Diagram

Firstly, an analysis of the faults at F1 are performed, assuming a pre-fault voltage of 1,05 pu (i.e. at Um). Figure
19-1.23 shows the reduction of the positive and negative sequence diagram. Current division factors are
calculated in order to determine the contribution from each source.

If the positive/negative phase sequence fault current is I1, then current division would be as follows:-

I1 = I11 + I12
eq. 19-1.38

V = I 11 .R 1 V = I 12 .R 2

1,05 = I 11 .0,46 1,05 = I 12 .0,562

1,05 (from eq. 19-1.6) 1,05

= I 11 = I 12
0,46 0,562
I 11 = 2,2826 I 12 = 1,8683

I1 = 2,2826 + 1,8683 = 4,1509

For current division then:-

V = I 11 .R 1
V = I 12 .R 2

1,05 = I 11 . 0,46 1,05 = I 12 .0,562

1,05 = I (from eq. 19-1.6)
1,05
0,46 11 = I 12
0,562
I 11 = 2,2826
I 12 = 1,8683
12.1.6 Sequence Current Division Factors

I I12
S f1 = I +11I S f2 = I +
11 12 11 I12
2,2826 1,8683
= eq. 19-1.39 =
4,1509 4,1509
= 0,5499 = 0,4501
where:-

Sf1 = Current division factor from source 1

Sf2 = Current division factor from source 2

1,05

0,02 0,125 0,1688 -0,03125 0,3151 0,08

Source A Line 1 Transformer Line 2 Source B

a) Short Out Voltage Sources and Add Series Impedance Components

Sequence Current
Division Factors
1,05 I2 = 0,4501
I1 = 0,5499

0,145 0,5327

b) Add Parallel Impedance Components

1,05

I 0,114

F1
c) Resultant Impedance Component

Figure 19-1.23: Reduction of the Positive/Negative Sequence Diagram

Parallel

0,2588I0 0,7313
I0 Series
0,5676I0 0,4324I0 0,1736I0

0,462 0,1688 1,09

a) First Reduction

Parallel
0,462 0,6065

b) First Reduction

I0 0,2622

c) Total Reduction to Single Impedance

Figure 19-1.24: Reduction of the Zero Sequence Impedance Diagram

For single phase-to-earth faults at F1, the sequence Impedance Diagram would be connected as illustrated in
Figure 19-1.25.

1,05

0,1146

0,2622

Figure 19-1.25: Single Phase to Earth Connections

1,05
I1 = I2 = I0 =
2.(0,1146) + 0,2622 eq.
= 2,137 pu
19-1.40

IF = I1 + I2 + I0

= 3.I 0
eq.
= 3.2,137 pu

= 6,41 pu
19-1.41

I F = I F (pu).I F (base)

= ( 6,41).(437,4) eq.

= 2804A
19-1.42

This is the total fault current at the point of fault. In this example, however, this current is not the current that flows
from the grid into the earth. Therefore, it is not the value that must be used in determining the grid potential rise,
step and touch potentials. The current to use is the total current that flows through remote system neutrals. This
will be the 3.I0 currents (I0 per phase) since I1 and I2 components add to zero at the neutrals. Examination of the
single line and zero sequence circuit diagram Figure 19-1.24a) shows that 0,5676.I0 flows from Source A and
0,1736.I0 flows through the transformer from source B. Furthermore, the 0,5676.I0 current is on a 132 kV system
base and the 0,1736.I0 current is on a 66 kV base.

Therefore:-

Source A earth fault current:-

[ ]
I EA = 3. S fA .I 0 (pu).I F (base)

= 3.[(0,5676).(2,137).(437,4)] eq. 19-1.43

≈ 1592A

Source B earth fault current:-

[ ]
I EB = 3. S fB .I 0 (pu).I F (base)

= 3.[(0,1736).(2,137).(874,8)] eq. 19-1.44

≈ 974A

where:-

SfA = Current division factor from source A

SfB = Current division factor from source B

IE = IEA + IEB eq. 19-1.45

= 2566A

where:-

IE = Earth current from grid in amperes (A)

I G-E
% of total I F = .100
IF

2566
= .100 eq. 19-1.46
2804
≈ 92%

This is 92% of the total fault current at the point of fault. It is important to note that it is possible for the actual
earth current to exceed the current at the point of fault (e.g. if in this example there is no transformer tertiary and,
Line 2 is ⅓ of its present length or ⅓ of the impedance used in this example). Only analysis will reveal which
current is greater for a given substation/system configuration. It should also be noted that in this example, the
Source A I0 current flows from the point of fault through the earth to Source A. Source B I0 current flows down
the 66 kV winding neutral and through earth to Source B. Another component of I0 flows from the point of fault to
the 132 kV winding neutral. Since the point of fault and 132 kV neutral earth are both within the switchyard, IEEE
80 assumes the current flows through the grid conductors rather than the soil and does not contribute to GPR
and overall grid potentials. The current may contribute to local potential gradients in the immediate vicinity of the
fault if the fault is directly to earth rather than to an earthed structure. IEEE 80 does not provide equations for
these localised potentials.

A double phase-to-earth fault should also be checked at F1. The connection of the sequence impedance
diagrams for such a fault is shown in Figure 19-1.26.

1,05
I1 I2 I0

0,1146 0,1146 0,2622

Figure 19-1.26: Double Phase to Earth Connections

Z 0 = 0,07975

1,05
I1 =
1,1146 + 0,07975 eq. 19-1.47
= 5,403 pu

0,2605
I 2 = −5,403.
0,1146 + 0,2622 eq. 19-1.48
= −3,76 pu

I 0 = − (I 1 + I 2 )

(
= − 5,403 − 3,76 ) eq. 19-1.49

= −1,642 pu

Source A earth fault current:-

[ ]
I EA = 3. S fA .I 0 (pu).I F (base)

= 3.[(0,5676).(-1,642).(437,4)] (from eq. 19-1.43)

≈ -1223A

Source B earth fault current:-

[ ]
I EB = 3. S fB .I 0 (pu).I F (base)

= 3.[(0,1736).(-1,642).(874,8)] (from eq. 19-1.44)

≈ -748A

IE = IEA + IEB (from eq. 19-1.45)

= -1971A

The phase-to-earth currents are greater at F1 than the phase-to-phase fault currents. Faults should also be
evaluated on the 66 kV side and out on the lines. Results should be compared to determine the maximum
current. These calculations neglected fault impedance and earth impedance, but these may be included if they
will have a significant effect.

12.1.7 Current Division

It may be beneficial to reduce the earth current component by considering division of current between earth and
alternate 3.I0 return paths to remote neutrals such as shield wires or neutral conductors associated with incoming
lines. Counterpoises and buried pipes may also reduce the earth currents. These items must be connected to the
grid to be of benefit. The basic circuit for shield wires is illustrated in Figure 19-1.27.

IF ZL

1,05 F1
ZS ZS ZS

IS
ZV ZT ZT ZT

ZG IE

Figure 19-1.27: Current Division

The description of the items shown in Figure 19-1.27 are as follows:-

where:-

ZG = Grid impedance to remote earth in Ohms (Ω)

IE = Earth current from grid in amperes (A)
IS = Current through shield wires in amperes (A)
ZS = Impedance of the shield wires between towers in Ohms (Ω).It may consist of self and mutual
impedance with phase conductors
ZT = Resistance of tower earths to remote earth in Ohms (Ω)
ZV = Resistance of source to remote earth in Ohms (Ω)

Some 3.I0 current flows through ZG and some through the shield wire and towers back to the source. Networks
modelling the actual line configuration can be developed and the various currents determined by computer.

An approximate solution can be determined if the line is long enough to be considered infinite without excessive
error. ZS and ZT are assumed to be the same for each span and only the self impedance is used for ZS. Then:-

ZS
Z Shield = + Z S .Z T eq. 19-1.50
2
where:-

Zshield = Shield wire impedance to remote earth in Ohms (Ω)

The current division factor Sf is given by:-

Z Shield
Sf = eq. 19-1.51
Z Shield + Z Grid

The resultant earth current (IG) is calculated as:-

IG = 3.I0.(Sf)

The value 3.I0 is the current flowing to remote neutrals from the grid resulting from the worst case fault.

If the grid impedance is to be included in short circuit calculations, the impedance of the shield wire network
should be parallel with ZG.

12.1.8 Decrement Factor

The current determined above is a symmetrical AC current. The actual current will consist of an AC symmetrical
component (which has an initial value based on the subtransient reactances of the AC machines and decays to a
steady state value (Ta) based on the synchronous reactances) and a DC component, based on the system X/R
ratio and the voltage at the time and point of fault, which decays to zero. Most fault calculations use subtransient
reactances to determine the initial AC symmetrical current components. IEEE 80 recommends that this value be
assumed constant during the fault. Based on this, a decrement factor (Df) is obtained from the following equation
derived in IEEE 80.

Df =
ZS
2
+ 1+
Ta
tf
(
- 2.tf
. 1 - e Ta ) eq. 19-1.52

where:-

tf = Fault duration in seconds in seconds (s)

Ta = DC off-set decaying time constant in seconds (s)
X
Ta = eq. 19-1.53
ω.R

where:-

X = Total system reactance in Ohms (Ω)

R = Total system resistance in Ohms (Ω)

Df can be assumed to be 1,0 for tf > 30 cycles. To be conservative, tf should be the duration without the effects of
re-closing.

12.1.9 Future Expansion and Changes to the Network

Future expansion and changes to the network should be considered to account for increases in available fault
currents due to changes in the system configuration or generation. In other words, design margin should be
added to the fault current used. If values supplied or calculated are “ultimate” values, this margin may not be
needed. The margin can be expressed as a factor CP where CP > 1, the value of CP should be determined after
detailed discussion with the person carrying out the network studies.

The effective fault current to be used for calculation is:-

IG = CP.Df.Sf. Ig eq. 19-1.54

where:-

CP = Margin factor
Df = Decrement factor
Sf = Current division factor

Ig = Value of 3.I0 current that flows to remote neutrals for the worst case fault type and location

Finally, earth conductors must be capable of carrying fault current without damage for the duration of the fault.
This will be discussed further on in this text.

13. GRID DESIGN

ρ1,ρ
Once the soil resistivity value(s) (ρ ρ2 and ρa), maximum effective grid current IG, fault duration (tf), and tolerable
potentials (Estep50, Etouch50) have been determined, the actual grid design can commence.

where:-

ρ1 = Resistivity of upper soil layer in Ohm-metres (Ω-m)

ρ2 = Resistivity of lower soil layer in Ohm-metres (Ω-m)
ρa = Apparent resistivity of soil layer in Ohm-metres (Ω-m)

Figure 19-1.28 describes the basic procedures.

For the initial design, a loop of earth conductor should be included around the perimeter of the substation with a
sufficient number of cross conductors to allow convenient earthing of equipment and structures. Earth rods
should be added if frozen soil as a possibility (earth grid is below frost line) or if it appears necessary to reach
ρ).
lower resistivity soils (ρ

Example 11.1

A preliminary design comprises the grid (see Figure 19-1.18) with the same parameters as described earlier.

ρ) = 100 Ω
Soil resistivity (ρ

ρS)
Crushed rock (ρ = 2000 Ω-m

Crushed Rock Layer = 100 mm

Grid current (Ig) = 2566 A

Fault duration (tf) =0,75 seconds (no re-closing)

This results in:-

Decrement factor (Df) = 1,0

Alternate fault current are neglected so that:-

Current division factor (Sf) = 1,0

Assuming:

Margin Factor (CP) = 1,1 (adding 10%)

Effective fault current

IG = CP.Df.Sf. Ig (from eq. 19-1.54)

= (1,1).(1,0).(1,0).(2566)

= 2823 A

The grid is to be placed 457mm below the terrace surface.

From earlier calculations tolerable step and touch potentials are:-

Estep50 = 1259 V

Etouch50 = 415 V

For a more accurate estimate of the resistance to remote earth for grids with earth rods, Swartz’s formula can be
used.
2
R 1 .R 2 − R 12
Rg = eq. 19-1.55
R 1 + R 2 − 2.R 12

where:-

R1 = Resistance of earth conductors to remote earth in ohms (Ω)

R2 = Resistance of earth rods to remote earth in ohms (Ω)
R12 = Mutual resistance between grid conductor and earth rods in ohms (Ω)

R1, R2 and R12 can be calculated as follows:-

 ρ1    2.L C  L  
R1 =   ln  + K 1  C  −K 2  eq. 19-1.56
 π.L C    h'   A 
h' = d 1 .h eq. 19-1.57

where:-

ρ1 = Soil resistivity of top layer in ohm.metres (Ω.m)

LC = Total length of grid earth conductor in metres (Ω)
h = Depth of burial of grid earth conductors in metres (m)
K1 = Coefficient found from Figure 19-1.29)
K2 = Coefficient found from Figure 19-1.30)
2
A = Area enclosed by earthing conductor in square metres (m )
d1 = Diameter of earthing conductor in metres (m)

R2 =

 ρ a    8.l   l.
 ln  − 1 + 2.K 1 
(n R -1 )2

 eq. 19-1.58
 2.n R .π.l    d 2   A 
  
where:-

ρa = Apparent soil resistivity in ohm.metres (Ω.m)

nR = Number of earth rods placed in area A
LR = Total length of earth rods in metres (m)
d2 = Diameter of earth rods in metres (m)
ℓ = Length of each of the earth rods in metres (m)

 ρ a    2.L C   LC  
R 12 =   ln  + K1  − K2 + 1 eq. 19-1.59
 π.L C    l   A 

FIELD DATA
STEP 1
A, ρ

CONDUCTOR SIZE
STEP 2
3.I0A, tC, d

TOUCH & STEP CRITERIA

STEP 3
Etouch50, Estep50

INITIAL DESIGN
STEP 4
D, n, LC, LT, h

GRID RESISTANCE
STEP 5
Rg, LC, LR
STEP 11

MODIFY DESIGN

D, n, LC, LT GRID CURRENT

STEP 6
IG, tf

STEP 7
YES
IG.RG<Etouch50

MESH & STEP

VOLTAGES
STEP 8
Em, ES, Km, KS,
Ki, Kii, Kh

STEP 9
NO
Em<Etouch50

YES
STEP 10
NO
ES<Estep50

YES

DETAIL
DESIGN STEP 12

Figure 19-1.28: Earth-mat Design Process

1,40

1,35

1,30
A
1,25

1,20
Coefficient K1

1,15

1,10

B
1,05

1,00
C
0,95

0,90

0,85
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Length to Width Ratio

Figure 19-1.29: Coefficient K1 of Schwarz’s Formula

Curve A – For Depth h = 0

y A = −0,04.x + 1,41 eq. 19-1.60

1
Curve B – For Depth h = . A
10

y B = −0,05.x + 1,20 eq. 19-1.61

1
Curve A – For Depth h = . A
6

y C = −0,05.x + 1,13 eq. 19-1.62

7,0

6,5

6,0
Coefficient K2 A
5,5

5,0
B
4,5
C

4,0

3,5

3,0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Length to Width Ratio

Figure 19-1.30: Coefficient K2 of Schwarz’s Formula

Curve A – For Depth h = 0

y A = 0,15.x + 5,50 eq. 19-1.63

1
Curve B – For Depth h = . A
10

y B = 0,15.x + 4,68 eq. 19-1.64

1
Curve A – For Depth h = . A
6

y C = 0,05.x + 4,40 eq. 19-1.65

The following data is given:-

ρ1 = ρ2 = ρa = 100 Ω-m (soil resistivity)

ℓ=6m
d1 = 0,2 m
d2 = 0,016 m
n = 10 rods
h = 0,5 m

h' = d 1 .h
(from eq. 19-1.57)
= 0,2.0,5

Length of Grid (Lx) = 300m

Width of Grid (Ly) = 200m

Lx 300
=
Ly 200

= 1,5

K1 = 1,35 from Figure 19-1.29)

K2 = 5,7 from Figure 19-1.30)

 ρ 1    2.L C   LC  
R1 =   ln  + K1  − K2 
 π.L C    h'   A 
 100  ln 2.2900  + 1,35. 2900  
=       − 5,7  (from eq. 19-1.56)
 π.2900    0,1   200.300  
= 0,2333 Ω

R2 =

 ρ a    8.l 
 ln  − 1 + 2.K 1 
(
 l. n - 1 2  
R  )
 2.n R .π.l    d 2   A 
  


=

100   8.6 

 ln  − 1 + 2.1,35. (
 6. 10 - 1 2 
 −
)
5,7

 (from eq. 19-1.58)
 2.10.π.6    0,02   200.300  
 
= 1,941Ω

 ρ a    2.L C   LC  
R 12 =   ln  + K1  − K2 + 1
 π.L C    l   A 
 100  ln 2.2900  + 1,35. 2900  
=       − 5,7 + 1 (from eq. 19-1.59)
 π.2900    0,1   200.300  
= 0,1993 Ω

2
R 1 .R 2 − R 12
Rg =
R 1 + R 2 − 2.R 12

0,2333.1,9 41 − 0,1993 2
= (from eq. 19-1.55)
0,2333 + 1,941 − 2.0,1993
= 0,2326 Ω

In frozen soil, resistance would be that of the rods only, i.e. 1,9 Ω.

GPR = I G .R g

= 2823.(0,2326) eq. 19-1.66

= 657V

A GPR of less than 5000V is usually adequate, although higher values can be acceptable. Based on literature on
the subject, a value of 5000V can eliminate concerns regarding puncture of nearby pipes carrying flammable
gases or liquids. In addition to this, if the GPR is too high, it may be difficult to isolate incoming telephone lines or
resolve other potential problems. If the GPR had been less than the tolerable touch potential, the preliminary
design would be adequate. Since GPR > Etouch50, the touch and step potentials caused by IG must be evaluated.

14. CALCULATION OF MESH (TOUCH) POTENTIALS

The mesh potential values are calculated as a product of the geometric factor, Km; a corrective factor, Ki that
accounts for some of the error introduced by the assumptions made in deriving Km; the soil resistivity, ρ; and the
average current per unit of effectively buried length of the earthing system conductor (IG/LM). IEEE 80 provides
the following equation to determine mesh (touch) potentials:-

ρ.K m .K i .I G
Em = eq. 19-1.67
LM

where:-

ρ = Soil resistivity in ohm.metres (Ω.m)

It should be noted that ρ is a uniform soil value. If a two layer soil model is more appropriate, a computer analysis
ρ1) is less than the lower layer soil resistivity (ρ
may be necessary, especially if the upper layer soil resistivity (ρ ρ2). If
ρ1 > ρ2, then ρ1 can be used in the above equation with conservative results.

Ki = Correction factor based on grid geometry

Km = Spacing factor for mesh voltage

1   D2
.ln
(D + 2.h)2 h  K ii 
+ ln
8 
Km = + − 
4.d  K h  π.(2.n − 1) 
eq. 19-1.68
2.π 
  16.h.d 8.D.d
 
where:-
Kii = 1,0 for grids with earth rods along the perimeter, or in corners, or along the perimeter and throughout the grid
area
= 1
for no earth rods, or a few not along the perimeter eq. 19-1.69
2
(2.n)  
n

h
Kh = 1+ eq. 19-1.70
hO

D = 50m Spacing between parallel conductors (m)

h = Depth of grid in metres (m)

hO = 1m

n = Number of parallel conductors in one direction

= n a .n b .n c .n d eq. 19-1.71

2.L C
na = eq. 19-1.72
LP

LP
nb = eq. 19-1.73
4. A

 0,7.A 
 
 L x .L y   L x .L y 
nc =   eq. 19-1.74
 A 
Dm
nd = eq. 19-1.75
2 2
Lx + Ly

d = 16mm - diameter of grid conductor (m)

Ki = 0,644 + 0,148.n eq. 19-1.76

where:-
LP = Peripheral length of the grid in metres (m)

For grids no earth rods, or grids with only a few earth rods scattered throughout the grid, but none located in the
corners or along the perimeter of the grid, the effectively buried length, LM, is:-

LM = L C + LR eq. 19-1.77

where:-

LR = Total length of earth rods in metres (m)

For grids with earth rods in the corners as well as along the perimeter and throughout the grid, the effectively
buried length, LM, is:-

  
LM = L C 
+ 1,55 + 1,22.
 Lr .L eq. 19-1.78
  2 2  R
Lx + Ly
  
where:-

Lr = Length of each earth rod in metres (m)

Lx = Maximum length of the grid in the x direction in metres (m)
Ly = Maximum length of the grid in the y direction in metres (m)

This value for Em is less than Etouch50 and is therefore acceptable.

Example

2.LC
na =
LP
2.2900
= (from eq. 19-1.72)
2.(200 + 300)
= 5,8

nb = 1 (from eq. 19-1.73)

nc = 1 (from eq. 19-1.74)
nd = 1 (from eq. 19-1.75)

n = n a .n b .n c .n d

= 5,8.1.1.1 (from eq. 19-1.71)

= 5,8

1
K ii =
2
(2.n) n 
1
=
 2 
(2.5,8 ) 5,8 
(from eq. 19-1.69)

1
=
2,3284
= 0,4295

h
Kh = 1+
hO

0,5
= 1+ (from eq. 19-1.70)
1
= 1,5

= 1,2247

1   D2

(D + 2.h )
2
h  K ii
+ 
.ln
8 
Km = .ln + − 
2.π  
  16.h.d 8.D.d 4.d  K h
  π.(2.n − 1) 

1  
.ln
50
2
(50 + 2.0,5 )2 0,5  0,4295 
+ 8 
= + − .ln 
2.π 
  16.0,5.0,016 8.50.0,016 4.0,016  1,2247  π.(2.5,8 − 1) 
 
=
1
[( )
. ln 19531,25 + 406,406 − 7,813 + 0,3507.ln 0,2402 ( )] (from eq. 19-1.68)
2.π
= 0,159.(9,9 - 0,5002)

= 1,4946

Ki = 0,644 + 0,148.n (from eq. 19-1.76)

= 0,644 + 0,148.5,8

= 1,5024

LC = 2900m

Lr = 6m

LR = 10.6 = 60m

  
LM = LC 
+ 1,55 + 1,22.
 Lr .L
  2 2  R
Lx + Ly
  
  6 
= 2900 + 1,55 + 1,22. .60 (from eq. 19-1.78)

  300 2 + 200 2 
= 2994,49

ρ.K m .K i .I G
Em =
LM
100.1,4946.1,5024.28 23
= (from eq. 19-1.67)
2994,49
= 212V

15. CALCULATION OF STEP POTENTIALS

The step potential values are calculated as a product of the geometric factor (KS), a corrective factor (Ki) the soil
ρ), and the average current per unit of effectively buried length of the earthing system conductor
resistivity (ρ
(IG/LS)

IEEE 80 provides the following equation to determine step potentials:-

ρ.K s .K i .I G
Es = eq. 19-1.79
LS

For grids with or without earth rods, the effectively buried conductor length LS is:-

L s = 0,75.L C + 0,85.L R

= 0,75.2900 + 0,85.60 eq. 19-1.80

= 2226m

Ks =
1
.
 1 + 1 + 1 .(1 - 0,5 n- 2 )
π  2.h D + h D 

=
1
.
 1 + 1 + 1 .(1 - 0,5 5,8-2 ) eq. 19-1.81
π  2.0,5 50 + 0,5 50 
= 0,3370

ρ.K s .K i .I G
Es =
LS
100.0,3370 .1,5024.28 23
= (from eq. 19-1.79)
2226
= 64,21V

This value for Es is less than the tolerable Estep50 value and is therefore acceptable.

The step voltage outside the grid should also be checked. Actually, the above formula for step potential
calculates the step voltage at a point x distance away from the grid which is assumed to be the worst case. The
formula is based on the potential near an infinitely long conductor and therefore does not account for corner
effects, which can intensify the voltage gradients near the corners of the grid and increase the step potential.
The following formula from IEEE 80’s companion tutorial can be used for a circular disk with radius r which can
yield more conservative results and also to determine voltages farther from the grid if needed.

2 -1 r
V = GPR. .sin   eq. 19-1.82
π x
-1 r
The value of sin x should be in radians.
 
where:-

V = Potential relative to remote earth at a point x distance away from the centre of the disc. Rectangular
grids can be modelled as a disc of equivalent area.
Since the area of a circle is given by:-
2
A = π.r eq. 19-1.83
then:-

A
r =
π

(200).(300)
= (from eq. 19-1.83)
π
= 138m

x=r+1
= 138 + 1
= 139
GPR = 627V (calculated above)

V = GPR.
 2 .sin -1  r 
  
π x
2 -1  138  (from eq. 19-1.82)
= 657. .sin  
π  139 
= 607V

V = 607V < 1259V = GPR

The potential one metre from the grid, i.e. the step potential is:-

E step = GPR - V

= 657 - 607 eq. 19-1.84

= 50V

Estep = 50V < 415V = Etouch

This is obviously far less than 1259V that was calculated. If there is a fence around the perimeter directly above
the perimeter grid conductor, 50V would also be the touch potential which is less than 415V previously calculated
and also acceptable. If there is no crushed rock beyond the grid, the 50V should also be less than the tolerable
potentials without crushed rock. These were calculated earlier as 290V and 208V.

Finally, the GPR should be checked during winter with RG = 1,9Ω

GPR = I G .R g

= 2823.(1,9) (from eq. 19-1.66)

= 5364V

For this example, supposing that this value is unacceptable, it can be lowered by adding additional ground rods.
The touch potential outside the fence would be:-

 GPR winter 
E step(winte r) = E step(summe r) . 
 GPR summer 
= 50.
 5364 
 eq. 19-1.85
 657 
= 408V

This is also high even if crushed rock is spread beyond the grid. However, the GPR and touch potential can be
lowered by adding additional ground rods or longer rods or both, which would reduce Rg.

If the number of rods is increased by spacing them around the perimeter at a spacing equal to twice their length
(2).(6) = 12m, the number of rods would be:-

 2.200 + 2.300  = 83
 
 12 

R2
 ρ a    8.l 
=
l
 ln  − 1 + 2.K1
( n - 1) 2


 2.n.π.l    d 2  A 
 


=

100   8.6 
 ln  − 1 + 2.1,35
(
 6. 83 - 1 2 
 ) (from eq. 19-1.58)
 2.83.π.6    0,016  200.300  
 
= 0,3629 Ω

GPR = 2823.0,3629 = 1024V

= 50. 
 1024 
E 
touch(wint er)  657 
= 78V

With the addition of 73 earth rods (difference between initial amount of 10 and the increased number of 83
calculated above) to the preliminary design, an acceptable design is obtained. Alternate solutions could be to
determine the resistivity of frozen soil and its corresponding increase in tolerable potentials, or spread crushed
rock beyond the grid for 1 to 2 metres if property limits permit. These alternatives may justify adding fewer earth
rods.

This is an example of the refinements to the preliminary design that may be required when analysis yields
unacceptable results. In general, if analysis shows unacceptable potentials, IEEE 80 suggests the following
refinements:-

1. Decrease the grid resistance to decrease the GPR. Increase the area or drive more earth rods into the
ground

2. Improve voltage gradient control by:-

2.1 closer spacing of the grid conductors

2.2 moving perimeter conductor outside of fence to reduce touch potential

2.3 Increase earth rods at the perimeter

3. Reduce earth current IG by diverting current to other paths

4. Limit short-circuit currents to lower values, although this may in-turn increase fault duration

5. Bar access to areas having dangerous potential gradients if practical (create a live chamber area)

16. ESTIMATING THE AMOUNT OF EARTHING CONDUCTOR

The amount of earthing conductor required can be estimated by setting the equation for Em equal to the
corresponding Etouch50, then by assuming values for Km and Ki, solve for L.

ρ.K m .K i .I G
Em = (from eq. 19-1.67)
LM

  
L M = L C + 1,55 + 1,22.
 Lr .L (from eq. 19-1.78)
  2 2  R
Lx + Ly
  
Substitute for LM in eq. 19-1.67:-

ρ.K m .K i .I G
Em =
  
  Lr 
L C + 1,55 + 1,22.  .L R
  L 2 +L 2 
  x y 

E touch50 =
[
1000 + 1,5.C S (h S , k ).ρ S .0,116
r
] (from eq. 19-1.13)
TS

Setting Etouch50 = Em:-

[1000 + 1,5.C S (h S , k r ).ρ S ].0,116 = ρ.K m .K i .I G

TS   
  Lr 
L C + 1,55 + 1,22.   .L R
  L +L 2
2

  x y 
Rearrange to separate LC and LR:-

  
 Lr  ρ.K m .K i .I G . TS

+ 1,55 + 1,22. =
LC
 
Lx
2
+ Ly
2 .L R [1000 + 1,5.C S (h S , k r ).ρ S ].0,116
  
  
ρ.K m .K i .I G . TS  Lr 
LC = 
− 1,55 + 1,22.
[1000 + 1,5.C S (h S , k r ).ρ S ].0,116  
Lx
2
+ Ly
2 .L R eq. 19-1.86

  
Different values of Lr and LR can be chosen to calculate LC so providing an optimisation table.

17. LIMITATIONS OF EQUATIONS

It is important to bear in mind that the equations in IEEE 80 are approximations, which in many cases are based
on a uniform soil. The deviations presented in IEEE 80 should be reviewed so that one understands and is aware
of simplifying assumptions that have been made. When using equations for Em and ES, IEEE 80 recommends the
following limits for square grids or rectangular grids having the same number of conductors in both directions:-

Number of cross conductors (n) = 25

Depth of grid conductors = 0,25m < h < 2,5m

Diameter of grid conductors (d) = 0,25.h

Grid conductor spacing (D) = 2,5m

For grids having an equal number of conductors in both directions, the conductor spacing D will have a different
value in each direction. IEEE 80 does not address this regarding applications of its equations. The worst case
value of D (the one resulting in higher calculated potentials) should be determined and used in the analysis.

18. COMPUTER ANALYSIS

As stated above, the equations in IEEE 80 have limitations. IEEE 80 suggests that a computer analysis is
justified for several reasons:-

1. The limits for applying Em and ES equations are exceeded

2. A two-layer soil model is required

3. The grid is asymmetrical (e.g. L-shaped)

4. Uneven grid conductor or earthing rod spacing cannot be analysed using IEEE 80 equations for Em and ES

5. More flexibility in determining local danger points may be required

Several papers have been written that derive equations and algorithms for computer programmes. The basic
theoretical considerations are discussed in the appendices of IEEE 80. Equations are presented to calculate the
resistance and potential induced by a small spherical electrode. With the use of integration, one can determine
these values for rods of infinite length and various orientations by modelling the rods as a series of small
spherical electrodes. Extension of these equations to include two-layer soils results in infinite series summations.
Usually for computer analysis, the grid conductors and earthing rods are divided into a number of finite elements.
The computer uses the infinite series summations to determine the self and mutual resistances to remote earth of
each finite element relative to all others. These impedances are used to develop nodal equations for the voltage
of each finite element in the following manner:

V1 = I 1 .R 11 + I 2 .R 12 + ......... + I n .R 1n eq. 19-1.87

where:-

V1 = Voltage of element 1 in volts (V)

I1, I2,., In = Current entering the soil from each element in amperes (A)
R11 = Self-resistance of each element 1 in ohms (Ω)
R12,., R1n = Mutual resistances between element 1 and all other elements in ohms (Ω)

If voltage drops between elements are neglected, all rod voltages are equal to the GPR.

This results in n equations in n unknowns (n = number of finite elements) which are solve for element currents.
These currents then form the input values into other infinite series summations to calculate the potential at any
desired point on the surface. Some programmes use symmetry to reduce the number of equations, others
assume a uniform current distribution. The accuracy of the programme depends on the extent to which the infinite
series are calculated, the fineness to which the grid is divided into finite elements, and most importantly, the
accuracy of the input data. It may be meaningless to be precise with a computer when resistivity is determined
by inspection from soil borings. One should also bear in mind that soil structure/resistivity is usually not uniform
and may vary seasonally due to moisture content, and two-layer soil model data are approximations as well.

19. SUMMARY OF INPUT DATA REQUIRED

• Resistivity data for soil

• Type of crushed rock to be used for top layer

• Resistivity of the crushed rock

• General arrangement of the substation and location of property lines

• Data on significant buried metal/foundations existing or planned

• Data on fault current magnitudes or data required to calculate these currents, and information on future
changes

• Fault duration and data on re-closing operations

• Data on shield wires and other alternative earth current paths if necessary

• Location of substation and environmental data (location of frost-line, exposure to contaminants or salt spray,
etc)

20. DETAILED GRID DESIGN

20.1 Conductor and fitting Selection

As stated in IEEE 80, conductor and fittings should be selected so that for the expected design life, each element
will:-

• Have sufficient conductivity so as not to contribute to local voltage differences

• Resist fusing and mechanical deterioration under the most adverse combination of a fault current magnitude
and duration

• Be mechanically reliable and robust to a high degree, especially on locations exposed to corrosion or
physical handling

Copper is the most popularly used material as it provides very good life due to its resistance to corrosion. This is
due to its position in the electro-chemical series where it is cathodic relative to most other metals it is likely to be
near to when placed underground, such as steel and lead. This unfortunately means that the copper will cause
corrosion of these other metals.

Copper clad steel is usually used for earthing rods and sometimes grid conductors.

Steel has also been used in substations due to the increasing theft of copper. The design is dealt with in SLDG
19-2

Aluminium should not be used as it is very reactive to acids and alkalis in the soil, dramatically reducing its life.

Lower resistivity soils are good for earthing purposes, but tend to make corrosion problems worse. If corrosion of
nearby metals is a concern, lead-covered copper cable and stainless steel earth rods should be used. The
alternatives are:-

• Insulate the other metal objects with tape and/or an asphalt compound. This will probably not be practical
for existing items

• Routing of buried metal elements so that any copper-based conductor will cross gas pipes or similar objects
of other metals as possible perpendicularly (right angles), and then applying insulating coatings to one
metal or the other where they are in close proximity to each other

• Full cathodic protection of sacrificial metals in the area or, where feasible, use of non-metallic pipes and
conduit

20.2 Minimum Conductor Size

IEEE 80 provides the following formula to determine the minimum size conductor required to thermally withstand
fault current based on the conductor’s material constants:-

tF
A = IF . eq. 19-1.88
k

where:-
2
A = Cross-sectional area of earthing conductor carrying the fault current in square millimetres (mm )
IF = Fault current (I″k1 in networks with low resistance neutral earthing) in amperes (A)
tF = Duration of the fault current in seconds (s)
k = Material constant A

k = 226. ln 1 +
 ϑf − ϑi  2

234,5 + ϑi 
A. s /mm eq. 19-1.89

where:-

ϑi = Initial temperature in degrees Celsius (maximum ambient temperature)

ϑf = Permissible final temperature in degrees Celsius (see Table 19-1.4 below)
o
Table 19-1.4: Permissible Final Temperatures ( C) For Various Materials (See also Table 19-2.1)

o
Material Permissible Final Temperature ( C) (IEC 60621-2)
1)
Copper (Cu) Bare 500
2)
200
3)
150
1)
Aluminium (Al) Bare 300
2)
200
3)
150
`)
Steel Bare or Galvanised 500
2)
200
3)
150

Copper (Cu) Tin Plate or With Lead Sheath No data

1)
For visible conductors in locations that are not generally accessible
2)
For non-visible conductors in locations that are generally accessible
3)
Where hazards are greater

• For non-visible conductors in locations with increased fire risk

• For earthing conductors laid together with PVC cables

The above formula is based on two assumptions:-

• All heat remains in the conductor (no heat loss by conduction or radiation to surroundings)

• The value of the thermal capacity does not change, i.e. it is constant

The assumptions hold for most metals over a reasonably wide temperature range provided the fault duration is
within a few seconds.

Example for hard drawn copper wire: Need to find the required cross-sectional area of earthing conductor

IF = 25kA

tF = 1s

ϑi = 20 C
o

ϑf = 200 C
o

k = 226. ln 1 +
 ϑf − ϑi 

234,5 + ϑi 


= 226. ln 1 +
 180 
 (from eq. 19-1.89)
 254,5 

(
= 226. ln 1,7073 )
2
= 166.,29 A. s /mm

tF
A = IF .
k
1
= 25000. (from eq. 19-1.88)
166,29
2
≈ 150mm

2
Therefore a conductor of cross-sectional area of 150mm will provide enough capacity for the fault current. If a
∅10mm round copper wire is used, then two of these in parallel would be sufficient, providing a cross-sectional
2
area of 157mm . As discussed, two connections per structure in different directions are recommended to guard
against accidental disconnection from the earth-mat of one of the connections which would render an unsafe
situation if that was the only connection.

Conservatism should be applied in sizing earth conductors. The fault duration used to size conductors should
be that of the backup relays clearing time. Future growth of fault current should be considered. Corrosive
contaminants may require special consideration. Finally, mechanical strength and integrity should be considered.
It is recommended that a minimum conductor size of ∅10mm for mechanical reasons. When sizing earth
conductors between equipment, structures and the grid, it should be noted that these conductors may see larger
fault currents. Generally, earth and grid conductors are sized to withstand a fault current equal to the breaker
withstand ratings for the duration allowed by the backup relays. It is also recommended that earth conductors for
2
surge arresters be at least 150mm copper. A conductor sized for fault current is usually also adequate for
lightning surges.

The temperature limits for a conductor may be limited by insulation and connection methods (e.g. soldered or
brazed joints) to temperatures other than the fusing temperature of the conductor. It is recommended that
o
conductor temperature be limited to 250 C. Another recommendation is that earth conductors for instrument
2
transformers be at least 3mm copper or have equivalent thermal capacity.

21. EARTH RODS

In order to provide good strength to withstand stresses when rods are driven into the ground, it is recommended
that earth rods should be at least 20mm in diameter. They should be a minimum length of 2400mm. The rods
need to be long enough to reach permanently moist soil, well below the frost lines.

22. JOINTS

As with conductors, connections need to be capable of withstanding the stresses of corrosion and short circuit
forces for many years. The most common methods used for jointing are exothermic welding, brazed joints and
crimped pressure type connectors. The preference for which method to use is really determined by the skill
available and the care one is willing to take for carrying out the operation. There appears to be more and more
acceptance for the crimped type of connection as it is quick and relatively easy to do. Solder connections are not
recommended due to the relatively low melting point of solder.

o
The temperature limit on joints should be 250 C, the same as for the conductor. The following application
considerations that are provided in IEEE 80 are to be noted:-

•
o
Since annealing softens conductors and reduces its strength, a temperature limit of 250 C is placed on it.
This is of particular concern with overhead conductors installed under tension.

•
o
A reasonable temperature for brazed joints is 450 C.

• Exothermic welds combine conductor and connector materials intimately so that the joint has approximately
the same fusing temperature as the conductor. The assembly can be viewed and rated as being part of one
homogeneous conductor.

• A relatively large conductor may have a heat sinking effect enabling it to survive faults that may fuse
o o
conductors. Where adequate design information is lacking, IEEE 80 considers limits of 250 C-350 C
reasonable.

In underground installations, the temperature limits may be dictated by material limits mentioned above.
Conductors installed above grade may require lower temperature limits to reduce hazards to personnel and
equipment. This may be an important consideration in hazardous areas where explosive fumes or dusts may be
present.

23. DETAILED EARTHING

Once an acceptable grid design has been established and conductor sizes have been determined, it is then
necessary to add refinements and details to the design for a specific substation. These considerations are
described in IEEE 80 Chapters 7, 15, 16, and 17. Only the more pertinent points are provided below:-

23.1 Transferred Potentials on Communication Lines

Communication lines leaving the substation may require an isolating or neutralising transformer. Fibre optics may
be a solution when more conventional approaches are not adequate.

23.1.1 Rail Lines

Railway tracks within the station should be earthed however insulated joints should be applied where the tracks
leave the substation to avoid transferring dangerous potentials to remote points. Rail lines passing near the grid
may also need to be isolated into sections to avoid hazardous touch potentials between the rails and local
surface gradients.

23.1.2 Low Voltage Neutrals

Secondary circuits that bring a neutral out of the substation are a concern. If the neutral is earthed at the
substation, it will transfer a potential difference to remote points. If earthed remotely as well, the neutral may carry
earth fault current to remote points and create unacceptable step and touch potentials there. To avoid this, the
neutral can be isolated from the substation earth. This in turn creates a hazard at the substation since the
isolated neutral will now remain at remote earth potential while the isolated neutral will now remain at remote
earth potential while the grid potential rises during earth faults. These isolated neutrals should therefore be
treated as live and be insulated as required. It should be located in such a manner as to avoid contact with
personnel.

23.1.3 Piping

In general, pipelines running through a switchyard should be connected to the earthing grid, however, local codes
of practice may prevent using gas pipelines as an earthing conductor and should therefore be consulted together

with the gas utility before these pipes are connected to the grid. Where pipes leave the switchyard, insulating
pipe sections may be required to prevent transferred potentials.

23.2 Special Danger Points

23.2.1 Operating Handles

The probability of encountering touch potentials at operating handles is high since flashovers to the structure may
occur when an isolator or earth-switch is operated. An adequately designed earthing grid should prevent
dangerous potentials however it is good practice to provide protective grids where personnel will be standing to
operate isolators and earth-switches with operating handles. These grids have closely spaced conductors which
further reduce voltage gradients.

23.2.2 Fences

It is good practice to locate the perimeter earthing conductor of the grid about 1,2m beyond the substation fence
to reduce touch potential hazards in the area immediately outside the fence. This requires the fence line to be an
adequate distance within the property boundary line. If the fence must be located at the property line, the
resulting touch potentials outside the fence should be considered. It may be necessary to obtain permission to
install earthing conductors beyond the property line in this case. It is recommended that the fence be bonded to
the earthing conductor every 20-30m
23.1.1.1 Barrier Fence Earthing Procedure

It may be normal practice in a utility to fence a much larger area than initially utilised by the substation. The
substation electrical safety fence is earthed to the surrounding earth-mat and also protected on the outside by a
layer of crusher stone. The outer “farm boundary fence” and the single barrier fence used at substations, may
not be connected to the substation’s earthing system. These floating fences are therefore treated as a separate
installation with their own local earthing. This procedure for earthing has met all the human safety requirements
for step or touch potentials.

To meet changed security requirements, electrical equipment as well as electrified fences are at time added to
the areas traditionally reserved for the barrier fences. This equipment usually obtains its electrical supplies from
the substation and is normally situated outside the protective area of the station earth-mat grid within which
voltage rise is controlled to safe limits. This practice creates an unsafe environment for both apparatus and
humans in the vicinity of the barrier fence and access control room. The high failure rate of security apparatus
with this type of installation has illustrated the effects of transient ground potential rise.

In view of the above it is essential that proper earthing in the barrier fence area be introduced. Two sites were
selected on the basis of soil resistivity for the experimental installation i.e. Venus Substation (low resistivity) and
Proteus Substation (high resistivity). It was clear from the outset that the prototype installations provided the
necessary protection for the electrical security apparatus.

However, upon investigation it became clear that the now floating outer barrier fence may not provide the
necessary protection for human safety as a result of the close proximity between the outer and the inner barrier
fences. The latter now forms part of the substation earth-mat reference system although galvanically isolated,
the outer fence and surrounding area are subjected to high ground potential gradients which results in
unacceptable step and touch potentials. Rectifying the problem on a deterministic approach can become
impractical and we are currently busy with the development of a probabilistic model to determine statistical
chances of injury to human life in these areas during network fault conditions.

The investigations have progressed to a point where one can enclose with confidence a recommendation for the
earthing requirements in the double barrier fence area that would meet all the equipment safety requirements and
which could be further developed should human safety be proved unsatisfactory.

23.1.1.2 Recommendations

There are two methods of extending the earth-mat to ensure reliable operation of equipment relating to the
substation fencing. They are:-

Earth-mat conductor inside the inner barrier fence

Earth-mat conductor inside the outer barrier fence.

All the equipment should be connected to the earth-mat conductor to avoid unacceptably high voltages
developing across the equipment insulation during fault conditions in the substation.

The conductor should be the same cross sectional area as the rest of the earth-mat i.e. 10 mm diameter solid
copper rod for current carrying capacity as well as mechanical strength requirements. The conductor should be
buried at the same depth as the main earth-mat which is normally 1 m below the surface.

From an equipment point of view both the above mentioned options are acceptable. However, if one takes into
account human safety it is recommended that Option 2 be followed. The two options are illustrated in Figures 19-
1.31 and 19-1.32.
Outside Inside
Fence Fence

Ground Ground
Conductor Conductor

Potential
at Etouch
Ground
Etouch
Level
(Volt)
Estep
Estep

Figure 19-1.31: Earth-mat Conductor inside Inner Fence

Outside Inside
Fence Fence

Ground Ground
Conductor Conductor

Potential
at
Ground
Level
(Volt) Estep Etouch Etouch

Estep

Figure 19-1.32: Earth-mat Conductor inside Outer Fence

From Figure 19-1.31 it is clear that a person on the outside of the substation fence is in danger of experiencing
high potentials between hand and foot (Touch Potential) when he touches the fence. The person on the inside is
safe.

Figure 19-1.32 shows that the high touch potential of the outer fence can be corrected by locating the earth-mat
conductor just inside the outer fence. The optimal position would be just outside the outer fence but copper theft
makes this option less attractive. There is also a high probability that the person on the inside will be safe
because he is inside the earth-mat grid. It must, however, be noted that this study is still underway and
recommendations may still change once the study is completed.

In summary:-

• To protect electrical equipment related to the access control area and the substation fence the earth-mat
should be extended to the fence area.

• Due to current carrying as well as mechanical requirements it is recommended that the 10 mm diameter
solid copper rod be used.

• To ensure human safety it is recommended that the outer earth-mat conductor be placed just inside the
outer fence

• The copper rod should be buried at a depth of at least 1 m

23.2.3 Cable Sheaths

Voltages can occur in cable sheaths/shields by a number of means. These are:-

a) Insulation failure

b) Electro-statically induced charge

c) Electro-magnetically induce voltage. Even normal load current will induce voltages that can be hazardous

d) Current flow in the sheath

e) Ground Potential Rise (GPR)

Voltage caused by a) and b) can be reduced by providing a permanent low impedance earth capable of carrying
available fault current. Voltage caused by c) and d) can be reduced by earthing the sheath at only one end and
sectionalising the sheath of cross bonding the sheaths as required. The best way to reduce voltages caused by
b) and c) is to earth the sheath/shields at both ends. If the shields are earthed at both ends that are quite a
distance apart (cables in duct runs) undesirable currents may flow through the sheaths during faults. This can be
avoided by running a bare conductor in the duct or trench along the cables and connecting it to the shield earth
points. The lower conductor impedance will divert current from the sheath. Earthing the sheaths at both ends will
still result in circulating sheath currents magnetically induced by load current. The heat loss of the sheath will
reduce the allowable ampacity of the power cable.

24. SURGE ARRESTERS

Surge arresters must have a re-liable low-resistance earth connection which is as short and direct a path as
possible. The steelwork members of a structure or transformer tank may provide a lower impedance path than a
separate earth wire. In this case, it should be assured that high resistance is not introduced at the connection
from the arrester to structure/tank and in the earth connection to the structure/tank.

25. MISCELLANEOUS CONSIDERATIONS

Earthing rods would be of great benefit if installed where transformer neutrals, surge arresters, lightning
protection and shield wires are connected to earth. Separate paths to earth should be provided for in the
following cases:

• Surge arrester circuits over 750V and frames of equipment operating over 750V

• Lighting and power circuits under 750V

• Lightning rods, unless attached to an earthed metal supporting structure

At least two connections to earth should be provided for structures and equipment to be earthed. It is possible for
a single connection to be damaged which would render the equipment/structure unearthed if an alternate
connection is not available.

26. GAS INSULATED SUBSTATIONS (GIS)

Some special considerations are required when dealing with GIS designs.

• The substation will usually occupy less land area than open air designs with the same rating, as little as
15%. This can make the control of GPR and potential gradients more difficult.

• GIS designs usually comprise continuous enclosures encapsulating phase conductors and contain
insulating gas. The magnetic fields generated by currents in the phase conductors (image currents) cause
circulating currents to flow in the enclosures in the direction opposite to the phase currents, and are nearly
equal in magnitude to the phase currents. These currents require the following earthing design
considerations:

o Earth connections should not cause unacceptable flow of circulating currents through the earthing
system or nearby structures/equipment, cable sheaths, high pressure fluid filled cables, etc.

o During faults, large circulating currents may be developed in the enclosure, which will cause significant
potential differences along the enclosure. This effectively increases the touch potentials personnel may
encounter. This situation is illustrated in Figure 19-1.33

where:-

IE = Enclosure (image) current due to fault in amperes (A)

VE = Voltage drop in enclosure due to IE in volts (V)

EM = Grid touch potential as calculated for earth fault by equations given earlier in volts (V)

Total touch potential = EM + VE eq. 19-1.90

EM and VE may be out of phase due to the presence of inductance of the enclosure.

Enclosure
Conductor

IE Fault
VE

Earth Connection

EM
Grid

Figure 19-1.33: GIS Touch Potential

It is generally the manufacturer’s responsibility to determine where the earth connections should be made to the
GIS assembly. The manufacturer should also determine VE based on available fault current data provided by the
utility. A good earthing design therefore requires co-ordination with the manufacturer.

If the GIS is to be installed on a concrete slab, it would be good practice to connect rebar in the slab to the earth
connections of the GIS as well as the grid. However, the connection should be such that it will not allow
excessive fault current flow through the rebar to avoid structural damage. The GIS vendor should be consulted.
The advantages of connecting to the rebar may improve grid performance and the close spacing of the rebar will
improve the control of the step and touch potentials on the slab.

27. INDOOR EARTHING

Indoor earthing applications are also covered by those items as discussed in GIS designs. IEEE 80 essentially
does not apply. Some considerations are:-

• Some form of indoor earthing should be provided where electricity is utilised. The indoor system should be
connected to the outdoor earthing system at a minimum of two points.

• As with outdoor systems, the indoor system provides a low impedance fault current return path to power
sources and reduces the shock hazard to personnel

• All electrical equipment, raceways for wiring, metal structures, etc., should be connected to the earthing
system

• As much as 90% of earth fault current will return through the raceway (usually metal conduit or cable tray).
The impedance of steel raceways may be high enough to limit fault currents in low voltage systems (500V
and less) to values that circuit breakers/fuses may not respond to for cable feeds longer than 100m. It may
be desirable to use aluminium conduit or a supplement earth conductor in the conduit or tray to lower the
earth return impedance.

• The structural steel of the building is usually the most economical earthing system. If building steel is not
available, copper bars or bare cable should be provided along the walls or at appropriate locations. The bar
2 2
should be 2 x (50mmx3mm) flat copper (300mm ) whilst the bare cable should be 250mm .

• Earthing conductors must be sized to withstand available fault currents

• Instrumentation may require a separate insulated earthing system to reduce stray voltages or currents. This
insulated system is connected by insulated cable to the earthing grid at one point. The panels, frames and
equipment cases are steel earthed to the regular earthing system for personnel safety.

28. EARTHMAT

The sizes of the copper rods to be used in the main earth-mat and of the copper straps for the connections
between the mat and the equipment, depend on the maximum short-circuit currents that can be obtained in the
station. The same formulae used in section 2.4 can be applied here.

Example 1: Consider a 10 kV system which has a short circuit capacity (S" k ) of 433 MVA. The fault is
assumed to be a double earth fault, and the fault current is given by I"k (2), then:

S" k
I " k (2) =
2.Un

400 000
= eq. 19-1.91
2 . 10
= 25 kA

The magnitude of the current is the important part used to dimension the earthing conductor. If the system
o o
protection operates such that tf = 1,2 s., and the allowable maximum temperature is 300 C (ambient of 30 C),
then the allowable current density J is given by:-

k
J= (A/mm )
2
eq. 19-1.92
t
where:-
2
J = Fault current density in amperes per square millimetre (A/mm )

 θf + θk 
k cu = M Cu . ln 
θ + θk
 i 

(from eq. 19-1.89)

 300 + 235 
= 226. ln 
 30 + 235 
≈ 190

190
∴J =
1,2
2
= 173 A/mm

The required cross-sectional area is thus:

25000
A=
173
2
= 145 mm

2 2
One can, for example, use single 50 x 3 mm copper strap (150 mm ) or 2xφ10 mm round copper (157mm ).

The copper area required for a given short-circuit current (If in kA) can also be determined from the following
equations as a means for a quick check:-
2 o
A = 9,9.If in mm for buried rods (450 C ultimate temperature)
2 o
A = 11,9.If in mm for exposed straps (250 C ultimate temperature)

Since circuit breaker short-circuit ratings have been standardised at 12 kA, 16 kA, 20 kA, 31,5 kA and 50 kA,
matching earth-mat copper sizes can be selected as follows:-

Table 19-1.5: Earthmat Copper Sizes vs. Fault Current

Main Earth-mat Earthing Connections

Short
1 x φ10 mm Cu Rod 2 x φ10 mm Cu Rod 50 x 3 mm Cu Strap
Circuit
Current Number of Current Number of 3 sec 5 sec Number of 3 sec 5 sec
(kA) connections capability connection current current connection current current
(kA) s capacity capacity s capacity capacity
12 2 16 1 17,2 13,3 1 16,5 12,6
16 2 or 4 16 or 32 2 34,5 26,6 2 32,9 25,2
20 4 32 2 34,5 26,6 2 32,9 25,2
25 4 32 2 34,5 26,6 2 32,9 25,2
31,5/40 4 or 6 32 or 48 3 51,7 39,9 3 49,4 37,8
50/63 6 or 8 48 or 64 4 68,9 53,2 4 65,8 50,4

For the purpose of designing the earthmat connections, it is assumed that the fault current at the equipment
support is split in the percentages 80 % / 20 %. This is illustrated in Figure 19-1.34a). The higher the fault level,
the greater the number of earth-tails that are required.
If = 25 kA
2 x Ø10mm 1 x Ø10mm
10 kA

20 kA 5 kA
+ + + + + +
80% 20%
10 kA

+ + + + + +

a) Two Earth-tails Per Structure

If = 40 kA
2 x Ø10mm 1 x Ø10mm
13 kA

26 kA 7 kA
+ + + + + +
66% 17%
13 kA

+ + + + + +
17%
7 kA

+ + + + + +

+ + + + + +
b) Three Earth-tails Per Structure

+ + + + + +

+ + + + + +
If = 63 kA
9,5 kA
1 x Ø10mm
17 kA

34,5 kA 15% 9,5 kA 2 x Ø10mm

+ + + + + +
55% 15%
17 kA

+ + + + + +
15%
9,5 kA

+ + + + + +

+ + + + + +
c) Four Earth-tails Per Structure

Figure 19-1.34: Current Division in Earth-tails

For a fault current of 25 kA onto a structure having two sets connections, 20 kA will flow in the short leg while 5
kA flows in the long leg. The 2 x φ10 mm copper rod and the 1 x 30 x 3 copper flat strip are rated at 26,6 kA and
25,2 kA for 5 sec respectively. These days, protection operates much faster than this, of the order of 1 second.

It will be appreciated that where the earthing lead is connected to the main mat, the current divides in half so that
the current rating of the main mat copper needs to be only 50 % of that of the associated earthing connection
from the equipment. The number of earthing connections required from each item of equipment is determined by
the short-circuit current divided by the current rating of the connecting strap. It follows that where a multiplicity of
connections are necessary, these must in general be made to different sections of the earthing grid otherwise
overloading of the main grid copper can occur. On the basis of the above comments, the copper sizes indicated
in Table 6 are recommended as Standards. The 40 x 3 mm flat copper is for use on items which are normally
earthed at many points e.g. security fences.

SLDG 19-2

STEEL EARTHING DESIGN GUIDE

INTRODUCTION

IEEE Standard No. 80 – 2000: “IEEE Guide for Safety in AC Substation Grounding” discusses, in detail, the earth
grid design procedure for AC substations with copper as the primary grid material. Section 11.2.4 in the same IEEE
Guide states that: “Steel may be used for ground grid conductors and rods. Of course, such a design requires that
attention be paid to the corrosion of steel. Use of galvanised or corrosion-resistant steel, in combination with cathodic
protection, is typical for steel grounding systems”.

Literature review reveals that steel-earthing systems are widely used and readily accepted in many other countries
worldwide, where copper is very expensive and prone to theft. It is also often used by utilities (nuclear and fossil fuel
power plants), industrial plants (petroleum refineries, chemical plants, cement plants, steel plants, etc.) and substations
as the earth grid material in the United States and in India. Such installations usually require great amounts of
subsurface steel piping, tanks and pilings. There are major advantages in minimising the extent of underground copper
for earthing and other purposes. Overall corrosion protection then becomes easier to achieve either for coated or bare
steel pipes, tanks, and steel structures underground.

The focus of this document is to provide a practical design guide for steel earthing including the cathodic protection
system.

FUNDAMENTALS OF EARTHING

The whole purpose of earthing is to deal with dangerous fault currents and transient phenomenon (lightning and
switching operations) in order to attain two major objectives:-

• Personnel Safety, and

• Equipment Protection.

There are three major considerations in the design of such earthing systems:-

• The grid must be able to withstand the maximum earth fault current without the danger of burn-off or melting. This
2
is also referred to as the Fusing (I .R.t) Characteristics.

• The grid must limit the voltage between any two points on the ground to prevent a hazardous condition to
personnel. This takes the acceptable limits of “Step, Touch and Mesh Potentials” into account, and

• The grid must minimise the “Ground Potential Rise (GPR)” with respect to remote earth (or zero potential point)
by having a low contact resistance to earth (commonly referred to as “Earth Resistance”) fault current.

There are five major parameters considered in the earth grid design:-

• Soil resistivity which is the dominant factor,

• Tolerable Body Current which determines the allowable “Step” and “Touch” potentials.

• Power System Network Configuration which determines the “Current Division Factor” and the actual amount of
current flowing into the ground,

• Single phase-to-earth fault current magnitude at the X/R ratio, and,

• Grid geometry which determines the “Mesh”, “Step”, and “Touch” voltage.

The IEEE Standard No. 80-2000 discusses, in detail, the design of earth grid for AC substations and should be
consulted for additional information.

MATERIAL SELECTION

Copper is by far the most common metal used as earth grid conductors. Copper-clad steel is usually used for earth
rods, and sometimes as earth conductors. There are four reasons why copper has been used primarily as earth grid
conductor:

• Familiarity of electrical characteristics of copper when used as earth grid conductors,

• Higher conductivity as compared to steel, making it suitable for installations with high fault currents,

• Good mechanical strength, and most importantly,

• Freedom from underground corrosion. Grid integrity will not be compromised, if conductors are adequately sized
and not subjected to any mechanical injury.

It is the unfamiliarity of using steel, lack of experience data, unavailability of any design standard and guide, and the fear
of earth grid integrity due to corrosion, that steel is not commonly used. Also the IEEE standard provides limited
information about the design procedure of the earthing system with materials other than copper.

There are, however, a number of disadvantages in using copper that may override the benefits in some instances:-

• Relatively high initial cost,

• Copper theft creating dangerous conditions for operators, and,
• It forms a “Galvanic Cell” with buried steel pipes, conduits, re-bars, etc. in the vicinity and corrodes the steel.
Unless some corrosion reduction technique is adopted, damage may extend to all steel or galvanised members,
such as conduit, structure footings, re-bars, metallic sheath and steel pipes.

Hot dipped galvanised steel and other corrosion-resistant steel are very durable in almost all kinds of soil. It is also
suitable for embedding in concrete.

The technical limitations of steel when considering the fusing characteristics, mechanical strength, earth grid resistance
and minimising the step and touch potentials, are similar to those of copper.

The material used in the earthing system design depends primarily on the following factors:-

• Fusing characteristics and current carrying capabilities,

• Conductor resistance,

• Corrosion,

• Mechanical strength,

• Availability, and,

• Cost of conductor material.

Steel has been used as a substitute for copper as earthing material for the following reasons:-

• Lower cost,

• Reduction of galvanic action between dissimilar metals (particularly with copper) in the earth,

• Ability to provide (cathodic) protection to steel pipes and other steel structures connected to it, and,

• Higher mechanical strength.

The key technical characteristics that are relevant to this discussion are as follows:-

• Steel absorbs approximately 1,36 times as much heat as an equal volume of copper before fusing (when
considering the specific weight, specific heat, and the melting temperature),

•
o o
Steel can withstand higher temperature before melting (1510 C as compared to 1083 C for copper),

• It requires about 5,6 (ratio of resistivity = ρCu / ρFe) times as much steel to achieve the same resistance as copper,
and,

• Steel is approximately twice as mechanically strong as compared to copper for the same cross-sectional area.

A generalised and simple cost comparison between steel and copper as earthing material is difficult. Each installation
needs to be evaluated separately. Based on the prices of steel and copper, substantial (estimated at approximately
40%) savings can be achieved in some steel earthing designs after incorporating the effect of corrosion and cathodic
protection. The savings could be much higher in countries where there is a larger difference in prices.

CONDUCTOR SIZING

Copper sizing depends on a number of factors including material characteristics like resistivity, thermal coefficient of
resistivity, thermal capacity per-unit volume, ambient temperature, and maximum allowable operating temperature. It
also depends on the magnitude of the rms symmetrical fault current value ( Ι f ), X/R ratio at the fault location, and the
duration of the fault (tc). This is discussed in more detail in SLDG 19-1. In networks with low-resistance neutral earthing,
Ι f = Ι"k .

The simplified formula to calculate the conductor cross-sectional area for any material is given below:-

Ιf . tc 2
A= mm eq. 19-2.1
k
where:-

Ιf = RMS (symmetrical) fault current in kilo-amperes (kA)

tc = Fault duration in seconds (s)
k = A constant dependent on the material

The value of the constant k is calculated as follows:-

 ϑk + ϑf 
k = M. ln  (kA. s / mm2) eq. 19-2.2
 ϑk + ϑi 
where:-

M = The material constant as given in Table 19-2.1

o
ϑi = Initial temperature in degrees Celsius ( C)
o
ϑf = Permissible final temperature in degrees Celsius ( C)
o
ϑk = A material constant in degrees Celsius ( C)

Table 19-2.1: Material Constants (see also Table 19-1.4)

Constant
Material ϑk ϑf Tm
M o o o
( C) ( C) ( C)
1)
500
2)
Copper 226 235 200 1083
3)
150
327,5 (lead)
Copper (tinned or in lead sheet) 226 235 150
232 (tin)
1)
300
2)
Aluminium 148 228 200 660
3)
100
1)
500
2)
Steel 78 (89) 202 200 1510
3)
150

where:-

Tm = Melting temperature of material

1)
= For visible conductors in locations that are not generally accessible
2)
= For non-visible conductors in locations that are generally accessible
3)
= Where hazards are greater:
- For non-visible conductors in locations with increased fire risk
- For earthing conductors laid together with PVC

Much lower values of operating temperature ( ϑ f ) have been recommended (based on deterioration of mechanical
properties and limitations on joints) and used in some design calculations for steel earthing. Lower temperature values
usually result in approximately 30% increase in cross-sectional area. Also effects of corrosion have not been considered
in this equation.

Time Duration of Fault

The time duration of the fault (tc) depends primarily on the protection scheme, protective relays, and circuit breaker
operating time. The backup clearing time is usually adequate for sizing the conductor. For smaller substations, this may
approach 3 seconds (or even longer). Large substations usually have complex and redundant protection schemes, high
speed breakers, and digital relays. The fault will generally be cleared in 1 second or less. For earthing calculations, the
most common practice in the industry is to use 1 second.

Table 19-2.2: Ultimate Current Carrying Capabilities of Earthing Conductors

Current Carrying Capacity

Nominal Cross-sectional Area
2
(kA)
(mm )
Annealed Copper 1020 Steel
53,48 15,1 6,6
107,20 30,2 13,3
126,65 35,7 15,7
177,36 50,0 21,9
253,27 71,4 31,3

The current carrying capacity of any of the materials in Table 19-2.1 can be calculated based on the above equations.
Mechanical strength requirements, however, often dictate the minimum size. As shown in Table 19-2.2, common
2
practice shows that conductors of cross-sectional area of 53,48 mm are often recommended for copper, while many
2
utilities recommend 107,20 mm copper as a minimum size.

2
For steel earthing, the most commonly used recommended minimum size is 126,65 mm .

CORROSION ESTIMATION

Corrosion in general, can be defined as the deterioration of a substance or its properties due to the reaction with its
environment. The corrosion process can be chemical, electrochemical, or physical. Corrosion should be considered
when designing an earthing system. The earth conductors and connectors could be affected by corrosion when they are
buried or submerged in a corrosive environment.

Most of the corrosion of metals in underground applications at normal or moderate temperatures is the result of an
electro-chemical reaction. Corrosion occurs through the loss of metal ions at anodic areas to the electrolyte. Cathodic
areas are protected from corrosion because of the deposition of hydrogen or other ions that carry current.

A basic and simple corrosion cell, as shown in Figure 19-2.1, has four components:-

• Anode,

• Electrolyte (soil),

• Cathode, and

• Metal return path (external)

In simple terms, electro-chemical reaction due to potential differences causes loss of metal ions at the Anode (where
the current is flowing out)

Current Flow Metal Ions

++
through the Fe
Soil Corrosion

Cathode Anode
Current Flow
-
e through the
Electron Pipe
Migration

Figure 19-2.1: Simple Corrosion Cell

There are a number of mechanisms, however, for this application, four major corrosion mechanisms (discussed below)
are of importance.

Uniform Corrosion

The most common form of corrosion, where current flows between different sites on a single metal, causing a wide area
of metal to be progressively corroded is shown in Figure 19-2.2.

Figure 19-2.2: Uniform Corrosion

Pitting

This is a localised corrosion, which originates at susceptible sites on the surface of some alloys that resist uniform
corrosion. The holes are deeper as shown in Figure 19-2.3, and the action is more severe as corrosion proceeds.

Figure 19-2.3: Pitting

Electrolytic Corrosion

This happens in a metal pipe when DC current flows through a pipe as illustrated in Figure 19-2.4. This is caused by an
external source (e.g. DC traction).

+ + +
DC Loads
_ _ _
Source

Corrosion

Current

Figure 19-2.4: Electrolytic Corrosion

Galvanic Corrosion

This occurs when a difference in electric potential exists between dissimilar metals. A common occurrence is copper
and iron that are connected externally and buried in soil as shown in Figure 19-2.5. The electrolyte, which is the soil in
this case, allows some current to flow, resulting in corrosion of the steel.

Current through
Connection

+ _
Corrosion

Cu Fe

Current through
Electrolyte

Figure 19-2.5: Galvanic Corrosion

There are four basic factors that determine the magnitude of electrochemical corrosion activity (i.e. the corrosion
current):-

• Electrical continuity between sections of the underground structures,

• Magnitude of the voltage developed between dissimilar materials (e.g. steel structure and copper earth grid). (see
Tables 19-2.3 and 19-2.4 for additional information).

Table 19-2.3: Relative Corrosion Potential of Various Metals

Corrosivity Relative Position Metal

Least Corrosive (Cathodic) 1 Gold
2 Graphite
3 Silver
4 Stainless Steel
5 Copper, Bronze, Brass
6 Tin
7 Lead
8 Lead/Tin Solders
9 Cast Iron, Carbon Steel
10 Aluminium
11 Zinc*
Most Active (Anodic) 12 Magnesium*

(*) Used as sacrificial anode to protect steel from corrosion on Galvanic Cathodic Protection.

Table 19-2.4: Electrochemical Potential Series

Metal Ion Volts

3+
Magnesium Mg -2,400
3+
Aluminium Al -1,660
2+
Zinc Zn -0,763
2+
Iron Fe -0,440
2+
Stainless Steel Fe -0,250
2+
Tin Sn -0,136
2+
Lead Pb -0,126

Table 19-2.4: Electrochemical Potential Series (Continued)

Metal Ion Volts

+
Hydrogen H 0,000
2+
Copper Cu +0,337
Silver Ag +0,780
Gold Au +1,36

• Ratio of exposed anodic area to that of the cathodic area (steel structure to that of copper earth grid), and most
importantly,

• Electrical resistance of the electrolyte (soil) between the steel structure and copper earth grid.

There is no single index of corrosivity. In general, corrosive soil is:-

• acidic,

• contains substantial moisture,

• contains clay and is dark in colour,

• has organic material,

• is warm, and,

• holds little oxygen

Non-corrosive soil usually has:-

• a higher pH value,

• lower moisture content,

• a sandy structure and is light in colour,

• has little organic material,

• lower temperature, and,

• high oxygen content

Major interrelated factors that affect underground corrosion are as follows:-

Soil Resistivity

Soil resistivity depends on natural ingredients, the amount of salts dissolved in the soil, and the moisture content. The
corrosivity increases with the reduction of soil resistivity. Table 19-2.5 provides the relationship between soil resistivity
and corrosivity.

Table 19-2.5: Soil Resistivity and Corrosion

Soil Resistivity Class Typical Corrosion Rate

(ohm-metres) (mm/year)
<25 Severely corrosive (>0,33)
26 - 50 Moderately corrosive (0,23 – 0,31)
51 - 100 Mildly corrosive (0,10 – 0,23)
>100 Very mildly corrosive (<0,1)

pH Value

The pH value of soil affects the corrosion process greatly. The more acidic the soil is, the higher the corrosion rate. pH
value ranges from 5 to 10 in soil, where a value of 7 indicates neutrality, lower values acidity, and higher values
alkalinity. The general relationship between pH values and the corresponding corrosion is shown in Table 19-2.6.

Table 19-2.6: pH Values and Corrosion

Soil Characteristics pH Values Corrosion Rate

Extremely Acid Below 4,5 Highest Corrosion
Very Strongly Acid 4,5 – 5,0
Strongly Acid 5,1 – 5,5
Medium Acid 5,6 – 6,0
Slightly Acid 6,1 – 6,5
Neutral 6,6 – 7,3 Least Corrosion
Mildly Alkaline 7,4 – 7,8
Moderately Alkaline 7,9 – 8,4
Strongly Alkaline 8,5 – 9,0
Very Strongly Alkaline 9,1 and Higher Higher Corrosion

Moisture

Moisture content depends on the season, location, soil type, particle size, and ground water level. The degree of
wetness contributes to the corrosion by dissolving soluble salts thereby changing the soil composition. Generally,
corrosion increases with higher moisture content (for normal ranges).

Aeration

Aeration is a measure of the availability of oxygen to the metal. Aeration characteristics of a soil are primarily dependent
on particle size and distribution. Corrosion decreases with increase in aeration.

Miscellaneous

Miscellaneous factors are those that are difficult to classify because they are a combination of one or more of the above
and include the effect of temperature, bacterial, or interface effects. These factors typically contribute no more than 10%
to the total corrosion rate and are usually neglected.

A mathematical relationship can be developed from data to calculate the corrosion rate of steel. The data can be
produced from actual experiments. This was done for Bessemer Steel in 44 different soils by the National Bureau of
Standards over a period of 12 years. These tests employed rods with diameters of 38,1 mm and 76,2 mm, where the
76,2 mm samples corroded 13% more than the 38,1 mm samples, with an error of 10%.

Since none of the above factors are present by themselves in any soil, a general equation including the effects of all of
the above factors in the following form is provided:-

Y = f(X 1 , X 2 , X 3 , X 4 ) mm/year eq. 19-2.3

where:-

Y = Corrosion rate in mm/year

X1 = Resistivity in ohm-centimetres (Ω.cm)
X2 = pH Value
X3 = Moisture in percent (%)
X4 = Aeration in percent (%)

Depth of Corrosion in mm

Figure 19-2.6: Corrosion Depth in mm

Using simple regression analysis, an expression can be obtained for an estimation of corrosion of steel in any
environment (for normal operating ranges):-

-3 -5
Y = 25,4.10 .(3,36 - 9,63.10 .X 1 + 0,29.X 2 + 0,034.X 3 + 0,012.X 4 ) mm/year eq. 19-2.4

Equation 19-2.4 is obtained from experimental data and is limited by extreme corrosion conditions such as extremely
high resistivity (> 10 000 Ω.cm) or extremely low aeration quantities (< 3%). Corrosion reduces by these conditions to
almost zero. This equation is applicable for all steel rods up to 76,2 mm in diameter, and is applicable for the first 12
years. Experimental study has shown that the average corrosion rate in the following 12 years reduces to half of the
value in the first 12 years, and is negligible thereafter.

CORROSION PREVENTION AND CATHODIC PROTECTION

Some of the most common corrosion prevention measures that are used to minimise corrosion of earthing material
and/or piping are:-

• Use of tin coated bare copper cable, or hot dipped galvanised or corrosion-resistant steel as an earthing conductor
to minimise the potential difference between the steel structures and the earth cable,

• Use of cathodic protection,

• Use of insulated copper earth cable in areas near pipes, and,

• Electrical isolation of piping from other plant structures and the earthing system.

The first two items are most commonly adopted in practical design:-

Coating of conductors has been used to control corrosion rate. It initially protects the underlying metal, then, when the
continuity of the coating is destroyed, it will be observed that the corrosion rate of the base metal will either be normal or

above normal, depending on the type of coating and the underlying metal. Zinc-coated (galvanized) steel is the
predominant type of coating employed, however, any coating as a sole means of protection is not very effective.

Cathodic protection is commonly utilized to protect underground structures. It operates by stopping the current flow from
the metal to the electrolyte by neutralising it with a stronger current of opposite polarity from an external source.

Cathodic protection can be designed for a 30 year life expectancy by employing one of two basic methods of cathodic
protection commonly utilised (many variations of these exist). Both provide satisfactory results, but each has advantages
and disadvantages.

Sacrificial or Galvanic Anodes

Sacrificial or Galvanic anodes are applicable and effective where current requirements are low (less than 100 mA), and
structures to be protected are well-coated in a low resistivity soil. The anode consists of a metal, which is electro-
negative with respect to the structure to be protected. These anodes are self-energised and are connected directly to
the protected structure, as illustrated in Figure 19-2.7.

Ground Level

Coated Cu Conductor
Current

+ _

Cu Current through
Earth Grid Electrolyte Mg
Anode

Backfill

Figure 19-2.7: Cathodic Protection: Sacrificial or Galvanic Anode Material

Sacrificial anodes, usually distributed along or around the protected metal parts, consume themselves in protecting the
other metal. The consumption rate depends on the magnitude of current generated as well as the material of which the
anode is made of, and is given by Faraday’s Second Law of Electrolysis.

A t .I .t
Total Weight Loss = (g) eq. 19-2.5
Va .(96 500)

where:-

At = Atomic weight of the metal in grams (g) [Zinc (Zn)=65,38; Magnesium (Mg)=24,32]
I = Current in amperes (A)
t = Time duration of current in seconds (s)
Va = Number of valence electrons of the metal [Zinc (Zn)=2; Magnesium (Mg)=2]

Zinc and Magnesium are the most commonly used metals as galvanic anodes. Magnesium has received much wider
application than zinc, primarily because of its higher driving voltage. The solution potential of magnesium is -1,55 volts
to a copper sulphate reference electrode as compared to -1,1 volts being that of zinc.

If steel is considered for an earthing grid with a grid to soil potential of -0,85 volts as a protective measure, the driving
potentials of zinc and magnesium are:-

DPZn = E Fe - E Zn

= -0,85 - (-1,10)
= 0,25 volts

DPMg = E Fe - E Mg

= -0,85 - (-1,55)

= 0,75 volts

It can be shown by derivation from equation 19-2.5 that the actual ampere-hour (Ah) per kilogram is:-

A t .I.t
= Total Mass Loss (g) (from eq. 19-2.5)
Va .(96 500)

I .t Va .(96 500)
= (A.s/g) eq. 19-2.6
Total Weight Loss At

 t 
I . 
 3600  =
Va .(96 500) 1000
.
 Total Weight Loss  At 3600
 
 1000 

Va .(96 500) 1000

Aq = .
At 3600

26 806.Va
Aq = (A.h/kg) eq. 19-2.7
At

where:-

Aq = Specific charge in ampere-hours per kilogram (A.h/kg)

The above is, however, a theoretical output. The efficiency of zinc is 90% whilst that for magnesium 50% of their
theoretical output values.

26 806.Va ηa
Aqη = . (A.h/kg) eq. 19-2.8
At 100

where:-

Aqη = Corrected specific charge in ampere-hours per kilogram (A.h/kg)

Table 19-2.7: Efficiencies and Theoretical Output Value of Copper and Magnesium

Anode Material ηa Va Atomic Mass Aqη

(%) (At-gm) (A.h/kg)
Zinc 90 2 65,38 738
Magnesium 50 2 24,32 1102

The following formulas (also derived from equation 19-2.5) may be used to determine the life expectancy of a given
anode weight or to determine the current output when the anode mass is given:-

84,30.w z
Lz = (yr) eq. 19-2.9
I′

125,84.w m
Lm = (yr) eq. 19-2.10
I′

where:-

Lz = Life of zinc anode in years (yrs)

Lm = Life of magnesium anode in years (yrs)
wz = Mass of zinc anode in kilograms (kg)
wm = Mass of magnesium anode in kilograms (kg)
I′ = Current output of anode in milli-amperes (mA)

The loss of anode for a given ampere-year of current flow can be calculated as follows:-

L z .I′
wz = (kg) eq.1 9-2.11
84,30

L m .I′
wm = (kg) eq. 19-2.12
125,84

Table 19-2.8: The Loss of Anode for Every Ampere-Year of Current Flow

Anode Material L(a) i′ w(a)

(yr) (mA) (kg)
Zinc 1 1000 57,64
Magnesium 1 1000 38,62

Resistivity of soil is the major factor affecting the current output of an anode. When choosing anodes, the following
guidelines are given:

• Zinc is very effective for soil resistivities of 1 000 ohm-cm and below.

• Magnesium can be effectively used for soil resistivities of up to 5 000 ohm-cm.

• It is not practical to install sacrificial anodes for soils with resistivity of 5 000 ohm-cm or higher.

If the soil resistivity is known, the approximate current output can be determined.

Current output for a zinc anode:-

40 500.K
I ′z = (mA) eq. 19-2.13
X1

Current output for a Magnesium anode:

150 000.K
I′m = (mA) eq. 19-2.14
X1

where,

I′z = Current output of zinc anode in milli-amperes (mA)

I′m = Current output of anode magnesium in milli-amperes (mA)
K = Observed factor from the curve (or calculated from eq.19-2.15)
X1 = Soil resistivity in ohm-cm (Ω.cm)

Table 19-2.9: Values of K for Different Anode Size

Anode Size Value of K

(kg)
1,36 0,59
2,26 0,66
4,08 0,81
7,71 1,00
14,52 1,16
22,68 1,22

1,3

1,2

1,1

1,0
Values of K

0,9
Values of K for
Different Anode
0,8
Sizes

0,7

0,6

0,5

0,4
0 5 10 15 20 25
Different Anode Sizes (kg)

Figure 19-2.8: Values of K for Different Anode Sizes

Applying Linear regression on the observed data, a relationship between the value of K and different anode sizes can
be derived:-

0,2741
K = 0,5442.d a eq. 19-2.15

where:-

da = Anode Size (Mass) in kilograms (kg)

The main advantages of sacrificial anodes are:-

• No external power supply is necessary,

• Minimum maintenance costs after installation,

• Seldom causes interference problems to other structures,

• Installation costs are low, and,

• Little or no right-of-way easement costs.

The main disadvantages are:-

• Limited driving potentials and therefore current outputs (100 mA)

• Soil resistivity limitation,

• Mutual interference in multiple or parallel installations, and,

• Sacrificial anodes need to be replaced periodically.

Design and installation of cathodic protection with sacrificial anodes requires judgement on part of the application
engineer as well as specialised experience in corrosion control. The criterion for selection is an analysis of performance
and cost. Performance is measured by anode life and current output. Costs involved with installation and operation of
galvanic anodes can be categorized as:-

• Material costs,

• Installation costs, and,

• Maintenance costs.

The following questions must also be answered before designing such a cathodic protection scheme:-

• How much current output can be expected from each anode?,

• How much “total” current is needed to shift the neutral to the designated potential?

• What type of anode should be used?

• How many are needed? and,

• Where should anodes be placed?

Impressed Current

Impressed current uses current injection from an external DC power supply or an existing AC power supply with the use
of a rectifier. Typical ratings of the rectifier or the DC power supply (adjustable) are 20-100 V, and 10-100 A.

An electrolytic cell is developed with the protected structure and the earth rod of the rectifier. The earth bed (anode)
consists of a number of parallel graphite, carbon, durion or scrap iron anodes, usually distributed along the protected
structure, and placed deep in the soil. The structure, connected to the negative of the rectifier, receives the current from
the soil, and is protected. The protective current from the rectifier is usually sufficient to overcome the galvanic currents
leaving the anodic areas of the structure. The general arrangement is shown in Figure 19-2.9 below.

_ + Current
Rectifier

Ground Level

Gravel

Current through
Earth Grid Electrolyte Mg
Anode

Backfill

Figure 19-2.9: Cathodic Protection: Impressed Current or Rectifier Type

3 2
Studies have shown that it requires anywhere from 1-40 mA of current to protect 93.10 mm of bare metal surface area.
The higher the soil resistivity, the lower the current that is required. On average, it takes only 1-3 mA to protect the same
amount of bare metal surface area. When coating is used, current requirement is greatly reduced to typically less than
0,1 mA for this area.

The advantages of using this technique are:-

• Large current outputs allowing it to protect large structures,

• Applicable to high resistivity soil environments,
• Applicable for bare and poorly coated structures, and,
• Flexibility of current output control.

The disadvantages are:-

• Higher installation costs,

• Higher maintenance costs,
• Monthly power costs, and,
• Interference problems with neighbouring structures.

EXAMPLES AND SAMPLE CALCULATIONS

A substation has the following parameters to be used for the steel grounding design:-

• Soil characteristics:-

X1 (resistivity) = 2 500 ohm-cm

X2 (pH value) =7

X3 (moisture) = 30%

X4 (aeration) = 15%

• Present earth fault current (Ifp) = 10 kA

• Current division factor (fdiv) = 1,0 (worst case)
• Fault duration (tc) = 1,0 sec
• Decrement factor (fdec) = 1,0
• System growth factor (fsg) = 2,0

No Corrosion Considerations

Design Value of the Earth Fault Current

Design value of the earth fault current

I EF = I fp . fdiv . fdec . fsg

= 10 .1,0.1,0.2 ,0

= 20 kA

Extract from Table 19-2.1

Constant
Material ϑk ϑf Tm
M o o o
( C) ( C) ( C)
1)
500
2)
Steel 78 (89) 202 200 1510
3)
150

Value of Material Constant k and from Table 19-2.1

 ϑk + ϑf 
k = M. ln 
 ϑk + ϑi 

(from eq. 19-2.2)

 202 + 500 
= 78. ln 
 202 + 20 
2
≈ 137 A. s /mm

Area of Steel Conductor

Ιf. tc
A=
k
20 000. 1
= - (from eq. 19-2.1)
137
2
= 145,8 mm

Radius of Steel Conductor

A
rc =
π

145,8
=
π
= 6,81 mm

where:-

da = Anode Size (Mass) in kilograms (kg)

Suggested Diameter of Steel Conductor

de = 15,88mm Steel round bar

2
Ae = 197,9 mm

2 2
If copper was used instead, the cross-sectional area of the conductor would be 70,9 mm . Use of 85 mm round copper

Ratio of actual steel over copper conductor area = 197.9/85

= 2,33

Adding Corrosion Considerations

Corrosion Loss

The corrosion rate calculated from eq.19-2.4 is given by:-

-3 -5
Y = 25,4.10 .(3,36 - 9,63.10 .X 1 + 0,29.X 2 + 0,034.X 3 + 0,012.X 4
-3 -5
= 25,4.10 [3,36 - 9,63.10 .(2500) + 0,29.(7) + 0,034.(30) + 0,012.(15)] (from eq. 19-2.4)

= 0,1615 mm/yr

Assuming, average earthing system life of 25 years (corrosion rate reduces to half for the second 12 years), with a
safety factor (SF) of 1,5, the total corrosion loss is:-


Y = 12. 1 +
Average Earthing System Life - 12 
.Y.SF
 Average Earthing System Life 


= (12). 1 +
25 - 12 
.(0,1615).(1,5) eq. 19-2.16
 25 

= 4,42 mm

Compensating for Corrosion Loss

To compensate for corrosion loss, the radius of the conductor needs to be increased by 4,36 mm.

Suggested minimum radius of the conductor (rcm):-

rcm = rc + Y eq. 19-2.17

= 6,81 + 4,42

=11,23 mm

2
Steel conductor cross-sectional area = π. rcm

2
= 396,2 mm

The ratio of the actual steel conductor area to the corresponding copper;-

= 396,2/85

≈ 4,7

It can be demonstrated that this ratio decreases with the increase of fault current.

Life Expectancy Estimation of Sacrificial or Galvanic Anodes

The discussion earlier stated that in order to determine the number, type, mass, and locations of sacrificial anodes, a
detailed study needs to be performed. Amongst other considerations, this depends on the soil resistivity, exposed
surface area, and physical layouts of underground equipment and structures.

Assuming a 14,52 kg magnesium sacrificial anode as a means of cathodic protection, the current produced by each
anode follows from eq.19-2.14. Table 19-2.9 provides the value of K.

Anode Size Value of K

(kg)
14,52 1,16

K = 1,16

X1 =2 500 Ω.cm

150 000.K
I′m =
X1
150 000.1,16
= (from eq. 19-2.14)
2 500
= 69,6 mA

The expected life for the given anode size and current output is:-

125,84.w m
Lm =
I′
125,84.14,52
= (from eq. 19-2.10)
69,6
= 26,25 yrs

CONCLUSIONS

Steel can be used very effectively as earth grid material where the cross-sectional area of steel is in the region of 3-5
times larger than that of copper. A minimum size of 126,65 mm diameter is recommended for steel conductor. To
supplement the steel earthing, the rebar on concrete footings of building columns and equipment foundations can also
be included to form part of the grid.

Steel could yield substantial savings over copper in many designs, in addition preventing corrosion of steel pipes, and
other underground structures. The main concern in using steel is corrosion. This can be partially compensated for by
increasing the cross-sectional area of the conductor. In addition, to maintain the integrity of the earth grid, it is
recommended that some modes of cathodic protection be designed and implemented. Regardless, corrosion should be
studied in detail before utilising steel earthing. The use of steel earthing is very useful when other steel structures are
present in the vicinity.

It is also recommended that the continuity and the integrity of the steel earth grid, when employed, be at random
locations to ensure the safety. On-line corrosion monitoring techniques with real time corrosion information such as
Electrical Resistance (ER) method or Linear Polarisation methods (LPR) combined with microprocessor and computer
technology are available. This enables the engineer to detect system problems. These fast responses may directly be
used for controlling the process, thus resulting in a better design.

An expression for the estimation of corrosion has been provided. Typical average corrosion rates for various metals are
given in the table below.

Designing the cathodic protection scheme requires additional data, most importantly the soil resistivity and soil
2
characteristics. For low resistivity and highly corrosive soil, the current requirements can be estimated at 323 mA/m of
2
exposed surface area, whereas, for high resistivity and low corrosive soil, the value is closer to 32 mA/m .

Table 19-2.10: Average Corrosion Rates of Several Metals

Material Corrosion Rate

-3
(x10 mm/year)
Open Hearth Steel 150,02
Bessemer Steel 134,76
Wrought Iron 127,14
Copper 31,78
Lead 76,28
Zinc 127,14

SLDG 19-3

SUBSTATION EARTHING PRACTICES

1. FENCE EARTHING

a) Plan

b) Elevation on A-A

Figure 19-3.1: Typical Chain Link Fence

1.1 The fence earth is interconnected with the station earth-mat

1.2 The perimeter earth-wire should be continuous conductor connected to fence posts, to all gate posts and to all
corners.

1.3 The conductor is to be looped through earth rod clamps and fence clamps to keep conductor splices to a minimum.

1.4 Connections between the fence earth and the station earth-mat should be at intervals so as to limit potential
gradients (step potentials) and should give adequate current-carrying capacity for the maximum foreseeable earth
fault current.

Figure 19-3.2: Typical Switch Earthing

Figure 19-3.3: Tanks, Bases and Neutrals of All Equipment Mounted on Unearthed Material

Figure 19-3.4: Painted Tanks and Bases of All Equipment Mounted on Earthed Steelwork

Figure 19-3.5: Galvanized Tanks and Bases of All Equipment Mounted on Earthed Steelwork

Figure 19-3.6: All Single Core Cable Sealing Ends

Figure 19-3.7: Switchboards (With Thermo-plastic Insulated Cables)

Figure 19-3.8: Switchboards (With Paper Insulated Cables)

a) Coupling Capacitor with Separate VT b) Capacitor Voltage Transformer

Figure 19-3.9: Capacitor Voltage Transformer (Galvanised and Painted Tanks) Mounted on Earthed Steelwork
(Without Line Matching Equipment)

a) Coupling Capacitor with Separate VT b) Capacitor Voltage Transformer

Figure 19-3.10: Capacitor Voltage Transformer (Galvanised and Painted Tanks) Mounted on Earthed Steelwork
(With Line Matching Equipment)

Figure 19-3.11: Auxiliary Transformer in HV Yard

Figure 19-3.12: Typical Transformer and Surge Arrester Earthing

Figure 19-3.13: Earthing of Steel Structures

Figure 19-3.14: Earthing of Isolator Mounted Earthswitches

Figure 19-3.15: Earthing of Free Standing Earthswitches

SLDG 20-1

FUNDAMENTALS OF LIGHTNING PROTECTION

1. INTRODUCTION

Lightning is a capricious, random and unpredictable event. Its' physical characteristics include current levels sometimes
in excess of 400 kA, temperatures to 28,000 degrees C., and speeds approaching one third the speed of light. Globally,
some 2000 on-going thunderstorms cause about 100 lightning strikes to earth each second. Insurance company
information shows one homeowner's damage claim for every 57 lightning strikes. Data about commercial, government,
and industrial lightning-caused losses is not available. Annually lightning causes fires with damage to property in the
order of billions.

The phenomenology of lightning strikes to earth, as presently understood, follows an approximate behaviour:-

1.1. The downward Leaders from a thundercloud pulse towards earth seeking out active electrical ground targets

1.2. Ground-based objects (fences, trees, blades of grass, corners of buildings, people, lightning rods, etc.) emit varying
degrees of electric activity during this event. Upward Streamers are launched from some of these objects. A few
tens of meters off the ground, a "collection zone" is established according to the intensified local electrical field.

1.3. Some Leader(s) likely will connect with some Streamer(s). Then, the "switch" is closed and the current flows. We
see lightning.

Lightning effects can be direct and/or indirect. Direct effects are from resistive (ohmic) heating, arcing and burning.
Indirect effects are more probable. They include capacitive, inductive and magnetic behaviour. Lightning "prevention" or
"protection" (in an absolute sense) is impossible. A diminution of its consequences, together with incremental safety
improvements, can be obtained by the use of a holistic or systematic hazard mitigation approach, described below in
generic terms.

Thunderstorms come into existence when warm air masses containing sufficient moisture are transported to great
altitudes. This transport can occur in a number of ways. In the case of heat thunderstorms, the ground is heated up
locally by intense insolation. The layers of air near the ground heat up and rise. For frontal thunderstorms, the invasion of
a cold air front causes cooler air to be pushed below the warm air, forcing it to rise. Orographic thunderstorms are
caused when warm air near the ground is lifted up as it crosses rising ground. Additional physical effects further increase
the vertical upsurge of the air masses. This forms up-draught channels with vertical speeds of up to 100 km/h, which
create towering cumulonimbus clouds with typical heights of 5 – 12 km and diameters of 5 – 10 km.

Electrostatic charge separation processes, e.g. friction and sputtering, are responsible for charging water droplets and
particles of ice in the cloud. Positively charged particles accumulate in the upper part, and negatively charged particles in
the lower part of the thundercloud. In addition, there is again a small positive charge centre at the bottom of the cloud.
This originates from the corona discharge which emanates from sharp-pointed objects on the ground underneath the
thundercloud (e.g. plants), and is transported upwards by the wind.

If the space charge densities, which happen to be present in a thundercloud, produce local field strengths of several 100
kV/m, leader discharges (leaders) are formed which initiate a lightning discharge. Cloud-to-cloud flashes result in charge
neutralisation between positive and negative cloud charge centres, and do not directly strike objects on the ground in the
process. The lightning electromagnetic impulses (LEMP) they radiate must be taken into consideration, however,
because they endanger electrical and electronic systems.

Lightning flashes to earth lead to a neutralisation of charge between the cloud charges and the electrostatic charges on
the ground. We distinguish between two types of lightning flashes to earth:-

• Downward flash (cloud-to-earth flash)

• Upward flash (earth-to-cloud flash)

In the case of downward flashes, leader discharges pointing towards the ground guide the lightning discharge from the
cloud to the earth. Such discharges usually occur in flat terrain and near low buildings and structures. Downward flashes
can be recognised by the branching (Figure 20-1.1) which is directed earthwards.

Figure 20.1.1: Downward Flash (Cloud-to-Earth Flash)

The most common type of lightning is negative lightning flashes to earth, where a leader filled with negative cloud charge
pushes its way from the thunder cloud to earth (Figure 20-1.2). This leader propagates in a series of jerks with a speed of
around 300 km/h in steps of a few 10 m. The interval between the jerks amounts to a few 10 µs. When the leader has
drawn close to the earth, (a few 100 m to a few 10 m), it causes the strength of the electric field of objects on the surface
of the earth in the vicinity of the leader (e.g. trees, gable ends of buildings) to increase. The increase is great enough to
exceed the dielectric strength of the air. These objects involved reach out to the leader by growing positive streamers
which then meet up with the leader, initiating the main discharge.

Figure 20-1.2: Discharge Mechanism of a Negative Downward Flash (Cloud-to-Earth Flash)

Positive flashes to earth can arise out of the lower, positively charged area of a thundercloud (Figure 20-1.3). The ratio of
the polarities is around 90 % negative lightning to 10 % positive lightning. This ratio depends on the geographic location.

Figure 20-1.3: Discharge Mechanism of a Positive Downward Flash (Cloud-to-Earth Flash)

On very high, exposed objects (e.g. radio masts, telecommunication towers, steeples) or on the tops of mountains,
upward flashes (earth-to-cloud flashes) can occur. It can be recognised by the upwards-reaching branches of the
lightning discharge (Figure 20-1.4).

Figure 20-1.4: Upward Flash (Earth-to-Cloud Flash)

In the case of upward flashes, the high electric field strength required to trigger a leader is not achieved in the cloud, but
rather by the distortion of the electric field on the exposed object, and the associated high strength of the electric field.
From this location, the leader and its charge channel propagate towards the cloud. Upward flashes occur with both
negative polarity (Figure 20-1.5) and also with positive polarity (Figure 20-1.6).

Since, with upward flashes, the leaders propagate from the exposed object on the surface of the earth to the cloud, high
objects can be struck several times by one lightning discharge during a thunderstorm.

Objects struck by lightning are subject to higher stress by downward flashes (cloud-to-earth flashes) than by upward
flashes (earth-to-cloud flashes). The parameters of downward flashes are therefore taken as the basis when designing
lightning protection measures.

Figure 20-1.5: Discharge Mechanism of a Negative Upward Flash (Earth-to-Cloud Flash)

Figure 20-1.6: Discharge Mechanism of a Positive Upward Flash (Earth-to-Cloud Flash)

Depending on the type of lightning flash, each lightning discharge consists of one or more partial strikes of lightning. We
distinguish between short strikes with less than 2 ms duration and long strikes with a duration of more than 2 ms. Further
distinctive features of partial lightning strikes are their polarity (negative or positive), and their temporal position in the
lightning discharge (first, subsequent or superimposed partial strikes of lightning). The possible combinations of partial
lightning strikes are shown in Figure 20-1.7 for downward flashes, and Figure 20-1.8 for upward flashes. The lightning
currents consisting of both impulse currents and continuing currents are load-independent currents, i.e. the objects struck
exert no effect on the lightning currents. Four parameters important for lightning protection technology can be obtained
from the lightning current profiles shown in Figures 20-1.7 and 20-1.8:-

• The peak value of lightning current I

• The charge of the lightning current Qflash, comprising the charge of the short strike Qshort and the charge of the long
strike Qlong

• The specific energy W/R of the lightning current

• The steepness di/dt of the lightning current.

The following chapters show which of the individual efficiency parameters are responsible for which effects, and how
they influence the dimensioning of lightning protection systems.

Figure 20-1.7: Possible Components of Downward Flashes

Figure 20-1.8: Possible Components of Upward Flashes

2. PEAK VALUE OF LIGHTNING CURRENT

Lightning currents are load-independent currents, i.e. a lightning discharge can be considered an almost ideal current
source. If a load-independent active electric current flows through conductive components, the amplitude of the current,

and the impedance of the conductive component the current flows through, help to regulate the potential drop across the
component flown through by the current. In the simplest case, this relationship can be described using Ohm´s Law.

U = I .R eq. 20-1.1

If a current is formed at a single point on a homogeneously conducting surface, the well-known potential gradient area
arises. This effect also occurs when lightning strikes homogeneous ground (Figure 20-1.9).

Figure 20-1.9: Potential Distribution of a Lightning Strike into Homogenous Soil

If living beings (people or animals) are inside this potential gradient area, a step voltage is formed which can cause a
shock current to flow through the body (Figure 20-1.10). The higher the conductivity of the ground, the flatter the shape
of the potential gradient area. The risk of dangerous step voltages is thus also reduced.

Figure 20-1.10: Animals Killed by Shock Current due to Hazardous Step Voltage

If lightning strikes a building which is already equipped with a lightning protection system, the lightning current flowing
away via the earth-termination system of the building gives rise to a potential drop across the earthing resistance RE of
the earth-termination system of the building (Figure 20-1.11). As long as all conductive objects in the building, which
persons can come into contact with, are raised to the same high potential, persons in the building cannot be exposed to
danger. This is why it is necessary for all conductive parts in the building with which persons can come into contact, and
all external conductive parts entering the building, to have equipotential bonding. If this is disregarded, there is a risk of
dangerous shock hazard voltages if lightning strikes.

Figure 20-1.11: Potential Rise of the Earth-termination System of a Building Compared to the Remote Earth due
to the Peak Value of the Lightning Current

The rise in potential of the earth-termination system as a result of the lightning current also creates a hazard for electrical
installations (Figure 20-1.12). In the example shown, the operational earth of the low-voltage supply network is located
outside the potential gradient area caused by the lightning current. If lightning strikes the building, the potential of the
operational earth RB is therefore not identical to the earth potential of the consumer system within the building. In the
present example, there is a difference of 1000 kV. This endangers the insulation of the electrical system and the
equipment connected to it.

Figure 20-1.12 Threat to Electrical Installations by Potential Rise at the Earth-termination System

3. STEEPNESS OF LIGHTNING CURRENT

The steepness of lightning current ∆i/∆t, which is effective during the interval ∆t, determines the height of the
electromagnetically induced voltages. These voltages are induced in all open or closed conductor loops located in the
vicinity of conductors through which lightning current is flowing. Figure 20-1.13 shows possible configurations of
conductor loops in which lightning currents could induce voltages. The square wave voltage U induced in a conductor
loop during the interval ∆t is:-

eq. 20-1.2

where:-

M = Mutual inductance of the loop in Henries (H)

=
Steepness of lightning current in amperes per second (A/s)

Figure 20-1.13: Induced Square-Wave Voltage in Loops via the Current Steepness ∆i/∆t of the Lightning Current

As already described, lightning discharges comprise a number of partial strikes of lightning. As far as the temporal
position is concerned, a distinction is made between first and subsequent short strikes within a lightning discharge. The
main difference between the two types of short strikes consists in the fact that, because the lightning channel has to be
built, the gradient of the lightning current of the first short strike is not as steep as that of the subsequent short strike,

which can use an existing, fully conductive lightning channel. The steepness of lightning current of the subsequent
lightning strike is therefore used to assess the highest induced voltage in the conductor loops.

An example of how to assess the induced voltage in a conductor loop is shown in Figure 20-1.14.

Figure 20-1.14: Example for calculation of induced square-wave voltages in squared loops

4. CHARGE OF LIGHTNING CURRENT

The charge Qflash of the lightning current is made up of the charge Qshort of the short strike and the charge Qlong of the
long strike. The charge of the lightning current determines the energy deposited at the precise striking point, and at all
points where the lightning current continues in the shape of an electric arc along an insulated path.

eq. 20-1.3

The energy W deposited at the base of the electric arc is given by the product of the charge Q and the anode-/cathode
voltage drop with values in the micro-meter range UA,K (Figure 20-1.15).

Figure 20-1.15: Energy Deposited at the Point of Strike by the Load of the Lightning Current

The average value of UA,K is a few 10 V and depends on influences such as the height and shape of the current:-

W = Q.U A,K eq. 20-1.4

where:-

Q = Charge of lightning current in Coulombs (C)

= Anode/cathode voltage drop in volts (V)

Hence, the charge of the lightning current causes the components of the lightning protection system struck by lightning to
melt down. The charge is also relevant for the stresses on isolating spark gaps and protective spark gaps and by spark-
gap based surge protective devices.

Recent examinations have shown that, as the electric arc acts for a longer time, it is mainly the continuing charge Qlong
of the continuing current which is able to melt or vaporise large volumes of materials. Figure 2.4.2 and 2.4.3 show a
comparison of the effects of the short strike charge Qshort and the long strike charge Qlong.

5. SPECIFIC ENERGY

The specific energy W/R of an impulse current is the energy deposited by the impulse current in a resistance of 1 Ω. This
energy deposition is the integral of the square of the impulse current over the time for the duration of the impulse
current:-

W
= ∫ i 2 dt eq. 20-1.5
R

The specific energy is therefore often called the current square impulse. It is relevant for the temperature rise in
conductors through which a lightning impulse current is flowing, as well as for the force exerted between conductors
flown through by a lightning impulse current (Figure 20-1.16).

Figure 20-1.16: Heating and force effects by the specific energy of lightning current

For the energy W deposited in a conductor with resistance R we have:-

2
W = R.∫ i dt
W eq. 20-1.6
= R.
R

where:-

R = (Temperature dependent) d.c. resistance of the conductor in ohms (Ω)

W/R = Specific energy in joules per ohm (J/Ω)

The calculation of the temperature rise of conductors through which a lightning impulse current is flowing, can become
necessary if the risks to persons, and the risks from fire and explosion, have to be taken into account during the design
and installation of lightning protection systems. The calculation assumes that all the thermal energy is generated by the
ohmic resistance of the components of the lightning protection system. Furthermore, it is assumed that, because of the
brevity of the process, there is no perceptible heat exchange with the surrounding. Table 20-1.1 lists the temperature
rises of different materials used in lightning protection, and their cross sections, as a function of the specific energy.

Table 20-1.1: Temperature rise ∆T in K of different conductor materials

2
Cross-Sectional Area (mm ) 4 10 16 25 50 100
Aluminium 2,5 - 564 146 52 12 3
Ω]
W/R [MJ/Ω 5,6 - - 454 132 28 7
10 - - - 283 52 12
Iron 2,5 - - 1120 211 37 9
Ω]
W/R [MJ/Ω 5,6 - - - 913 96 20
Material

10 - - - - 211 37
Copper 2,5 - 169 56 22 5 1
Ω]
W/R [MJ/Ω 5,6 - 542 143 51 12 3
10 - - 309 98 22 5
Stainless Steel 2,5 - - - 940 190 45
Ω]
W/R [MJ/Ω 5,6 - - - - 460 100
10 - - - - 940 190

The electro-dynamic forces F generated by a current i in a wire with a long, parallel section of length ℓ and a distance d
(Figure 20-1.17) can be calculated as an approximation using the following equation:-

µ0 .i2 (t).l
F(t) = eq. 20-1.7
2.π.d

F(t) =

where:-

F(t) = Electro-dynamic force in Newtons per metres (N/m)

i = Current in amperes (A)
π. 10 H/m)
-7
µ0 = Magnetic constant in air (4π
ℓ = Length of conductor in metres (m)
d = Distance between the parallel conductors in metres (m)

Figure 20-1.17: Electro-dynamic effect between parallel conductors

The force between the conductors is attractive if the two currents flow in the same direction, and repulsive if the currents
flow in opposite directions. It is proportional to the product of the currents in the conductors, and inversely proportional to
the distance of the conductors. Even in the case of a single, bent conductor, a force is exerted on the conductor. Here,
the force is proportional to the square of the current in the bent conductor.

The specific energy of the impulse current thus determines the load which causes a reversible or irreversible deformation
of components and arrays of a lightning protection system. These effects are taken into consideration in the test
arrangements of the product standards concerning the requirements made on connecting components for lightning
protection systems.

6. ASSIGNMENT OF LIGHTNING CURRENT PARAMETERS TO LIGHTNING PROTECTION LEVELS

In order to define lightning as a source of interference, lightning protection levels I to IV are laid down. Each lightning
protection level requires a set of

• maximum values (dimensioning criteria used to design lightning protection components to meet the demands
expected to be made of them) and

• minimum values (interception criteria necessary to be able to determine the areas with sufficient protection against
direct lightning strikes (radius of rolling sphere)).

Table 20-1.2: Maximum values of lightning current parameters and their probabilities

Lightning Protection Level Maximum Values (Dimensioning Criteria)

Maximum Lightning Current Peak Probability of the Actual Upcoming
Value Lightning Current to be Less than
the Maximum Lightning Current
(kA) Peak
(%)
I 200 99
II 150 98
III 100 97
IV 100 97

Table 20-1.3: Minimum values of lightning current parameters and their probabilities

Lightning Protection Maximum Values (Dimensioning Criteria)

Level Minimum Probability of the Actual Radius of the Rolling Sphere
Lightning Current Upcoming Lightning
Peak Value Current to be Higher
than the Minimum (m)
(kA) Lightning Current Peak
(%)
I 3 99 20
II 5 97 30
III 10 91 45
IV 16 84 60

The Tables 20-1.2 and 20-1.3show the assignment of the lightning protection levels to maximum and minimum values of
the lightning current parameters.

6.1 Air-termination Systems

The function of the air-termination systems of a lightning protection system is to prevent direct lightning strikes from
damaging the volume to be protected. They must be designed to prevent uncontrolled lightning strikes to the structure to
be protected. By correct dimensioning of the air-termination systems, the effects of a lightning strike to a structure can be
reduced in a controlled way.

Air-termination systems can consist of the following components and can be combined with each other as required:-

• Rods

• Spanned wires and cables

• Intermeshed conductors

When determining the siting of the air-termination systems of the lightning protection system, special attention must be
paid to the protection of corners and edges of the structure to be protected. This applies particularly to air-termination
systems on the surfaces of roofs and the upper parts of facades. Most importantly, air-termination systems must be
mounted at corners and edges.

Three methods can be used to determine the arrangement and the siting of the air-termination systems (Figure 20-1.18):

• Rolling sphere method

• Mesh method

• Protective angle method

Figure 20-1.18: Method for Designing of Air-Termination Systems for High Structures

The rolling sphere method is the universal method of design particularly recommended for geometrically complicated
applications. The three different methods are described below.

7. DESIGNING METHODS AND TYPES OF AIR-TERMINATION SYSTEMS

7.1 The Rolling Sphere Method – “Geometric-electrical Model”

For lightning flashes to earth, a downward leader grows step-by-step in a series of jerks from the cloud towards the
earth. When the leader has got close to the earth within a few tens, to a few hundreds of metres, the electrical insulating
strength of the air near the ground is exceeded. A further “leader” discharge similar to the downward leader begins to
grow towards the head of the downward leader: the upward leader. This defines the point of strike of the lightning strike
(Figure 20-1.19).

Figure 20-1.19: Starting Upward Leader Defining the Point of Strike

The starting point of the upward leader and hence the subsequent point of strike is determined mainly by the head of the
downward leader. The head of the downward leader can only approach the earth within a certain distance. This distance
is defined by the continuously increasing electrical field strength of the ground as the head of the downward leader
approaches. The smallest distance between the head of the downward leader and the starting point of the upward leader
is called the final striking distance hB (corresponds to the radius of the rolling sphere).

Immediately after the electrical insulating strength is exceeded at one point, the upward leader which leads to the final
strike and manages to cross the final striking distance, is formed. Observations of the protective effect of guard wires and
pylons were used as the basis for the so-called “geometric-electrical model”.

This is based on the hypothesis that the head of the downward leader approaches the objects on the ground, unaffected
by anything, until it reaches the final striking distance.

The point of strike is then determined by the object closest to the head of the downward leader. The upward leader
starting from this point “forces its way through” (Figure 20-1.20).

Figure 20-1.20: Model of a Rolling Sphere

A rolling sphere can touch not only the steeple, but also the nave of the church at several points. All points touched are
potential points of strike.

7.1.1 Classification of the lightning protection system and radius of the rolling sphere

As a first approximation, a proportionality exists between the peak value of the lightning current and the electrical charge
stored in the downward leader. Furthermore, the electrical field strength of the ground as the downward leader
approaches is also linearly dependent on the charge stored in the downward leader, to a first approximation. Thus there
is a proportionality between the peak value I of the lightning current and the final striking distance hB (= radius of the
rolling sphere):-
0,65
r = 10.I eq. 20-1.8

where:-

r = Radius of the Rolling Sphere in metres (m)

I = Magnitude of lightning current in kilo-amperes per second (kA)

The protection of structures against lightning is described in IEC 62305-1. Among other things, this standard defines the
classification of the individual lightning protection system and stipulates the resulting lightning protection measures.

It differentiates between four classes of lightning protection system. A Class I lightning protection system provides the
most protection and a Class IV, by comparison, the least. The interception effectiveness Ei of the air-termination systems

is concomitant with the class of lightning protection system, i.e. which percentage of the prospective lightning strikes is
safely controlled by the air-termination systems. From this results the final striking distance and hence the radius of the
“rolling sphere”. The correlations between class of lightning protection system, interception effectiveness Ei of the air-
termination systems, final striking distance / radius of the “rolling sphere” and current peak value are shown in Table 20-
1.4.

Table 20-1.4: Relations between lightning protection level, interception criterion Ei, final striking distance hB
and min. peak value of current I - Ref.: Table 5, 6 and 7 of IEC 62305-1

Lightning Probabilities for the Limit Values of the Radius of Rolling Minimum Peak
Protection Level Lightning Current Parameters Sphere (Final Striking Value of Current
(LPL) (p.u.) Distance hB) I (kA)
<Max. Values Acc. <Min. Values Acc. r (m)
To Table 5 – IEC To Table 6 – IEC
62305-1 62305-1
IV 0,84 0,97 60 16
III 0,91 0,97 45 10
II 0,97 0,98 30 5
I 0,99 0,99 20 3

Taking as a basis the hypothesis of the “geometric-electrical model” that the head of the downward leader approaches
the objects on the earth in an arbitrary way, unaffected by anything, until it reaches the final striking distance, a general
method can be derived which allows the volume to be protected of any arrangement to be inspected. Carrying out the
rolling sphere method requires a scale model (e.g. on a scale of 1:100) of the building / structure to be protected, which
includes the external contours and, where applicable, the air-termination systems. Depending on the location of the
object under investigation, it is also necessary to include the surrounding structures and objects, since these could act as
“natural protective measures” for the object under examination.

Furthermore, a true-to-scale sphere is required according to the class of lightning protection system with a radius
corresponding to the final striking distance (depending on the class of lightning protection system, the radius r of the
“rolling sphere” must correspond true-to-scale to the radii 20, 30, 45 or 60 m). The centre of the “rolling sphere” used
corresponds to the head of the downward leader towards which the respective upward leaders will approach.

The “rolling sphere” is now rolled around the object under examination and the contact points representing potential
points of strike are marked in each case. The “rolling sphere” is then rolled over the object in all directions. All contact
points are marked again. All potential points of strike are thus shown on the model; it is also possible to determine the
areas which can be hit by lateral strikes. The naturally protected zones resulting from the geometry of the object to be
protected and its surroundings can also be clearly seen. Air-termination conductors are not required at these points
(Figure 20-1.21).

Figure 20-1.21: Schematic Application of the “Rolling Sphere” Method at a Building with Considerably Structured
Surface

It must be borne in mind, however, that lightning footprints have also been found on steeples in places not directly
touched as the “rolling sphere” rolled over. This is traced to the fact that, among other things, in the event of multiple
lightning flashes, the base of the lightning flash moves because of the wind conditions. Consequently, an area of approx.
one metre can come up around the point of strike determined where lightning strikes can also occur.

As demonstrated, when dimensioning the air-termination system for a structure, or a structure mounted on the roof, the
sag of the rolling sphere is decisive. The following formula can be used to calculate the penetration depth p of the rolling
sphere when the rolling sphere rolls “on rails”, for example. This can be achieved by using two spanned wires, for
example.

2
 d
- 
2
p =r- r
 eq. 20-1.9
 2 
where:-

r = Radius of the rolling sphere in metres (m)

d = Distance between two air-termination rods or two parallel air-termination conductors in metres (m)

Figure 20-1.22 illustrates this consideration.

Figure: 20-1.22: Penetration Depth p of the Rolling Sphere

Air-termination rods are frequently used to protect the surface of a roof, or installations mounted on the roof, against a
direct lightning strike. The square arrangement of the air-termination rods, over which no cable is normally spanned,
means that the sphere does not “roll on rails” but “sits deeper” instead, thus increasing the penetration depth of the
sphere (Figure 20-1.23).

Figure 20-1.23: Air-termination System for Installations Mounted on the Roof with their Protective Area

The height of the air-termination rods ∆h should always be greater than the value of the penetration depth p determined,
and hence greater than the sag of the rolling sphere. This additional height of the air-termination rod ensures that the
rolling sphere does not touch the structure to be protected.

Table 20-1.5: Sag of the rolling sphere over two air-termination rods or two parallel air-termination conductors

d Sag of the Rolling (Sphere h-m) [Rounded Up]

Distance Between Air- Class of LPS with Rolling Sphere Radius (m)
termination Rods (m) I (20m) II (30m) III (45m) IV (60m)
2 0,03 0,02 0,01 0,01
4 0,10 0,07 0,04 0,03
6 0,23 0,15 0,10 0,08
8 0,40 0,27 0,18 0,13
10 0,64 0,42 0,28 0,21
12 0,92 0,61 0,40 0,30
14 1,27 0,83 0,55 0,41
16 1,67 1,09 0,72 0,54
18 2,14 1,38 0,91 0,68
20 2,68 1,72 1,13 0,84
23 3,64 2,29 1,49 1,11
26 4,80 2,96 1,92 1,43
29 6,23 3,74 2,40 1,78
32 8,00 4,62 2,94 2,17
35 10,32 5,63 3,54 2,61

Another way of determining the height of the air-termination rods is using Table 20-1.5. The penetration depth of the
rolling sphere is governed by the largest distance of the air-termination rods from each other. Using the greatest
distance, the penetration depth p (sag) can be taken from the table. The air-termination rods must be dimensioned
according to the height of the structures mounted on the roof (in relation to the location of the air-termination rod) and
also the penetration depth (Figure 20-1.24).

Figure 20-1.24: Calculation ∆h for Several Air-termination Rods According to Rolling Sphere Method

7.2 Mesh Method

A “meshed” air-termination system can be used universally regardless of the height of the structure and shape of the
roof. A reticulated air-termination network with a mesh size according to the class of lightning protection system is
arranged on the roofing (Table 20-1.6).

Table 20-1.6 Mesh Size

Class of LPS Mesh Size (m x m)

I 5X5
II 10X10
III 15X15
IV 20X20

To simplify matters, the sag of the rolling sphere is assumed to be zero for a meshed air-termination system.

By using the ridge and the outer edges of the structure, as well as the metal natural parts of the structure serving as an
air-termination system, the individual cells can be sited as desired.

The air-termination conductors on the outer edges of the structure must be laid as close to the edges as possible.

A metal attic can serve as an air-termination conductor and / or a down-conductor system if the required minimum
dimensions for natural components of the air-termination system are complied with (Figure 20-1.25).

Figure 20-1.25: Meshed Air-termination System

7.3 Protective Angle Method

The protective angle method is derived from the electric-geometrical lightning model. The protective angle is determined
by the radius of the rolling sphere. The comparable protective angle with the radius of the rolling sphere is given when a
slope intersects the rolling sphere in such a way that the resulting areas have the same size (Figure 20-1.26).

Figure 20-1.26: Protective Angle and Comparable Radius of the Rolling Sphere

This method must be used for structures with symmetrical dimensions (e.g. steep roof) or roof mounted structures (e.g.
antennas, ventilation pipes).

The protective angle depends on the class of lightning protection system and the height of the air-termination system
above the reference plane (Figure 20-1.27).

Figure 20-1.27: Protective Angle α as a Function of Height (h) Depending on the Class of Lightning Protection
System

Air-termination conductors, air-termination rods, masts and wires should be arranged to ensure that all parts of the
building to be protected are situated within the volume of protection of the air-termination system.

The protection zone can be “cone-shaped” or “tent-shaped”, if a cable, for example, is spanned over it (Figures 20-1.28
to 20-1.30).

Figure 20-1.28: Cone-shaped Protection Zone

Figure 20-1.29: Example of Air-termination Systems with Protective Angle (α)

Figure 20-1.30: Area Protected by an Air-termination Conductor

If air-termination rods are installed on the surface of the roof to protect structures mounted thereon, the protective angle
α can be different. In Figure 20-1.31, the roof surface is the reference plane for protective angle α1. The ground is the
reference plane for the protective angle α2. Therefore the angle α2 according to Figure 5.1.1.12 and Table 5.1.1.4 is less
than α1.

Figure 20-1.31: External Lightning Protection System, Volume Protected by a Vertical Air-termination Rod

Table 20-1.7 provides the corresponding protective angle for each class of lightning protection system and the
corresponding distance (zone of protection).

Table 20-1.7 Protective Angle (α) Depending on the Class of Lighting Protection System

Height of Class of the LPS I Class of the LPS II Class of the LPS III Class of the LPS IV
the Air- Angle α Distance Angle α Distance Angle α Distance Angle α Distance
termination (a-m) (a-m) (a-m) (a-m)
Rod (h-m)
1 71 2,90 74 3,49 77 4,33 79 5,15
2 71 5,81 74 6,97 77 8,66 79 10,29
3 66 6,74 71 8,71 74 10,46 76 12,03
4 62 7,52 68 9,90 72 12,31 74 13,95
5 59 8,32 65 10,72 70 13,74 72 15,39
6 56 8,90 62 11,28 68 14,85 71 17,43
7 53 9,29 60 12,12 66 15,72 69 18,24
8 50 9,53 58 12,80 64 16,40 68 19,80
9 48 10,00 56 13,34 62 16,93 66 20,21
10 45 10,00 54 13,76 61 18,04 65 21,45
11 43 10,26 52 14,08 59 18,31 64 22,55
12 40 10,07 50 14,30 58 19,20 62 22,57
13 38 10,16 49 14,95 57 20,02 61 23,45
14 36 10,17 47 15,01 55 19,99 60 24,25
15 34 10,12 45 15,00 54 20,65 59 24,96
16 32 10 44 15,45 53 21,23 58 25,61
17 30 9,81 42 15,31 51 20,99 57 26,18
18 27 9,17 40 15,10 50 21,45 56 26,69
19 25 8,86 39 15,39 49 21,86 55 27,13
20 23 8,49 37 15,07 48 22,21 54 27,53
21 - - 36 15,26 47 22,52 53 28,87
22 - - 35 15,40 46 22,78 52 28,16
23 - - 34 16,71 47 24,66 53 30,52
24 - - 32 15,00 44 23,18 50 28,60

Table 20-1.7 Protective Angle (α) Depending on the Class of Lighting Protection System (Continued)

Height of Class of the LPS I Class of the LPS II Class of the LPS III Class of the LPS IV
the Air- Angle α Distance Angle α Distance Angle α Distance Angle α Distance
termination (a-m) (a-m) (a-m) (a-m)
Rod (h-m)
25 - - 30 14,43 43 23,31 49 28,76
26 - - 29 13,41 41 22,60 49 29,91
27 - - 27 13,76 40 22,66 48 29,99
28 - - 26 13,66 39 22,67 47 30,03
29 - - 25 13,52 38 22,66 46 30,03
30 - - 23 12,73 37 22,61 45 30,00
31 - - - - 36 22,52 44 29,94
32 - - - - 35 22,41 44 30,90
33 - - - - 35 23,11 43 30,77
34 - - - - 34 2293 42 30,61
35 - - - - 33 22,73 41 30,43
36 - - - - 32 22,50 40 30,21
37 - - - - 31 22,23 40 31,05
38 - - - - 30 21,94 39 30,77
39 - - - - 29 21,62 38 30,47
40 - - - - 28 21,27 37 30,14
41 - - - - 27 20,89 37 30,90
42 - - - - 26 20,48 36 30,51
43 - - - - 25 20,05 35 30,11
44 - - - - 24 19,59 35 30,81
45 - - - - 23 19,10 34 30,35
46 - - - - - - 33 29,87
47 - - - - - - 32 29,37
48 - - - - - - 32 29,99
49 - - - - - - 31 29,44
50 - - - - - - 30 28,87
51 - - - - - - 30 29,44
52 - - - - - - 29 28,82
53 - - - - - - 28 28,18
54 - - - - - - 27 27,51
55 - - - - - - 27 28,02
56 - - - - - - 26 27,31
57 - - - - - - 25 26,58
58 - - - - - - 25 27,05
59 - - - - - - 24 26,27
60 - - - - - - 23 25,47

Figure 20-1.32: Protective Angle (α) Depending on the Class of Lighting Protection System

8. LIGHTNING RODS

In Franklin's day, lightning rods conducted current away from buildings to earth. Lightning rods, now known as air
terminals, are believed to send Streamers upward at varying distances and times according to shape, height and other
factors. Different designs of air terminals may be employed according to different protection requirements. For example,
the utility industry prefers overhead shielding wires for electrical substations. In some cases, no use whatsoever of air
terminals is appropriate (example: munitions bunkers). Air terminals do not provide for safety to modern electronics
within structures.

Air terminal design may alter Streamer behaviour. In equivalent electric-fields, a blunt pointed rod is seen to behave
differently than a sharp pointed rod. Faraday Cage and overhead shield designs produce yet other effects. Air terminal
design and performance is a controversial and unresolved issue. Commercial claims of the "elimination" of lightning
deserve a sceptical reception. Further research and testing is on-going in order to understand more fully the behaviour of
various air terminals.

9. DOWN-CONDUCTORS, BONDING AND SHIELDING

Down-conductors should be installed in a safe manner through a known route, outside of the structure. They should not
be painted, since this will increase impedance. Gradual bends (minimum 200 mm radius) should be adopted to avoid
flashover problems. Building steel may be used in place of down-conductors where practical as a beneficial part of the
earth electrode subsystem.

Bonding assures that all metal masses are at the same electrical potential. All metallic conductors entering structures
(AC power, gas and water pipes, signal lines, HVAC ducting, conduits, railroad tracks, overhead bridge cranes, etc.)
should be integrated electrically to the earth electrode subsystem. Connector bonding should be thermal, not
mechanical. Mechanical bonds are subject to corrosion and physical damage. Frequent inspection and ohmic resistance
measuring of compression and mechanical connectors is recommended.

Shielding is an additional line of defence against induced effects. It prevents the higher frequency electromagnetic noise
from interfering with the desired signal. It is accomplished by isolation of the signal wires from the source of noise.

10. EARTHING

The earthing system must address low earth impedance as well as low resistance. A spectral study of lightning's typical
impulse reveals both a high and a low frequency content. The high frequency is associated with an extremely fast rising
"front" on the order of 10 microseconds to peak current. The lower frequency component resides in the long, high energy
"tail" or follow-on current in the impulse. The grounding system appears to the lightning impulse as a transmission line
where wave propagation theory applies.

A single point earthing system is achieved when all equipment within the structure(s) are connected to a master bus bar
which in turn is bonded to the external earthng system at one point only. Earth loops and differential rise times must be
avoided. The earthing system should be designed to reduce ac impedance and dc resistance. The shape and dimension
of the earth termination system is more important a specific value of the earth electrode. The use of counterpoise or
"crow's foot" radial techniques can lower impedance as they allow lightning energy to diverge as each buried conductor
shares voltage gradients. Earth rings around structures are useful. They should be connected to the facility ground.
Exothermic (welded) connectors are recommended in all circumstances.

Cathodic reactance should be considered during the site analysis phase. Man-made earth additives and backfills are
useful in difficult soils circumstances: they should be considered on a case-by-case basis where lowering earthing
impedances are difficult an/or expensive by traditional means. Regular physical inspections and testing should be a part
of an established preventive maintenance program.

11. TRANSIENTS AND SURGES

Ordinary fuses and circuit breakers are not capable of dealing with lightning-induced transients. Lightning protection
equipment may shunt current, block energy from travelling down the wire, filter certain frequencies, clamp voltage levels,
or perform a combination of these tasks. Voltage clamping devices capable of handling extremely high amperages of the
surge, as well as reducing the extremely fast rising edge (dv/dt and di/dt) of the transient are recommended. Adopting a
fortress defence against surges is prudent: protect the main panel (AC power) entry; protect all relevant secondary
distribution panels; protect all valuable plug-in devices such as process control instrumentation, computers, printers, fire
alarms, data recording & SCADA equipment, etc. Further, protect incoming and outgoing data and signal lines. Protect
electric devices which serve the primary asset such as well heads, remote security alarms, CCTV cameras, high mast
lighting, etc. HVAC vents which penetrate one structure from another should not be ignored as possible troublesome
electrical pathways.

Surge suppressors should be installed with minimum lead lengths to their respective panels. Under fast rise time
conditions, cable inductance becomes important and high transient voltages can be developed across long leads.

In all instances, use high quality, high speed, self-diagnosing protective components. Transient limiting devices may use
a combination of arc gap diverters-metal oxide varistor-silicon avalanche diode technologies. Hybrid devices, using a
combination of these technologies, are preferred. Know your clamping voltage requirements. Confirm that your vendor's
products have been tested to rigid ANSI/IEEE/ISO9000 test standards. Avoid low-priced, bargain products which
proliferate the market (caveat emptor).

12. DETECTION

Lightning detectors, available at differing costs and technologies, sometimes are useful to provide early warning. An
interesting application is when they are used to disconnect from AC line power and to engage standby power, before the
arrival of lightning. Users should beware of over-confidence in such equipment which is not perfect and does not always
acquire all lightning data.

13. EDUCATION

Lightning safety should be practiced by all people during thunderstorms. Preparedness includes: get indoors or in a car;
avoid water and all metal objects; get off the high ground; avoid solitary trees; stay off the telephone. If caught outdoors
during nearby lightning, adopt the Lightning Safety Position (LSP). LSP means staying away from other people, taking off
all metal objects, crouching with feet together, head bowed, and placing hands on ears to reduce acoustic shock.

Measuring lightning's distance is easy. Use the "Flash/Bang" (F/B) technique. For every count of five from the time of
seeing the lightning stroke to hearing the associated thunder, lightning is one mile away. A F/B of 10 = 2 miles; a F/B of
20 = 4 miles, etc. Since the distance from Strike A to Strike B to Strike C can be as much as 5-8 miles. Be conservative
and suspend activities when you first hear thunder, if possible. Do not resume outdoor activities until 20 minutes has past
from the last observable thunder or lightning.

Organizations should adopt a Lightning Safety Policy and integrate it into their overall safety plan.

14. TESTING

Modern diagnostic testing is available to mimic the performance of lightning conducting devices as well as to indicate the
general route of lightning through structures. This testing typically is low power, 50 watt or less. It is traceable, but will not
trip MOVs, gas tube arrestors, or other transient protection devices. Knowing the behavior of an event prior to occurrence
is every businessman's earnest hope. With such techniques, lightning paths can be forecast reliably.

15. CODES & STANDARDS

The marketplace abounds with exaggerated claims of product perfection. Frequently referenced codes and installation
standards are incomplete, out dated and promulgated by commercial interests. On the other hand IEC, IEEE, MIL-STD,
FAA, NASA and similar documents are supported by background engineering, the peer-review process, and are
technical in nature.

16. SUMMARY

It is important that all of the above subjects be considered in a lightning safety analysis. There is no Utopia in lightning
protection. Lightning may ignore every defense man can conceive. A systematic hazard mitigation approach to lightning
safety is a prudent course of action.

17. REFERENCES

17.1 API 2003, Protection Against Ignitions Arising out of Static, Lightning, and Stray Currents, American Petroleum
Institute, Washington DC, December 1991.
17.2 Golde, G.H., Lightning, Academic Press, NY, 1977.
17.3 Hasse, P., Overvoltage Protection of Low Voltage Systems, Peter Peregrinus Press, London, 1992.
17.4 Hovath, Tibor, Computation of Lightning Protection, John Wiley, NY, 1991.
17.5 IEEE Std 1100, Powering and Grounding of Sensitive Electronic Equipment, IEEE, NY, NY. 1992.
17.6 KSC-STD-E-0012B, Standard for Bonding and Grounding, Engineering Development Directorate, John F. Kennedy
Space Center, NASA, 1991.
17.7 Morris, M.E., et.al., Rocket-Triggered Lightning Studies for the Protection of Critical Assets, IEEE Transactions on
Industry Applications, Vol. 30, No. 3, May/June 1994.
17.8 Sunde, E.D. Earth Conduction Effects in Transmission Systems, D. Van Nostrand Co., NY, 1949.
17.9 Towne, D., Wave Phenomena, Dover Publications, NY.
17.10 Uman, Martin, Lightning, Dover Publications, NY, 1984.
17.11 Viemeister, Peter, The Lightning Book, MIT Press, Cambridge MA, 1972.
17.12 DEHN + SÖHNE, Lightning Protection Guide, 2 nd Updated Edition, September 2007, ISBN 3-00-015975-4

SLDG 20 - 2

LIGHTNING PROTECTION

1. INTRODUCTION

Damage caused by lightning strokes cannot be completely prevented, either technically or on economic grounds.
Lightning protection facilities cannot therefore be specified as obligatory.

On the basis of model experiments, measurements and years of observation and experience, the consequences of
direct lightning strokes can very probably be avoided with the methods described below.

A distinction is made between external and internal lightning protection.

External lightning protection comprises all devices provided and existing outside, at and in, the protected installation
for the purpose of intercepting and diverting the lightning stoke current to the earthing system.

Internal lightning protection comprises the measures taken to counteract the effect of the lightning stoke current and
its electrical and magnetic fields on metal assemblies and electrical apparatus included in the structures of the
installation.

Key to Symbols Used:-

A part carrying voltage

B overhead earth wire
lightning rod
C [m] distance between lightning rods
H [m] height of earth wire
height of lightning rod
(height of interception device)
2.H [m] twice the height of earth wire
3.H [m] three times the height of lightning rod
h [m] height of voltage-carrying part above ground level
hB [m] radius of lightning sphere, flashover distance to earth
hx [m] lowest height of protected zone at midpoint
between two lightning rods
L [m] distance from earth wire to apparatus
distance from lightning rod to apparatus
Lx [m] distance of voltage-carrying part from axis of lightning rod to protected distance
M centre of arc for limitation of outer protected zone
M1 [m] centre of arc for limitation of inner protected zone
R [m] radius for M1-B
rx [m] radius for limitation of protected zone at height h
α shielding angle (with universal method)

2. METHODS OF LIGHTNING PROTECTION

Three methods for designing lightning protection systems are discussed below:-

• The lightning sphere method

• Linck's universal method

• Overhead earthwire and lightning rod method

2.1 Lightning Sphere Method

The lightning sphere method ensures complete lightning protection. It is used for inhabited buildings and high-hazard
locations (storage facilities for highly inflammable materials such as oil, gas, cotton, etc.). It is not applied to electrical
power systems.

The contours of the objects to be protected and their intended interception devices are prepared in the form of a model
on a scale of e.g. 1:100 to 1:500. A sphere is then made which has a scale radius of 10, 20 or 40 m, depending on the
specified flashover distance to earth hB. The sphere is then rolled on a flat surface round the model. If it touches only
the air terminations (lightning interception devices), the protected objects are fully within the protected zone. On the
other hand, if the lightning sphere touches parts of the protected objects, protection at these points is not complete (see
Figure 20-2.1).

If the arrangement of the air terminations is straightforward, one can usually dispense with building a model, and assess
the effectiveness of the protection system by examination based on the ideal of the lightning sphere.

Figure 20-2.1: Determining the Effectiveness of Lightning Rods and Conductors for Protecting a Building

2.2 Linck's Universal Method

The universal method of Linck, see Figure 20-2.2, provides the following data on the lightning protection system (air
terminations):

• number and height of lightning rods and overhead earth wires

• theoretical positions for air terminations

The Linck method is based on statistical data for the outage rate (disconnection frequency) with overhead lines.

The disconnection of overhead lines as a result of direct lightning strikes is due to two causes:

• imperfect shielding by the earth wire

• back flashover

Depending on rated voltage and the shielding angles of buildings and overhead line, back flashovers are involved in:-

Minimum: 0%

Mean: 25 %

Maximum:. 50 %

of all disconnections.

When using the Linck method to determine the permissible outage rate for switchgear installations, it must be
remembered that back flashover cannot occur in switchgear installations and the assumed outage rate Y is
conservative.

The calculation procedure consists in:

• defining the required data

• gathering the input data

• processing the data

• preparing the design data

Figure 20-2.2: Determining the Protected Zone by the Universal Method (Linck)

2.3 Overhead Earthwire and Lightning Rod Method

This method ensures almost complete protection and is used exclusively for designing outdoor switchgear installations.

The method described below for approximately determining the protected zone for high-voltage switchgear installations.
It has the advantage that dimensioning the protection facilities is an easy task for the design engineer.

It is suitable for installations up to about 245 kV and protected zones about 25 m in height. The universal method of
Linck is suitable for higher voltage levels and hence higher protected zones, or for exact calculation.

Lightning arresters serve in general to protect the installation only against incoming atmospheric over-voltages (see
SLDG 32-1). An outdoor switching station can be protected against lightning by providing earth wires or lightning rods
on the strain portals for the busbars and overhead lines. Separate supporting structures may occasionally have to be
erected for this purpose. The lightning protection wires of the incoming lines terminate at the strain portals of the
switchyard.

Lightning conductor wires and rods must be corrosion resistant (e.g. aluminium / steel wires or galvanized steel tube or
bar for rods).

2.3.1 Overhead earth wires

The protected zone, which must include all switchgear and the transformers, is defined as shown in Figure 20-2.3 or
determined with the diagram in Figure 20-2.4.

The sectional plane of the protected zone along one earth wire is bounded by an arc (Figure 20-2.3(a)), the centre M of
which, both from the ground and from the earth wire B, is equal to twice the height H of the earth wire. This arc touches
the ground at a distance √3 . H from the foot of the earth wire.

The sectional plane of the protected zone with two earth wires, separated by a distance C ≤ 2 . H, is shown in Figure 20-
2.3(b). The outer bounding lines are as for one earth wire. The sectional plane of the protected zone between the two
wires B is bounded by an arc the centre M1 of which is at the height 2.H of the earth wire above the ground and midway
between the two wires. Its radius R is the distance between the earth wires B and the midpoint M1.

o
The angle between the tangents to the two bounding lines is 2 x 30 at their point of intersection. If, in extreme cases,
o
an angle of about 2 x 20 is required, the distance should be 1,5 . H, instead of 2.H.

The arrangement of overhead earth wires for a 245 kV switchyard is shown in Figure 20-2.3(c).

The line bounding the protected zone must be above the live parts of the installation.

a) Sectional Plane of Protected Zone with One Earth Wire.

b) 3-D View of Protected Zone with One Earth Wires.

c) Sectional Plane of Protected Zone with Two Earth Wires.

d) 3-D View of Protected Zone with Two Earth Wires

e) Earth Wire Arrangement and Protected Zone of an Outdoor Switching Station

Figure 20-2.3: Sectional Plane of Protected Zone Created By Overhead Earth Wires

The height H of the earth wire can be calculated from Figure 20-2.4. The curves show the sectional plane of the
protected zone for one overhead earth wire.

Example 1: A switchgear apparatus is placed at a distance L = 12,5 m from the overhead earth wire, the live part
being at a height h = 9,0 m above the ground. The earth wire must be located at a height of H = 23,0 m
(see Figure 4).

Figure 20-2.4: Sectional Plane of Protected Zone Created By One Overhead Earth Wire

2.3.2 Lightning rods

Experience and observations have shown that, for the same height, the protected zone created by rods is larger than
with wires.

A single lightning rod produces a roughly conical protected zone with the sectional plane shown in Figure 20-2.5(a) is
bounded by an arc, the centre of which is equal to three times the height H of the rod, both from the ground and from
the tip of the rod. This arc touches the ground at a distance of √5 . H from the foot of the rod.

Between two lightning rods separated by a distance ≤ 3 . H there is a further protected zone which in the sectional plane
shown in Figure 20-2.5(b) is bounded by an arc having a radius R and its centre M1 at 3 . H, and passing through the
tips of the rod.

Figure 20-2.3: Sectional Plane of Protected Zone Created By Overhead Earth Wires and Determination of the
Positions for Radii R2 and R3

a) Sectional Plane of Protected Zone with One Lightning Rod

b) Sectional Plane of Protected Zone with Two Lightning Rods

Figure 20-2.5: Sectional Plane of Protected Zone Created By Lightning Rods.

Figure 20-2.6: Sectional Plane of Protected Zone Created By Two Lightning Rods

The height H of the rod(s) can be calculated with the diagrams in Figure 20-2.6. The curves show the protected zone
for two lightning rods.

Example 2: A switchgear apparatus is positioned halfway between two lightning rods separated by a distance C =
56,0 m, the live part being at a height h = 10,0 m above the ground. The rods must have a height of H =
19,0 m (see Figure 20-2.6).

The width Lx of the protected zone (for a given height h) in the middle between two lightning rods can be determined
approximately with Figure 20-2.7(a) and 20-2.7(b) and with the curves of Figure 20-2.7(c).

Example 3: A switchgear apparatus stands in the middle between two lightning rods at a distance Lx = 6,0 m from the
axis of the rods, the live part being at a height of h = 8,0 m above the ground. With the rods spaced at C
= 40,0 m, the height of the rods must be H = 18,5 m (see Figure 20-2.7).

Figure 20-2.7: Protected Zone Away From the Axis of Two Lightning Rods

Figure 20-2.8: Protected Zone Away From the Axis of Two Lightning Rods

3. APPLICATION GUIDE

3.1 Validity Field

This guideline is valid for the building and changing of lightning protection systems in free-air-systems.

The following statements are valid for lightning protection systems up to a height H of approximately 25 m. When there
are heights more than 25 m the protected zone is reduced.

3.2 General

The probability of direct lightning strikes onto free-air-systems can be significantly reduced using lightning protection
systems consisting of overhead shield wires and / or rods.

Lightning protection in free-air-systems requires special attention, for example back flashover. (Back flashover can be
prevented by ensuring low tooting resistance of the tower earthing system.

The lightning protection shield wires of the transmission lines must go close to the scaffold of the free-air-system.

3.2.1 Terms

3.2.1.1 Back Flashover

When there is lightning strike onto a tower, with a tower inductance respectively foot resistance there will be a voltage
generated, which can be higher than the insulation levels of the insulation chains and lead to back flashover.

3.2.1.2 Protected Zone

Protected zone is the horizontal and vertical protected area, formed by lightning protection cables respectively lightning
rods, constructed according to the radii and heights in VDE 0101.

3.3 Protected Zone with Two Lighting Protection Cables

Vertical protected zone with two lightning protection cables (S = 2.H).

Horizontal protected zone in the height of hmax of the protected part of the system. Condition: distance S = 2.H

Legend:

M = Centre of the circle arc with the radius 2.H

M1 = Centre of the circle arc with the radius R in the height 2.H
H = Height of the lightning protection cable
hmax = Maximum height of the protected parts of the system between two lightning
protection cables
r = Radius of the protection circle at the end of the cable
C = Distance between two lightning protection cables
R = Radius of the protection circle between two cables

3.3.1 Protected Zone Between Two Lightning Protection Cables

Determination of the height of the protected zone dependent of the height H and the distance S of the lightning
protection cables.

3.3.2 Protected zone at the end of a cable

Determination of the radius of the protection circle at the end of a cable dependent of the height H of the lightning
protection cables and the height hmax of the protected parts of the system (tower height up to maximum 25 m).

Example:

Lightning protection cables in the height of 13,5 m (H). Height of the protected parts of the system 6,5 m (hmax). The
radius of the protection circle at the end of the cable results from Figure 3 to 5,75m.

4.1 Construction of the Protected Zone with Lightning Rods

4.1.1 Construction of the Protected zone With Two Lightning Rods

Vertical protected zone with two lightning rods (C = 3.H).

Horizontal protected zone with two lightning rods (C = 3.H).

Horizontal protected zone with two lightning rods (C < 3.H). Widen of the protected zone by decreasing the distance.

Legend:-

M = Centre of the circle arc with the radius 3.H

M1 = Centre of the circle arc with the radius R in the height 3.H

H = Height of the lightning rod

hmax = Maximum height of the protected parts of the system between two lightning rods

r = Radius of the protection circle around the lightning rods

R = Radius of the protection circle between two lightning rods

C = Distance between two respectively three lightning rods. Diagonal distance when set
with four points.

3.4.2 Construction of the protected zone with four lightning rods

Vertical protected zone with four lightning rods (S = 3.H).

Horizontal protected zone with four lightning rods (S = 3.H).

Legend:-

M = Centre of the circle arc with the radius 3.H

M1 = Centre of the circle arc with the radius R in the height 3.H

H = Height of the lightning rod

hmax = Maximum height of the protected parts of the system between two lightning rods

r = Radius of the protection circle around the lightning rods

R = Radius of the protection circle between two lightning rods

C = Distance between two respectively three lightning rods. Diagonal distance when set
with four points.

C1 / C2 = Side lengths when set with four points

3.4.3 Construction of the Protected Zone between Lightning Rods

Determination of the height of the protected zone dependent on the height H and the distance C of the lightning rods (C
≤ 3.H).

Square C1 = C2 = 0,707.C

SLDG 20-3

INSULATION COORDINATION

Insulation Co-ordination is a methodology – optimization process

*Read up on self and non-self restoring insulation

Can take higher risks in air – self restoring insulation – not a long term outage

*Balance a risk between economics and reliability

If want to reduce risk - increase phase spacing, BIL of equipment, but these cost money

Same money – trade off of risks, optimizing:

• System voltage Un, Umax

• Over-voltages > Umax

Temporary over-voltages (TOV) > Umax and present for > 2 cycles – power frequency related – relay operated or human
intervention, eg switch in reactor to bring down a voltage

Temporary over-voltage happening very fast automation required – SVC

Long duration of stresses on equipment 1,5 pu → 2 pu, TOVs become important

Switching – surge arresters and controlled switching.

• Controlled switching – finding the ideal time to close a breaker. Impact on controlling a circuit Χ lower electrical
stress on equipment Χ more compact and cheaper

• Lightning – protect substation with overhead (OH) shield wires etc. ↑ probability that lines generating OV

External and Internal Over-voltage

Power System Over-voltages

External Internal

Lightning Temporary
Back-flashovers Switching
Shielding failure Very fast front
Induced

U (pu) U (pu)
4 4
BIL (LIWL) BIL (LIWL)
Clamping
Levels of
3 SIL (SIWL) 3 SIL (SIWL) Ci SA

Closing
of CB CS
2 2 UpB

UpS

1 1
Ce

0 0
t t
Power
frequency
withstand
capability

Where:

Ce = phase-to-earth electrical clearance

Ci = critical safety margin for surge arrester (lightning) – IEC~20%, CVDM~25-30%

CS = critical safety margin for surge arrester (switching)

UpB = clamping level of surge arrester (lightning)

UpS = clamping level of surge arrester (switching)

SIL = of line over time moves down due to aging

BIL = of line over time moves down due to aging

If power equipment is old, can extend life by installing better arresters (buy time before having to replace expensive
equipment)

New Transformers – 100% impulse

Refurbished or in-service Transformers – 80% impulse

*Read up on routine and type testing

CVTs large capacitance – slows steepness of fast fronted wave, ↓ di/dt, helps the arrester.

Some surges will still penetrate the substation – open Bus Section or Bus Coupler etc. cause reflections, hence require
SAs on power equipment eg transformers

Lightning is normally a phase-to-earth phenomenon (1ø)

Switching is normally a phase-to-phase phenomenon (3ø)

System - system

0 0
t t
Open Contact
Longitudinal
System Voltage Ring Down
Insulation

Volt-Time Behavior

Gas

Long Air Gaps>1,5m

U-shaped V-t characteristic – more a leader development switching events

300 s t

Switching is more important in HV and EHV than lightning

Solids and Liquids

U Aged Insulation
critical for power
frequency

Lightning

1 s 100 s t

Transformers more prone to lightning (new transformers)

Aged trfrs second critical point

Class D – only sensitive to steep fronted surges, Zork element on poney motors on generators at pump storage gen/motor

Relating Over-voltage Stresses to Insulation Strength

2% Chance that Over-voltage will exceed

98% Chance that Over-voltage will not exceed

Prob Statistical Analysis

of stress events

voltage
Prob
1

0,5

0
U50
voltage

Prob
Cheaper
1
More expensive
0,5

0
voltage

Understand the concept of the curve – what is the risk if ↑ from 2% to 5%

*Can get Sipat document from Chris – switching surge study for 800kV

When doing switching (high frequency) studies only need to consider 1 bus away

When considering low frequency studies, need to look deep into the network

Umax. 2 800. 2
Up − e peak = = = 2,6 No over-voltage protection
3 3

With surge arresters ↓ to1,7 which is protective margin

0 0
t t
Open Contact
Longitudinal
Busbar CVTs Line CVTs
Insulation

0
t

System Voltage + Ring Down

* Know the process that needs to be followed to arrive at optimized design

Critical flash-over (CFO) value (50% value)

Want to convert to 90% value

SIWL
CFO =
(1 − t )

Where:

SIWL = switching impulse withstand level

t = gap factor

σ = Standard deviation

1550
CFO =
(1 − 1,28.0,6 )
= 1679 kV

LeRoy/Gallet equation

kg.3400
CFO =
8
(1 + )
s

where:

kg = gap factor (1,3)

s = distance (4,9m)

90% probability that gap will survive (conductor-structure)

Values for sea level, at 1800m divide by RAD 0,85 – 0,87

400kV BIL = 1425, SIL = 1050

The more uniform one can make the gap, the better the gap performance.

*Exam calculation

Phase-phase =

P-E.1,6

SIWL = 1,6.1550

= 2480kV

2480
CFO =
(1 − 1,28.0,6)
= 2686 kV

Eskom clearances are based on transients, not power frequency

*exam – explain the methodology – 2% value etc., slightly higher risks, gap factors, configurations. What type of mitigation
can one do to smooth gaps.

Eskom clearances are based on BIL, if recalculated on SIWL, then clearances can be reduced significantly. The good
surge arresters are an overkill with such large clearances.

Horizontal and vertical working clearances

* ELECTRA PAPER NR 19 “The Effects of Safety Regulations on the Design of Substations”

2 Parameters that determine the height of equipment level

• Electric field strength 10kV/m

• Minimum safety clearances (working clearances)

The one or the other will dominate.

Cwv = Ce + 2450 (mm)

Cwh = Ce + 1100 (mm)

Lightning

Protection – try to influence the strike point

Ground Strokes – electrical discharge (capacitor)

- - - - - - - - - - - - - + + + + - + + + +
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - +++++++ +++++++
-------- -------- ++++++++ ++++++++
- +
- +
- +
+ -
+ -
+ -
+++++++++++ ++++++++ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

- - - - - - - - - - - - - + + + + - + + + +
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - +++++++ +++++++
-------- -------- ++++++++ ++++++++
- I +
I - +
- +
+ -
I I -
+
+ -
+++++++++++ ++++++++ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
-ve Downward Stroke +ve Upward Stroke +ve Downward Stroke -ve Upward Stroke
(RSA)

Rapid movement of air – stripping of electrons

Stepped Leader & 1 st Stroke Subsequent Strokes

msec s

Try to influence
final strike point

msec
Current Continuing
Current

Flash Duration (t)

Example of Measured Multiple Stroke Lightning Stroke Wave Shapes

First Stroke

Slower
Concave
Front

Steep Second Stroke

Current
Amplitude Front
(kA)

Third Stroke

Cumulative Probability vs Peak Amplitude (kA)

Cigré

CSIR

Probability Probability

Current (kA) Current (kA)

Flash Density Parameters (table) – number of strokes per flash as much as 25 current pulses.

Most RSA strokes – negative downward

Induced
Mechanism

Vs≈k.(Z0.I.h)/d

Coupling
Mechanism
-all 3 phases

Shielding
Failure

Bad shielding design

If does not flashover,
voltage surge will propogate
down the line

Back
Flashover

Bad footing arrangement

(high resistance)

Prevent back flashover at terminal tower by bonding to the substation earth-mat. No distance between terminal tower and
substation to prevent back flashover. A steep fronted surge may not give SA enough time to go into conduction.

A direct strike on a substation – try to influence final jump away from critical equipment.

Lightning protection – Electro-geometric model (* understand the basis – readup)

2.V
IC =
Z

IC = critical current

V = BIL

Z = 300Ω - 350Ω

Attractive Radius

Using the attractive radius of the shielding devices must be > attractive radii of the equipment

Rg Rg

hs hs

Bond solidly to ground otherwise

reflection can occur causing a back
flashover

Rg = attractive radius of OH ground wire

Rb = attractive radius of phase conductors

Each free standing structure has an attractive radius

Rolling Sphere Model

For small currents (Ic), Ra is small

For large currents (Ic), Ra is large

ffff

Ra = ( I , h)

where:

I = flash current

h = height of structure

*Look at various models (Moosa, Erricson,….)

2.V
IC =
Z

Where:

V = BIL (1425kV for 400kV)

Z = Busbar impedance (400Ω)

2.1425
IC =
300
= 9,5kA

Spherical

Masts

Cylindrical

Shield-wire

Masts

Risk
2
Ng = number of events (ground flash density – flashes/km )
2
L.W = exposed area, eg of a substation (km )

Lightning current distribution – Cigré or IEEE

2
Placing a small substation in km

L.W.h = volumetric

Poison Distribution

IEEE Distribution – the probability that a certain current will occur

Two probabilities – convolute the two (X) → risk

Risk → mean time between failures

*Give the philosophy of lightning protection. What is the attractive radius?

There is nothing like perfect shielding.

Methods of Over-voltage Protection

Spark Gaps

• Negative effect as over-voltage device

• Very bad on transformer bushings, high di/dt – uneven voltage distribution over windings

• Reduced line insulation

Spark gap
V V
sparks over
Without SA Without SA

BILeq BILeq

Vp Vp

With SA With SA

time time

U U
ZnO

SiC

In the case of gapped arresters, a big problem arises when there is pollution build up on the outside of the insulator – dry
band arcing can take place.

SiC is by far not as non linear as ZnO. By replacing SiC with ZnO, one buys extra margin for SA at 10kA.

SiC Buying Extra Margin

PL1
ZnO
PL2

ZnO SiC

COV

gaps

1mA 100mA 10kA

Grain
Boundary

Manufacturing Process

Distribution arresters are low energy arresters.

Classifying arresters in terms of line discharge class – see chart that Chris has.

Energy ratings

How to select an Arrester

• Protective level

• TOV capability – large energy

• Economics

TOVs – earthing

Table Chris has

Effectively (solidly) earthed systems - Effective fault factor (EFF) = 1,4

No-effectively (through impedance) earthed systems - Effective fault factor (EFF) = √3 = 1,732

Voltage on system:

2
 X0 
 −1
1
+ 
X1
EFF = V' = + 0,75
2  X0 
 +2
 X1 
33kV Arrester

Select Maximum Continuous Operating Voltage of arrester (MCOV)

MCOV = 36/√3

MCOV = 21kV

Rated voltage (RV) = MCOV/pu

Where:

pu = 0,8 (80%) for effectively earthed systems, 1 (100%) for non-effectively earthed systems

Effectively earthed system

RVees = 21/0,8

= 27kV (10 sec rating)

TOV on a non-effectively earthed system

MCOV
TOV = .EFF
3
36
TOV = . 3
3

TOV = 36kV

TOV
Kt =
RV

36
Kt =
27

Kt = 1,33

The value of 1,33 is off the curve which will cause the SA to blow up.

Using a rating of 45kV

36
Kt = = 0,8
45

Blow up 1,33

1,3

Non-prior
switching surge

COV
0,8

time

Curve for IEC Class 2: 2-3kJ/kV (low energy rating)

Check for protective margin (may become too small), go then to a higher class of arrester: class 2 → 3

For effectively earthed systems, only EFF changes, the energy level is dictated by duration of large OV

Arrester
Applied TOV
Voltage
COV

Puncture
Thermal Runaway
Allowable Limit
ZnO
Element stable
Temp

time

eg. Blowing up of the neutral end SA connected to line reactors due to repetitive faults on lines and not allowing enough
time to cool down.

Most impulse gradients enter the substation from Tx lines

Non-recoverable
Insulation

Lmax

 BIL 
v.
 (1 + Mp) − Ures 
Lmax =
  (
− HSA + Hstruct )
2.s

Where:

Lmax = maximum allowable separation distance (m)

HAS = height of arrester (m), arrester lead length additional ‘L’

Hstruct = height of structure (m), structure also has ‘L’

v = velocity of wave propagation (m/µs) = 300 m/µs for OH line, 150 m/µs for cables

BIL = Basic insulation level

Mp = protective margin required (minimum IEC 20%), recommend 25%-30%

Ures = residual voltage of arrester (kV) (protection level of SA from catalogue)

s = steepness of incoming wave (kV/µs) = 2000kV/µs OHL, lower in cables which have large capacitances → slows
the propagation

*Know the sensitivities of the various parameters in the equation

System Voltage (kV) Maximum Distance (Lmax m)

11 On Transformer Tank
22 On Transformer Tank
33 3
44 5
66 6
88 6
132 7
275 18
400 24

Testing of a Surge Arrester

Never use a surge arrester as a post insulator to support current carrying conductors as they would be subjected to severe
mechanical forces under fault conditions. SA’s have cantilever strength that should be checked.

Applied V
MCOV

I SA is OK

time

Applied V
MCOV

I SA is OK

time

Applied V
MCOV
SA is US

time

Grading Insulation

Neutral terminal BIL and SA selection

System Voltage Partially Graded Fully Graded

44 200 250
66 250 350
88 250 380

• Appropriate arresters

• ELIM R45AH36, MCOV=36, PL=120

• ELIM R60AH48, MCOV=48, PL=160

• NB: ≤33kV Χ fully insulated neutral, ≥132kV Χ fully graded neutral

Where should arresters be used (get from Chris)

• Overhead Line terminations

• Cables

OHL

In-door
Switchgear

• GIS

• Power equipment, eg transformers, reactors

SLDG 21 - 1

SUBSTATION STRUCTURES

1. INTRODUCTION

Prior to the start of structure design, several factors that may affect the choice of material and member type for the
structure should be evaluated.

Factors influencing selection of material and member type include initial cost, cost of erection, deflection characteristics,
cost of maintenance, availability, resistance to corrosion and other deterioration, freedom from fire hazard, appearance,
size of revenue-producing load served, and temporary or permanent nature of structure.

1.1 Materials

There are four basic materials used for substation structures: steel, aluminium, concrete, and wood (wood poles).

1.1.1 Steel

Steel is used for most substation structures. Its availability and good structural characteristics generally make it
economically attractive. Steel, however, has to have adequate protection from the elements to prevent corrosion.
Galvanising and painting are two widely used finishes for steel substation structures. Due to the protective finish, steel
substation structures should not be designed for field welding or field drilling for connections. Field welding is generally
uneconomical and usually requires close control over welding conditions.

Grade 300W to SANS 1431 steel is the standard grade of steel used for most rolled-shape members in structural design.
Member stresses are usually low, and weight saving is of little advantage. However, should large loads be encountered
coupled with the need for weight reduction, a high-strength steel should be considered. Structures requiring such
consideration are generally the line support structures. Structural steel pipe and square tube sections are normally
constructed of ASTM A53 Grade B and ASTM A501 steel respectively.

1.1.2 Aluminium

Aluminium is sometimes used for substation structures where good corrosion-resistant properties are desired. It is
approximately one-third the weight of steel.

If aluminium is used, member types should be selected taking advantage of the optimum structural qualities of aluminium
and avoiding the shapes in which aluminium members may be a problem. Deflection and torsion has to be carefully
reviewed when selecting member types in aluminium.
5 2 5 2
Aluminium has a lower modulus of elasticity, EAl = 6,9.10 N/cm , and modulus of elasticity in shear, EAl = 2,6.10 N/cm
6 2 5 2
than steel, ESt = 21.10 N/cm and ESt = 8,3.10 N/cm respectively. These properties are directly related to deflection
and torsional rotation.

Structures designed from aluminium are constructed of Alloy 6061-T6 and should be designed, fabricated, and erected in
accordance with the Aluminium Association’s “Specification for Aluminium Structures”.

1.1.3 Concrete

Pre-cast, pre-stressed concrete structures may be economical in coastal areas with high winds and a corrosive
environment, and also when substations are located near the fabricators plant. Special considerations are required for
the foundation, erection, handling, and equipment mounting characteristics of the structure.

1.1.4 Wood

Wood may be used for substation structures. Members have to be treated with an appropriate preservative. Wood poles
and members are usually readily available. Structural properties and size tolerances of wood are somewhat variable and
design considerations should take this into account. The life of a wood structure is shorter than for steel, aluminium, or
concrete, and maintenance costs may be higher. Wood poles are often employed when temporary structures are to be
installed for refurbishment and renewal purposes.

Economics is an important consideration when making a material and member type selection. The total cost over the life
of the structure should be considered. This also includes the cost of fabrication and shipping, ease of erection, and cost
of maintenance.

1.2 Functional Structure Types

There are essentially two types of structures as categorised from a structural design approach related to the function
served in the substation.

1.2.1 Wood

These structures are used as line exit structures, internal strain bus structures, and line terminating structures. They
consist basically of two columns and a beam on which the conductors are attached. They may be used as single-bay or
multi-bay structures.

The major forces acting on these structures are the shield wire and phase conductor tensions, and wind forces. Due to
their large size and magnitude of forces acting on them, these structures are usually highly stressed, and require the
most design effort.

1.2.2 Equipment Support Structures

These structures are commonly referred to as support structures, switchgear stands, lightning arrester stands, line trap
supports, etc.

In low-profile substation design, these structures are designed primarily as cantilever beams with wind and short-circuit
forces being the primary design forces. Deflection may control the design size of some structures and should be
reviewed in all structures.

Switchgear stands should be designed to be more rigid than bus supports or other structures because of the dynamic
loading effect of the switch operation. Any appreciable twisting or deflection of the switchgear stand may prohibit this
function.

1.3 Functional Structure Types

Three types of structure profile configurations are common in substations today. They are classified from their general
physical appearance and structural member components. The types are lattice, solid profile, and semi-solid profile.

1.3.1 Lattice Support Structures

The lattice structure consists primarily of angle members forming the cords and lacing of a box truss acting as a beam or
column.

Depending on the function of the structure (i.e. bus support stand vs. line support structure), the design of the members
may or may not be time-consuming and complex.

The lattice structure has been widely employed for substation structures for many years. Its box truss beams and
columns allow for an effective use of material. Usually the lattice structure results in the least structure weight compared
to other line support structures. It is also very stable and rigid. It is very easy to fabricate, galvanise, and ship. It requires

a large amount of bolting and erection time in the field, unless the members are shipped preassembled, and
maintenance painting, if required, is costly. Lattice structures are also aesthetically displeasing.

1.3.2 Solid Profile Support Structures

The solid-profile support structure is made from wide flange shapes, pipes, tapered round or polygonal shapes, and
rectangular tube shapes. The aesthetic appearance, relatively short erection time, and ease of maintenance make the
solid-profile structure a popular choice for equipment support structures. The weight penalty on solid-profile equipment
structures is smaller than on line support structures.

The square tube has good torsional resistance and is equal structurally about either major axis. The wide flange shape
has a minor axis that may control design. It has an open cross section and minimal resistance to torsional loads.

Wide flange shapes are more suitable for bolted structure connections and may require less welding during fabrication.

Line support structures may be made of straight tapered tubular round or polygonal poles. The tower may be either an A-
frame configuration or a single pole. Wide flange shapes may be used in the A-frame tower. Cross-arms are made of
straight or tapered round or polygonal members. A combined section from wide flange shapes is used for cross-arms
also.

Tapered poles may have telescoping or flanged splice connections when the pole is galvanised. Painted poles may have
welded splice joints and are hermetically sealed to prevent oxidation inside the pole.

They are almost always designed by the pole fabricator to the loading requirements specified by the engineer.

1.3.3 Semi-solid Profile Support Structures

The third structure type is semi-solid profile. This type of structure is made from wide flanges and pipes or tubes that
form the major members, and is braced between these major members with angle bracing.

The design of this structure type is similar to the lattice structure and is very stable and rigid because of the bracing.

1.3.4 Summary

Each of the structure member types has its advantages and disadvantages, both from an economical and design
viewpoint.

Lattice structures are usually economically comparable in aluminium and steel. The basic design approach is also the
same. Solid-profile structures used for equipment support structures in aluminium may be as economical as steel in
favourable geographic locations. Design effort for aluminium members used in equipment support structures requires
more time because of buckling characteristics and weld effect on allowable stresses. However, the desirability of
aluminium’s good weathering characteristics and light weight are positive factors that have to also be evaluated.

2. DESIGN
2.1 Design Loads

Design loads for substation structures should be characterised by:-

• Line support structures

• Equipment support structures

2.1.1 Line Support Structures

The design loading criteria for these structures should be very similar to the criteria for a transmission line tower. The
maximum loading condition and line tension are usually furnished by the transmission engineer. For strain bus

structures, the substation engineer should base the design upon those design loads that will be a maximum for the
various components of the structure.

A more positive determination of the structure capacity can be made if an overload is applied to the forces and the
structure members are designed utilising yield stresses. The information is also beneficial for future changes for
substation upgrading or other electrical load modifications.

The components of this structure should be able to withstand the stresses induced by the most critical loading (multiplied
by appropriate overload factor) affecting the component member.

These loadings are listed for overload factor correlation.

Overload factors for metal and pre-stressed concrete structures are as follows:-

2.1.1.1 NESC (Heavy, medium, Light)

i) Conductor pull 1,65

ii) Wind 2,50

iii) Vertical 1,50

o
2.1.1.2 High Winds at 15 C

2.1.1.2.1 Conductor pull 1,3

2.1.1.2.2 Wind 1,3

2.1.1.2.3 Vertical 1,3

o
2.1.1.3 Heavy Ice at -1 C

2.1.1.3.1 Conductor pull 1,3

2.1.1.3.2 Wind 1,3

2.1.1.4 Other Wind and Ice Combination

2.1.1.4.1 Conductor pull 1,3

2.1.1.4.2 Wind 1,3

2.1.1.4.3 Vertical 1,3

2.1.1.5 Seismic Loading

2.1.1.5.1 All masses 1,3

The line support structure is designed for two line angle conditions:-

2.1.1.6 All Conductors perpendicular to the beam

2.1.1.7 The angle of all wires deviating from perpendicular to the beam at 30 degrees

Local conditions may require a larger angular deviation.

2.1.2 Deflection Consideration

In addition to the stresses, the engineer should also consider deflection limitations for substation support structures.
Unless particular circumstances dictate otherwise, the limitations listed may be used as guidelines:-

Beams: ∆h ≤ 1 to 1,5% of span for maximum tension w/OLF

Columns: (at top): ∆h ≤ 4 to 5% of height for maximum tension w/OLF

Lattice towers and solid-profile A-frame columns usually present no problems with deflection. The single-pole-type
substation support structure has to be carefully reviewed for deflection limitations, particularly if it is acting as a line dead-
end structure and also is supporting back-span conductors.

2.1.3 Deflection Consideration

Single tubular poles are often used for tall lightning masts. Consideration should be given to those poles where no shield
wires are attached.

Damping devices need to be included to reduce or negate vibrational forces created by the wind blowing at or near the
natural frequency of the pole (column). This phenomenon is called Aeolian vibration.

One such device may be fairly heavy steel chain, encased in a fire hose (to protect the pole finish) and suspended from
the top of the pole (inside).

2.1.4 Equipment Support Structures

These structures are to be designed for all applicable wind, ice, short-circuit, and dead and dynamic operating loads of
equipment. Substation steelwork structures should generally conform to the requirements of Part 36 of NEMA Publication
SG 6.

Ice loading is usually not the controlling design load for equipment support structures, but should be reviewed.

Wind loads plus short-circuit forces usually produce the maximum stresses in the structures.

Although not normally a critical factor on bus supports and other stationary type equipment stands, deflection limitations
are important for switchgear stands. Deflection limitations as specified in Section SG6-36.03 of NEMA Publication SG
6 should be followed unless special conditions dictate otherwise.

Design bus support structures and other stationary equipment stands for a reasonable amount of rigidity. Members
stressed to near their allowable stresses may result in structures that perform unsatisfactorily.

The wind load is assumed for design purposes to be a statically applied load. In reality, it fluctuates in magnitude, and
oscillating motion may be induced in the structures. This motion is most unpredictable but can be somewhat alleviated by
selecting members that may be larger than required by the calculations and will provide reasonable rigidity for unknown
effects. Allowable working stress design values should be used for equipment support structures.

2.1.5 Base Condition

Equipment support structures consisting of solid-profile members may be designed either with the base plate in full
contact with the foundation or resting on levelling nuts slightly above the foundation. The design with the levelling nuts
has several advantages:-

2.1.5.1 It eliminates need for close tolerance work on foundation elevation and trueness of surface.

2.1.5.2 It allows for some flexibility for structure alignment as a result of fabrication tolerances and bus-work fit up.

2.1.5.3 The base plate is not resting in any standing water on the foundation.

Anchor bolt sizes may be required to be slightly larger because of additional bending stress induced. The space
between the bottom of the levelling nut and the nominal top of the foundation is usually 130 mm.

2.1.6 Seismic Loads

Designing structures for seismic loading can be a very involved, time-consuming procedure involving dynamic analysis
and response spectra. In certain areas of high seismic risk or when sensitive equipment is to be installed, such analysis

may be necessary; however, it should be performed by trained, competent people.

Seismic or earthquake loads are environmental loads that are governed by the region of the country in which they
occur. In substation design, seismic loads are not usually combined with ice and wind loads, but may be combined with
short-circuit forces or operating loads if these loads can occur as a result of seismic activity.

Six seismic regions are defined, 0, 1, 2A, 2B, 3 and 4. A zone factor, Z, ranging from 0.0 to 0.4 is determined
based on the site location. The zone factor is equivalent to the zero period acceleration (ZPA) of the ground motion.
Values of “Z” are indicated in Table 21-1.1.

Table 21-1.1: UBC Seismic Zone Factors

Zone 0 1 2A 2B 3 4

Z 0 0,075 0,15 0,20 0,30 0,40

Substation structures are divided into four types when considering seismic loading criteria:-

Table 21-1.2: Substation Structures T ypes (Seismic Loading Criteria)

1. ST1 Single- or Multi-Bay Rack (Not supporting equipment)

2. ST2 Single- or Multi-Bay Rack (Supports equipment and/or conductors)

3. ST3 Rigid Isolated Support (Supports equipment)

4. ST4 Flexible Isolated Support (Supports equipment)

Rigid and flexible isolated supports (ST3 and ST4) in voltage classes greater than 132 kV, and within Seismic Zones 3 and
4, should be designed and qualified according to IEEE Std. 693, “Recommended Practices for Seismic Design of
Substations.” For these structures, the procedure below can be used as a check against wind and ice load cases to
determine controlling load cases, but IEEE Std. 693 should be used for final design.

The design procedure described below can be used for the design of Rigid Isolated Supports and Flexible Isolated
Supports (Types 3 and ST4) in Seismic Zones 1, 2A, and 2B.

2.1.6.1 Rigid isolated supports and flexible isolated supports (Types 3 and ST4) for equipment in voltage classes 132 kV
and below in Seismic Zones 3 and 4.

2.1.6.2 Racks (single- or multi-bay) and A-frames (Types ST1 and ST2) in all Seismic Zones. The design base shear is
determined using Equations 7-1 and 7-2.

Z.I.C
V= .W kN eq.21-1.1
RW

1,25.S
C= 2 eq.21-1.2
3
T

where:-

V = Total design lateral force or shear at the base

Z = UBC seismic zone factor
RW = Structure type factor
C = Numerical coefficient (C need not exceed 2,75)
S = Site coefficient for soil characteristics (see Table 21-1.3)

T = Fundamental period of vibration in seconds (s)

I = Importance factor
W = Seismic dead load (including rigidly attached equipment or conductor; flexible attachments, such as
conductor, need not be included )

Table 21-1.3: Site Coefficient for Soil Characteristics

Description S Factor
Rock-like material, Shear Wave velocity greater than (762m/s)
1,0
or
Medium-dense to dense or medium-stiff soil conditions, depth less than 61m
Predominantly medium-dense or medium-stiff soil conditions, depth exceeds 61m 1,2
Soil profile containing more than 6,1 ft of soft to medium-stiff clay but not more than 12,2m of soft
1,5
clay
Soil profile containing more than 20 ft of soft clay, Shear Wave velocity less than (152m/s) 2,0

The Importance Factor (ΙΙ) is taken as 1,0 (based on UBC Life Safety), 1,25 (based on UBC Life Safety and functional
performance after a seismic event), or 1,5 (same basis as 1,25 but for anchorage systems), depending on the
importance of the structure to the electrical system.

The numerical coefficient, C, may be assumed to be 2,75 if the soil conditions are unknown, regardless of the soil type or
period.

The Structure Type Factor, RW, is based on the lateral force resisting system of the structure. Substation structures can
be generally classified as shown in Table 21-1.4:

Conservatively, it is recommended that a value of RW = 4 be used for most rack-type structures (Types ST-1 and ST-2).
Structures such as an isolated bus support (freestanding inverted-pendulum), use a value RW = 3

Table 21-1.4: Structures – T yp e Factors

Structure Type RW
Moment resisting steel frame 6
Trussed towers 4
Raised tanks or inverted pendulum 3

2.1.7 Wind Loads

Several methods of determining wind loads are used. One widely used method is found in NEMA Std. SG6, Part 36,
“Outdoor Substations”.

Wind pressures on flat surfaces are obtained as follows:-

2
PW = 0,0776.V (N/m2 or Pa) eq.21-1.3

Wind pressures on cylindrical surfaces are obtained from eq.21-1.4:-

2
PW = 0,0481.V (N/m2 or Pa) eq.21-1.4

where:-
2
PW = Pressure on the projected area in Newtons per square metre or Pascals (N/m or Pa)
V = Design wind velocity in kilometres per hour (km/h)
RW = Structure type factor

The design wind velocity for a given area is determined from the probable wind velocity over the design life of the
structure, say a 50 year period of recurrence. This information can be obtained from Figure 2.1 or may be derived from
local climatological data.

For wind loading on lattice structures, the projected area used is one-and-a-half (1,5) times the area of exposed
members.

The “3-second gust” wind speed at a height of 10m is used as the basic wind speed for design. The basic
wind speed to be used can be obtained from Figure 21-1.1.

Polokwane
40
25
Pretoria
Latitude, Deg. S

Johannesburg
40

Upington Kimberly
Alexander Bay
Bloemfontein
30 Durban

45
50
Beauford West
40 East London
George
Cape Town Port Elizabeth
35
15 20 25 30
Longitude,

Figure 21-1.1: Regional Basic Wind Speed V, m/s (Isopleths of 3 Second Gust Speeds at 10m Height in Terrain of
Category 2, Estimated to be exceeded on Average Only 50 Years)

Based on IEEE Std. 605, “IEEE Guide for Design of Substations Rigid Bus Structures”, the wind load on a structure can
be determined using equation 21-1.5:-

-1 2
PW = 6,13.10 .CD .KZ .GZ .V10 .Ι (N/m2 or Pa) eq.21-1.5

where:-
2
W = Wind pressure in Newtons per square metre or Pascals (N/m or Pa)
CD = Drag coefficient
KZ = Height and exposure factor
GZ = Gust factor
V10 = Basic wind speed at a height of 10 metres above ground in metres per hour (m/h)

Constant, C, yields a value for FW in terms of metric units.

Drag Coefficient, CD: The wind load on a conductor or a structure varies with its shape. The drag coefficient reflects that
variation. The coefficient can vary between 1,0 for round, smooth shapes to about 2,0 for flat surfaces. For a more

detailed discussion of the variation in values to use, see ANSI/IEEE Std. 605 or ASCE Std. 74, “Guidelines for Electrical
Transmission Line Structural Loading”.

Height and Exposure Factor, KZ: In the height range from 0 metres to 9,1 metres and for exposure categories A, B,
and C, the height and exposure factor KZ = 1,0. For exposure category D, KZ = 1,16. Each of these exposure categories
is explained in detail in ANSI/ASCE Std. 7.95. A summary description is provided below:-

Table 21-1.5: Definitions

Large cities’ centres with at least 50 percent of the structures having a height greater than
Exposure A
21,3 metres.
Urban and suburban areas, wooded areas, or other terrain with numerous closely spaced
Exposure B
obstructions having the size of single-family dwellings or larger.
Open terrain with scattered obstructions having heights generally less than 9,1 metres.
Exposure C
Open country and grassland is included in this category.
Flat, unobstructed areas exposed to wind flowing over open water for a distance of at least
Exposure D
1,61 kilometres
Gust Factor, GF Basic wind speed at a height of 10 metres above ground in metres per hour (m/h)
A gust factor of 0,8 should be used for exposure categories A and B, and 0,85 should be
Basic Wind Speed, V
used for exposure categories C and D. Figure 2.1 should be used for this value
An importance factor of 1,15 should be used for electrical substations. See ANSI/ASCE
Importance Factor, Ι
Std. 7.95 for a discussion of the importance factor.

2.1.8 Construction Loading

Consideration should be given to construction loads that can be periodically imposed on structures such as pulling and
hoisting equipment into place. While such conditions do not usually govern design, they should be evaluated.

2.1.9 Loading Combination for Design

In addition to designing equipment supports for the extreme loads, bus supports are also designed for a combination
load of extreme wind and short-circuit loads. The load combination should be limited to calculations of stress and should
not consider deflection of the structure.

2.1.10 Typical Design Approach

There are basically two approaches to design of steel structures; Allowable Stress Design (ASD) and Load and
Resistance Factor Design (LRFD).

The ASD approach is defined by the American Institute of Steel Construction’s (AISC) “Manual of Steel Construction,
ASD”. In the ASD, the stresses induced by various loads (wind, ice, etc.) in a selected member are compared to
allowable stress established in the AISC manual.

In LRFD, load factors are applied to the service loads, or loads the structure is actually expected to see. Then a member
is selected that will have sufficient strength to resist the factored loads. In addition, the theoretical member strength is
reduced by an applied resistance factor. The selection of the member has to satisfy the following:-

Factored Load ≤ Factored Strength eq.21-1.6

The “factored load” is the sum of all the working loads to be resisted by the member. Each load is multiplied by its own
load factor, Dead loads, for example, will have load factors that are different from live load factors. The “factored
strength” is the theoretical strength multiplied by a resistance factor. Load and Resistance Factor Design of steel
structures is very similar to the approach to reinforce concrete design used where it is known as strength design.

The benefit of ASD is that it is straightforward and familiar to most structural engineers. With the LRFD approach, load
factors model the likelihood, or probability of certainty, of various types of loads. For example, dead loads can typically
be determined with more certainty than can live loads, therefore, the load factor for a dead load is less than that for a live
load.

The resistance factors applied to the member’s theoretical strength account for uncertainties in material properties,
design theory, and fabrication and construction practices. One might say that the LRFD is a more realistic approach to
structure design. The guidelines and specifications for LRFD are published in AISC’s Manual of Steel Construction, Load
Factor & Resistance Factor Design.

Several examples are illustrated depicting the design of the main member of a single-phase bus support. These
examples show a typical approach for the design of most equipment support structures using allowable stress design.
The examples include a square tube, a wide flange, and a lattice column, all composed of steel.

Lighter weight members may still meet the loading and deflection criteria. However, smaller size members may present
fabrication problems in the lattice structure.

In general, for voltages up to 220 kV, structures using tubular members are as economical as lattice or wide flange
structures when weight and ease of fabrication are considered.

2.1.10.1 Design Example

Design of a single-phase bus support for a substation given the following information:-

• Height of bus centreline above foundations (hb) = 5,5m (see Figure 21-1.2)
1
• Aluminium bus 200 mm in diameter, with mass (mbus ) =5,51 kg/m
1
• Maximum short-circuit force (Fsc ) = 550 N/m

• Phase-to-phase support spacing (ℓb) = 6 m

• Post Insulator height (hi) = 2 m high, 0,28 m diameter, and weighs 140 kg.

2.1.10.1.1 Design of a Bus Structure Using A500 or A501 Steel

100
2 000

5 500
3 400

Figure 21-1.2: Single Phase Busbar Support

2.1.10.2 Short-Circuit Loading

FSC = 0,66.FSC. ℓb eq.21-1.7

= 0,66.550(N/m).6(m)

= 2178 N

The short circuit force creates a moment at the base of the structure (MbSC) as shown in Figure 21-1.3:-

MbSC = hb.FSC eq.21-1.8

= 5,5(m).2178(N)

= 11 980 N.m

FSC

Mbase

Figure 21-1.3: Tubular Structure – Short Circuit Loading

2.1.10.3 Wind Loading

Extreme 50-year wind (V50) = 112,6 km/hr

b) For flat surface

The wind pressure on the steelwork structure, the members essentially comprising flat surfaces is:-
2
Pw = 0,0776.V50
2
= 0,0776.(112,6) (from eq.21-1.3)
2
≈ 984 N/m or Pa

c) For cylindrical surface

The wind pressure on the insulator, which essentially comprises a cylindrical surface is:-
2
Pw = 0,0481.V50
2
= 0,0481.(112,6) (from eq.21-1.4)
2
≈ 610 N/m or Pa

Description Force Moment Arm Moment at Base

(N) (m) (N.m)
Wind on bus Fwb = Pw.ℓb.db eq.21-1.9 hb = 5,5 Mtb = Fwb. hb eq.21-1.10
2
= 610(N/m ).6(m).0,2m = 732.5,5
= 732 N = 4026
Wind on Insulator Fwi = Pw.ℓi.di eq.21-1.11 hi = hs + (½. ℓi) eq.21-1.12 Mib = Fwi.hi eq.21-1.13
2
= 610(N/m ).2(m).0,28(m) = 3,4 + ½.2 = 342.4,4
= 342 N = 4,4 = 1505
Wind on Structure Fws = Pw.ℓs.bi eq.21-1.14 hs = ½.ℓs eq.21-1.15 Msb = Fws.hs eq.21-1.16
assuming 20cm square = = ½.3,4 = 665.1,7
2
964(N/m ).3,4(m).0,203(m) = 1,7 = 1131
= 665 N
Totals 1 377 (N) 6662 N.m

366 N

2
610 N/m

hi
2
984 N/m

Figure 21-1.4: Tubular Structure – Wind Loading

d) Ice Loading

Heavy ice loading (25,4 mm thick around tube)

87,9 kg

184,7 kg
Ice 25,4 mm
Ø280 mm Ice 25,4 mm
Al Tube
Ø200 mm

Ø250,8 mm

Figure 21-1.5: Tubular Structure – Ice Loading

ρice) = 913 kg/m
3
Density of ice (ρ

Description Load
(kg/m)
1 2 2 π
Ice on bus mice on bus = (db+i –dt ). ρice
.ρ eq.21-1.17 16,49 kg/m
24 2
π 3
= [(0,251(m)) – (0,200(m)) ] .913(kg/m )
1 1 1
Ice and bus mice+ bus = mice + mbus 22,00 kg/m
= 16,49(kg/m) + 5,51(kg/m)
21 2 π
Ice on Insulator ρice
mice on ins = (dins+i –dins ). .ρ eq.21-1.18 22,34 kg/m
2 4 2
π 3
= [(0,331(m)) – (0,280(m)) ] .913(kg/m )
1
Ice and Insulator mice+ ins = mice . ℓi + mins eq.21-1.19 184,7 kg
= 22,344(kg/m).2(m)+ 140(kg)
Totals 1 377 (N)

Considering a 203 mm x 203 mm x 4,8 mm WT rectangular steel tube.

3
Density of steel = 7850 kg/m
2 2
Effective Cross-sectional Area of support (As) = a – (a – t) (see Figure 21-1.6) eq.21-1.20
2 2
= 0,203 – (0,203 - 0,0048)
-3 2
=1,9258.10 m
2
= 19,258 cm
.
Mass of support = As ρ st eq.21-1.21
-3
= 1,9258.10 .7850
= 15,12 kg/m
Total mass at the base of the support:
1 1
m tot = (mice + bus .l b ) + (mice + ins ) + (h s .m s )

= 22,00(kg/m ).6(m) + 184,7(kg) + 3,4(m).15,12(kg/m) eq.21-1.22

= 368,1kg

Pressure at the base of the support

9.81.m tot
fa =
As

9.81.368,1(kg)
= 2
eq.21-1.23
19,258(cm )
2
= 187,5(N/cm )

a) Locally Buckled Thin-walled Section b) Square Tube Section

Figure 21-1.6 Hollow Thin-walled Column

Figure 21-1.7 Load–end Displacement Path.

The effective width expression states that for a plate of actual width b, an effective width be can be used in the evaluation
of the load-carrying capacity. Von Karman’s effective width expression can be written in terms of the critical stress σCR
and yield stress σY as follows:-

The uniform square thin-walled tube (Figure 21-1.6) has a mean side length a, and wall thickness t.

(i) Flexural Buckling

I for the steel square tube:-

a 4 - (a - 2.t) 4
I=
12
20,3 - (20,3 - 2.0,48) 4
4
= eq.21-1.24
12
4
= 1292 cm

2
π .E.I
FCR = 2
(k.L)
2 6 2 4
π .21.10 (N/cm) .1292(cm )
= 2
eq.21-1.25
(2.340(cm))
3
= 579.10 (N)

where:-

FCR = Maximum or critical force (vertical load on column) in Newtons (N)

E = Modulus of elasticity
I = area moment of inertia
L = unsupported length of column
column effective length factor, whose value depends on the conditions of end support of
K =
the column
= 1,0 for both ends pinned (hinged, free to rotate)
= 0.50 for both ends fixed
= 0.699 for one end fixed and the other end pinned
= 2.0 for one end fixed and the other end free to move laterally
K.L = Effective length of the column

(ii) Limiting Stress

The working, compressive stress in the strut is given as:-

FW
σW =
4.a.t
3611(N)
= 2
eq.21-1.26
19,258(cm)
2
= 187,5 (N/cm )

σy be the limiting yield or proof stress, i.e is limited to σY, i.e. σW ≤ σY.
2
σY = 28000 N/cm
3 2 2
Fa = 579.10 (N/cm ) >> 187,5(N/cm ) = σ W (okay)

e) Deflection for Wind Loading Only

∆ at end of steel = ∆1 + ∆2 + ∆3 eq.21-1.27

where:-

∆1 = Deflection due to wind on insulator and busbar in centimetres (cm)

∆2 = Deflection due to uniform wind on structure in centimetres (cm)
∆3 = Deflection due to moment at insulator base in centimetres (cm)
3
P.l
∆1 = (cm)
3.E.I
3
(366 + 342).(340)
= 6
(cm) eq.21-1.28
3.21.10 .2493
= 0,19 cm

where:-

P = Point load in centimetres (cm)

ℓ = Distance from the point of fixing to the point load in centimetres (cm)
2
E = Modulus of elasticity for the material in Newtons per square centimetre (N/cm )
I = Moment of inertia for the section
3
w.l.l
∆2 = (cm)
8.E.I
3
669.(340)
= 6
(cm) eq.21-1.29
8.21.10 .2493
= 0,07 cm

where:-

W = w. ℓ
Uniformly distributed load in Newtons centimetre (cm)
2
M.l
∆3 = (cm)
2.E.I
2
(M tib + Mib ).l
= (cm)
2.E.I eq.21-1.30
2
(366.210 + 342.100).(340)
= 6
(cm)
2.21.10 .2493
= 0,12 cm

where:-

M = Moment of tube and insulator about the insulator base in Newton.centimetres (N.cm)
Mtib = Moment of the tube alone about insulator base in Newton.centimetres (N.cm)
Mib = Moment of the insulator alone about its own base in Newton.centimetres (N.cm)

Total Defection

∆ = ∆1 + ∆2 + ∆3 (from eq.21-1.27)
= 0,19 cm + 0,07 cm + 0,12 cm
= 0,38 cm

f) Angular Deflection for Wind Only

∆ at Top of Insulator

∆ at End of Steel

M
P

W L

Figure 21-1.8: Tubular Structure – Deflection Equivalent Loadings

Slope at the end of steel

φ at end of steel = φ1 + φ2 + φ3 eq.21-1.31

where:-

φ1 = Slope due to wind on insulator and busbar in radians (rad)

φ2 = Slope due to uniform wind on structure in radians (rad)
φ3 = Slope due to moment at insulator base in radians (rad)
2
P.l
φ1 = (rad)
2.E.I
2
(366 + 342).(340)
= 6
eq.21-1.32
2.21.10 .2493
-4
= 7,82.10 rad

2
W.l
φ2 = (rad)
6.E.I
2
w.l.l
=
6.E.I eq.21-1.33
2
669.(340)
= 6
6.21.10 .2493
-4
= 2,5.10 cm

M.l
φ3 = (rad)
E.I
(M +Mib ).l
= tib
E.I
eq.21-1.34
(366.210 + 342.100).340
=
21.10 6.2493
-4
= 7,2.10 rad

φ = 7,8.10
-4 -4 -4
rad+ 2,5.10 rad+ 7,2.10 rad (from eq.21-1.31)
-4
= 17,5.10 rad

Deflection at the Top of the Insulator

φ
∆ at top of insulator = 0,38 cm + 200.sinφ
-4
= 0,38 cm + 200.sin (17,5.10 rad) cm
= 0,73 cm

0,73(cm) 1 1
= < (ok)
550(cm) 753 200

Acceptance criteria for bus support deflection may be taken as 1/200 of the busbar height.

The analysis shows that for the given conditions, a structural tube 20,3 cm x 20,3 cm x 0,48 cm will be suitable.

3. FINISHES

3.1 Galvanizing

Galvanized steel has found wide application for substation structures. Hot-dip galvanizing has been the most widely used
finish on steel substation structures for the following reasons:-

3.1.1. It is economical (initial cost, touch-up, and general maintenance).

3.1.2. It provides good resistance to most corrosive environments.

3.1.3. It has “self-healing” properties against minor abrasions.

3.1.4. It requires little or no maintenance in most substation applications.

New structures are galvanized in accordance with SANS 763. Safeguards against embrittlement and warpage and
distortion during galvanizing should be in conformance with SANS 1200 H, respectively. Galvanized members that are
marred in handling or erection or that have had corrective work done should be touched up with a zinc-rich paint.

All bolts and steel hardware should be galvanized in accordance with SANS 763.

3.2 Painting

When painted structures are desired, there are several systems available. Consultation with reputable paint suppliers is
recommended. Painting System Specification SANS 1200 HC, from the Steel Structures Painting Council is one paint
system that is applicable for galvanized and non-galvanized substation structures. The following is a summary of the
system.

3.2.1 Surface Preparation

The surface shall be thoroughly cleaned of all oil, grease, dirt, loose mill scale, and other detrimental substances. “Hand
tool cleaning” is the minimum surface preparation required for this oil-based system. Depending upon condition of the
surface “power tool cleaning” may be necessary. “Solvent cleaning” is only required for new galvanized structures.
Specifications for these cleaning systems are outlined in the SSPC manual.

3.2.2 Paints

3.2.2.1 Primer

The system calls for a zinc dust–zinc oxide primer that conforms to specification epoxy primer alkyd, which is a linseed
oil primer.

3.2.2.2 Intermediate Coat

This second coat uses SSPC-Paint 104, which is a white or tinted alkyd paint that has good weathering ability and is
suitable for exterior exposures. This paint is intended for brush or spray applications and works well as either an
intermediate or top coat. There are four types that are colour dependent:-

• Type 1 – white

• Type 2 – medium to light gray to tan

• Type 3 – light green

• Type 4 – dark or forest green

3.2.2.3 Finish Coat

Same as intermediate coat, but the colour has to be specified.

3.2.2.3 Dry Film Thickness

This three-coat paint system calls for a minimum paint thickness of 40 – 60 µm. This consists of a 2.0 mil primer coat, a
1.5 mil intermediate coat, and a 1.0 mil finish coat. The measurements shall be in accordance with SSPC-PA 2,
“Measurement of Dry Paint Thickness with Magnetic Gages.”

Painted structures should be primed and receive the intermediate coat in the shop. The finish coat may either be applied
in the shop or in the field. The finish coat can be applied under ideal conditions in the shop; however, the structure finish
may be marred during shipment or erection requiring field touch-up. The SSPC manual gives additional specifications for
touch-up painting and maintenance painting as well as providing alternative finish coat systems.

4. REFERENCES

ASTM Std. A36, “Specification for Structural Steel.”

ASTM Std. A53, “Specification for Pipe, Steel, Black and Hot-Dipped, Zinc Coated Welded and Seamless Steel
Structure.”

ASTM Std. A123, “Specification for Zinc (Hot-Galvanized) Coatings on Products Fabricated From Rolled, Pressed and
Forged Steel Shapes, Plates, Bars and Strip.”

ASTM Std. A143, “Recommended Practice for Safeguarding Against Embrittlement of Hot-Dip Galvanized Structural
Steel Products and Procedure for Detecting Embrittlement.”

ASTM Std. A153, “Specification for Zinc Coating (Hot-Dip) on Iron and Steel Hardware.” ASTM Std. A307, “Specification
for Carbon Steel Externally and Internally Threaded Standard Fasteners.”

ASTM Std. A325, “Specification for High-Strength Bolts for Structural Steel Joints, Including Suitable Nuts and Plain
Hardened Washers.”

ASTM Std. A384, “Recommended Practice for Safeguarding Against Warpage and Distortion During Hot-Dip Galvanizing
of Steel Assemblies.”

ASTM Std. A385, “Practice of Providing High-Quality Zinc Coatings (Hot-Dip).”

ASTM Std. A394, “Specification for Galvanized Steel Transmission Tower Bolts and Nuts.”

ASTM Std. A501, “Specification for Hot-Formed Welded and Seamless Carbon Steel Structural Tubing.”

ASTM Std. A563, “Specification for Carbon and Alloy Steel Nuts.”

Federal Specifications and Standards No. TT-P-57B, “Paint, Zinc Yellow-Iron Oxide-Base, Ready Mixed.”

Federal Specifications and Standards No. TT-P-641D, “Primer Coating: Zinc Dust-Zinc Oxide (for Galvanized Surfaces).”

IEEE Std. 693, “Recommended Practices for Seismic Design of Substations.”

NEMA Std. SG6, “Power Switching Equipment, Part 36, Outdoor Substations.”

NEMA Std. TTl-1977, “Tapered Tubular Steel Structures.”

RUS Bulletin 1728F-700, “RUS Specification for Wood Poles, Stubs and Anchor Logs”

RUS Bulletin 1728H-701, “RUS Specification for Wood Crossarms (Solid and Laminated), Transmission Timbers and
Pole Keys”

Steel Structures Painting Council Std. SSPC-PA 2, “Measurement of Dry Paint Thickness with Magnetic Gages,” 1995.

Steel Structures Painting Council Std. SSPC-PS 1.04, “Three-Coat Oil-Alky (Lead- and Chromate-Free) Painting System
for Galvanized or Non-Galvanized Steel (with Zinc Dust-Zinc Linseed Oil Primer),” 1995.

Steel Structures Painting Council Std. SSPC-SP-1, “Solvent Cleaning,” 1995.

Steel Structures Painting Council Std. SSPC-SP-2, “Hand Tool Cleaning,” 1995.

Steel Structures Painting Council, Systems and Specifications, 7th ed.

U.S. Department of the Interior, “The BOCA Building Code.”

U.S. Department of the Interior, “Bureau of Reclamation Design Standard No. 10 Transmission Structures.”

U.S. Department of the Interior, The Uniform Building Code.

S.L.D.G. 21 - 2

SUBSTATION STEELWORK

CONDUCTOR LEVELS AND PHASE SPACING

1. DESIGN METHODOLOGY FOR DETERMINING SUBSTATION CONDUCTOR LEVELS

Hereunder is presented a methodology to establish the basic dimensions associated with conductor attachment
heights relating to various conductor levels utilized in a substation which pertain to overhead strung flexible
conductors. This relates to the design of a column to which beams would be attached for either the straining onto, or
for the support of flexible conductors via appropriately dimensioned insulator assemblies. Four levels are defined, viz.
equipment level, busbar level, stringer level and overhead earth-wire level.

It is assumed that the sag of the inter-equipment connecting conductors due to temperature variations will not change
significantly due to their relatively short lengths, and that some of the sag that does occur due to temperature variation
will be compensated for by the spring action in the supporting structures. It is also assumed that no significant sag
variations occur in the busbar, stringer or overhead earth-wire conductors for precisely the same reason, i.e. the
spring action in the support structure, and that the variations in sag will be compensated for by the gain or release of
energy stored in the strain structures. This has been shown practically to be the case, providing that structures have
inherent elasticity in them.

Earth-wire Attachment
Cpe +fcew + ½.(dcst + dcew)

Stringer Attachment Level

Cpe (Phase-to-Earth)

Cpp + fcst + ½.(dcst + dcbb)

Cpp (Phase-to-Phase) Busbar Attachment Level

Cpp + fcbb + ½.(dceq + dcst)

Cpp (Phase-to-Phase)
Equipment Attachment Level

Dictated By Conditions in Cpe + fceq + ½.dceq

1.2
Ground Level

Figure 21-2.1: Substation Flexible Stranded Conductor Mounting Heights

where:-

Cpe = Phase-to-earth clearance (surface to surface) for a given voltage

Cpp = Phase-to-phase clearance (surface to surface) for a given voltage
dceq = Diameter of the inter-equipment conductor
dcbb = Diameter of the busbar conductor
dcst = Diameter of the stringer conductor
dcew = Diameter of the earth-wire conductor
fcew = Sag of the earth-wire

fcst = Sag of the stringer conductor at maximum operating temperature

fcbb = Sage of the busbar conductor at maximum operating temperature
fceq = Sag of the equipment level conductor at maximum operating temperature

The sag of a conductor under static tension can be approximated as:-

1 2
9,81.m .l
fc = (m) eq. 21-2.1
8.Tc

where:-

fc = Conductor sag of one of the bundle members in metres (m)

1
m = Mass per unit length of the conductor in kilograms (kg)
ℓ = Conductor span in metres (m)
Tc = Tension in one of the bundle members in Newtons (N)

1.1 Equipment Level Conductors

Most equipment foundation top of concrete (TOC) levels are required to be 150mm above the finished yard terrace
level, to allow for 100mm yard stone, with 50mm of the TOC above the yard stone level. There are some of the
foundations TOCs that are required to be level with busbar support structures, eg. for pantograph isolators and related
post insulator support structures. These are required to be dimensioned relative to the busbar conductor height for
pantograph isolator contact purposes. They are items of equipment that have an influence in establishing the
equipment conductor heights since they are located under or in close proximity to the busbar conductors, and
therefore have a direct impact on the busbar level conductors. In all cases, dimensions are relative to TOCs.

The factors that have to be taken into account are:-

1.1.1 The statutory clearance to the bottom of the equipment support insulator which is 2438mm

1.1.2 The vertical working clearance

1.1.3 The electric field strength (20kV/m) and magnetic flux density (500µT) at a point 1,8m above TOC

1.1.4 Corona Performance

At the lower voltages, 1.2.1 and 1.2.2 would dominate, whilst at the higher voltages, 1.2.3 and 1.2.4 would dominate.
The limiting condition is the largest of the two pairs above, for the lowest possible conductor level. All conditions are to
be met at all times.

Step 1: For the equipment under or in close proximity to the busbar, set the bottom of the equipment support insulator
at 2438mm. This is the statutory height of the bottom of the equipment insulator above the TOC (hsi).

hsi = 2438 (mm) eq. 21-2.2

Step 2: Add the height of the equipment terminal above the steelwork support (hti). The height of the equipment
terminal above TOC is he.

he = 2438 + hti (mm) eq. 21-2.3

Step 3: Calculate the sag of the inter-equipment conductors to the adjacent equipment (fceq) employing eq. 21-1.1 and
subtract this value from the height of step 2 (he). This provides the height of the lowest point on the conductor
above TOC (he′).

he′ = he - fceq (mm) eq. 21-2.4

Step 4: Subtract half the diameter of the conductor (dc) employed to get the surface to surface separation distance
(he″) and compare this to the vertical working clearance (Cvw) for the given voltage as provided in Table 4-1.2
of SLDG 4-1. If this calculated value (he″) is less than the vertical working clearance (a statutory requirement)
then the steelwork support height needs to be increased by this difference (hdiff) to meet the respective Cvw
value:-

he″ = he′ - ½.dc (mm) eq. 21-2.5

If : he″< Cvw (mm) eq. 21-2.6

then : hdiff = Cvw - he″ (mm) eq. 21-2.7

and : Hequip = Cvw + hdiff (mm) eq. 21-2.8

Step 5: If the conductor height calculated for the equipment under the busbars in Step 4, viz. he″, is found to be
greater than the vertical working clearance (Cvwc), then the required height to the equipment terminal is (hsi +
hti).

If : Cvw ≤ he″ = he′ - ½.dceq (mm) eq. 21-2.9

then : Hequip = hsi + hti + fceq (mm) eq. 21-2.10

Step 6: The electric field strength (E) and magnetic flux density (B) at 1,8m under the equipment conductors, with
heights established in Steps 4 and 5, need to be checked. This is normally not a problem for system voltages
of 400kV and below, but can be an issue at 500kV and above, and particularly at 765kV (Um = 800kV) and
above. They should however be checked with an appropriate software programme such as CEDEGS. Where
required, the conductors at the equipment level should be raised until the values for E and B as given by the
ICNIRP guidelines are achieved. This can be done by increasing the support heights to hEB. The attachment
height is then found by adding the relevant value of conductor sag.

Hequip = hEB + fceq (mm) eq. 21-2.11

fceq
Equipment Attachment Level

Dictated By Conditions in Cpe + fceq + ½.dceq

1.2
Ground Level

(a) Enlargement

Busbar

hfc1 hfc2 hfc2 hfc2 hfc3 hfc4

ht
ht4
ht1 ht2 ht2 ht3

≥Cvw
≥Cvwc ≥Cvwc ≥Cvwc ≥Cvwc
hs1 hs2 hs2 hs2 hs3 hs4

(b) An Equipment Bay

Figure 21-2.2: Inter-Equipment Conductors

A 5 % safety margin would be advisable to account for any dimensional variances. The equipment conductor height
(H′equip) is then the maximum value of three conditions:-

H′equip = 1,05.Max(Cvw + fceq, hsi + hti, hEB + fceq) (mm) eq. 21-2.12

1.2 Busbar Level Conductors

The next conductor level up from equipment level is that for bussing all the equipment bays:-

Step 1: Having established the equipment conductor height (H′equip), this becomes the starting point for determining
the busbar conductor height. Since the equipment and busbar conductors cross each other at right angles,
there should be at least phase-to-phase clearance (Cpp) between these, hence add Cpp to H′equip.

hbb = H′equip + Cpp (mm) eq. 21-2.13

Step 2: Since the busbar conductors’ sag between successive attachment points (fcbb), this needs to be calculated
and added to hbb. To calculate the sag due to the conductor alone, the length of the insulators used to strain
the busbar must be subtracted from the overall span length. Eq 21-1.1 must therefore be modified to reflect
this.

1 2
9,81.m .( l − n.Libb )
fcbb = eq. 21-2.14
8.TCbb

where:-

Libb = Effective length of the busbar strain insulator string

n = 1 if strained on one side and suspended on the other
= 2 if strained on both sides

The length (Libb) of the string insulator can be calculated in accordance with eq. 43-1.1 in SLDG 43-1, being
dependent upon the insulator assembly configuration, the number of discs (voltage and creepage) and the
number of conductors.

hbb′ = hbb + fcbb (mm) eq. 21-1.15

Step 3: To get the surface to surface distance between the equipment and busbar level conductors (hbb″), half the
diameter of the inter-equipment (½.dceq) and busbar (½.dcbb) conductors employed is added to hbb′. Also,
since personnel are required to work on equipment that may be located under the busbar, it would be
advisable to add 500 mm to this value to account for a chest to head height above the equipment.

hbb″ = hbb′ + ½.(dceq + dcbb) + 500 (mm) eq. 21-2.16

Step 4: The conductor height for the busbars is thus found by adding the phase-to-phase clearance, the maximum
busbar conductor sag and half the diameter of the inter-equipment (½.dceq) and busbar (½.dcbb) conductor to
the equipment conductor height (Hequip). Since the busbar and stringer are out of reach of most activities, a
smaller safety margin of 5% is used for any dimensional variances due to temperature changes.

Hbb = 1,05.hbb″

= 1,05.[H′equip + Cpp+ fcbb+ ½.(dceq + dcbb) + 500] (mm) eq. 21-1.17

Busbar Attachment Level

fcbb (sag)

Cpp + fcbb + ½.(dceq + dcbb)

Cpp (Phase-to-Phase)
Equipment Attachment Level

Dictated By Conditions in Cpe + fceq + ½.dceq

1.2
Ground Level

Figure 21-2.3: Busbar Level Conductors

1.3 Stringer Level Conductors

Step 1: The determination of the busbar conductor height (Hbb) becomes the starting point for determining the stringer
conductor height. The busbar and stinger conductors cross each other at right angles and so there should be
at least phase-to-phase clearance (Cpp) between these, hence add Cpp to Hbb.

hst = Hbb + Cpp (mm) eq. 21-2.18

Step 2: Calculate the sag of the stringer conductors between successive attachment points (fcst) and add to hst. As in
the case of the busbar conductors, to calculate the sag due to the stringer conductor only, the length of the
strain insulators needs to be subtracted from the overall span length.

1 2
9,81.m .( l − List )
fcst = eq. 21-2.19
8.TCst

where:-

List = Effective length of the stringer strain insulator string

hst′ = hst + fcst (mm) eq. 21-2.20

Step 3: Add half the diameter of the busbar (½.dcbb) and stringer (½.dcst) conductors being employed to get the
surface to surface distance between the busbar and stringer conductors (hst″).

hst″ = hst′ + dc (mm) eq. 21-2.21

Step 4: The conductor height for the stringers (Hst) is thus found by adding the phase-to-phase clearance (Cpp), the
maximum stringer conductor sag (fcst) and half the diameter of the busbar (½.dcbb) and stringer (½.dcst)

conductors to the busbar conductor height (Hbb). Again, a 5% safety margin would be advisable for any
dimensional variances due to temperature changes.

Hst = 1,05.[Hbb + Cpp + fcst + ½.(dceq + dcbb)] (mm) eq. 21-2.22

Stringer Attachment Level

Cpp + fcst + ½.(dcbb + dcst)

Cpp (Phase-to-Phase) Busbar Attachment Level

Cpp + fcbb + ½.(dceq + dcbb)

Cpp (Phase-to-Phase)
Equipment Attachment Level

Dictated By Conditions in Cpe + fceq + ½.dceq

1.2
Ground Level
Figure 21-2.4: Stringer Level Conductors

1.4 Earth-wire Level Conductor

The last level of conductor is that of the overhead earth wire that is used for lightning protection. Here, two sets of
calculations are required, firstly to establish the height of the shield wire above the stringer conductors ensuring
electrical clearances, and secondly, to test how effective this earth-wire level is in terms of lightning shielding.

Step 1: The determination of the stringer conductor height (Hst) becomes the starting point for determining the earth-
wire conductor height. The major portion of the earth-wire runs parallel to the stringer conductors, but some of
it can also run at right angles to it, and can also form a criss-cross network over the station. There should
therefore be at least phase-to-earth clearance (Cpe) between these, hence add Cpe to Hst. As a first
approximation, the height of the earth-wire (hew) is given by:-

hew = hst + Cpe (mm) eq. 21-2.23

Step 2: As before, calculate the sag of the earth-wire conductors between successive attachment points (fcew) using
eq. 21.1.1 and add to hew to account for conductor sag.

hew′ = hew + fcew (mm) eq. 21-2.24

Step 3: The surface to surface distance between the stringer and earth-wire conductors (hew″) is determined by
adding half the diameter of the stringer phase conductor (dcst) and half the diameter of the earth conductor
(dew) being employed:-

hew″ = hew′ + ½.(dcst + dcew) (mm) eq. 21-2.25

Step 4: The conductor height for the earth-wire is thus found by adding the phase-to-earth clearance (Cpe), the
maximum earth-wire conductor sag (fcew), half the diameter of the phase conductor (dc) and half the diameter
of the earth conductor (dew) to the stringer conductor height (Hst). Since the overhead earth-wires act as a
lightning shield, a 5% safety margin would be advisable to ensure shielding of all the phases, and in particular
of the centre phase.

Hew = 1,05.[ Hst + Cpe + fcew + ½.(dc + dew)] (mm) eq. 21-2.26

Earth-wire Attachment
Cpe +fcew + ½.(dcst + dew)

Stringer Attachment Level

Cpp (Phase-to-Earth)

Cpp + fcst + ½.(dcbb + dcst)

Cpp (Phase-to-Phase) Busbar Attachment Level

Cpp + fcbb + ½.(dceq + dcbb)

Cpp (Phase-to-Phase)

Equipment Attachment Level

Dictated By Conditions in Cpe + fceq + ½.dceq

1.2
Ground Level

Figure 21-2.5: Earth-wire Level Conductor

2. DESIGN METHODOLOGY FOR DETERMINING CONDUCTOR PHASE SPACING AT THE VARIOUS

CONDUCTOR LEVELS

The determination of the conductor phase spacing should be such as to cater for the case where the largest
2
conductors per bundle in a flat configuration that is be employed in a bay, viz. 3 x Bull (800mm ) as is the policy of
some utilities.

The larger number of conductors would imply greater sag for the same phase tension due to the reduced tension per
conductor.

o
For practical purposes, it is assumed that all the conductor bundles would swing through an angle of 30 before the
fault causing the swing is interrupted. This will simplify the calculation of the horizontal deflection of the bundled
conductors. For greater precision, finite element analyses may be employed to determine the horizontal deflection,
however, these packages could prove to be too expensive. For a more rigorous treatment of conductor swing, the
reader is pointed to SLDG 41-1).

A typical conductor arrangement is illustrated in Figure 21-2.6. The equipment level conductors are not shown purely
o
for clarity, but are below the busbar conductors running in the same direction as the stringers which run 90 to, and are
above the busbar conductors.

End Bay End Bay

Earth-wire
7620

Busbar
18288

Conductors
10668

φ
List.cosφ
10668
18288

c Busbar
Conductors
7620

Stringer
Stringer
Conductors
Conductors
Figure 21-2.6: Typical Conductor Layout

2.1 Equipment Level Conductors Phase Spacing

In the case of inter-equipment conductors, one need only consider the sag due to the conductors since there no
insulator assemblies are involved to add to the overall conductor sag. The conductors are attached directly to the
equipment terminals. Due to the low tensions in the inter-equipment conductors, it is reasonable to assume that the
o
inter-equipment conductors would swing through 90 .

Sppe

fceq Cpp fceq

o o
90 90
Conductor Sag (fceq)
(Maximum Temperature)

sce ½.dceq sce

Horizontal
Displacement
dseq = fceq

Allowable
Phase-to-Phase
Clearance
(Cpp)

Figure 21-2.7: Phase Spacing of Inter-equipment Conductors

The sag of the inter-equipment conductor (fceq) is calculated using eq. 21-2.1. The horizontal displacement (dseq) of
the two attracting phases towards each other is then:-

dseq = fceq (mm) eq. 21-2.27

where:-

dseq = Horizontal displacement of the centre-line of the inter-equipment conductor bundle

o
When the conductor swings through the angle of deflection (90 ), the bundle itself also rotates through the same
angle, and so appears a length of half the diameter of the conductor (½.dceq) in the horizontal direction. This needs to
be taken into account.

The conductor bundles need to be fixed at points such that their distance apart is greater than or equal to the phase-
to-phase clearance. By setting this restriction, it is now possible to obtain the conductor phase spacing.

sppe = 2.(fceq + ½.dceq) + Cpp eq. 21-2.28

where:-

sppe = Inter-equipment phase conductors separation

Cpp = Phase-to-phase clearance required at the given voltage

At the equipment level, it would be expedient to add 10% for dimensional variances on the equipment itself, so that the
final conductor phase attachment points would be:-

Sppe = 1,1.sppe

= 1,1.[ 2.(fceq + ½.dceq) + Cpp] eq. 21-2.29

where:-

Sppe = Implemented phase conductors separation

The above is, however, based purely on the conductors. The size of the equipment needs to be considered to
determine the surface to surface distance between adjacent live plant must be determined. This is the subject of
SLDG 45-3. A value of 500 mm can be used to account for one item of plant, hence the distance between inter-
equipment conductors can be set at:-

S′ppe = 1,1.Sppe + 1000

= 1,1.[ 2.(fceq + ½.dceq) + Cpp] + 1000 eq. 21-2.30

2.2 Busbar and Stringer Conductor Phase Spacing

If at all possible, it would be expedient to obtain a common value for phase spacing for the busbars and stringers for
standardization and interchangeability purposes in order to reduce the different options to be designed for.

Sppe
schb′ Cpp schb

o o
30 30
Conductor Sag (fceq)
(Maximum Temperature)

scb schb scb

Horizontal
Displacement
dseq

Allowable
Phase-to-Phase
Clearance
(Cpp)

Figure 21-2.8: Phase Spacing of Busbar Conductors

2.2.1 Busbar Conductor Phase Spacing

The total sag of a conductor which is strained at both ends through free moving hardware is made up of two
components, the sag of the conductor due to its own weight, and the sag due to the weight of the hardware (see
Figure 21-2.8).

2.2.1.1 Sag Due To the Own Weight of the Conductor

The sag of a conductor under tension is given by eq. 21-2.14 where the effective length of the busbar strain insulator
strings (Libb) are subtracted from the overall span length.

2.2.1.1 Sag due to the Insulator String Assembly

The weight of the strain insulator assembly string effectively causes additional sag which reduces the height of the
conductors above ground as illustrated in Figure 21-2.9. The insulator string assembly, in this case, is made up of
several components and is discussed in detail in SLDG 41.

Referring to Figure 21-2.9, taking moments about O and assuming insulator string is rigid (an approximation):-

  Libb  
φ) =  Wi .
TCT.(Libb.sinφ .cosφ  + (WD + WC + WH ).Libb .cosφ  eq. 21-2.31
  2  

1 
φ
TCT.tanφ = + WD + WC + WH eq. 43-2.32
 2 . Wibb 

φ
tanφ =
[Wibb + 2.(WD + WC + WH )] eq. 43-2.33
2.TCT

The angle of declination is therefore given by:-

−1  Wibb + 1 .(W
2 c + WD + WH ) 
φ = tan   eq. 21-2.34
 2.TCT 
where:-

Wibb = Weight of the busbar strain insulator string

WD = Weight of dropper connected to conductor (if any)
WC = Weight of conductor for half the span
WH = Weight of hardware for half the span plus droppers (if any)
TCT = Total bundle conductor tension in Newtons (N)

Conductors are normally tensioned at 90% of the rated maximum permissible loading of the steelwork beam to allow
for upward variances in the conductor tension due to wind loading and temperature changes.

O φ
Sins = Libb.cosφ
½.Libb
φ Libb

½.Libb φ
Sins = Libb.sinφ

Wibb TCT

WD+WC+WH
Figure 21-2.9: Sag Contribution to a Flexible Conductor due to a Strain Insulator Assembly

Once the angle of declination (φ) has been determined, the sag due to the insulator (Sins) is simply calculated as
follows:-

sins = Libb .sinφ eq. 21-2.35

The total sag is then simply:-

fcbb = scbb + sins eq. 21-2.36

As represented in Figure 21-2.8, in like manner, two phases of the busbar conductors will tend to swing towards each
other and one away. As a result of the bundled conductor, it will have sub-conductor spacing of sc. A similar set of
equations as given in paragraph 2.1 is then applicable with similar reasoning.

The busbar conductor horizontal displacement (dsbb) of the two attracting phases towards each other is then:-

o
dsbb = fcbb. sin30 (mm) eq. 21-2.37

where:-

dsbb = Horizontal displacement of the centre-line of the busbar conductor bundle

o
When the conductor swings through the angle of deflection (30 ), the bundle itself also rotates through the same
angle, and so appears shorter in length (schb) in the horizontal direction. This needs to be taken into account.

o
schb = scbb.cos30 eq. 21-2.38

where:-

scbb = Actual distance between the centre-lines of the outer conductors of the bundle
schb = Horizontal component between the centre-lines of the outer conductors of the rotated bundle

Since schb′ is the horizontal component between the centre-lines of the outer conductors of the rotated bundle, 2 times
half the diameter of the applicable conductor needs to added in order to get the dimension to the surface of the
conductor:-

schb′ = schb + dcbb eq. 21-2.39

where:-

dcbb = Diameter of the busbar conductor

sppb = 2.(dsbb + ½.schb′) + Cpp eq. 21-2.40

where:-

sppb = Inter-equipment phase conductors separation

Cpp = Phase-to-phase clearance required at the given voltage

At the busbar level, it would be expedient to add 10% for dimensional variances on the equipment itself due to
temperature changes, and conductor elastic stretch under fault conditions, so that the final conductor phase
attachment points would be:-

Sppb = 1,1.sppb

o
= 1,1.{ 2.[dsbb + ½.(scbb.cos30 + dcbb)] + Cpp} eq. 21-2.41

where:-

Sppb = Implemented busbar phase conductors separation

2.2.2 Stringer Level Conductors

The calculations applicable to the stringer conductors are exactly the same as that for the busbars, however, in
addition to these, a further calculation needs to be made. Referring to Figure 21-2.6, the area encircled in the dashed
loop shows stringer conductors passing a column. An elevation on this area is provided in Figure 21-2.10 below. If the
conductors closest to this column swing out towards it, it should still meet the phase-to-earth clearance (Cpe). It is
o
assumed that the 30 outward swing still holds.

The sag due to the strain string assembly and the conductors own weight is calculated as in paragraph 2.2.1

2
9,81.w.l
s cst = eq. 21-2.42
8.Tc

−1  Wins + 1 .(W
2 c + WD + WH ) 
φ = tan   (from eq. 21-2.34)
 2.TCT 
sins = Lins.sinφ (from eq. 21-2.35)

fcst = scst + sins eq. 21-2.43

o
dsst = fcst. sin30 eq. 21-2.44
o
schs = scst.cos30 eq. 21-2.45

schs′ = schs + dcst eq. 21-2.46

Horizontal Displacement (dsst)

Earth-wire Attachment
schs′
Cpe
Deflection Cpp
= 30o
Stringer Strain Beam

Busbar Suspension Beam scsts

schs
′
Busbar Strain Beam
Hew

Conductor Sag (fcst)

(Maximum Temperature)
Hst

Hbb

Heq

Bay

Figure 21-2.10: Stringer Level Conductor Displacement

For the phase moving towards the column:-

spes1 = dsst + ½.schs′ + Cpe eq. 21-2.47

A 5% margin should be added for dimensional variations

Spes1 = 1,05.(dsst + ½.schs′ + Cpe) eq. 21-2.48

For the two phases moving towards each other:-

spps = 2.(dsst + ½.schs′) + Cpp eq. 21-2.49

Since this is a phase-to-phase condition, 10% is added for dimensional variations due to temperature changes and
conductor stretch under fault conditions.

Spps = 1,1[2.(dsst + ½.schs′) + Cpp] eq. 21-2.50

Figure 21-2.11 illustrates the case where stranded flexible conductor is terminated onto a beam through a strain
insulator string of length Lins. This additional distance needs to be allowed for, particularly when pantograph type
isolators (PG) are installed. Since phase-to-earth has already been allowed for, adding half the length of the insulator
should be sufficient.

spes2 = dsst + ½.schs′ + Cpe + ½.List eq. 21-2.51

A 5% margin should be added for dimensional variations due to temperature changes and conductor stretch under
fault conditions.

Spes2 = 1,1.(dsst + ½.schs′ + Cpe + ½.List) eq. 21-2.52

Horizontal Displacement (dsst)

Earth-wire Attachment
schs′
Cpe
Deflection Cpp
o
= 30
Stringer Strain Beam

½.Lins
Cpe
Busbar Suspension Beam scst
schs

Busbar Strain Conductor Sag (fcst) (Max Temp)

Hew

Hst

Hbb

H'eq

PG PG PG
Bay Width

Figure 21-2.11: Busbar Strain End

The busbar and stringer conductor phase spacing are then summarised in Figure 21-2.12.

Bay Width

Spes1 Spps Spps Spes1 or Spes2

Figure 21-2.12: Fixing Positions on a Beam

3. A WORKED EXAMPLE

The bays are to comprise of 275 kV equipment employing twin Bull conductor, the triple Bull busbar conductors
strained at the ends employing ‘Vee’-type insulator assemblies, while the twin Bull stringer conductors are to be
strained at either end employing ‘I’-type insulator assemblies. (See SLDG 43-1 for the make-up of these insulator
assemblies).

Extract from Table 4-1.2: Standard Electrical and Working Clearances

System Nominal System Highest Minimum Electrical Clearance Working Clearance

Voltage Voltage (mm) (m)
(kV) (kV) Phase-To-Earth Phase-To-Phase Vertical Horizontal*
(Ce) (Cp) (Cvw) (Chw)
275 300 2350 2950 4,8 3,4

The above table is an extract of Table 4-1.2 providing some of the information on 275 kV clearances required for the
calculation.

The value of hti is found from the equipment manufacturers drawing which gives the dimension relative to the base of
the equipment insulator. This value would be typically larger than the phase-to-earth clearance for the given voltage. A
typical value for a 275 kV pantograph isolator would be 2350 mm.

The spacing between consecutive items of equipment in a 275 kV bay depends on the physical size and required
clearances, but a typical conductor span length is around 4 metres. Inter-equipment conductors are typically tensioned
to 1000 N per phase.

3.1 Calculations to Determine Conductor Heights

3.1.1 Equipment Level Conductors

hsi = 2438 (mm) (from eq. 21-2.2)

he = 2438 + hti (mm) (from eq. 21-2.3)

= 2438 + 2350

= 4788 mm

1 2
9,81.m .l
fceq =
8.Tc
2
9,81.2,391 .4
= (from eq. 21-2.1)
8.500
= 0,094 m (94 mm)

he′ = he - fceq (from eq. 21-2.4)

= 4788 - 94

= 4694 mm

he″ = he′ - ½.dc (from eq. 21-2.5)

= 4694 - ½.38

= 4675 mm

Cvw = 4800 > 4675 = he″

If : he″< Cvw (from eq. 21-2.6)

4675 mm < 4800 mm

then : hdiff = Cvwc - he″ (mm) (from eq. 21-2.7)

hdiff = 4800 – 4675

= 125 mm

and : Hequip = Cvw + hdiff (mm) (from eq. 21-2.8)

= 4800 + 125

Hequip = 4925 mm

H'equip = 1,05.Hequip (from eq. 21-2.12)

= 5171 mm

This means that the equipment support structure must be raised by 125 mm.

3.1.2 Busbar Level Conductors

1 2
9,81.m .( l − n.Libb )
fcbb =
8.TCbb
2
9,81.2,391 .(37 - 2.3,658)
= (from eq. 21-2.14)
8.5400
≈ 0,478m (478 mm)

Hbb = 1,05.[ Hequip + Cpp+ fcbb+ ½.(dceq + dcbb) + 500] (mm) (from eq. 21-2.17)

= 1,05.( 1715 + 2950 + 487 + 38 + 500)

Hbb = 9545 mm

3.1.3 Stringer Level Conductors

Stringers are by enlarge never more than a 2 x Bull conductor bundle that should span 1,75 x 18,5m, i.e. 32,375m at a
tension of 9kN per bundle, or 4,5kN per conductor.

The effective length of a 275 kV ‘I’ strain insulator string with 21 discs:-

List = 4770 mm

2
9,81.w.( l − n.List )
fcst =
8.TC
2
9,81.2,391 .(32,375 - 2.4,77)
= (from eq. 21-2.14)
8.4500
≈ 0,340m (340 mm)

Hst = 1,05.[Hbb + Cpp + fcst + ½.(dcbb + dcst)] (mm) (from eq. 21-2.20)

= 1,05.(9545 + 2950 + 340 + 38)

Hst = 13568 mm

3.1.4 Earth-wire Level Conductors

1 2
9,81.m .l
fcew =
8.Tc
2
9,81.0,430 .37
= (from eq. 21-2.1)
8.1500
= 0,481 m (481 mm)

Hew = 1,025.[ Hst + Cpe + fcew + ½.(dc + dew)] (mm) (from eq. 21-2.26)

= 1,1.[13568 + 2350 + 481 + ½.(38 + 14)]

Hew = 17246 mm

Earth-wire Conductors
(Hew)

Stringer Strain Conductors

(Hst)

17246
Busbar Strain Conductors
(Hbb)

13568
Equipment Conductors

9545
(Hequip)

5171

Figure 21-2.13: A Designed 275 kV Column with Various Beam Mounting Heights

3.2 Calculations to Determine Conductor Phase Separation

3.2.1 Equipment Level Conductors

The inter-equipment conductor sag was determined in 3.1.1.

fceq = 0,094 m (94 mm)

o
Due to the low tension in these conductors, it is reasonable to assume that they could easily swing through 90 . In
addition, phase-to-phase clearance needs to be maintained.

Sppe = 1,1.[ 2.(fceq + ½.dceq) + Cpp] (from eq. 21-2.27)

= 1,1.[ 2.(94 + ½.38) + 2950]

= 3493 mm

S′ppe = Sppe + 1000 (from eq. 21-2.30)

= 3493 + 1000

= 4493 mm

3.2.2 Busbar Conductor Phase Spacing

The 3 x Bull busbar conductors should be able to span 2 x 275kV bays. The bay width is determined in SLDG 45-3 but
for illustrative purposes 18,5m is chosen. Two bay widths is then 37m.

Busbar bundle conductor tension is taken as 90% of full load per phase

TCT = 0,9.18000

= 16200 N

Tension per conductor (3 conductors)

TC = 16200/3

= 5400 N

Table 43-1.1 of SLDG 43-1 provides the effective length of a 275 kV ‘Vee’ strain insulator string with 21 discs per leg:-

Linsb = 3658 mm

3.2.2.1 Sag due to Conductor

This was calculated under paragraph 3.1.2:-

scbb = fcbb

= 478 mm

3.2.2.2 Sag due to Insulator

The weight of the ‘Vee’ strain string insulator assembly can be found from the component details given in SLDG 43-1.
These are given here for illustrative purposes.

Wins = 1952 N

Wc = 1044,74 N

WD = 457,39 N

WH = 117,72 N

Angle of inclination:

−1  Wins + 12 .(Wc + WD + WH) 

φ = tan  
 2.T 
−1  1952 + 12 .(1044,74 + 457,39 + 117,72) 
= tan   (from eq. 21-2.34)
 2.16200 
o
= 4,87

Sag due to the insulator:-

sins = Linsb.sinφ
o
= 3658.sin 4,87 (from eq. 21-2.35)

= 311 mm

fcbb = scbb + sins (from eq. 21-2.36)

= 478 + 311
= 889 mm

o
dsbb = fcbb.sin30 (from eq. 21-2.37)

o
= 889.sin30

= 445 mm

o
schb = scbb.cos30 (from eq. 21-2.38)

o
= 330.cos30

= 286

schb′ = schb + dcbb (from eq. 21-2.39)

= 286 + 38

= 324

sppb = 2.(dsbb + ½.schb′) + Cpp (from eq. 21-2.40)

= 2.(445 + ½.324) + 2950

= 4164 mm

Sppb = 1,1.sppb

=1,1.4164

= 4580 mm

3.2.2 Stringer Level Conductors

3.2.2.1 Sag due to Conductor

This was calculated under paragraph 3.1.3:-

scst = fcst

= 340 mm

3.2.2.2 Sag due to Insulator

The weight of the ‘I’ strain string insulator assembly can be found from the component details given in SLDG 43-1.
These are given here for illustrative purposes.

Wins = 1114 N

Wc = 647,49 N

WD = 562,94 N

WH = 117,72 N

Angle of inclination:

−1  Wins + 12 .(Wc + WD + WH) 

φ = tan  
 2.T 
−1  1114 + 12 .(647,49 + 562,94 + 117,72) 
= tan   (from eq. 21-2.34)
 2.9000 
o
= 5,64

Sag due to the insulator:-

sins = Linss .sinφ

o
= 4770.sin 5,64 (from eq. 21-2.35)

= 469 mm

fcst = scst + sins (from eq. 21-2.43)

= 340 + 469
= 809 mm

o
dsst = fcst. sin30 (from eq. 21-2.44)

o
= 809.sin30

= 405 mm

o
schs = scst.cos30 (from eq. 21-2.45)

o
= 330.cos30

= 286

schs′ = schs + dcst (from eq. 21-2.46)

= 286 + 38

= 324

spps = 2.(dsst + ½.schs′) + Cpp (from eq. 21-2.49)

= 2.(405 + ½.324) + 2950

= 4084 mm

Spps = 1,1.spps (from eq. 21-2.50)

=1,1.4084

= 4492 mm

For the phase moving towards the column:-

spes1 = dsst + ½.schs′ + Cpe (from eq. 21-2.47)

= 405 + ½.324 + 2350

= 2917

Spes1 = 1,1.spes1 (from eq. 21-2.48)

=1,1.2917

= 3063 mm

spes2 = dsst + ½.schs′ + Cpe + ½.Linss (from eq. 21-2.51)

= 405 + ½.324 + 2350 + ½.4770

= 5302 mm

Spes2 = 1,05.(spes1 + ½.Linss) (from eq. 21-2.52)

=1,05.5302

= 5568 mm

2.2.3 Common Conductor Phase Spacing for Busbars and Stringers

spp = ½.(sppb + spps) eq. 21-2.53

= ½.(4580 + 4492)

= 4536 mm

The busbar and stringer conductor phase spacing should be 4725mm

17763

3063 4536 4536 3063/55682

7599 7599/10164

Figure 21-2.14: A Designed 275 kV Beam

S.L.D.G. 21 - 3

TYPICAL MAIN STEELWORK FOR OVERHEAD STRUNG FLEXIBLE CONDUCTOR BUSBAR SYSTEMS

1. INTRODUCTION

This document provides diagrams that give details of the various standard ranges of busbar and stringer main support
steelwork for Un system voltages ranging from 6,6 kV to 765 kV:-

Section 2 : 6,6 - 33 kV

3 : 66 kV

4 : 88 kV

5 : 132 kV

6 : 220 / 275 kV

7 : 330 / 400 kV

8 : 765 kV

c) Mounting height

d) Mass

e) Maximum loading

f) Overall dimensions and positions of attachment points

g) Typical layout covering arrangements encountered frequently.

2. 6,6 kV – 33 kV MAIN SUPPORT STEELWORK

Type Description Mounting Loading per Phase for Boxed

Height Structure as shown in Layout Below
(kN)

(m)
B2 Closure Beam 6,700 -

Busbar Strain 5,486

Beams

Busbar Suspension 6,6 kV & 11 kV 6,096

B7 8,30
Busbar Suspension 22 kV & 33 kV 6,400

Stringer Strain 6,700

C2 Column X See Typical Layout Below

Column

EW1 Earth-wire Support X 2,25

X Anti-climb Device ±3,000 X

6700

a) Closure Beam

10058

2591 4876 2591

1677 914 914 3048 914 914 1677

Over Lacing
620
‘U’ Bolt Beam Section
620

360

b) Busbar and Stringer Strain Beam

Earthwire Attachment

Stringer Strain Beam

6400 (22 kV & 33 kV)

Busbar Suspension Beam

6096 (6,6 kV & 11 kV)

9450
Busbar Suspension Beam

6700
Busbar Strain Beam

5486
Anti-climbing Device

±3000
Foundation: 1,200 x 1,200

Over Lacing 620

620

Column Section

Maximum Design Bending Moment

Straight Pull : 48 kNm
o
Angle Pull, 15 : 38 kNm
o
Angle Pull, 30 : 34 kNm

c) Column

Figure 21-3.1: 6,6 kV – 33 kV Main Steelwork

Feeder Bus
or Coupler
Transformer
Col. ‘C2’
EW ‘E1’
Max. Conductor
2
Size = 2 x 400mm
B7
Per Phase

6700
B2
2591
10058
4876

B7 B7
2591

2591 4876 2591 2591 4876 2591 2591 4876 2591

10058 10058 10058
Feeder Feeder Feeder Feeder Feeder Feeder
or or or or or or
Transformer Transformer Transformer Transformer Transformer Transformer

Figure 21-3.2: Typical 6,6 kV – 33 kV Yard Steelwork Layout

2. 6,6 kV – 44 kV MAIN SUPPORT STEELWORK (PRE-0.54/ STANDARDS)

Type Description Mounting Loading per Phase for Boxed Structure

Height as shown in Layout Below (kN)

(m)
B1 6096

B2 6706

B3 7620

B4 8534

B5 9145
Beam

B6 9754

B7 10058

B8 10363

B9 12192

B11 15240

6096
2134 914 914 2134

267 952 952 267

1219 1829 1829 1219

Figure 21-3.3: 6,6 – 33 kV ‘B1’ Beam

6706

267 278 1562 267

3048 1829 1829

Figure 21-3.4: 6,6 – 33 kV ‘B2’ Beam

7620
2134 2134

267 1714 1714 267

1981 1829 1829 1981

Figure 21-3.5: 6,6 – 33 kV ‘B3’ Beams

8534
4267 4267

267 1562 1562 267

1829 2438 2438 1829
Figure 21-3.6: 6,6 – 33 kV ‘B4’ Beam

9145
3658 5487

267 1562 3391 267

1829 1829 1829 3658

Figure 21-3.7: 6,6 – 33 kV ‘B5’ Beam

9745
4872 4873

267 2781 2781 267

3048 1829 1829 3048

Figure 21-3.8: 6,6 – 33 kV ‘B6’ Beam

10058

2591 4876 2591

1677 914 914 3048 914 914 1677

Over Lacing 620

‘U’ Bolt
620

Beam Section
360

Figure 21-3.9: 6,6 – 33 kV ‘B7’ Beam

10363
4267 6096

267 1562 3391 267

1829 2438 2438 3658

Figure 21-3.10: 6,6 – 33 kV ‘B8’ Beam

12192
1219 1829 1829 2438 1829 1829 1219

267 952 952 267

3048 2438 2438 4268

Figure 21-3.11: 6,6 – 33 kV ‘B9’ Beam

15240
3810 7620 3810

267 171 171 267

1981 1829 1829 3962 1829 1829 1981

Figure 21-3.12: 6,6 – 33 kV ‘B11’ Beam

3. 66 kV MAIN SUPPORT STEELWORK

Type Description Mounting Loading per Phase for

Height Boxed Structure as shown
in Layout Below (kN)

(m)
66/25/1 Stringer Strain 7,925 See Typical Layout Below

Busbar Strain or Stringer Strain 6,096 4,5

66/32/1
Busbar Suspension 7,925 4,5
Beam

66/50/1 Stringer Strain 7,925 4,5

Extra Drilling Detail (Required for Beam

4,5 (3,0 if Free Standing as
- Mounted Bypass Isolators; Beam X
Note Below)
Mounted Post Insulator Adaptor 0.54/787)

66/27/1 Column X

EW6 Earth-wire Support X 2,25

Column

Extra Steel for Earth-wire Support (When

- X X
Lightning Spike is Fitted)

- Anti-climbing Device ±3,000 X

- Lightning Spike X X

457
7620
‘U’
508
1829

1829

260
1981 1981
3810 3810
Over
460
9754
‘U’
460
1829

1829

26
3048 3048
4877 4877

1524 1105
‘U’
600
1829

1829
1829

1829

564
1981 1981 1981 1981
3810 3810 3810 3810
7620

Figure 21-3.13: 66 kV Beams

Lightning Spike to Cover

Beam Mounted. Isolator
Earthwire Attachment

Stringer Strain Beam

Busbar Suspension Beam

16500
10668
Busbar Strain Beam

792
6096
Anti-climbing Device

±3000 Foundation: 1,200 x 1,200

0.54/329
Piled: 0.54/2220
Over Lacing 622
622

Maximum Design Bending Moment

Straight Pull : 102 kNm

o
Angle Pull, 15 : 83 kNm
o
Angle Pull, 30 : 75 kNm

Figure 21-3.14: 66 kV Column

Fdr or Trfr Fdr or Trfr Fdr or Trfr Fdr or Trfr Fdr or Trfr Fdr or Trfr Earth-wire

66/50/1
Column
4877
9754

66/32/1
4877

Column
4877
9754

66/32/1
487

Column
For this span, tension is not
to exceed 3kN per phase Beam required in this
7620

when using 66/50/1 Beam position for Bypass

and 2 columns in this Feeder bay
position
End bays
7620 or
9754 or 3810 7620 3810 3810 7620 3810 3810 7620 3810
15240 10058 10058 10058
Bus
Note: Fdr or Trfr Fdr or Trfr Fdr or Trfr Fdr or Trfr Fdr or Trfr
Coupler
If the adjacent is a Bus
Section, or the possibility of Beam required for bay in this
a busbar extension exists, direction when adjacent to the
the end bay may be 9754 Bus Coupler bay (Use 66/50/1
or 15240 Beam & two columns)

Figure 21-3.15: Typical 66 kV Yard Steelwork Layout

4. 88 kV MAIN SUPPORT STEELWORK

Type Description Mounting Loading per Phase for

Height Boxed Structure as
shown in Layout Below

(m) (kN)

88/28/2 Stringer Strain 9,284 9,0

88/34/1 Stringer Strain 9,284 4,5

88/40/1C Stringer Strain 9,284 4,5

Busbar Strain 6,706 4,5

Beam

88/40/1
Busbar Suspension 8,179 -

88/40/2 Busbar Strain 6,706 9,0

Extra Drilling Detail (Required for Beam

- Mounted Bypass Isolators; Beam Mounted X X
Post Insulator Adaptor 0.54/787)

88/H Column X See Typical Layout Below

EW8 Earth-wire Support X 2,25

Column

Extra Steel for Earth-wire Support (When

- X X
Lightning Spike is Fitted)

- Anti-climbing Device ±3,000 X

- Lightning Spike X X

8534

1829 2438 2438 1829

4267 4267

10363

1829 2438 2438 3658

4267 6096

12192

3658 2438 2438 3658

6096 6096

12192

3048 2438 2438 4267

5486 6705

Figure 21-3.16: 88 kV Beams

Lightning Spike to Cover

Beam Mounted Isolator
Earthwire Attachment

Stringer Strain Beam

Busbar Suspension Beam
16500
11430

Busbar Strain Beam

9284
8179
6706

Anti-climbing Device
±3000

Foundation: 1,370 x 1,370

0.54/334
Piled: 0.54/2221
Over Lacing 700
700

Maximum Design Bending Moment

Straight Pull : 176 kNm

o
Angle Pull, 15 : 143 kNm
o
Angle Pull, 30 : 128 kNm

Figure 21-3.17: 88 kV Column

For this span, tension is not

to exceed 3kN per phase
when using 66/50/1 Beam
and 2 columns in this
position

88/40/2 for 9kN/phase

88/40/1 for 4,5kN/phase

Beam required in this

position for Bypass
Feeder bay

Beam required for bay

in this direction when
adjacent to the Bus
Coupler bay (Use
66/50/1 Beam & two Earth-wire Supports
columns)
Earth-wire
Note:
If the adjacent is a Bus
1829
1829

1829

1829
1829

1829

Section, or the possibility of a 2438 2438 2438 2438 2438 2438 2438 2438 3658
busbar extension exists, the
182 4267 4267 4267 4267 4267 4267 4267 6096
end bay may be 10363 or
12192 6096
8534
8534 or 10363 or 12192
End bays 7620 or 9754 or 15240

Figure 21-3.18: Typical 88 kV Yard Steelwork Layout

5. 132 kV MAIN SUPPORT STEELWORK

Type Description Mounting Loading per Phase for Boxed

Height Structure as shown in Layout
Below (kN)

(m)
132/40/1 Stringer Strain 6,0

132/39/1 Stringer Strain 6,0

132/35/1 Stringer Strain 10,668 6,0

132/34/1 Stringer Strain 6,0

Stringer Strain 9,0

Beam

132/50/1 Busbar Strain 7,620 9,0

Busbar Suspension 9,728 -

Busbar Strain 10,668 18

132/50/2
Busbar Strain 7,620 18

Extra Drilling Detail (Required for

Beam Mounted Bypass Isolators;
- X X
Beam Mounted Post Insulator Adaptor
0.54/787)

88/H Column X See Typical Layout Below

EW8 Earth-wire Support X 2,25

Column

Extra Steel for Earth-wire Support

- X X
(When Lightning Spike is Fitted)

- Anti-climbing Device ±3,000 X

- Lightning Spike X X

10260

2082 3048 3048 2082

5130 5130

10800

2952 3048 3048 2952

5400 5400

12000

295 3048 304 2952

6000 6000

12192

3048 3048 3048 3048

6096 6096

15240

4267 3048 3048 4877

7315 7925

Figure 21-3.19: 132 kV Beams

Lightning Spike to Cover Beam

Mounted Isolator
Earth-wire Attachment

Stringer Strain Beam

20000

Busbar Suspension Beam

14326

Busbar Strain Beam

10668
9728
7620

Anti-climbing Device
±3000

700
Over Lacing
700

Figure 21-3.20: 132 kV Column

12192 or 15240
End bays 15240

Earth-wire
7925
15240
7315

132/50/2 for 18kN/phase

132/50/1 for 9kN/phase
7315
15240
7925

Propped for busbar loading

of 18kN/phase

Note:
Prop not required when 7925 7925
pad type foundations are Beam required in
used this position for
Bypass Feeder bay

Extended bay Earth-wire Supports

required when Bus
adjacent to the Bus Coupler
Coupler bay

Figure 21-3.21: Typical 132 kV Yard Steelwork Layout

6. 220 kV - 275 kV MAIN SUPPORT STEELWORK (VERSION 1)

Type Description Mounting Loading per Phase for Boxed Structure

Height as shown in Layout Below

(m) (kN)

Closure Beam X

Stringer Strain 9,0

Stringer Strain
Beams also
Stringer Strain 14,021 18,0
Provided with
‘Vee’-Suspension
9,0
Insulator
Beam

Attachment Points Stringer Strain

12,0

‘Vee’ and Straight

Insulator Busbar Strain 9,754 18,0
Attachment Points

‘Vee’ Insulator
Busbar Suspension 13,106 4,5
String

Column - Light X

HC1 X

HC2 See Typical Layout Below

Column - Heavy
With Provision for
Column

X
Busbar Beams
Only

Earth-wire Support X 2,25

Anti-climbing Device ±3,000 X

7925

15240

3353 4267 4267 335

7620 7620

18288

335 4267 4267 6401

7620 10668

18288

3048 4572 4572 6096

7620 10668

18288

3048 4572 4572 6096

7620 10668
Figure 21-3.22: 220 kV – 275 kV Beams (Pre-1990)

Earth-wire Attachment
Maximum Design Bending Moment
(kNm)
Stringer Strain Beam Column Type Heavy Light
832 Straight Pull 460 268
o
Angle Pull 15 370 218
Busbar Suspension Beam Angle Pull o
30 334 195

Foundation (0.54/)
18288

Busbar Strain
Column Type Heavy Light
14021

Mass Concrete 351 352

Piled 170 170
13106

1100 x 1100
Pad
9754

Anti-climbing Device
±3500

1219
Foundation: 1,830 x 1,830

Figure 21-3.23: 220 kV – 275 kV Columns (Version 1)

End Bay Bus Coupler End Bay

18288 15240 15240 18288

H* H *
H

Earth-wire

H H
7620
18288

10668

H H
H H H
10668
18288

7620

H L
H

Pantograph *
H If no possibility exists of
Isolator future extensions, this
column could be light

*
H *
H *
H *
H

Figure 21-3.24 : 220 – 275 kV Main Steelwork (Version 1)

7. 220 kV - 275 kV MAIN SUPPORT STEELWORK (VERSION 2)

Type Description Mounting Loading per Phase for Boxed

Height Structure as shown in Layout Below

(m) (kN)

NB1 Stringer Strain with Vee Suspension 16,5 18

NB2 Stringer Strain with Vee Suspension 16,5 18

Beam

NB3 Busbar Strain with Vee Suspension 11,5 18

NB4 Busbar Vee Suspension 15,1 4,5

NB5 Stringer Strain 16,5 18

NC1 2 x Stringer Strain Points & Earth-wire X

NC2 1 x Stringer Strain Point & Earth-wire X

NC3 2 x Stringer Strain & 2 x Busbar Earth-wire

Suspension Points Peak can be
fitted to See beam loadings above
NC4 1 x Busbar Suspension Point these
columns to
2 x Stringer Strain & 2 x Busbar Strain provide
Column

NC5
Points earth-wire
support at
NC6 1 x Busbar Strain Point 22m

For
- Earth-wire Peak columns 2
NC3 – NC6

For
columns
- Anti-climbing Device X
NC1 – NC6
at 3m

NC1
– Pad Foundation X X
NC6
Column

NC1
& Pile Foundation X X
NC2

NC1
– Mass Concrete Foundation X X
NC6

16000

Beam NB5

3500 4500 4500 3500

8000 8000

a) 16 m Beam

18000

Beams NB1 & NB2

4500 4500 4500 4500

9000 9000

b) 18 m Beam

18500

Beams NB3 & NB4

3500 4500 4500 6000

8000 10500

c) 18,5 m Beam

Over Lacings

1040 ‘U’ Bolt 1120 ‘U’ Bolt 1120 ‘U’ Bolt

(Strain) (Strain) (Strain)
720
740
740

400

400
400

550 600
‘U’ Bolt ‘U’ Bolt ‘U’ Bolt
(Suspension) (Suspension) (Suspension)

NB1 NB2 & NB3 NB4

d) Beam Sections

Figure 21-3.25: 220 kV – 275 kV Beams (Version 2)

22000 22000 22000

Optional
Earth-wire
16500 16500 16500
NB1 NB1 NB1
1510
NB4

1630 x 1200 1630 x 1200 5000

1630 x 1200
3000 3000 3000 Dimensions
Anti-climbing Anti-climbing Anti-climbing
Over Lacing
Device Device Device
at Isolator
Blade Level

NC1 NC2 NC3

NB1 NB2

NB4 NB4

NB1 NB1 NB2

Figure 21-3.26: 220 kV – 275 kV Main Steelwork (Version 2)

22000 22000 22000

Optional Optional Optional

Earth-wire Peak Earth-wire Peak Earth-wire Peak
16500
NB1
15100
NB4

11500 11500
NB3 NB3

5000
1170 x 1170 1190 x 1190 1170 x 1170
3000 3000 3000 Dimensions
Anti-climbing Anti-climbing Anti-climbing Over Lacing
Device Device Device at Isolator
Blade Level

NC4 NC5 NC6

NB2 NB2

NB3 NB3 NB4 NB4

NB1 NB2 NB2

Figure 21-3.27: 220 kV – 275 kV Main Steelwork (Version 2)

End Bay End Bay

18500 16000 16000 18500

Earth-wire
8000
18500

10500
10500
18500

8000

Pantograph
Isolator

Figure 21-3.28: 220 – 275 kV Main Steelwork (Version 2)

8. 330 kV - 400 kV MAIN SUPPORT STEELWORK (VERSION 1)

Type Description Mounting Loading per Phase for Boxed Structure as

Height shown in Layout Below

(m) (kN)

B2 Busbar Vee Suspension 17,069 3,22

B3 Stringer Strain 20,422 9,0

C5 - 10,135
B4 Lightning Arrester Support Beam 13,5
C13 - 11,455

B5 Stringer Suspension 24,460 6,5

B6 Busbar Strain (Straight & Vee) 13,106 18

Beams

Strain
9,0
B7 Stringer Strain 20,422
Suspension
3,22

Strain
Stringer Strain - Modification to 9,0
B3 Beam to Convert to a B7 20,422
Beam Suspension
3,22

Over
Lacing 1320
23774
‘U’ Bolt
815

CL Col CL Col 690

CL Phase CL Phase CL Phase
4877 7010 7010 4877 Beam B6
11877 11877

a) 23,774 m Beam With 7,01 m Phase Spacing Both Sides of Beam 825

‘U’ Bolt
4877 7010 7010 4877
825

CL Col C Col
Maximum CL Phase CL Phase CL Phase L Beam 445
Deviation of
Conductors Beams B2 – B5 & B7
o
30 at Full
Loading c) Beam Sections
CL Phase CL Phase CL Phase
3505 8382 8382 3505
11877 11877
b) 23,774 m Beam With 7,01 m Phase Spacing One Side and 8,382 on Other Side of Beam

Figure 21-3.29 : 330 – 400 kV Main Steelwork (Version 1)

Table 21-3.12

Description Mounting Loading per Phase for Boxed Structure

Height as shown in Layout Below

(m) (kN)

C1 1 x Busbar Strain Point & Earth-wire X X

1 x Busbar Suspension Point & Earth-

C2 X X
wire

C3 1 x Stringer Strain Point & Earth-wire X X

C4 2 x Stringer Strain Points & Earth-wire X X

2 x Stringer Suspension Points &

Earth-wire
C5 X X
2 x L/AR Beam Support Points &
Earth-wire

C6 1 x Busbar Strain Point X X

C7 1 x Busbar Suspension Point X X

C7A 2 x Busbar Suspension Points X X

C7 &
C7A Column Extension to Carry Beam B5
X X
Adap (Stringer Suspension) No Earth-wire
Columns

tor

1 x Stringer Strain Point or Strain

C8 X X
Point on Column

C9 2 x Stringer Strain Points X X

C10 2 x Busbar Strain Points X X

2 x Stringer Suspension Points &

Earth-wire or 2 x Stringer Strain, 2 x
C11 X X
Busbar Suspension Points & Earth-
wire

2 x Stringer Suspension Points 2 x

C12 Busbar Suspension Points & Earth- X X
wire

1 x Stringer Strain
C13 1 x L/AR Beam Support Point & Earth- X X
wire

C14 1 x Busbar Strain Point at 11m X X

C15 2 x Busbar Strain Points at 11m X X

Description Mounting Loading per Phase for Boxed Structure

Height as shown in Layout Below

(m) (kN)

For use on Column C5 X X

Anti-climbing Device

For use on Columns C2, C7, C7A &

X X
C12

For use on Columns C1 & C6 X X

For use on Columns C3, C4, C8, C9,

X X
C10, C11 & C13

Table 21-3.12

330 kV - 4005 kV Main Support Steelwork (Pre-1990)

Type Description Mounting Loading per Phase for Boxed Structure

Height as shown in Layout Below (kN)

(m)
C1 –
Pad Foundation X X
C13
Piled Foundations

C1 & C6 X X
Column

C2, C7, C7A & C12 X X

C3, C4, C8, C9, C10, C11 & C13 X X

C5 X X

C1 –
Mass Concrete Foundation X X
C6

2743 2743 27432

20442

17069
B2
B3
1310
B6

990 x 1020 6500

1960 x 1040 1960 x 1040
Dimensions
Over Lacing
at Isolator
Blade Level

C1 C2 C3

Foundation Foundation Foundation

3000 x 1500 2000 x 2000 3000 x 1500

B6
B2 B3

Figure 21-3.30: 330 – 400 kV Main Steelwork (Version 1)

27432 27432

24460
B3
20442
B3

13106
B6
10135
B4
6500
1960 x 1040 1520 x 1040 1960 x 1040
Dimensions
Over
Lacing
at Isolator
Blade Level
C4 C5 C6

B3 OR B7 B4 OR B5
Foundation Foundation
3000 x 2500 Foundation 3000 x 1500
2200 x 2000

B3 OR B7 B6
B4 OR B5
Figure 21-3.30 (Cont): 330 – 400 kV Main Steelwork (Version 1)

2044

17069 17069
B2 B2

650
990 x 1020 990 x 1020 1960 x 1040
Dimensions
Over Lacing
at Isolator
Blade Level

C7 C7A C8

B2 Foundation
3000 x 1500

Foundation Foundation
2000 x 2000 2000 x 2000

B2 B2
Figure 21-3.30: 330 – 400 kV Main Steelwork (Version 1) (Continued)

2743

24460
B5
20442 2044
B3 OR B7
1706
B2 B2
13106
B6

6500
1960 x 1040 1960 x 1040 1850 x 1040
Dimensions
Over Lacing
at Isolator
Blade Level

C9 C10 C11 B2

B6 B2 B3 OR B7
B3
Foundation
Foundation 3000 x 2500 Foundation
3000 x 2500 2000 x 2000

B5 B5

B6
B3 B3 OR B7
B2
Figure 21-3.30: 330 – 400 kV Main Steelwork (Version 1) (Continued)

2743 27432

2446
B5 B5
20442
B3
17069
B2

11455 11000 11000

B4 B6 B6

6500
990 X 1020 1960 x 1040 1960 x 1040 1960 x 1040
Dimensions
Over Lacing
at Isolator
Blade Level

C12 C13 C14 C15

B2 B6
Foundation Foundation
Foundation Foundation 3000 x 1500 3000 x 2500
2000 x 2000 3000 x 1500

B5 B5

B3 B4
B6 B6
B2
Figure 21-3.30 (Cont): 330 – 400 kV Main Steelwork (Pre-1990)

9. 330 kV - 400 kV MAIN SUPPORT STEELWORK (VERSION 2)

Beams - 330 kV - 400 kV Main Support Steelwork (Version 2)

Type Description Drawing Mounting Loading per

Number Height Phase for
0.54/ Boxed
Structure as
shown in
Layout Below
(m) (kN)

Stringer Strain (6m phase centres

NB1 on both side of the beam) with 3532 20 18
Vee Suspension

Stringer Strain (6m & 8m phase

NB2 centres on both side of the beam) 3533 20 18
with Vee Suspension

Busbar Vee Strain with Vee 3536

NB3 13 18
Suspension

Stringer Vee Suspension 24,5

NB4 3540 4,5
Busbar Vee Suspension 17,5

Stringer Strain (6m & 8m phase

centres on both side of the beam)
NB5 4289 20 18
with Vee Suspension (with
provision for post insulators)

Busbar Vee Strain with Vee

NB6 Suspension (with provision for 4278 13 18
post insulators)

NB7 Stringer Strain (20m) 5520 20 18

Busbar Vee Strain with Vee 18

NB8 4461 7,5
Suspension (Special)

NB1, NB2, NB3, NB5 & NB6 are interchangeable

20000

CL Col CL
Col
CL Phase CL Phase CL Phase
4000 6000 6000 4000
10000 10000
NB7

24000 Over
Lacing 1440
6000 6000 6000 6000 ‘U’ Bolt
CL Phase CL Phase CL Phase Strain

650
1260
750
CL Col CL Col ‘U’ Bolt
CL Phase CL Phase CL Phase Suspension

6000 6000 6000 6000 Beams NB1 – NB3,

NB5 – NB8
12000 12000
980
NB1, NB3, NB4 & NB6

530
24000

980
6000 6000 6000 6000
CL Phase CL Phase CL Phase
‘U’ Bolt
CL Col CL Col Suspension
Maximum Beam B3
Deviation of Beams NB4
Conductors
o
30 at Full Beam
Loading
CL Phase CL Phase CL Phase
4000 8000 8000 4000
12000 12000

NB2, NB5 & NB8

Figure 21-3.31: 330 – 400 kV Main Steelwork (Version 2)

Columns - 330 kV - 400 kV Main Support Steelwork (Version 2)

Type Description Remarks

NC1 2 x Stringer Strain Points & Earth-wire X

NC2 1 x Stringer Strain Point & Earth-wire X

NC3
1 x Busbar Strain Point & Earth-wire

NC4 2 x Busbar Strain Points

Earth-wire Peak can be fitted
NC5 1 x Stringer Suspension Point
to these columns to provide
1 x Busbar Suspension Point earth-wire support at 27m

NC6 2 x Stringer Suspension Points

1 x Busbar Suspension Point

NC7 1 x Stringer Suspension Point

2 x Busbar Suspension Points

NC8 2 x Stringer Suspension Points

2 x Busbar Suspension Points

NC9 1 x Stringer Suspension Point

NC10 1 x Busbar Suspension Point

NC11 1 x Busbar Strain Point

NC12 1 x Stringer Strain Point

1 x 7,5m High Busbar Strain Point

NC13 1 x 7,5m High Busbar Strain Point

1 x Stringer Strain Point

NC14
1 x 13m High Busbar Strain Point

1 x Stringer Strain Point

NC15
1 x 16,5m High Busbar Strain Point

1 x Stringer Strain Point

NC16
1 x 9,5m High Busbar Strain Point Without Earth-wire Peak
2 x Stringer Strain Point
NC17
2 x 13m High Busbar Strain Point

1 x Stringer Strain Point

NC18
1 x 9,5m High Busbar Strain Point With Earth-wire Peak
- Earth-wire Peak For columns NC5 – NC9

- For columns NC1 – NC12 at

Anti-climbing Device
3m

Columns Foundations - 330 kV - 400 kV Main Support Steelwork (Version 2)

Type Description Remarks

NC1 – NC12 Pad Foundation

NC1 – NC4,
Pile Foundation
NC11 & NC12

NC1 – NC12 Mass Concrete Foundation

27000 27000 27000

20000 20000
NB1 OR NB2 OR NB7 NB1 OR NB2 OR NB7

13000
NB3 OR NB8

6500
2750 x 1360 2750 x 1360 2240 x 1340
3000 3000 3000 Dimensions
Anti-Climb Over Lacing
Device at Isolator
Blade Level

NC1 NC2 NC3

NB1 OR NB2 OR NB7

Foundation Foundation Foundation
3600 x 1600 3600 x 1600 3100 x 1600

NB1 OR NB2 OR NB7 NB1 OR NB2 OR NB7 NB3 OR NB8

Figure 21-3.32: 330 – 400 kV Main Steelwork (Version 2)

27000 27000 27000

20000 20000
NB1 OR NB2 OR NB7 NB1 OR NB2 OR NB7

13000
NB3 OR NB8

6500
2750 x 1360 2750 x 1360 2240 x 1340
3000 3000 3000 Dimensions
Anti-Climb Over Lacing
Device at Isolator
Blade Level

NC1 NC2 NC3

NB1 OR NB2 OR NB7

Foundation Foundation Foundation
3600 x 1600 3600 x 1600 3100 x 1600

NB1 OR NB2 OR NB7 NB1 OR NB2 OR NB7 NB3 OR NB8

Figure 21-3.32: 330 – 400 kV Main Steelwork (Version 2) (Continued)

27000 Optional 27000 Optional

Earth-wire Earth-wire
24500 Peak 24500 Peak
NB4 NB4

17500 17500
NB4 NB4
13106
NB3 OR NB8

2260 x 1340 6500

1260 x 1260 1260 x 1260
3000 3500 3500 Dimensions
Anti-Climb Over
Device Lacing
at Isolator
Blade Level
NC4 NC5 NC6

NB3 OR NB8
NB
Foundation Foundation Foundation
3100 x 1600 1600 x 1600 1600 x 1600

NB4 NB4

NB3 OR NB8
NB NB
Figure 21-3.32: 330 – 400 kV Main Steelwork (Version 2) (Continued)

27000

20000
NB1 OR NB2
17500
NB
13000
NB3

9500
NB3 6500
1260 X 1260 2240 x 1340 2750 x 1360
Anti-Climb 3500
Device 3000 3000 Dimensions
Over Lacing
at Isolator
Blade Level

NC1 NC11 NC12

NB3 OR NB8

Foundation Foundation Foundation

1600 x 1600 3100 x 1600 3600 x 1600

NB NB3 OR NB8 NB1 OR NB2

Figure 21-3.32: 330 – 400 kV Main Steelwork (Version 2) (Continued)

27000 27000

20000 20000
NB1 OR NB2 NB1 OR NB2

16500
NB3 OR NB6
13000 OR NB8
NB3 OR NB6
OR NB8
8618
7500
NB3 OR NB6 6500
OR NB8 2240 x 1340 2750 x 1360 2750 x 1360
3000 3000 3000 Dimensions
Over Lacing
at Isolator
Blade Level

NC13 NC14 NC15

Foundation Foundation Foundation

3100 x 1600 3600 x 1600 3600 x 1600

NB1 OR NB2 NB1 OR NB2

NB3 OR NB6 OR NB8 NB3 OR NB6 OR NB8

Figure 21-3.32: 330 – 400 kV Main Steelwork (Version 2) (Continued)

27000 27000

20000 20000 20000

NB1 OR NB2 NB1 OR NB2 NB1 OR NB2

13000
NB3 OR NB6
OR NB8
9500 9500
NB8 NB8
6500
2750 x 1360 2750 x 1360 2750 x 1360
3000 3000 300 Dimensions
Over Lacing
at Isolator
Blade Level

NC16 NC17 NC18

NB2 & NB8

Foundation Foundation Foundation
3600 x 1600 3600 x 1600 3600 x 1600

NB1 OR NB2 NB1 OR NB2 NB1 OR NB2

NB2 & NB8 NB2 & NB8 NB2 OR NB8

Figure 21-3.32: 330 – 400 kV Main Steelwork (Version 2) (Continued)

Table 21-3.16: 765 kV Main Support Steelwork

Type Description Mounting Loading per Phase for Boxed

Height Structure as shown in Layout Below

(m) (kN)

Stringer Strain (14m phase centres on

B1 25
one side of the beam)
25,5 or
Beams

Stringer Strain (14m phase centres on

30
B2 both side of the beam) with Vee 30
Stabilisers

Table 21-3.17: Columns - 765 kV Main Support Steelwork

Type Description Remarks

C1
Line Terminating Gantry Columns Beam at 25,5m
C2

C3 Earth-wire Support Structure X

CS1 2 x Stringer Strain Points & Earth-wire

Beam at 30,211m
CS2 1 x Stringer Strain Point & Earth-wire

Anti-climbing Device

Table 21-3.18: Columns Foundations - 765 kV Main Support Steelwork

Type Description Remarks

C1 & C2 Line Terminating Support Structure X

C3 Earth-wire Support Structure X

CS1 & CS2 Pad Foundation X

33000 33000 33000

25500 25500
B1 OR B2 B1 OR B2

C1 C2 C3

B1 OR B2
Foundation Foundation
Foundation
3600 x 1600 2050 x 2050
3100 x 1600

B1 OR B2 B1 OR B2

Figure 21-3.33: 765 kV Main Steelwork (Version 1)

37716 37716

30000 30000
B1 OR B2 B1 OR B2

B1 OR B2 B1 OR B2 B1 OR B2

CS2 CS1 CS1 CS2

CS1 CS2

B1 OR B2
Foundation Foundation
3100 x 1600 3600 x 1600

B1 OR B2 B1 OR B2
Figure 21-3.34: 765 kV Main Steelwork (Version 2)

SLDG 22-1

CORROSION

1. GENERAL

Corrosion is the deterioration of a metal by chemical or electrochemical reaction with its environment. The basic reason for
corrosion problems in and around the substation earthing grid is electrochemical in nature.

1.1 Characteristics of Corrosion

The way in which corrosion affects underground structures varies depending on the mechanism and circumstances. In
general, there are two types of corrosion. One is the general metal loss in which the entire surface of the metal exposed to
the soil in a given area is corroded away. Typical of this is the general thinning of strands on a concentric neutral cable
throughout the area. The second type of corrosion is localized or “pitting”- type corrosion. In this form, very local areas of
metal are attacked while the metal immediately adjacent remains untouched. This type of corrosion can also be found on
concentric neutral cables. It generally results in the breakage of many of the individual strands of the neutral, rendering it
disconnected and either useless or significantly reduced.

The important difference between local pitting corrosion and general metal loss is that it takes very little metal loss of the
local pitting type of corrosion to cause complete loss of continuity in a neutral conductor or to penetrate a pipe wall or lead
sheath. Therefore, local pitting-type corrosion is more serious to the power industry.

The substation earthing grid corrosion is caused by an electrochemical reaction in the soil environment called a “galvanic
cell” or sometimes a “corrosion cell”. The galvanic cell is made up of three parts: the anode, the cathode, and the electrolyte.

The environment that we are talking about (soil in this example) is called the electrolyte. The electrolyte is defined as an
ionic conductor. In other words, it transfers or allows the transfer of ions.

It is necessary for the anode and the cathode to be connected together electrically to complete the corrosion cell. For a
corrosion cell to function, there has to be an electrical potential between the anode and the cathode.

The electrical potential can result from a number of conditions. Two of the most common corrosion cells encountered result
from:

a) Dissimilar metals in the same environment

b) The same metal in dissimilar environments

1.2 Dissimilar Metals

When two dissimilar metals are placed in the same environment, there will be a difference in dc voltage because of the
different activity levels that the metals occupy in the Electromotive Force (EMF) series. In a typical substation, a voltage
difference of the order of 1 volt will probably exist between a copper earth cable and galvanized steel structures, and a dc
corrosion current will flow from the steel. The current will be limited by the resistance between the structures in accordance
with Ohm’s law and also by surface films, which may greatly reduce the current and the rate of corrosion. Another example
of dissimilar metal corrosion would be an underground bare copper cable and a galvanized conduit buried in the ground
inside a substation.

There are other examples of dissimilar metal corrosion.

1.2.1 Old Steel vs New Steel

When old steel is connected to new steel, the old steel actually acts as the cathode and the new steel acts as the anode
(see Figure 22-1.1).

New Steel Pipe Old Steel Pipe

Figure 22-1.1: Dissimilar Metal Corrosion – Old Steel vs New Steel

1.2.2 Stress Corrosion

Areas of metal that are under stress (i.e. straight pipe that is bent for construction purposes) tend to be anodic compared to
areas that are not under stress.

1.3 Dissimilar Environments

Differences in dc potential along the earth grid conductors or concentric neutrals can be caused by varying oxygen
concentrations, different values of pH, or because the soil resistivity varies over a fairly wide range. In this case, areas
affected by corrosion may be at random locations that would have to be located.

There are other examples of dissimilar environmental corrosion.

1.3.1 Oxygen versus No Oxygen

One element that is very important in its effect on underground corrosion is oxygen. Either through its presence or its
absence, oxygen is one of the primary causes of metal deterioration underground. As a result of soil compaction during
backfill, the type of soil, or the steel conduit being laid in the bottom of the trench, steel conduits often have less oxygen near
the bottom of the pipe (see Figure 22-1.2).

+ Conventional Current Flow

Disturbed Loose Soil

More Oxygen

Cathodic
Anodic

Virgin Soil – Tight Compaction

Less Oxygen

Figure 22-1.2: Dissimilar Environmental Corrosion – More Oxygen vs. Less Oxygen

1.3.2 Different types of Soil from Location to Location

Depending on the type of soil (sandy, clay, loam, etc), the pipe may vary from anodic to cathodic. This generally does not
occur in smaller substations, but should be a consideration in large substations (see Figure 22-1.3).

+ Conventional Current Flow

Anodic Cathodic Anodic

Loamy Soil Clay Soil Loamy Soil

Figure 22-1.3: Dissimilar Environmental Corrosion – Different Soil Types

For a more detailed treatment of basic corrosion theory, see the References in Section .4.

2. PRELIMINARY PREVENTATIVE MEASURES

2.1 Surveys

It is important that certain data be obtained prior to final site selection so that corrosion problems can be avoided or
minimized. This procedure ensures that design and/or material selection will minimize possible corrosion problems. The
preliminary data should include the following items.

2.1.1 Soil Resistivity Survey

A soil resistivity survey at each proposed site is the necessary first step, since the economic choices of materials and
designs will vary with soil resistivity. Once soil resistivities are known, decisions can be made regarding overhead or
underground feeder construction, the use of jacketed cable, and anodes and other cathodic protection against corrosion.

For soils of high resistivity (over 200 Ω-m) where both earthing and cathodic protection are difficult to accomplish, semi-
conducting jacketed cable may be the most effective.

One way to obtaining this information would be to use the four-pin method described in SLDG 19-1 of this design guide.

2.1.2 pH Survey

A pH survey of each substation site should also be part of any corrosion evaluation. Soils seldom have a pH lower than 5
(acidic) or greater than 8 (alkaline), where 7,0 is neutral. Soils of a pH of 5 and lower can contribute to severe corrosion and
rapid deterioration of exposed metals. Acid soil conditions are usually limited to soils containing decomposed acidic plants
and needles from coniferous trees. Soils with a pH of 8 and above can contain a high concentration of dissolved salts
resulting in a low soil resistivity. Soils of this type are referred to as alkaline or calcareous. Alkaline soils are high in sodium
and potassium, while calcareous soils are high in magnesium and calcium. Alkaline earth elements such as magnesium and
calcium tend to form protective layers on ferrous metal surfaces and are considered favourable environments for metals.

2.2 Selection of Materials

Material selection should be such so as to minimize dissimilar-metal corrosion effects due to buried copper and steel (or
other metals) in the same environment. For example, the earthing system at any one substation location should consist
wholly either copper or steel. This is particularly important in corrosive soils such as those with low values of earth resistivity
(less than 20 to 30 Ω-m). No commonly used material can be wholly immune to possible corrosion damage. However, in the
absence of a planned maintenance programme to periodically determine the specific condition of the earth grid conductors,
the final choice of material should consider the available, proven historical records of the materials under construction.

Where buried steel such as steel anchor assemblies, piping, and conduit is of necessity connected to the copper earthing
grid for safety, the higher ratio of steel-to-copper surface area the less likely will be the adverse effects of corrosion of the
steel. Where the copper earthing system is the only metal placed in the substation soil, one must be alert for possible
interconnected steel in nearby line anchor assemblies, piping, wells, conduit, or oil or gas lines that may be inadvertently
connected to the earthing system and subject to accelerated corrosion. Where such conditions exist, cathodic protection of
the interconnected steel may be necessary. For large substations, a rectifier-type cathodic protection scheme may be
required.

3. TESTING AND INSTALLATION

3.1 Earth Resistivity Measurements

Earth resistivity in undisturbed soil may be determined with a four-terminal earth tester and test electrodes. Avoid test
locations close to parts of an existing earth mat or other buried metal. See SLDG 19-1 of this design guide for a full
description of testing and analyzing resistivity.

3.2 Soil Samples

Soil samples need to be obtained at the approximate depth of the underground structures in the substation by utilizing an
soil auger. A pH reading can either be taken immediately, or the sample stored in an airtight container such as a plastic bag
and the readings taken later. Lower pH values generally indicate more corrosive soils. These tests can be handled by a test
laboratory.

3.3 Anode Locations

Sacrificial anodes, where employed, should be placed:

3.3.1 At locations of the lowest resistivity within or near the substation area

3.3.2 At depths at least equal to those of the earth grid and/or other assemblies to be protected

3.3.3 Three to six metres away from the buried bare conductors or other assemblies, to the extent that space allows

Usual anode locations are at edges or corners of the earth grid, and at structures in low-resistivity locations near the
substation. The connection from the anode to the system neutral and station grid should be reliable and have low resistance.
Compression fittings or exothermic welded connections are preferable to bolted connections or clamps.

3.4 Underground Connections

Exothermic welding is preferred to clamps or bolted connections for dissimilar-metal (copper-to-steel) connections
underground. For similar metal, copper-to-copper or steel-to-steel (galvanized) connections, suitable bolted or clamped
connections with clamps of the same material should be satisfactory. Welds should be covered with mastic or other
underground coating (such as used for pipelines) in very corrosive soils with resistivities in the range below 10 ohm-metres.
In most soils this is not considered necessary.

3.5 Estimating Corrosion Conditions from DC Potential Measurements

One frequently used indicator of corrosion or freedom from corrosion is the dc potential (voltage) measured from copper-
copper sulphate reference electrode or half-cell. This measurement is made as illustrated in Figure 22-1.4.

DC Voltmeter

+ -

Reference
Electrode Grade

Underground
Structure

Figure 22-1.4: DC Potential Measurement for Indication of Corrosion Conditions

The copper-copper sulphate half-cell is a copper rod surrounded by a saturated solution of copper sulphate (blue vitriol) in
water, with a porous plug to allow the solution to come in contact with the soil. The voltmeter usually is a potentiometer (null-
type) voltmeter or special high-resistance (10 megohms or higher) low-range voltmeter. However, a useful reading may also
be possible with a 20 000 ohm-per-volt dc meter with a 2,5 volt range as shown in Figure 22-1.5.

The variations in dc voltage are small and often expressed in millivolts. Usually, the neutral is negative with respect to the
copper-copper sulphate half-cell. Table 22-1.1 lists some typical potentials for metals and combinations of metals that may
be present and connected to a substation earth grid.

Table 22-1.1: Typical DC Potentials of Various Buried Metals

Buried Metal Typical Potential Volts

Zinc or new galvanised steel -1,1 or more negative
Steel fully protected against corrosion -0,85 or more negative
Old buried steel pipe -0,65
“Copper-earthed” neutral with anchors and steel piping -0,50 to -0,65
connected
All copper earthed neutral -0,30

Test Lead to
Voltmeter (+)
Terminal

Removable Cap

Copper Rod

Saturated Solution of
Transparent Copper Sulphate in
Plastic Tube Distilled Water

Copper Sulphate
Crystals to Maintain
Porous Ceramic Plug Saturated Solution
Contacting Surface of
Earth
Grade

Figure 22-1.5: Copper – Copper Sulphate Half-Cell

DC potential measurements indicate the effectiveness of anodes for cathodic protection. For example, anodes may be
installed at a copper-earthed substation to relieve corrosion of anchor rods near the substation. If the anodes are effective,
the station earth grid becomes more negative. The potential might be shifted from -0,55V to -0,75V. In a situation where
original rods have begun to fail after 15 years, such a change should be adequate to ensure permanence of the newly
installed anchors. In very corrosive soils (such that anchor rods might otherwise fail in five years or less), a shift to at least -
0,85V may be needed for complete protection.

Very little is known about potentials of copper corroding in soil. Copper corrosion, however, has been observed in a neutral
to moderately alkaline soil (pH 7,1 to 8,0) at potentials of -0,10V to +0,047V with reference to a copper-copper sulphate half
cell. For the present, if cathodic protection of copper is found to be necessary, a potential of -0,35V is suggested for
purposes of design.

In distribution substations, underground exit feeders with bare concentric neutrals may be vulnerable to corrosion. They
should be provided with cathodic protection if the possibility of corrosion is believed to exist.

In addition to dc potentials, the measurements in Table 22-1.2 have significance in underground corrosion surveys.

Earth resistivity measurements help to indicate the degree of corrosiveness of the soil. Low resistivity soils (lower than 15 to
20 ohm-metres) are regarded as relatively corrosive to steel and copper. High resistivity, well-aerated soils such as sand
and gravel may also be corrosive to copper. Locations of sudden change in earth resistivity, including roadside ditches
where salt accumulates, are probable locations of corrosion.

Table 22-1.2: Soil Corrosiveness vs. Resistivity

Soil Corrosiveness Ω -m)

Resistivity ρ (Ω
Severely Corrosive 0-5
Very Corrosive 5 - 10
Corrosive 10 - 30
Moderately Corrosive 30 - 100
Slightly Corrosive 100 - 250
Less Corrosive Above 250

Guy current measurements, at cable terminal poles and other guyed poles nearby, indicate locations of anchor rod corrosion
and probable corrosion of other buried steel in the vicinity as illustrated in Figure 22-1.6.

DC Voltmeter
+ -
1,83

Grade

Figure 22-1.6: Voltage Drop Measurement to Determine Direct Current Flow

Neutral-to-earth resistance measurements indicate the overall effectiveness of earthing. These measurements can be
carried out as illustrated in Figure 22-1.7. Multi-earthed electric distribution neutrals normally have a low resistance to earth.

Cable
Ground Tester

P1 P2
Test Probe Test Probe
No. 1 No. 2

C1 C2

20m
30m

Figure 22-1.7: Neutral-to-earth Resistance Measurement

4. REFERENCES

4.1 Corrosion Resistance of Metals and Alloys, 2d ed., New York: Reinhold Publishing Corporation, 1963.

4.2 Dedman, J.C., “Corrosion Surveys – Electrical Measurement Techniques,” Presented at 33rd Annual Appalachian
Underground Corrosion Short Course, 1988.

4.3 Hagan, M.T., “Basic Electric and Corrosion Fundamentals Involved in Pipeline Corrosion,” Presented at 33rd Annual
Appalachian Underground Corrosion Short Course, 1988.

4.4 National Association of Corrosion Engineers, NACE Basic Corrosion Course, Chapters 1, 2, 5, and 6, 1971

4.5 NACE Std. RP-01-74, “Recommended Practice - Corrosion Control of Electric Underground Residential Distribution
Systems.”

4.6 Peabody, A.W., “Control of Pipeline Corrosion,” National Association of Corrosion Engineers.

4.7 Uhlig, H.H., “Corrosion and Corrosion Control,” 2d ed., New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1968.

SLDG 24-1

DC AUXILIARY SYSTEMS

1. DC AUXILIARY SYSTEM

1.1 Typical Loads Supplied

Substation dc auxiliary systems are typically used to supply loads consisting of the following:

1.1.1 Relaying, supervisory, alarm, and control equipment

1.1.2 Emergency control house lighting

1.1.3 Circuit breaker trip and close circuits

12.2 Design Requirements

A substation dc system consists of a battery of suitable voltage (number of cells) and suitable size (ampere-hour
capacity) connected in parallel with a control bus together with properly selected voltage-regulated charging equipment.

At a single location where two distinct dc voltages are required, i.e., possibly 48 volts for microwave and 120 volts for
substation operation, two separate batteries and chargers is one option. Tapping a larger unit to obtain the smaller
voltage is not recommended. Another option to obtain different dc voltages is a dc-to-dc converter. This is usually used
for small loads and is available from the manufacturer.

The charging equipment consists of a full wave rectifier with regulated output voltage. Normally, the charger operates
continuously to furnish direct current to the control bus for steady loads such as indicating lamps, holding coils, and
relays, plus a small current to maintain the battery at full charge. Intermittent loads of short duration such as tripping or
closing of circuit breakers or automatic operation of other equipment are handled by the charger within the limits of its
capacity. Any excess load is supplied by the battery, which is automatically recharged when the intermittent load
ceases. Should the ac input to the charger fail, the battery carries the entire load.

The control bus may be a dc bus in a switchgear assembly or, in the case of a large substation, a dc or group of dc
panels.

DC voltage requirements for solid-state relaying, event recorders, data acquisition, and other such devices are
generally below the voltage levels for circuit breaker trip coils. Actual requirements vary with different vendors. Some
types of equipment are provided with individual rectifiers, rack mounted, changing 120 volts, 60 hertz ac, to 12, 24, or
48 volts dc. If the ac supply fails, static switching changes the source to the main dc batteries and required dc
converter. An alarm indication is provided to indicate this status. Other equipment is designed to be fed directly from
the main batteries with ac/dc converters to supply the static device voltage.

Two of the most important components of a substation dc system are the main battery and charger. These components
should be sized correctly. Under-sizing could possibly mean a circuit breaker re-close failure and undue service
interruption. Over-sizing, while not damaging, is expensive. However, the cost of the supply is a fraction of total
substation cost, and the economics should be balanced with reliability. At a minimum, the main battery should be sized
to allow normal substation operation for 8 hours.

1.3 Types of Cells

Before determining the cell ampere-hour rating, the type of cell for the particular application has to be selected. There
is no need for cell standardization on a power system. Once a battery is installed for stationary service, it stays in place
for up to 30 years. Interchange-ability on the system is unnecessary.

The types of secondary cells readily available today are:

1.3.1 Lead acid

1.3.2 Nickel cadmium (NI-CAD)

1.3.3 Lead calcium

A brief description of the three predominant types follows. For theory and history too lengthy to be considered here, see
Batteries and Energy Systems by Dr. C.L. Mantell.

In the case where no standards are established, select battery type based on:

a. First cost

b. Years of float life

c. Annual depreciation

d. Number of deep discharges required over the life of the battery

1.3.1 Lead Acid Cell

This cell has a positive plate of lead peroxide and a negative plate of pure sponge lead. The electrolyte is dilute
sulphuric acid. Open circuit voltage of a fully charged cell is a nominal 2.25 volts; voltage varies depending on
electrolyte strength and cell temperature.

Battery condition can be determined with a hydrometer using Equation 15-2:

Cell Volts = S.G. + 0,84 eq. 24-2

where:

S. G. = Specific gravity of the electrolyte

The specific gravity of the electrolyte varies with cell temperature, so a thermometer should be a part of the
maintenance kit. The higher the temperature, the lower the specific gravity. Battery ratings are usually specified at
25ºC. Temperature correction curves are included with the battery manufacturer’s instruction manual, as are charge
and discharge curves.

1.3.2 Nickel Cadmium

This cell has a positive plate of nickel hydrate and a negative plate of cadmium sponge. The electrolyte is a solution of
potassium hydroxide with a specific gravity from 1.160 to 1.190 at 25ºC. Open-circuit voltage may vary from 1.30 to
1.38 volts. The cell voltage is 1.4 volts fully charged at 25ºC. The specific gravity of the electrolyte is constant
regardless of charge state.

The nickel cadmium battery has the advantages of infrequent maintenance requirements, absence of corrosive fumes,
immunity to inadvertent overcharge, and the reduced de-rating required for ambient temperatures below 25ºC (77ºF).
The absence of corrosive sulphuric acid fumes allows the installation of “NI-CADS” in cubicles, a possible advantage in
some installations. The primary reason for the lack of greater use of NI-CADS for main substation batteries is initial
cost.

1.3.3 Lead Calcium

This cell is similar to the lead acid type with the exception of the addition of approximately 0.8 percent calcium to the
lead grid for additional strength. This alloy also greatly reduces cell internal losses.

1.4 Typical Loads and Duty Cycle

To accurately specify a battery and associated charger, the dc load has to be accurately defined. Each single item of
equipment connected to the dc system has to be individually tabulated with the following pertinent data included:

• Voltage

• Current requirement

• Duration of operation

• Frequency of use

The last two items constitute the duty cycle.

DC voltages of 24, 32, 48, 120, and 240 are normally encountered in substation design. For the purpose of this guide,
a 120-volt battery with a nominal voltage per cell of 2 volts and 60 cells will be considered. A final voltage of 1.75 per
cell or 105 volts for the battery will complete our model.

DC system loads consist of both continuous and intermittent loads. Continuous load typically involves the battery 3- to
8-hour ratings. It consists of indicating lights, relays, and any other equipment continually drawing current from the dc
bus. Emergency lighting consisting of circuits energized during an ac outage plus certain communication circuits
involving the 1- to 3-hour rating.

Intermittent or momentary load, constituting relay and breaker operation, involves the 1-minute battery rating. The
duration of breaker operation may be only a few cycles, but the battery voltage drop will be essentially the same after 1
minute. A typical duty cycle will have the breakers tripping at the beginning of the cycle and closing at the end of the
cycle. If two or more breakers are to operate simultaneously, the total current determines the 1-minute rating.

The sizing of dc cables and cabinets is done in the same way as for ac services. The only exception is that no demand
factor should be applied to connected loads. Voltage drop should be held to within 3 percent. Special consideration of
short-circuit capacity is not a factor in a dc auxiliary system.

Figure 15-3 illustrates a typical dc system for substation auxiliary services.

Figure 15-3: Typical DC Auxiliary System

1.5 Equipment

1.5.1 Battery Selection

Lead batteries are rated in ampere-hour capacity at an 8-hour rate to 1.75 volts average at 25ºC.

Example 1: Battery Selection

The model duty cycle could be:

Ten 40-watt, 120-volt lamps - 3 hrs. 3.5 amperes

Relays and panel indicating lamps - 8 hrs. 5.0 amperes

Communications - 3 hrs. 5.0 amperes

Three simultaneous Breaker Operations - 1 min. 100.0 amperes

From vendor data a cell of seven plates will furnish approximately 200 amperes for 1 minute to 1.75 final volts. The
ampere-hour capacity of the selected unit at the 8-, 5-, 3-, and 1-hour rates is about 145, 130, 115, and 80,
respectively.

This model duty cycle is only to serve as a numerical example of battery selection. For the 120-volt system, 60 of the
lead calcium cells would be connected in series. Quite obviously, vendor data is necessary to specify a battery.

1.5.2 Charger Selection

Satisfactory battery life and service are more dependent on the design and specification of the charging equipment
than on any other external factor. The most costly and complicated charger is not necessarily the best selection. Shunt
wound dc generators were used for years for charging batteries, but frequent adjustment was required and recharge

capability was slow. For substation service, bridge rectifiers are used. Tube type is still in service, but new installations
are being specified with solid-state devices.

The ampere capacity of the charger can be determined using Equation 15-3:

1,1.C
A=L+ eq. 24-3
H

where:

A = Charge capacity (amperes)

L = Continuous load (amperes)

C = Discharge (amperes hours)

H = Recharge time (hours)

Example 2: Charger Selection

Using the same model as for battery selection, we have:

DC Lights 3.5 Amperes-3 hrs. 10.5 AH

Communications 5.0 Amperes-3 hrs. 15.0 AH

Breaker operations 100.0 Amperes-l min. 1.7 AH

Panel load 5.0 Amperes-8 hrs. 40.0 AH

67.2 AH

Substituting in Equation 15-3 with an 8-hour recharge:

1,1.C
A=L+
H
1,1.67,2
=5+
8
= 14,24 amperes

The next largest standard size charger should be selected. If the charger is to be operated at altitudes above 1000
o
meters and above 40 C (104F) ambient, check vendor data for correction factors. The model illustrated here is only to
demonstrate a method for battery selection. Also consider substation expansion in initial battery/charger selection.

Single- and three-phase ac inputs at standard voltages are available. Chargers are commercially available with
standard and optional devices to indicate status and to alarm unusual situations, mainly ac failure. Refer to vendor data
to determine the required devices pertinent to the particular situation under consideration. If the selected charger uses
a cord, cap, and receptacle for ac supply, specify a locking cap and receptacle.

Also determine if the battery charger is to function as a battery eliminator. This would allow the battery to be
disconnected for short periods to allow maintenance on the battery without disrupting 120-volt dc service. Many of the
newer electronic and microprocessor devices require a relatively stable dc supply, with a minimal ac compound
associated with the dc supply. The battery while connected into the dc system provides this filter. If the battery is
disconnected, the battery charger filtering may be inadequate to prevent damage to the relay dc input filters, causing
the relays to be damaged. In such cases where the battery charger is to be used as a battery-eliminator type of
charger, compare the ac ripple component specifications on the dc equipment inputs with the ratings for the battery
charger.

1.5.3 DC Panels and Wiring

The substation dc auxiliary system should be an unearthed system with fuse or circuit breaker panels for dc service.
The trend is to use circuit breaker panels.

It is recommended that the positive and negative legs of the dc system be run in separate PVC conduits from the
battery to the first fusible disconnect. This reduces the possibility of the positive and negative legs of the battery
becoming shorted together with no means of clearing the short circuit. Also, the battery charger should be specified
with a ground detection system so positive or negative grounds are detected. Figure 15-4 is a simplified diagram of
such a method.

Relay panels having solid-state equipment cannot sustain voltages higher than 140 volts dc without possible relay
damage. When the battery is being recharged or equalized, the dc terminal voltage could be in excess of 140 volts. In
this case install a 50/60 cell switch and do the recharging at the 50 cell position. Additionally, circuit breaker operation
can cause transient voltage spikes that could possibly damage equipment connected to the dc bus. Install a surge
rectifier across the battery to drain the surge energy to ground. These features are usually not available from battery
charger manufacturers, so it is recommended that they be installed in the battery room on a wall-mounted wood panel.
Figure 15-3 illustrates a simplified diagram of a dc system with these features. Many utilities will remove one or two
cells from the battery bank to avoid the problem of over-voltage while the battery is being equalized. Complete an
evaluation to guarantee the values of current, load, and power supply will stay in specified levels during the process.

2 REFERENCES

ANSI Std. C57.12.25, “Pad-Mounted Compartmental-Type, Self-Cooled, Single-Phase Distribution Transformers with
Separable Insulated High-Voltage Connectors; High Voltage, 34500 GRD Y/19920 Volts and Below; Low Voltage,
240/120 Volts; 167 kVA and Smaller—Requirements.”

ANSI Std. C57.12.26, “ Pad-Mounted Compartmental-Type, Self-Cooled, Three-Phase Distribution Transformers for
Use with Separable Insulated High Voltage Connectors; High Voltage, 34500 GRD Y/19920 Volts and Below; 2500
kVA and Smaller.”

Mantell, C.L., Dr., Batteries and Energy Systems, 2nd ed. New York: McGraw Hill Book Company, 1983.

National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) Std. 70, NEC, Article 384, “Switchboards and Panel boards.”

National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) Std. 70, NEC, Article 700, “Emergency Systems.”

SLDG 24-2

50 V DC POWER SUPPLIES FOR TELECOMMUNICATIONS AND PROTECTION EQUIPMENT

1. INTRODUCTION

This design guide outlines the requirements, dimensioning and application of 50 V dc power supplies for
telecommunication and protection equipment at power station HV yards and, substations.

A dc power supply comprises a charger/dc panel and a lead acid battery which must certain standard utility
specifications. For any installation, the charger must be rated to supply the average station load current and
simultaneously charge the battery at a fast rate. The battery must be dimensioned to supply the average station load
current for the required standby period while maintaining the operating voltage within specified limits.

Since the battery cable forms an integral part of the power supply, the size of the cable must always be based on the
current rating of the power supply.

2. APPLICATION REQUIREMENTS

A station comprises a variety of equipment with different and specific power requirements which are either not
compatible or universally required. The main requirements are listed below.

2.1 Clean/Dirty Applications

Power supplies which feed equipment subject to induced voltages from the HV yards are classified as “dirty” supplies.
As a corollary, equipment connected to cables which are confined to a building are powered by “clean” supplies.

2.2 Main 1/ Main 2 Applications

In the case of major and important stations, Main 1 and Main 2 equipment the two systems must be fed from separate
supplies as a safeguard against a simultaneous failure of both systems. Major and important stations must be provided
with dual power supplies which have load paralleling facilities.

2.3 Earthed/ Not Earthed Requirements

The majority of equipment in a station requires a power supply that is not earthed. All general purpose supplies are
equipped with an earth fault relay which initiates an alarm when either of the supply poles is earthed. The earth fault
relay has two high-ohmic series connected resistors between the positive and negative poles with the resistor centre-
point earthed.

Special purpose supplies should be used for equipment which requires an earthed positive. As an alternative, general
purpose supplies may be earthed provided the earth fault relay is disconnected.

2.4 Load Voltage Range Requirements

The majority of station equipment requires an operating voltage within the range of 42 V to 55 V (see general purpose
supplies).

Although most equipment will for very brief periods still operate outside the specified voltage range, the power supply
and associated power cabling must be designed for the voltage range specified by the equipment manufacturer.

2.5 Psophometric Noise

The psophometric noise of the power supply output must be limited for telephone switching equipment with directly fed
speech circuits.

2.6 Ripple Voltage

The ripple voltage on the power supply output must not exceed acceptable limits. This requirement does not apply to
supplies for telephone switching equipment where the psophometric equipment noise is limited.

2.7 Suppression of Cross-talk

Power supplies for telephone switching equipment must be provided with a special capacitor bank on the output to
suppress cross-talk on the speech circuits.

3. BASIC POWER SUPPLY TYPES

The application requirements listed in section 2 necessitates the following three basic power supply types:

3.1 Single, Special Purpose Power Supply

3.1.1 Station load voltage is maintained within fairly close limits by means of voltage dropping diodes under all
operating conditions

3.1.2 Positive pole is earthed at the dc panel

3.1.3 Weighted ripple voltage (psophometric noise) is limited

3.1.4 Cross-talk is reduced by means of a special capacitor bank

3.1.5 DC isolating switches are not provided

3.1.6 Battery has 26 cells to provide for the relatively high permissible minimum load voltage

3.2 Single/General Purpose Power Supply

3.2.1 Station load voltage is maintained within fairly wide limits by means of charger control during float charge
operation, by means of voltage dropping diodes during special charge operation (refresher charge, boost
charge, etc.)

3.2.2 Supply is normally not earthed and is therefore provided with earth fault detection circuitry

3.2.3 Un-weighted ripple voltage (psophometric noise) is limited

3.2.4 DC isolating switches are not provided

3.2.5 Battery has 24 cells permissible minimum load voltage is relatively low

3.3 Dual/General Purpose Power Supply Comprising Two Identical Charger/DC Panels and Batteries

3.3.1 Station load voltage is maintained within fairly wide limits by means of charger control only during float
charge operation. The station must be disconnected from the power supply during special charge
operation (refresher charge, boost charge, etc.)

3.3.2 Supply is normally not earthed and is therefore provided with earth fault detection circuitry

3.3.3 Un-weighted ripple voltage (psophometric noise) is limited

3.3.4 DC isolating switches are provided for charger output, battery and station load. In order to allow the two
station loads to be either isolated from or parallel on any one of the two power supplies, a dual set of
station load isolating switches is provided per charger/dc panel.

3.3.5 Battery has 24 cells permissible minimum load voltage is relatively low

4. RANGE OF STATION EQUIPMENTS

The range of station equipment for which power supplies must be provided comprises the following four main
categories:

4.1 Power-line Carriers and Teleprotection, Protection and Associated Equipment

A distinction is made between Main 1 and Main 2 equipment in the case of major and important stations. This category
requires a clean general purpose power supply which is normally not earthed.

4.2 Telecontrol, Telemetering, Tone Signalling Equipment, Alarm Panels, Event Recorders

Telecontrol if connected without interposing relays. The cable runs are confined to the inside of a building. This
category requires a clean general purpose power supply which is normally not earthed.

4.3 Regional Telecontrol, Interposing Relays, Alarm Panels, Event Recorders

Regional telecontrol if connected without interposing relays. The cables are subject to long runs in the HV yards. This
category requires a dirty general purpose power supply which must not be earthed.

4.4 Telephone switching Equipment

Telephone switching equipment requires a special purpose, positive earthed power supply. Since relatively few cables
of this equipment are run in HV yards, the supply can be considered clean.

5. PROVISION OF MULTIPLE POWER SUPPLIES

A station must be provided with multiple power supplies on the basis set out in Annexure B due to the requirements
listed in section 2. The station equipment categories referred to in the table are listed in section 5.

6. DIMENSIONING OF POWER SUPPLIES

6.1 General

A power supply must be dimensioned to provide for the current drain requirements of the station equipment during both
normal and standby operations while maintaining the dc output voltage within specified limits. Since the power cabling
introduces a volt drop, the dimensioning of such cabling must be afforded the same importance as that of the battery
and charger.

Complete systems comprising of battery and charger/dc panels have been designated according to the rules and
formulae set out below. These systems are listed in Annexure A. All that remains for the designer is to choose a
suitable system based on the station load current drain and to calculate the required power cable sizes.

6.2 Voltage Range Considerations

In order to guarantee satisfactory operation of the equipment, the operating voltage at the equipment terminals must be
maintained within limits specified by the supplier of the station equipment. The charger circuitry must ensure that the
voltage at the station equipment is kept within these limits during normal operation. The battery must be dimensioned
to ensure that the voltage at the equipment terminals does not drop below the specified minimum operating voltage
before the end of the standby period has been reached.

From the above, it follows that:

V1min = (N.Ve ) − Vd Volts eq. 24-2.1

where:

V1min = Minimum operating voltage specified for the equipment in volts

N = Number of cells per battery
Ve = Cell voltage at the end of the standby period in volts

Vd = Volt drop in power cable and dc panel in volts

Furthermore, the cell voltage at the end of the standby period must be equal to or higher than the final cell voltage for
the chosen discharge rate. The final cell voltage (which decreases with increasing discharge current) is that voltage at
which a cell is considered completely discharged. For normal requirements, an 8-hour standby period must be provided
for. In order to utilize the available ampere-hour capacity of a battery at best, the number of cells must be chosen such
that the cell voltage at the end of the standby period is as close as possible to the final cell voltage. On the otherhand,
the number of cells per battery multiplied by the charging voltage must ideally not be more than V1max, the maximum
operating voltage specified for the station equipment.

Where these two requirements for the number of cells cannot be met, a compromise solution has to be adopted or
voltage dropping diodes must be used between the power supply and the station equipment. Alternatively, the station
load must be isolated from the power supply for such charging operations where the charging voltage exceeds V1max.
This method is possible with dual power supplies only.

The operational volt drop in the dc panel and the installed power cabling must never exceed the value of Vd which has
been used for dimensioning of the complete power supply.

6.3 Dimensioning of Battery and Charger

6.3.1 General

The average value of the ultimate station load current is given by the sum of the individual current drains of all station
equipment connected to the power supply. Equipment current drains are obtained either through measurement on
installed equipment or from suppliers of the equipment. Refer to Annexure C for a list of typical current drain figures.

6.3.2 Battery Rating for Single and Dual Supplies

The battery must normally have sufficient capacity to supply the average ultimate station current for a standby period of
8 hours.

Assuming that the available battery capacity is fully utilized for supplying power during the required standby period, i.e.
the battery is virtually discharged at the end of the standby period, then the value of the average discharge current in
amperes for an 8-hour standby period is, for modern lead-acid cells, numerically equal to approximately 12% of the
nominal 10-hour ampere-hour capacity of the battery. The 12% figure has been taken from typical discharge curves.

The average 8-hour discharge current is thus given by:

12.Bn
I8 = eq. 24-2.2
100

where:

Bn = Ampere-hour capacity (at 10-hour rate) of required battery

Furthermore, I8 must be equal to or greater than the total ultimate station load current Ia. The required battery capacity
(at 10-hour rate) is given by:

100.I
Bn = a
12 eq. 24-2.3
= 8,33.I a ampere − hour

6.3.3 Charger Rating for Single Supplies

The charger must be rated to supply the sum of I8 (nominal 8-hour discharge current of selected battery) and the high
“starting rate” current for charging of the battery.

The “starting rate” current is recommended by the supplier of the battery, and is normally taken as the numerical
equivalent, expressed in amperes, of 14% of the nominal 10-hour ampere-hour capacity of the battery. This amount of
current is the maximum continuous current that may be safely used for constant current charging of a battery prior to
reaching of the gassing voltage.

The required minimum current rating of the charger in the case of a single power supply is thus given by:

14.Bn
I CS = I 8 +
100
12.Bn 14.Bn
= + eq. 24-2.4
100 100
= 0,26.Bn

The current rating of the selected standard charger must not be less than ICS.

6.3.4 Charger Rating for Dual Power Supply

On a dual supply, either of the two chargers may be called upon to supply both station loads simultaneously while also
maintaining the battery in a charged state. In order to guarantee this, the required minimum current rating of each
charger in the case of a dual power supply is given by:

I cd = 2,5.I 8

12.Bn
= 2,5. eq. 24-2.5
100
= 0,3.Bn amperes

The current rating of the selected standard charger must not be less than Icd.

6.4 Power Cable Calculations

6.4.1 General

The instantaneous peak current drain value must always be used for calculating the required size of power cabling due
to the volt drop requirements described in section 6.2.

6.4.2 Battery Cables

Since the battery cable forms an integral part of the power supply, such cables must be designed for a current which is
related to I8, the average 8-hour discharge current of the battery.

The volt drop in the battery cable will depend on the instantaneous peak current which in turn depends on the type of
station equipment. For all practical purposes it can be assumed that the peak current will never exceed 1,5 time I8
(1,5.I8) in the case of battery cables for single power supplies. In the case of dual power supplies however, the
instantaneous peak current must be taken as 2,5 times I8 (2,5.I8) to provide for parallel operation of two station loads
on one battery.

6.4.3 Outgoing Load Cables

The volt drop in an outgoing load cable will depend on the instantaneous peak current, the magnitude of which will
depend on the type of equipment. For calculation purposes one should either use actual instantaneous peak current
values, or if such values are not known, employ a peak value equal to 1,5 times I8 (1,5.I1), the average current drain
figure of the particular station load.

6.4.4 Calculation Formula

o
According to SANS (SABS 150), the standard resistance of an annealed copper conductor at 20 C is given by:
2
R s = 0,0172414 Ω − mm /m

The resistance of a multi-core cable can deviate by 4% due to construction tolerances, and the resistance will increase
o o
by a factor of 1/(0,8945) if the ambient temperature increases from 20 C to 50 C. The resistance of a multi-core cable
is thus given by:

0,0172414.1,04 2
Rp = Ω − mm /m
0,8945

The required cable cross-section per pole is given by:

R p .2.d.i 2
a= mm
v

where:

d = Cabling distance comprising two parallel lengths of cable (each d metres) in m

i = Instantaneous peak current in amperes (A)
v = Permissible volt drop in volts (V)

In order to keep the size of the power cable within practical limits and to achieve the best utilization of battery ampere-
hour capacity, a volt drop of 0,5 V in the battery cable and the outgoing load cable respectively, has become common
practice.

In summary therefore:

6.4.4.1 Battery cables for single systems

0,4.d.i
a=
v
0,4.d.1,5.I 8
=
0,5
2
= 0,12.I 8 mm

6.4.4.2 Battery cables for dual systems

0,4.d.i
a=
v
0,4.d.2,5.I 8
=
0,5
2
= 0,2.I 8 mm

6.4.4.3 Outgoing cables for any systems

0,4.d.i
a=
v
0,4.d.1,5.I 1
=
0,5
2
= 0,12.d.I 1 mm

where:

I1 = Average station load current of the particular equipment in amperes (A)

Example 1:

It is required to dimension the battery, charger and power cabling for the following data based on ultimate figures for a
single system.

Average equipment load 1 = 2 A

Average equipment load 2 = 3 A

Average equipment load 3 = 5 A

Distance between battery and dc panel is 10 m

Distance between dc panel and station equipment is:

Load 1 = 20 m

Load 2 = 25 m

Load 3 = 30 m

Calculations:

Total ultimate station load current:

Ia = 2+3+5

= 10 A

Minimum battery size:

Bn = 8,33.I a

= 8,33.10
= 83,3 ampere − hour

Referring to Annexure A, the nearest standard size battery has a nominal capacity of 100 Ah.

The minimum charger rating:

I cs = 0,26.Bn

= 0,26.100
= 26 amperes

Again referring to Annexure A, the nearest standard size charger has a rating of 30 A.

Annexure A also shows that the selected 100 Ah battery can supply an average 8-hour discharge current I8 = 12 A

The minimum battery cable size:

a = 0,12.d.I cs

= 0,12.10.12
2
= 14,4 mm

The minimum outgoing cable size:

a = 0,12.d.I 1

= 0,12.10.12
2
= 14,4 mm

For load 1:

a = 0,12.d.I 1

= 0,12.20.12
2
= 4,8 mm

For load 2:

a = 0,12.d.I 1

= 0,12.25.12
2
= 9 mm

For load 3:

a = 0,12.d.I 1

= 0,12.30.12
2
= 18 mm

In the case of all cables, a standard with a cross-sectional area which is equal to or greater than the calculated value a,
must be chosen. It may be convenient to make up the required cross-sectional area by using several parallel cores of a
multi-core cable.

7. TERMINAL ARRANGEMENTS

The panel cabling drawings Figures __ to __ shoe the terminal arrangements in the dc panels for connection of all
external cabling. These figures indicate the sequence of terminals, the types of terminals employed,
maximum/minimum cable sizes fro screw clamp terminals, terminal sizes for lug-terminated cables, outgoing load fuse
ratings, and cubicle cable numbers.

Required battery cable sizes for given cabling distances between batteries and dc panels are also shown. Battery cable
2
cross-sections should never be less than 16 mm . Since battery cables are not protected by fuses, separate cables
must be employed for the negative and positive poles to lessen the danger of accidental short circuits.

Table 24-2.1: Typical Battery and Battery Charger Arrangements

Item Code for Load per Battery Battery Size (Ah) Charger No. Outgoing MCB Rating Battery Charger
Reference Standard Rating Circuits/Battery on Outgoing Output MCB
Arrangement (A) Circuits (A) Rating (A)
Quiescent Peak Chloride Willard
U 50/15/C or S 4 6,5 16 - 10 5 10 10
A 50/20/C or S 4 7 32 50 14 5 10 20
B 50/50/C or S 8,5 12,5 64 50 25 5 10 20
C 50/100/C or S 10 14 134 100 40 10 10 20
D 50/150/S 20 25 187 140 60 10 20 30
S 50/200/S 20 22,5 322 200 85 15 20 40
E 50/2 x 50/S 7,5 10 64 50 25 5 10 30
F 50/2 x 100/S 13,5 16 134 100 46 5 10 40
G 50/2 x 150/S 15 17,5 241 200 65 5 20 40
H 50/2 x 200/S 20 22,5 322 200 85 5 20 60
I 24/30/C or S 6 - 32 50 15 5 10 20
J 24/60/C or S 10 - 64 75 25 5 10 20
K 24/120/C 12 - 134 100 40 5 10 20
L 24/120/S 18 - 134 140 46 5 20 40
M 24/200/S 27 - 214 200 80 10 20 40
N 24/400/S 40 - 428 400 120 15 20 60
O 24/600/S 60 - 640 590 180 15 20 80
P 24x2 60/S 9 - 64 50 27 5 10 30
Q 24x2 120/S 12 - 134 100 46 5 10 30
R 24x2 200/S 20 - 214 200 70 5 20 60

SLDG 25-1

CIRCUIT BREAKER

1. INTRODUCTION

A circuit breaker is an automatically-operated electrical switch designed to protect an electrical circuit from damage
caused by overload or short circuit. Unlike a fuse, which operates once and then has to be replaced, a circuit breaker
can be reset (either manually or automatically) to resume normal operation. Circuit breakers are made in varying sizes,
from small devices that protect an individual household appliance up to large switchgear designed to protect high
voltage circuits feeding an entire city.

1.1 Principles

1.1.1 Closing of a Circuit Breaker

When an alternating current is closed, the current reaches a steady value after a transient process. The time depends
upon the resistive, inductive and capacitive elements of the circuit. The highest switching current is achieved if switching
is effected at zero voltage (very high peak currents can develop if the switch is closed on short circuit conditions).

1.1.2 Opening of a Circuit Breaker

Below a threshold voltage, any circuit can be opened without any arc formation. In practice, however, the commonly
used switches do produce an arc while interrupting the current. The arc must be either kept limited or extinguished at the
earliest in order not to damage the contacts.

1.1.3 Contacts

Copper is by far the most widely used contact material. But since non-conducting layers are formed on copper contacts
as a result of switching, a wiping action is provided while designing copper contacts. These are also plated with a layer of
silver in many applications. In low voltage circuits, silver is also in use as contact material.

1.1.4 Arc Extinction

Since switching almost invariably gives rise to arcing, extinguishing such arcs assumes vital importance to prolong
contact life. The following methods are employed:

a) Lengthening of the arc till it extinguishes

b) Intensive cooling (in jet chambers)

c) Division into partial arcs

d) Zero point quenching

e) Connecting capacitors in parallel with contacts in dc circuits

f) Use of vacuum

g) Use of air

h) Use of oil

1.1.4 Insulation

The contacts need to be kept properly insulated from other metal parts including the body. Different insulating materials
are in use. The most commonly used material is polymeric and ceramics are also in use.

1.2 Operation

All circuit breakers have common features in their operation, although details vary substantially depending on the voltage
class, current rating and type of the circuit breaker. The circuit breaker must detect a fault condition; in low-voltage circuit
breakers this is usually done within the breaker enclosure. Large high-voltage circuit breakers have separate devices to
sense an overcurrent or other faults. Once a fault is detected, contacts within the circuit breaker must open to interrupt
the circuit; some mechanically stored energy within the breaker is used to separate the contacts, although some of the
energy required may be obtained from the fault current itself. When a current is interrupted, an arc is generated - this arc
must be contained, cooled, and extinguished in a controlled way, so that the gap between the contacts can again
withstand the voltage in the circuit. Finally, once the fault condition has been cleared, the contacts must again be
reclosed to restore power to the interrupted circuit.

1.2.1 High Voltage Circuit Breakers

Circuit breakers for larger currents are usually arranged with pilot devices to sense a fault current and to operate the trip
opening mechanism. The trip solenoid that releases the latch is usually energized by a separate battery, although some
high-voltage circuit breakers are self-contained with current transformers, protection relays, and an internal control power
source.

1.2.1.1 Arc Interruption

a) Oil circuit breakers rely upon vaporisation of some of the oil to blast a jet of oil through the arc.

b) Gas (SF6) circuit breakers sometimes stretch the arc using a magnetic field, and then rely upon the dielectric
strength of the SF6 to quench the stretched arc.

c) Vacuum circuit breakers have minimal arcing (as there is nothing to ionise other than the contact material), so the
arc quenches when it is stretched a very small amount (<2-3 mm). Vacuum circuit breakers are frequently used in
modern medium-voltage switchgear to 36 kV.

d) Air circuit breakers may use compressed air to blow out the arc, or alternatively, the contacts are rapidly swung into
a small sealed chamber, the escaping of the displaced air thus blowing out the arc.

Circuit breakers are usually able to terminate all current very quickly. Typically the arc is extinguished between 30 ms
and 150 ms after the mechanism has been tripped, depending upon the age and construction of the device.

1.3 Protection

Under short-circuit conditions, a current many times greater than normal can flow. When electrical contacts open to
interrupt a large current, there is a tendency for an arc to form between the opened contacts, which would allow the flow
of current to continue. Therefore, circuit breakers must incorporate various features to divide and extinguish the arc.
Larger circuit breakers such as those used in electrical power distribution may use vacuum, an inert gas such as sulfur
hexafluoride or have contacts immersed in oil to suppress the arc.

The maximum short-circuit current that a breaker can interrupt is determined by testing. Application of a breaker in a
circuit with a prospective short-circuit current higher than the breaker's interrupting capacity rating may result in failure of
the breaker to safely interrupt a fault. In a worst-case scenario the breaker may successfully interrupt the fault, only to
explode when reset.

Power circuit breakers are built into switchgear cabinets.

2. TYPES OF CIRCUIT BREAKERS

Breakers are usually classified as “dead tank” or “live tank” construction.

Figure 25-1.1: “Dead Tank” Breaker Figure 25-1.2: “Live Tank” Breaker

2.1 Dead Tank Circuit Breaker

“Dead tank” means that the circuit breaker tank and all accessories are maintained at ground potential, and the external
source and load connections are made through conventional bushings (see Figure 25-1.1).

2.2 Live tank Circuit Breakers

“Live tank” means that the metal and porcelain housing containing the interrupting mechanism is mounted on an
insulating porcelain column and is therefore at line potential (see Figure 25-1.2). This column, besides serving as an
insulating support, may act as an access for the operating rod or linkage and, in the case of air circuit breakers, it acts as
an air supply duct.

Most circuit breakers above 242 kV are of “live tank” construction. However, some dead tank-type units are in use. In
addition to classification as “live tank” or “dead tank” construction, circuit breakers are also classified in terms of
interrupting media. Breakers are also classified as three-pole, single-throw, and independent pole operation. Three-pole
single-throw breakers utilize one mechanical device to trip all three poles with a linkage to gang the operation together
(see Figure 25-1.3).

Figure 25-1.3: Three-Pole Single-Throw Breakers

With independent-pole operation, each pole is equipped with the mechanical means to trip its individual pole (see Figure
25-1.4).

a) Dead Tank Breaker

b) Outline Drawing

Figure 25-1.4: SF6 Gas Circuit Breakers

Although availability of different breaker designs is closely related to the state of the art at any particular time, Table 5-19
indicates the known availability of breaker types.

Table 25-1.1: Types of Circuit Breakers

Availability vs. Interrupting Medium

Outdoor Oil (1) Air Gas Vacuum
Dead Tank
Single Tank X X X
Three Tank X X X
Live Tank
Indoor X
Dead Tank X X X

(1) Oil circuit breakers are only available as remanufactured or used equipment.

No general guidelines can be drawn for the application of these various types of circuit breakers. Each user has to
determine the ratings of circuit breakers required and then select a type of circuit breaker acceptable with regard to
rating, performance expectations, compatibility with planned or existing substation configuration, and the ability to install,
operate, and maintain the circuit breaker. Cost may also be an important consideration in the final selection.

Most, but not all, domestic circuit breakers in outdoor substations of 3,3 kV through 24 kV utilize a vacuum technology as
the insulating dielectric to interrupt load and fault currents (see Figure 25-1.5).

Although outdoor vacuum breakers can be supplied for voltages up to 36 kV, SF6 is more commonly used for voltages
from 36 kV to 800 kV.

Figure 25-1.5: Type SDV Vacuum Circuit Breaker

SF6 breakers are available in 12 kV to 245 kV ratings in single tanks and in 12 kV to 800 kV ratings in three (individual
pole) tanks. Although SF6 breakers are available in single-tank designs, the trend is toward three-tank. SF6 breaker
manufacturers have been able to reduce the size of the interrupting chambers, making the three-tank design more
economical.

SF6 circuit breakers are available with three operating mechanisms: pneumatic, hydraulic, and spring operated. Some
circuit breaker manufacturers have models for each of the operating mechanisms. Because of the differences between
manufacturers and operating mechanisms, a discussion of maintenance and inspection procedures has been left up to
the individual manufacturers. Although there are many differences, most circuit breakers require the bushings to be
removed to expose the interrupting mechanism for inspection and maintenance.

Although there are a number of oil circuit breakers still in service, with the developments in SF6 and vacuum technology,
oil breakers are being phased out. Some companies sell oil breakers, but as used and reconditioned breakers.

3. MEDIUM VOLTAGE CIRCUIT BREAKERS

Medium-voltage circuit breakers rated between 1 and 72 kV may be assembled into metal-enclosed switchgear line ups
for indoor use, or may be individual components installed outdoors in a substation. Air-break circuit breakers replaced oil-
filled units for indoor applications, but are now themselves being replaced by vacuum circuit breakers (up to about 36
kV). Like high voltage circuit breakers described below, these are also operated by current sensing protective relays
operated through current transformers. The characteristics of MV breakers are given by international standards such
as IEC 62271.

Electric power systems require the breaking of higher currents at higher voltages. High-voltage breakers may be free-
standing outdoor equipment or a component of a gas-insulated switchgear line-up. Examples of high-voltage AC circuit
breakers are:-

3.1 Vacuum circuit breaker

With rated current up to 3000 A, these breakers interrupt the current by creating and extinguishing the arc in a vacuum
container. These can only be practically applied for voltages up to about 36 kV, which corresponds roughly to the
medium-voltage range of power systems. Vacuum circuit breakers tend to have longer life expectancies between
overhaul than do air circuit breakers.

3.2 Air circuit breaker

Rated current up to 10,000 A. Trip characteristics are often fully adjustable including configurable trip thresholds and
delays. Usually electronically controlled, though some models are microprocessor controlled via an integral electronic
trip unit. Often used for main power distribution in large industrial plant, where the breakers are arranged in draw-out
enclosures for ease of maintenance.

4. HIGH-VOLTAGE CIRCUIT BREAKERS

Figure 25-1.1: A 1200 A 3-pole 115,000 V breaker at a generating station in Manitoba, Canada.

Electrical power transmission networks are protected and controlled by high-voltage breakers. The definition of "high
voltage" varies but in power transmission work is usually thought to be 72 kV or higher, according to a recent definition
by the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC). High-voltage breakers are nearly always solenoid-operated,
with current sensing protective relays operated through current transformers. In substations the protection relay
scheme can be complex, protecting equipment and busses from various types of overload or earth fault.

High-voltage breakers are broadly classified by the medium used to extinguish the arc.

• Oil-filled (dead tank and live tank)

• Oil-filled, minimum oil volume

• Air blast

• Sulfur hexafluoride or SF6

High voltage breakers are routinely available up to 800 kV AC.

4.1 Interrupting Principles for High-Voltage Circuit Breakers

High-voltage circuit-breakers have SIGNIFICANTLY changed since they were first introduced about 40 years ago, and
several interrupting principles have been developed that have contributed successively to a large reduction of the
operating energy. These breakers are available for indoor or outdoor applications, the latter being in the form of breaker
poles housed in ceramic insulators mounted on a structure.

Current interruption in a high-voltage circuit-breaker is obtained by separating two contacts in a medium, such as sulfur
hexafluoride (SF6), having excellent dielectric and arc quenching properties. After contact separation, current is carried
through an arc and is interrupted when this arc is cooled by a gas blast of sufficient intensity.

Gas blast applied on the arc must be able to cool it rapidly so that gas temperature between the contacts is reduced from
20,000 K to less than 2000 K in a few hundred microseconds, so that it is able to withstand the transient recovery
voltage that is applied across the contacts after current interruption. Sulfur hexafluoride is generally used in present
high-voltage circuit-breakers (of rated voltage higher than 52 kV).

In the 1980s and 1990s, the pressure necessary to blast the arc was generated mostly by gas heating using arc energy.
It is now possible to use low energy spring-loaded mechanisms to drive high-voltage circuit-breakers up to 800 kV.

4.2 Brief history

The first patents on the use of SF6 as an interrupting medium were filed in Germany in 1938 by AEG and independently
later in the USA in July 1951 by Westinghouse. The first industrial application of SF6 for current interruption dates back to
1953. High-voltage 15 kV to 161 kV load switches were developed with a breaking capacity of 600 A. The first high-
voltage SF6 circuit-breaker built in 1956 by Westinghouse, could interrupt 5 kA under 115 kV, but it had 6 interrupting
chambers in series per pole. In 1957, the puffer-type technique was introduced for SF6 circuit breakers where the relative
movement of a piston and a cylinder linked to the moving part is used to generate the pressure rise necessary to blast
the arc via a nozzle made of insulating material (Figure 25-1.2).

In this technique, the pressure rise is obtained mainly by gas compression. The first high-voltage SF6 circuit-breaker with
a high short-circuit current capability was produced by Westinghouse in 1959. This dead tank circuit-breaker could
interrupt 41,8 kA under 138 kV (10 000 MV·A) and 37,.6 kA under 230 kV (15 GVA). This performance was already
significant, but the three chambers per pole and the high pressure source needed for the blast (1,35 MPa) was a
constraint that had to be avoided in subsequent developments. The excellent properties of SF6 lead to the fast extension
of this technique in the 1970s and to its use for the development of circuit breakers with high interrupting capability, up to
800 kV.

The achievement around 1983 of the first single-break 245 kV and the corresponding 420kV to 550 kV and 800 kV, with
respectively 2, 3, and 4 chambers per pole, lead to the dominance of SF6 circuit breakers in the complete range of high
voltages.

Figure 25-1.2: A 1200 A 3-pole 115 kV breaker

Several characteristics of SF6 circuit breakers can explain their success:-

• Simplicity of the interrupting chamber which does not need an auxiliary breaking chamber;

• Autonomy provided by the puffer technique;

• The possibility to obtain the highest performance, up to 63 kA, with a reduced number of interrupting chambers;

• Short break time of 2 to 2,5 cycles;

• High electrical endurance, allowing at least 25 years of operation without reconditioning;

• Possible compact solutions when used for GIS or hybrid switchgear;

• Integrated closing resistors or synchronised operations to reduce switching over-voltages;

• Reliability and availability;

• Low noise levels.

The reduction in the number of interrupting chambers per pole has led to a considerable simplification of circuit breakers
as well as the number of parts and seals required. As a direct consequence, the reliability of circuit breakers improved,
as verified later on by CIGRE surveys.

4.3 Thermal blast chambers

New types of SF6 breaking chambers, which implement innovative interrupting principles, have been developed over the
past 15 years, with the objective of reducing the operating energy of the circuit-breaker. One aim of this evolution was to
further increase the reliability by reducing the dynamic forces in the pole. Developments since 1996 have seen the use of
the self-blast technique of interruption for SF6 interrupting chambers.

These developments have been facilitated by the progress made in digital simulations that were widely used to optimize
the geometry of the interrupting chamber and the linkage between the poles and the mechanism.

This technique has proved to be very efficient and has been widely applied for high voltage circuit breakers up to 550 kV.
It has allowed the development of new ranges of circuit breakers operated by low energy spring-operated mechanisms.

Figure 25-1.3: A 1200 A 3-pole 115 kV breaker

The reduction of operating energy was mainly achieved by the lowering energy used for gas compression and by making
increased use of arc energy to produce the pressure necessary to quench the arc and obtain current interruption. Low
current interruption, up to about 30% of rated short-circuit current, is obtained by a puffer blast.

4.4 Self-Blast Chambers

Further development in the thermal blast technique was made by the introduction of a valve between the expansion and
compression volumes. When interrupting low currents the valve opens under the effect of the overpressure generated in
the compression volume. The blow-out of the arc is made as in a puffer circuit breaker thanks to the compression of the
gas obtained by the piston action. In the case of high currents interruption, the arc energy produces a high overpressure
in the expansion volume, which leads to the closure of the valve and thus isolating the expansion volume from the
compression volume. The overpressure necessary for breaking is obtained by the optimal use of the thermal effect and
of the nozzle clogging effect produced whenever the cross-section of the arc significantly reduces the exhaust of gas in
the nozzle. In order to avoid excessive energy consumption by gas compression, a valve is fitted on the piston in order to
limit the overpressure in the compression to a value necessary for the interruption of low short circuit currents.

a) Closed b) Interrupting Low Current c) Interrupting High Current d) Open

Figure 25-1.4: A Self-Blast Breaker Chamber

This technique, known as “self-blast” has now been used extensively since 1996 for the development of many types of
interrupting chambers. The increased understanding of arc interruption obtained by digital simulations and validation
through breaking tests, contribute to a higher reliability of these self-blast circuit breakers. In addition the reduction in
operating energy, allowed by the self-blast technique, leads to longer service life.

4.5 Double Motion of Contacts

An important decrease in operating energy can also be obtained by reducing the kinetic energy consumed during the
tripping operation. One way is to displace the two arcing contacts in opposite directions so that the arc speed is half that
of a conventional layout with a single mobile contact.

Figure 25-1.4: Double Motion of Contacts

The thermal and self-blast principles have enabled the use of low energy spring mechanisms for the operation of high
voltage circuit breakers. They progressively replaced the puffer technique in the 1980s; first in 72,5 kV breakers, and
then from 145 kV to 800 kV.

4.6 Comparison of Single Motion and Double Motion Techniques

The double motion technique halves the tripping speed of the moving part. In principle, the kinetic energy could be
quartered if the total moving mass was not increased. However, as the total moving mass is increased, the practical
reduction in kinetic energy is closer to 60%. The total tripping energy also includes the compression energy, which is
almost the same for both techniques. Thus, the reduction of the total tripping energy is lower, about 30%, although the
exact value depends on the application and the operating mechanism. Depending on the specific case, either the double
motion or the single motion technique can be cheaper. Other considerations, such as rationalization of the circuit-breaker
range, can also influence the cost.

4.7 Thermal Blast Chamber with Arc-Assisted Opening

In this interruption principle arc energy is used, on the one hand to generate the blast by thermal expansion and, on the
other hand, to accelerate the moving part of the circuit breaker when interrupting high currents. The overpressure
produced by the arc energy downstream of the interruption zone is applied on an auxiliary piston linked with the moving
part. The resulting force accelerates the moving part, thus increasing the energy available for tripping.

With this interrupting principle it is possible, during high-current interruptions, to increase by about 30% the tripping
energy delivered by the operating mechanism and to maintain the opening speed independently of the current. It is
obviously better suited to circuit-breakers with high breaking currents such as Generator circuit-breakers.

5. GENERATOR CIRCUIT-BREAKERS

Generator circuit-breakers are connected between a generator and the step-up voltage transformer. They are generally
used at the outlet of high power generators (100 MVA to 1800 MVA) in order to protect them in a reliable, fast and
economic manner. Such circuit breakers must be able to allow the passage of high permanent currents under continuous
service (6,3 kA to 40 kA), and have a high breaking capacity (63 kA to 275 kA). They belong to the medium voltage
range, but the TRV withstand capability required by IEEE Standard C37.013 is such that the interrupting principles
developed for the high-voltage range must be used. A particular embodiment of the thermal blast technique has been
developed and applied to generator circuit-breakers. The self-blast technique described above is also widely used in SF6
generator circuit breakers, in which the contact system is driven by a low-energy, spring-operated mechanism. An
example of such a device is shown in Figure 25-1.5 below; this circuit breaker is rated for 17,5 kV and 63 kA.

Figure 25-1.5: A 17,5 kV – 63 kA Generator Circuit-Breaker

Generator circuit breaker rated for 17.5 kV and 63 kA

6. EVOLUTION OF TRIPPING ENERGY

The operating energy has been reduced by 5 to 7 times during this period of 27 years. This illustrates well the great
progress made in this field of interrupting techniques for high-voltage circuit-breakers.

7. FUTURE PERSPECTIVES

In the near future, present interrupting technologies can be applied to circuit-breakers with the higher rated breaking
currents (63 kA to 80 kA) required in some networks with increasing power generation.

Self-blast or thermal blast circuit breakers are nowadays accepted worldwide and they have been in service for high
voltage applications for about 15 years, starting with the voltage level of 72,5 kV. Today this technique is also available
for the voltage levels 420/550/800 kV.

8. OTHER BREAKERS

Autorecloser: A type of circuit breaker which closes again after a delay. These are used on overhead power
distribution systems, to prevent short duration faults from causing sustained outages.

9. REFERENCES

9.1 ANSI Std. C37.06, “Preferred Ratings and Related Required Capabilities of AC High-Voltage Circuit Breakers
Rated on a Symmetrical Current Basis.”

9.2 ANSI Std. C37.12, “American National Standard Guide Specifications for AC High-Voltage Circuit Breakers Rated
on a Symmetrical Current Basis and a Total Current Basis.”

9.3 ANSI Std. C84.1, “American National Standard Voltage Ratings for Electrical Power Systems and Equipment (60
Hz).”

9.4 ANSI Std. C92.2, “Preferred Voltage Ratings for Alternating Current Electrical Systems and Equipment Operating at
Voltages Above 230 Kilovolts Nominal.”

9.5 ANSI/IEEE Std. C37.04, “Rating Structure for AC High-Voltage Circuit Breakers Rated on a Symmetrical Current
Basis.”

9.6 ANSI/IEEE Std. C37.09, “American Standard Test Procedure for AC High Voltage Circuit Breakers.”

9.7 ANSI/IEEE Std. 37.010, “Standard Application Guide for AC High-Voltage Circuit Breakers Rated on a Symmetrical
Current Basis.”

9.8 ANSI/IEEE Std. 37.100, “Standard Definitions for Power Switchgear.”

IEEE 1997 Summer Power Meeting, “Loading of Substation Electrical Equipment with Emphasis on Thermal Capability.”
– Part I – Principles by B.J. Conway, D.W. McMullen, A.J. Peat, and J.M. Scofield of Southern California Edison
Company. – Part II – Application by I.S. Benko, D.E. Cooper, D.O. Craghead, and P.Q. Nelson of Southern California
Edison Company.

9.10 IEEE Tutorial Course Text No. 75CH0975-3-PWR, “Application of Power Circuit Breakers,” 1975.

9.11 NEMA Std. SG4, Part 6, “Instruction for the Installation, Operation and Care of Alternating-Current High-Voltage
Circuit Breakers.”

SLDG 25-2

STANDARD CIRCUIT BREAKER RATINGS

1. BASIS OF STANDARD

Applicable standard ratings are scheduled in Table 25-1.1. In order to purchase circuit breakers against a “National
Contract” it is necessary to select a limited range of standard ratings per voltage category to cover a wide variety of
applications. Rated values of short-circuit breaking current and normal current are chosen according to IEC
recommendations. In instances where more than one value of normal current is allocated to a particular breaking
current a normal current is chosen which corresponds closest to the actual value appropriate to Eskom’s needs. Whilst
two standard ratings are generally listed per voltage category, quite often there is no financial advantage in calling for
the lower of the two ratings, particularly for the 66 kV to 132 kV voltage category.

Circuit breakers are rated for a breaking current at maximum system voltage, but this does not automatically mean that
operation at a lower voltage will permit a higher value of breaking current.

Rated short-circuit breaking current refers to the 100 % three phase symmetrical breaking current and should not be
confused with the rated short-time current or any other over-current condition.

Application for special switching duties such as shunt capacitor and shunt reactor switching represents a highly
stressful duty and in such instances referral to equipment specialists should be made.

Table 25-1.1: Standard Circuit Breaker Ratings

Rated System Voltage Maximum System Rated Voltage Rated Short Circuit Rated Normal
kV Voltage according to IEC Breaking current in Current
kV kV kA in A
50 3150
400 420 420
31,5 2500
330 362 362 31,5 2500
50 3150
275 300 300
31,5 2500
220 245 245 31,5 2500
40 * 2500
132 145 145 25 2500
16 1250
25 2500
88 96 100
16 1250
20 1600
66 72,5 72,5
12,5 800
20 1600
44 48 52
12,5 800
20 1600
33 36 36
12,5 800
20 1600
22 & lower 24 24
12,5 800

* This rating is applicable under special circumstances only.

Figure 25-2.1: 220kV Star-Delta Transformers – 11% Minimum Impedance - 3Ø Related Fault Levels

MVA.0,0026 = kA at 220kV

MVA.0,017 = kA at 33kV

MVA.0,026 = kA at 22kV

MVA.0,053 = kA at 11kV

Figure 25-2.2: 132kV Star-Delta Transformers – 10% Minimum Impedance - 3Ø Related Fault Levels

MVA.0,0044 = kA at 132kV

MVA.0,017 = kA at 33kV

MVA.0,026 = kA at 22kV

MVA.0,053 = kA at 11kV

MVA.0,087 = kA at 6,6kV

Figure 25-2.3: 132kV Star-Delta Transformers – 10% Minimum Impedance - 3Ø Related Fault Levels

MVA.0,0066 = kA at 88kV

MVA.0,017 = kA at 33kV

MVA.0,026 = kA at 22kV

MVA.0,053 = kA at 11kV

MVA.0,087 = kA at 6,6kV

Figure 25-2.4: 88kV Star-Delta Transformers – 9% Minimum Impedance - 3Ø Related Fault Levels

MVA.0,0087 = kA at 66kV

MVA.0,017 = kA at 33kV

MVA.0,026 = kA at 22kV

MVA.0,053 = kA at 11kV

MVA.0,087 = kA at 6,6kV

Figure 25-2.5: 66kV Star-Delta Transformers – 8% Minimum Impedance - 3Ø Related Fault Levels

MVA.0,013 = kA at 44kV

MVA.0,053 = kA at 11kV

MVA.0,087 = kA at 6,6kV

Figure 25-2.6: 44kV Star-Delta Transformers – 7% Minimum Impedance - 3Ø Related Fault Levels

MVA.0,0014 = kA at 400kV

MVA.0,0044 = kA at 132kV

MVA.0,0066 = kA at 88kV

MVA.0,0087 = kA at 66kV

Figure 25-2.7: 400kV Auto Transformers – 13% Minimum Impedance - 3Ø Related Fault Levels

MVA.0,0014 = kA at 400kV

MVA.0,0026 = kA at 220kV

Figure 25-2.8: 400/220kV Auto Transformers – 11% Minimum Impedance - 3Ø Related Fault Levels

MVA.0,0012 = kA at 400kV

MVA.0,0017 = kA at 330kV

MVA.0,0081 = kA at 275kV

Figure 25-2.9: 400kV Auto Transformers – 10% Minimum Impedance - 3Ø Related Fault Levels

MVA.0,0017 = kA at 330kV

MVA.0,0044 = kA at 1320kV

MVA.0,0066 = kA at 88kV

MVA.0,0087 = kA at 66kV

MVA.0,013 = kA at 44kV

Figure 25-2.10: 330kV Auto Transformers – 12% Minimum Impedance - 3Ø Related Fault Levels

MVA.0,0017 = kA at 330Kv

MVA.0,0026 = kA at 220kV

Figure 25-2.11: 330/220kV Auto Transformers – 10% Minimum Impedance - 3Ø Related Fault Levels

MVA.0,0021 = kA at 275kV

MVA.0,0066 = kA at 88kV

MVA.0,0087 = kA at 66kV

MVA.0,013 = kA at 44kV

Figure 25-2.12: 275/132kV Auto Transformers – 11% Minimum Impedance - 3Ø Related Fault Levels

MVA.0,0021 = kA at 275kV

MVA.0,0044 = kA at 132kV

Figure 25-2.13: 220kV Auto Transformers – 11% Minimum Impedance - 3Ø Related Fault Levels

MVA.0,0026 = kA at 220kV

MVA.0,0066 = kA at 882kV

MVA.0,0087 = kA at 66kV

MVA.0,013 = kA at 44kV

Figure 25-2.14: 220/132kV Auto Transformers – 9% Minimum Impedance - 3Ø Related Fault Levels

MVA.0,0026 = kA at 220kV

MVA.0,0044 = kA at 132kV

Figure 25-2.15: 132/66kV Auto Transformers – 9% Minimum Impedance - 3Ø Related Fault Levels

MVA.0,0044 = kA at 132kV

MVA.0,0087 = kA at 66V

Figure 25-2.16: 132/88kV Auto Transformers – 8% Minimum Impedance - 3Ø Related Fault Levels

MVA.0,0044 = kA at 132kV

MVA.0,0066 = kA at 88kV

Figure 25-2.17: Voltage and Current Curves Produced During Switching of Capacitive Currents

2. REFERENCED DOCUMENTS

2.1 Electrical Engineering Directive EED 6/11/1-1

2.2 International Electro-technical Commission (IEC) Publication 56 - High Voltage Circuit Breakers.

SLDG 25 - 3

CIRCUIT BREAKER APPLICATION GUIDE

1. CHOICE OF RATING

The actual rating of switchgear chosen for a site is according to the fault level and load flow studies calculated by others
(e.g. System Planning Department). However, as a guide the rating of switchgear on the lower voltage portion of the
high voltage switchyard can be determined from the total installed capacity of the power transformers supplying that
portion of the substation. Since standard transformers are specified, which includes impedance characteristics, busbar
fault levels and normal current can be treated as “standardised” to a large extent. In SLDG 34-2 a summary of the
range of power transformers is listed together with a complete list of their standard characteristics.

Referring to this table of standard transformers the lower of the two standard switchgear ratings generally allows two
units of rating (2) or four units of rating (3) to be installed. The next highest switchgear rating generally allows two units
of rating (1) or 4 units of rating (2) to be installed. Care must be exercised, however when very large transformers are
installed, generating units are connected, etc. It is therefore necessary that required ratings are verified against studies
done by the appropriate discipline (e.g. System Planning Department).

1.1 Star / Delta Transformer Installations

The curves illustrated in Figures 25-2.1 to 25-2.5 are included to indicate the anticipated three phase fault level on the
LV side for a given fault level on the HV side and for various total installed transformer capacities. It should be noted
that the fault levels have been calculated using the nominal system voltage and the appropriate minimum ohmic
impedance (refer SLDG 34-2). It is anticipated that these fault levels will be higher than those to be expected in practice
since the ohmic impedance of the transformer will generally be above the absolute minimum due to manufacturing
tolerances.

Table 25-3.1: Minimum Impedance of Star / Delta Transformer for given HV and LV Voltages

Figure Number HV Voltage (kV) LV Voltage (kV) Minimum Impedance (%)

25-2.1 220 22; 11 11
25-2.2 132 33; 22; 11; 6,6 10
25-2.3 88 33; 22; 11; 6,6 9
25-2.4 66 22; 11; 6,6 8
25-2.5 44 11; 6,6 7

1.2 Auto / or Star / Star Installations

The curves illustrated in Figures 25-2.6 to 25-2.16 are included to indicate the anticipated three phase fault level on the
LV side for a given fault level on the HV side and for various total installed transformer capacities. The comments given
in section 1.1 above also apply. Caution must be used with these curves particularly where the transformer installation
considered is an inter-connector between two power sources as no account is taken of the possible fault in feed from
the LV side.

Table 25-3.2: Minimum Impedance of Auto / or Star / Star Transformer for given HV and LV Voltages

Figure Number HV Voltage (kV) LV Voltage (kV) Minimum Impedance (%)

25-2.6 400 132, 88, 66 13
25-2.7 400 220 11

Table 25-3.2: Minimum Impedance of Auto / or Star / Star Transformer for given HV and LV Voltages (Continued)

Figure Number HV Voltage (kV) LV Voltage (kV) Minimum Impedance (%)

25-2.8 400 275, 330 10
25-2.9 330 132, 88, 66, 44 12
25-2.10 330 220 10
25-2.11 275 88, 66, 44 12
25-2.12 275 132 11
25-2.13 220 88, 66, 44 11
25-2.14 220 132 9
25-2.15 132 66, 44 9
25-2.16 132 88 8

2. SPECIAL SWITCHING REQUIREMENTS

Standard circuit breakers obtainable from the “Eskom National Contract” are nowadays capable of most switching
duties, including switching of shunt capacitors, shunt reactors as well as long unloaded transmission lines. However,
this may not always represent an optimal engineering solution and when intentions are to acquire circuit breakers for
such duty reference should be made to the equipment specialist(s).

2.1 Capacitive Current Switching

When a predominantly capacitive current is switched off, the circuit breaker will clear current at the first current zero and
the main contacts may not be in a dielectrically favourable position to withstand the voltage appearing across them
some half a cycle later. This is termed a “re-strike” (not to be confused with re-ignition). Very high currents of a
transient nature then flow that cause damage to the interrupting element and capacitor elements (in the case of shunt
capacitors) as well as causing switching surges of large magnitude to appear on the transmission system. The
selection of a so-called “re-strike-free” circuit breaker is therefore of paramount importance (see Figure 25-2.17).

Another very significant stress occurs when switching a shunt capacitor bank on. Again a transient “inrush” current
flows that is particularly severe when another bank in close proximity is present. This so-called “back - to - back”
switching causes rapid wear of the main contacts and nozzles and in oil circuit breakers creates hydraulic shock waves
which can damage interrupter chamber insulators and internal components. This type of stress can be addressed by
the installation of controlled switching relays, but requires a circuit breaker with appropriate operating characteristics in
order to be effective.

2.2 Inductive Current Switching

When switching small inductive current such as shunt reactor current, the circuit breaker will clear current at first current
zero when the system voltage is at maximum. All circuit breakers will “chop” current, i.e. before actual zero is reached.
This creates a reaction from the inductive circuit since magnetic stored energy is released and generation of a transient
over-voltage on the load side occurs. Invariably the transient over-voltage is of sufficient magnitude to cause
breakdown of the main contact gap. This is termed a “re-ignition”.

This process can be repeated in rapid succession (i.e. a number of times per millisecond) as the circuit breaker contacts
move further apart until they are sufficiently apart to withstand the voltages generated. This so-called “multiple re-
ignition” process can lead to insulation failure of reactor windings, excite part-winding resonance and failure of the
interrupting chamber itself. Modern circuit breakers perform well in this regard but incidents reported from other parts of
the world indicate that nothing should be taken for granted.

SLDG 26-1

ISOLATORS

1. INTRODUCTION

An isolator, sometimes referred to as a disconnector, air-break switch or simply, air-switch, is defined as a switching
device designed to open or closed an electrical circuit by means of guided separate contacts that part (separate) in air.

Outdoor isolators are an essential component of substation design, providing a positive, visible air gap for the isolation of
equipment for safe examination, maintenance and repair. When closed, an isolator must have the capacity to handle all
normal and abnormal currents that flow through it. Isolators must operate easily, both mechanically and electrically, even
under heavy ice conditions.

Isolators by themselves are not load break devices. In addition, they do not have any short-circuit interrupting capability.
Only earth-switches, that are so specified, have a fault making (i.e. close and latch) capability.

Careful attention needs to be given to the selection and application of isolators. The important considerations are:-

• Insulation level

• Continuous and momentary current ratings

• Insulator characteristics required

• Electrical clearance

• Space limitations

• Current interrupting requirements

2. TYES OF ISOLATORS

The various types of isolators that are commonly in use in substations are as follows:-

• Vertical break

• Vertical reach

• Single side-break

• Double side-break (centre rotating post)

• Centre break

• Pantograph

• Hook operated (normally used at MV on distribution lines)

• Earthing

The following is a brief description of each of these isolator types:

1.1 Vertical Break Isolator

The vertical break isolator is a switch in which the travel of the isolator blade is in a plane perpendicular to the plane of
isolator mounting base as illustrated in Figure 26-1.1.

Figure 26-1.1: Vertical Break Isolator

Each pole of the vertical break isolator is equipped with three insulators. The isolator is usually applied in a three phase,
group operation, and is operated either by a manual operator (swing handle, worm-gear mechanism, a pump handle
[pump handle only usable if the isolator is vertically mounted], or a motor operator). The manufacturer supplies the
operating rods that mechanically tie the isolator poles together and to the operating mechanism. The isolator is usually
equipped with a counter-balancing mechanism that makes isolator operation easier and prevents the blade from falling
closed.

There are applications where a single pole and 2-pole combination are used, the former in Static Var Compensator
transformer selection, and the latter in single phase, traction transformer applications. At voltage levels such as 800 kV,
isolators are supplied as single phase units due to the large phase spacing where connecting rods are impractical.

Isolator operation is accomplished by the rotation of one of two insulators on the hinge end of the isolator. The insulator
that is rotated will vary from one manufacturer to the next.

On the closing stroke, the isolator blade will rotate on its axis (approximately 30 degrees), before it seats itself in the
switch jaw in order to “wipe” the contact surfaces on the blade and the jaw to provide better contact (see Figure 26-1.2).

Figure 26-1.2: Reverse Current Loop Jaw Contacts

Switch contacts on both the blade and the jaw are usually silver inserts or inlays to provide a low resistance (silver-to-
silver) contact. On the opening stroke, the isolator blade will rotate on its axis before it leaves the jaw contact. This
rotation on opening facilitates the breaking of any ice build-up on the switch to allow the isolator to open.

The jaw contact should be of the reverse current loop design as illustrated in Figure 26-1.2 above. The contact geometry
carries the current flow up and then down the contact fingers. The interactions of the magnetic fields of these currents
result in a force that causes the contacts press against the blade. These forces are proportional to the current squared so
that as the current increases, the force gripping the blade is greatly increased. This is beneficial during faults when light
contact between the jaw and the blade could result in contact damage due to burning.

This isolator can generally be mounted in the upright, vertical, or under-hung positions as shown in Figure 26-1.3. The
structure that supports the isolator can either be supplied by the isolator manufacturer, or purchased separately. The
isolator manufacturer usually subcontracts the structure design and fabrication.

a) Horizontal Upright Mounting b) Vertical Mounting c) Under-hung Mounting

Figure 26-1.3: Isolator Mounting Positions

This isolator is widely used in many substations globally, but not really in the Eskom system. It provides the maximum
visibility of the switch position (i.e. blade vertical-isolator open, blade horizontal-isolator closed). The isolator will allow the
use of minimum phase spacing due to no transverse blade movement. Where arcing horns are applied, the phase-to-
phase spacing of the isolator may have to be increased to allow for arc reach (see Figure 26-1.18)

As with any isolator, the vertical break type by itself does not have the capability of interrupting any current. Its primary
function is as an isolating device. Accessories are, however, available for adding to the isolator by the manufacturer
which will provide limited interruption capability for magnetising, charging and load currents. This is discussed in the
section on accessories.

The isolator can be applied as a breaker isolating switch, breaker bypass, transformer isolating switch, bus sectionalizer,
and line isolating switch.

1.2 Single Side-break Isolator

This is an isolator in which the travel of the blade is in a plane parallel to the base of the isolator as illustrated in Figure
26-1.4.

Switch operation is accomplished by the rotation of the hinge end insulator. The blade of the isolator does not rotate like
the blade of the vertical break and vertical reach isolators. Contact wiping is accomplished by the sliding of the blade
contacts over the jaw contacts.

This isolator can generally be mounted in the upright, vertical and under-hung positions. It can also be pole mounted for
line sectionalisation in a phase-over-phase, triangular, or delta configuration. It also provides a low profile that minimises
overhead clearance problems, but the isolator may require greater phase spacing.

Figure 26-1.4: Single Side-break Isolator

Each pole of the isolator is equipped with two insulators. The isolator is usually applied in three-phase group operation
and is operated by either a manual operator (swing handle, gear mechanism, or pump handle-vertically mounted isolator
only) or a motor operator. As with the other isolators discussed above, the manufacturer supplies all of the operating rods
to tie the phases together and to the operator. Figure 26-1.5 shows a typical installation of a single side-break isolator.

Figure 26-1.5: Single Side-break Isolator

This isolator can be applied as a breaker isolation, breaker bypass, transformer isolation, busbar sectionaliser, or line
isolation switch.

1.3 Double Side-break Isolator

This is an isolator in which the travel of the blade is in a plane parallel to the base of the isolator, and breaks the circuit
conductor at two points as illustrated in Figure 26-1.6. It can be used in the conventional manner were the closed blade
is in the run of the conductors connecting other equipment, or with the blades arranged transversely to the run of the
conductor.

Figure 26-1.6: Double Side-break Isolator

1.5.1 Conventionally Arranged Double Side-break Isolator

Each pole of the double side-break isolator is equipped with three insulators. The isolator is usually applied in three-
phase group operation and is operated by either a manually by a worm-gear operator or by a motor operator. The
manufacturer supplies all of the operating rods that mechanically tie the poles together and to the operating mechanism
as shown in Figure 26-1.7. This isolator is different from the others in that it is equipped with two jaws, whereas the
others only have one.

Isolator operation is accomplished by the rotation of the centre insulator. The blade will rotate on its own axis during
opening or closing, similar to the vertical break isolator switch, to provide a contact wiping action and facilitate ice
breaking. The isolator blade also rotates with the centre insulator so that in its fully opened position, it is about 70
degrees away from a line connecting the two jaws. Construction of the jaws is similar to those for the vertical break
isolator.

Figure 26-1.7: Typical Side-break Isolator Installation

1.5.2 In-line (Transverse) Arranged Double Side-break Isolator

The In-line (Transversely) arranged DSB isolator is illustrated in Figure 26-1.8. As before, isolator operation is
accomplished by the rotation of the centre insulator. The blade will rotate on its own axis during opening or closing,
similar to the vertical break isolator switch, to provide a contact wiping action and facilitate ice breaking.

Figure 26-1.8: In-line (Transversely) Arranged Isolator

The isolator blade also rotates with the centre insulator so that in its fully opened position, it is about 90 degrees away
from a line connecting the two jaws as shown in Figure 26-1.9. Construction of the jaws is similar to those for the vertical
break isolator.

This isolator can be applied as a breaker isolation, breaker bypass, transformer isolation, busbar sectionaliser, or line
isolation switch.

Figure 26-1.9: In-line (Transversely) Arranged Isolator Blade in Open Position

1.4 Centre-break Isolator

There are two variations of the centre break isolator. The first is the conventional isolator, the second is the “V” type.

1.6.1 Conventionally Centre-break Isolator

The conventional centre break isolator as illustrated in Figure 26-1.10, the travel of the blade is in a plane parallel to the
base of the isolator and opens in the centre only at one point.

Figure 26-1.10: Centre Side-break Isolator

1.6.2 Conventionally Centre-break Isolator

The “V” type centre break isolator shown in Figure 26-1.11. The “V” type isolator has a minimal base structure which
poses some mounting advantages.

Figure 26-1.11: Centre-break – “V” Type Isolator

Each pole of the centre-break isolator is equipped with two insulators. The isolator is usually applied in three-phase
group operation and is operated either by a manually operator (swing handle, worm-gear mechanism or a pump handle-
isolator mounted in the vertical position) or by a motor drive. The manufacturer supplies all of the operating rods that
mechanically tie the poles together and to the operating mechanism.

This isolator can be applied as a breaker isolation, breaker bypass, transformer isolation, busbar sectionaliser, or line
isolation switch.

Both of the insulators on the centre break isolator rotate. In the case of the conventional centre break isolator, the
insulators are connected together by a synchronising link. For the “V” type centre break isolator, the insulators are either
synchronised via bevel gears in the isolator base, or through a synchronising linkage. The operating rods between
phases are connected to one insulator on each pole and when that insulator is rotated, the other insulator on that pole is
caused to rotate through the synchronising linkage, or gearing. On opening, the isolator blades rotate 90 degrees from
the line connecting the two isolator hinges. This isolator is different from the other types in that it has two hinge ends as
opposed to one. The jaw contact fingers are located on the end of one of the isolator blades and the “blade” contact is
located on the end of the other. The isolator blades do not rotate on their axis (as is the case with the vertical break
isolator) as they open and close

Wiping of the contact surfaces is achieved through sliding.

Generally this isolator can be mounted in the upright, vertical or under-hung positions. Some manufacturers do not
recommend under-hung for the “V” type centre break isolator. The isolator provides a low profile and minimises overhead
problems. It does, however, require greater phase spacing. This isolator can be applied as a breaker isolation, breaker
bypass, transformer isolation, line isolation and busbar sectionaliser switch.

1.5 Vertical Reach Isolator

The vertical reach isolator is a switch in which the stationary (jaw) contact is supported by a structure separate from the
isolator base. The isolator blade in the closed position is vertically perpendicular to the plane of isolator mounting base
as illustrated in Figure 26-1.12.

Figure 26-1.12: Group Operated Vertical Reach Isolator (132 kV – 800 kV)

Each pole of the vertical reach isolator is equipped with two insulators. The isolator is usually applied in a three phase,
group operation and is manually operated by a swing handle or a worm-gear operator, or a motor operator. As with the
vertical isolator, the manufacturer supplies the operating rods that mechanically tie the isolator poles together, and to the
operating mechanism.

The vertical reach isolator is a variation of the vertical break isolator in that the jaw is not mounted on the isolator base,
but is separately mounted on the busbar to which the connection is to be made, and a horizontally mounted or under-
hung mounted insulator on a line take-off structure, for example. When located on a busbar, the jaw is usually attached
by either welding or through a clamp arrangement. If welded, care needs to be paid to the welding process to ensure a
good current path

The isolator contacts are of the same construction as the vertical break isolator.

Isolator operation is accomplished by rotation of one of the two hinge end insulators and is similar to the operation of the
vertical break isolator blade, including blade rotation on opening and closing to wipe the isolator contacts and break ice.
This isolator also provides good visibility of the blade.

This isolator minimises the space required for installation, and is ideal for connections that need to be made between low
and high busbars. Typical uses for this isolator are breaker isolation, busbar sectionalising, line disconnecting, and
transformer disconnecting.

1.6 Pantograph Isolator

The pantograph isolator as illustrated in Figure 26-1.13 is used extensively at voltages in the HV and EHV range. The
isolator is mounted in the upright position. It is usually applied as a breaker or line isolation switch.

The pantograph isolator offers some excellent solutions in allowing low profile EHV substations, whilst providing high
degrees of flexibility with some elaborate layouts using rigid conductors for busbars. It provides a smaller footprint as
compared to other isolator types (except for the vertical reach), but due to cost, it is normally only applied at the HV and
EHV levels.

Each pole of the pantograph isolator is equipped with two insulators. It is usually applied in a three phase group and is
operated either by a manual operator or by a motor drive. The poles are not normally interlinked through drive rods, but
can be configured in a way to allow this.

Isolator operation is accomplished by rotation of one of two insulators. It operates in a scissors type fashion and reaches
up from its open position to clamp onto and squeeze the contact. The contact surface on the blades is long and allows
the isolator to clamp onto a moving upper contact. High contact pressure assures a good contact and prevents
movement of the upper contact once the isolator captures it; it also assists in ice breaking.

Figure 26-1.13: Pantograph Isolator

Fully Open Intermediate Positions Fully Closed

Figure 26-1.14: Operation of a Pantograph Isolator

1.7 Hook Operated Isolator

The hook operated isolator as illustrated in Figure 26-1.15 has been the workhorse in many distribution substations. It
consists of two insulators per pole, and is applied for single manual operation.

Figure 26-1.15: Hook Operated Isolator

Isolator operation is accomplished by the use of a hook-stick applied to the ring on the blade. When the stick is in the
closed position, pulling on the ring will unlatch the switch and open it. Closing is accomplished by reversing the
operation. In the closed position, the switch is latched to prevent opening due to vibration or magnetic forces. Contact
forces are usually silver and are wiped through sliding. Stops are available to hold the isolator blades in the 90, 135 and
180 degree positions.

The isolator can be vertically or under-hung mounted. It can be applied as a breaker isolation switch, busbar
sectionaliser, voltage transformer or surge arrester isolator.

1.8 Horizontal Reach Retractable Type Isolators

The horizontal reach retractable rocker type isolator as illustrated in Figure 26-1.16 is used extensively in many
distribution substations up to 33kV. It consists of three insulators per pole, and is applied for single manual operation.
The movement of the centre insulator is via a rocking motion which is effected by a manually operated mechanism by a
drive rod at the base of the insulator. The forward movement of the rocking insulator provides the closing operation, while
the backward movement provides the opening operation.

Figure 26-1.16: Retractable Rocker Type Isolator

1.9 Horizontal Reach Knee Type Isolators

The horizontal reach knee type isolator operation as shown in Figure 26-1.17 is used at the transmission voltages,
particularly at EHV and UHV voltage levels. The knee operation allows the moving contact to fold back onto itself,
effectively halving its length during the opening operation. This has a major advantage when considering vertical
electrical clearances. The forward horizontal movement results in the horizontal telescoping of the current path arm
which at the end of the motion, engages with a fixed contact, thus closing the isolator.

Figure 26-1.17: Knee Type Isolator

2. TYPICAL AVAILABILITY

Table 26-1.1 shows the typical voltage and current rating ranges that are available for each isolator type. The actual
types and ratings that are available may vary from manufacturer to manufacturer

Table 26-1.1: Typical Ratings

Isolator Type Typical Voltage Ratings Typical Current Ratings In Typical Rupturing
Um (kV) (A) Capacities IF (kA)
Vertical Break 7,2 - 800 600 - 4000
Single Side-break 7,2 - 145 600 – 1600
Double Side-break 7,2 - 525 1200 – 3150
Centre-break 7,2 – 345 kV 600 – 3150
Centre-break – “V” 72 - 145 600 - 2000
Vertical Reach 145 - 800 1200 - 4000
Pantograph 145 - 800 2500 - 4000
Hook 7,2 - 145 600 - 1200

3. ISOLATOR ACCESSORIES

3.1 Arcing Horns

The arcing horn is the simplest form of interrupting arrangement. It consists of a stationary hairpin shaped rod attached
to the jaw of the isolator and a movable straight rod extended from the end of the isolator blade to the blade. The
purpose of the arcing horn is to avoid arcing at the main contacts of the switch during current interruption. Arc
interruption is achieved by lengthening the arc.

Arcing horns are usually used to make or break the magnetizing current of small transformers, or the charging current of
substation busbars or short distribution lines.

Arc reach is the perpendicular distance between the peak of an arc and the straight line drawn between the two parting
contacts. This is shown in Figures 26-1.18 and 26-1.19. It should be considered for phase spacing and clearance to
earth. It may be necessary to keep the arc reach to a minimum of 78 cm, depending on location of the equipment,
environmental and personnel considerations.

Arc Reach

Figure 26-1.18: Arcing Horn Arch Reach

Figure 26-1.19: Arc Reach for Small Currents at Various Line Voltages

In order to reduce the possibility of phase-to-phase faults, horn-gap isolators are usually mounted on wider phase
spacing than used for regular isolators. Phase spacing of these isolators and arc reach for various currents and voltages
are provided in Table 26-1.2 as a guide.

Table 26-1.2: Phase Spacing and Typical Interrupting Capacities Arcing Horns

Maximum BIL (kV) Horn Gap Maximum Interrupting Currents Interrupting

Voltage Um Phase Spacing Permissible Arc with Maximum Currents with
(kV) (mm) Reach (mm)** Permissible Arc Maximum 78 mm
Reach (A) Arc Reach (A)
7,2 95 915 610 20 20
14,4 110 915 610 18 18
23 150 1219 914 14 13
34,5 200 1524 1219 12 9
46 250 1829 1524 11 7
69 350 2134 1829 9 4
145 550 3048 2438 8 3
145 650 3658 2743 7 2
145 750 4267 3048 7 2
245 900 4877 3962 5 1
245 1050 5486 3962 5 1
345 1050 5486 3962 4 1
345 1300 6096 4572 4 1

** Maximum Permissible Arc Reach to Maintain Horn Gap Spacing

3.2 Whip Type Interrupters

The whip type interrupter is an extremely effective means of interrupting transformer magnetising and short line charging
currents. It consists of a tapered rod arranged with a latch so that it is subject to a large deflection when the isolator is
opened.

At a point in the opening operation, when sufficient air gap has been established at the main contacts, the rod is released
from the latch and travels at a very high speed whipping out the arc.

The need for very high contact speed comes from the race between the rise of recovery voltage across the contacts and
the build-up of dielectric strength after current zero. If sufficient speed is attained, arcing will persist only until the first
current zero crossing. Therefore, the moving whip interrupter builds up a gap of un-ionised air establishing a dielectric
strength that will exceed the rise in recovery voltage so that arcing cannot occur.

Due to the rapid arc extinction, isolators equipped with whip interrupters can be mounted on disconnect phase spacing
rather than horn gap phase spacing.

Whip type interrupters can usually be used on vertical-break or on single or double side-break isolators. In the case of
the double side-break isolator, two shorter rods are used, one for each jaw contact. Table 26-1.3 shows some typical
interrupting capabilities of whip type interruptions.

Table 26-1.3: Typical Interrupting Capabilities of Whip Interrupters

Maximum Voltage Um (kV) Magnetising Current Interruption Line Charging Current

Transformer Rating (MVA) Interrupting Capabilities (A)
7,2 35 23
14,4 35 23
23 35 23
34,5 35 23
46 50 23
69 70 16
115 100 10
145 90 8

The vacuum interrupter provides the isolator with load break capability. This accessory consists of one or more vacuum
bottles connected in series (depending on voltage). This vacuum bottle assembly is mounted on the jaw end of the
isolator. The assembly usually has an operating arm that is parallel to the axis of the arm that is attached to operating
arm the main isolator blade. This arm also functions as the current conductor that engages the contact arm that is
attached to the main isolator blade. When the isolator is in the open or closed position, the main isolator blade does not
engage the operating arm on the interrupter assembly. Only when the isolator is being opened, does the operating arm
on the blade engage the operating arm on the vacuum interrupter assembly. As the travel of the main isolator blade
increases, the operating arm on the vacuum interrupter is lifted to the point where the contacts inside the vacuum
interrupter part to break the circuit. Continued movement of the main isolator blade will cause the operating arm of the
vacuum interrupter to disengage the contact arm on the main isolator blade.

The vacuum interrupter is only in the circuit during the interruption process. Interruption takes place in a vacuum so that
there is no external arcing. Since there is no external arcing, the isolator phase-to-phase spacing does not have to be
increased to compensate for external arcing. Table 26-1.4 shows typical interrupting capabilities of vacuum interrupters.

Table 26-1.4: Typical Interrupting Capabilities of Vacuum Interrupters

Load Currents Based on Number of Interruptions Earthed Capacitor

Maximum
Number of Interruptions Bank Current Based
Voltage Um (kV)
2000 800 200 50 on 2000 Interruptions
(A) (A) (A) (A)
34,5 600 1200 1600 2000
46 600 1200 1600 2000
69 600 1200 1600 2000
115 600 1200 1600 2000
145 600 1200 1600 2000
170 600 1200 1600 2000
230 200 200 200 200

3.3 Outriggers (Cable Guides)

Outriggers (cable guides) are essentially extensions of the terminal pads of the isolator. These are fabricated from
aluminium or extruded aluminium “T” section material. Both ends are drilled for connections. One end of the cable guide
is bolted to the isolator terminal pad, and the other end will have the incoming cable connected to it. The purpose of the
cable guide is to move the connection point on the isolator further out from the switch to increase electrical clearance
from the incoming cable to the isolator base and support structure. The equipment manufacturer needs to be consulted

regarding the use of cable guides due to the additional bending moment that it will exert on the isolator terminal
stem/pad. Many isolator terminal pads are not designed to withstand appreciable bending moments.

3.4 Shaft Mounted Auxiliary Switch Contacts

These are auxiliary switch contacts that are used for control and interlocks that usually involve the main isolator. These
contacts are normally mounted in a cylindrical metal enclosure which is very light, and has a small operating shaft
protruding from it for the operation of the auxiliary switch contacts. The enclosure is also provided with one or mors
openings for conduit entry. The enclosure is attached to the supporting structure for the isolator and an operating linkage
is connected from the auxiliary switch operating shaft o the operating rod for the main isolator. This linkage assures that
the auxiliary switch contacts will faithfully reflect the position of the blade of the main isolator.

These auxiliary switches are available with 2 to 16 contacts in the enclosure. The contacts are usually labelled G, M and
N (see SLDG 26-3) and are site convertible in some cases. If more than 16 contacts are required for control and
interlocking purposes, additional auxiliary switch enclosures/assemblies can usually be mounted on the isolator structure
and coupled to the operating rod.

It is recommended that each auxiliary switch enclosure be purchased with an internal space heater to prevent the build-
up of condensation in the enclosure. A build-up of condensation can lead to the corrosion of the auxiliary switch contacts
with subsequent failure.

3.5 Motor Operating Mechanism

This operating mechanism is driven by an electric motor, usually in the range of 370 Watts to 560 Watts. It normally
includes a gear mechanism and a brake to quickly stop switch rotation. The entire mechanism is enclosed in an
enclosure that is mounted on the supporting structure for the isolator. The enclosure contains auxiliary switches that can
be used for control and interlocking purposes, and a space heater to prevent the build-up of condensation.

The motor drive is also equipped with a manual operating crank so that the isolator can be operated in the event that
control power is lost. Insertion of the manual operating crank into the motor drive mechanism operates a switch in the
motor drive control circuit which prevents electrical operating of the motor drive. This is a safety feature to prevent injury
to someone who might be holding onto the crank when a remote operation signal is sent to the motor drive.

The motor drive also has a coupling device to connect the motor drive to the operating rod of the isolator. This device is
designed so that the motor drive can be decoupled from the operating rod if a test needs to be performed on the motor
drive without operating the main isolator. Care needs to be taken in the design of interlocking and control circuits that use
the auxiliary switches in the motor drive enclosure. The reason for this is due to the de-coupler. When the motor
mechanism is de-coupled from the isolator operating rod, and operated, the auxiliary switches in the motor mechanism
will give a false indication of the position of the isolator blade.

3.6 Isolator Construction

The “live parts” of isolators can be constructed of either copper or aluminium. Copper has traditionally been used in high
continuous current applications. Copper isolators are usually more expensive than their aluminium counterparts.

Isolator support structures are usually fabricated from galvanised steel angle sections to for a lattice structure, with
mounting holes drilled as required by the specification.

Rotating insulator bearings would normally be a double row, and should have stainless steel balls and racers that are
sealed to prevent dirt ingress. This will ensure ease of operation of the isolator.

Isolators are designed to work with porcelain insulators. Manufacturers need to be consulted if there is a need to use
materials other than porcelain (polymer or glass).

4. SPECIFICATION CONCERNS

The following points are suggested that need to be covered in the specification prepared for the procurement of isolators.

4.1 General Specifications

Suppliers Scope: It needs to be clear what is to be supplied under the specification, the isolators only, or isolators with
the support structure.

4.2 Service Conditions

Standard service conditions are:

•
o o
Temperature of cooling air (ambient) is within the range of -30 C to +40 C

• Altitude does not exceed 1000 m

• Unusual service conditions, some of which are:

- Temperature other than standard

- Altitude greater than 1000 m. Increased altitude causes the isolator to have a lower dielectric strength than
standard

- Contamination/Pollution

- Abnormal vibration, shocks or tilting (e.g. seismic requirements)

- Unusual transportation or storage conditions

- Unusual operating duty or frequency of operation

4.3 Terminal connections

This includes drilling requirements for connection, requirements for outriggers, conductor size and type being terminated,
and loads being imposed on the isolator terminal stems or pads. The loads are especially important if the isolator is used
as a busbar support.

Requirements for any strain or pull-off holes in the isolator base including the strength requirements of the pull-off points.

5. DETAILED SPECIFICATIONS

A description and quantity of each isolator type require which needs to include the following as a minimum:

• Requirements for three pole group operation

• Isolator type

• Type of operating mechanism (manual or motor)

• Isolator mounting arrangement

• Requirements for arcing horns, whip interrupters, or vacuum interrupters

• Requirements for earthing switches

• Minimum live part clearance required, and the phase-to-phase spacing required

• Mounting height of the isolator (i.e. the height of the top of the terminal pads above the top of concrete (TOC)) of
the foundation.

5.1 Equipment Ratings

Table 26-1.5: Typical Equipment Ratings to be Specified

Description Reference
Nominal Voltage Class Un (kV)
Rated Maximum Voltage Um (kV)
Rated Frequency (Hz)
Continuous Current Rating In (A)
Rupturing Capacity IF (kA rms symmetrical)
Phase-to-Earth Insulation:
Impulse withstand (kV Crest)
1 Minute 50 Hz. Dry Withstand
10 Second 50 Hz. Wet Withstand
Wet Switching Surge Withstand (kV Crest)
Radio Interference Voltage (RIV)
Open Gap Insulation Coordination

5.2 Requirements for Earthing Switches

e is a need to define the location of the earthing-switches on the isolator if earthing switches are required, as well as the
orientation of the earth-switch (parallel or perpendicular to the isolator support), the type (maintenance or high speed
earthing), type of operating drive, and the ratings.

5.3 Requirements of Insulators

The type of insulators that need to be used must be specified, porcelain, glass or polymeric.

5.4 Motor Drive

• Voltages for the motor, controls and heater

Isolator Accessories:

• Arcing horns required (current to be interrupted)

• Whip interrupter requirements (current to be interrupted)

• Vacuum interrupter requirements (current to be interrupted)

• Auxiliary switches (number of contacts and heater voltage)

Supporting structures:

• Type (lattice, tubular, wide flange, etc.)

• Material (steel, aluminium, etc.)

• Finish (galvanised, painted, etc.)

• Height of top of isolator terminal stems/pads above the foundation

• Holding down bolts

6. ICE TESTING REQUIREMENTS

6.1 Drawing Requirements

The specification should require the manufacturer to provide the following drawings and data for the isolator that is being
supplied:

• Outline drawings showing dimensions, masses and location of accessories

• Detailed erection drawings

• Bills of material

• Detailed wiring and schematic diagrams for motor drives

• Operating mechanism arrangement drawings

• Force and loading diagrams for foundations

• Nameplate drawings

SLDG 26 - 2

PANTOGRAPH ISOLATORS

1. GENERAL

Pantograph isolators represent a special class of isolator wherein the isolating and connecting action is arranged to take
place in a vertical direction between two conductor planes. This enables considerable savings in space as horizontal
electrical clearance requirements are reduced to the absolute minimum through the compact nature of the moving arms
that fold up when the isolator is in the open position.

In view of the relatively high cost of pantograph isolators, their use is mainly restricted to the higher voltages of 220 kV,
275 kV and 400 kV or where tubular busbars are employed and where in-line isolators are impractical because of space
considerations.

Pantograph isolators are normally driven by geared motor drives on an individual phase basis because the distance
between phases becomes too large for mechanical interconnection.

2. BUSBAR HEIGHTS

(To be read in conjunction with SLDG 21-3)

2.1. Preamble

Pantograph isolators, as stated above, are generally only used for arrangements at 220 kV and above due to the
prohibitively high cost of these items of equipment at the lower voltage levels. The preferred solution at the lower
voltage levels is to use in-line or transversely arranged conventional isolators for these applications.

When placing orders for pantograph isolators, it is important to state the busbar height of the yard for which the PG
isolator is intended, in order that the correctly sized supporting insulator, in terms of length and BIL, is supplied. This is
to ensure that the PG isolator contact does not end up under-or over-reaching the busbar (trapeze) contact, whilst still
maintaining the minimum height of 2438 mm from the top of the concrete plinth to the bottom metal base of the support
insulator stack.

The sag in the busbar has to be calculated at the various positions where the pantograph isolators are to be located, to
ensure that proper contact between the scissors contact and trapeze occurs even during variations in ambient
temperature which cause the conductor sag to vary as the tension in the busbar conductors vary due to the expansion
and contraction in the conductor length.

Sag calculations are particularly important when determining relative movement of flexible conductors in the vertical
plane in the case of using pantograph isolators. Substation designs that used long lengths of busbar must be analysed
very carefully for sag variation in order to take corrective action to keep the sag variation within acceptable limits. In
order to make accurate calculations, the PG isolator foundation must be at the same level as the adjacent conductor
attachment portal column foundation.

a) Trapeze (3) Suspended b) Trapeze Suspended c) Trapeze (3) Suspended d) PG Isolator Scissors
From a Bundled From a Tubular From a Tubular Grip Contacts onto
Flexible Conductor (d) Conductor Through a Conductor (4) Through a Trapeze Contact
Through a Rigid Flexible Conductor Rigid Conductor
Conductor Assembly Assembly Assembly
(1)

Figure 26-2.1: Pantograph Isolator Opposing Contacts.

Figure 26-2.2: Plan View of a P.G. Isolator Arrangement

Figure 26-2.3: An Elevation along Centre Phases of L1, L2 or L3

With reference to Figure 26-2.1 and item d) in particular, for the variation in sag to be within acceptable limits, it must
remain within the range:-

fmax - fmin ≤ 2 . y eq. 26-2.1

where:-

fmin = conductor sag at the centre point at the lowest temperature

fmax = conductor sag at the centre point at the highest temperature

The following two relationships also have to be satisfied

H2 = fmax + E + c + D - (h2 + y) eq. 26-2.2

H2 = fmin + E + c + D - (h2 - y) eq. 26-2.3

where:-

H2 = Height of the attachment point of the insulator string above the Pantograph Insulator foundation level
E = Height of the pantograph support
c = Total height of the pantograph from its base to the top end of the pantograph arm
D = Distance between the middle point of the trapeze on the busbar to the contact point of the pantograph
h2 = Distance between the top most point of the pantograph arm and the average contact position with the
trapeze (see Figure 26-2.1d)).
y = Magnitude of the distance on either side of the average contact position which should not be
exceeded in order to have the best contact results

When calculating the sag of the busbar conductor, it must be remembered to take into account the sag due to the string
assemblies at either end of the conductor. The calculation of conductor and string insulator sags is dealt with in SLDG
21-2 under “Insulation and Clearances”, but for the sake of clarity the calculation of conductor sag only is repeated here.
The contribution to sag made by the strain string insulators is still to be added to any sag calculation results from the
conductor itself.

2.1.1 Conductor sag

1 2
9,81.m .l
Sag = eq. 12-2.4
8.Tc

where:-
1 -1
m = Mass of the conductor in kg m
ℓ = Conductor span in metres (m)
Tc = Conductor tension in Newtons (N) (per conductor)

Equation 26-2.4, however, does not take temperature into account. It is valid only for a given conductor tension and is
independent of temperature.

Sag, however, is also a function of temperature which is evident in equation 26-2.5.

2 2 2 2
8.fs E.Y.l Yo .l E.σ o
2
− −T = 2
− − T0 eq. 26-2.5
3.ε t .l 8.ε t .fs 24.ε t .σ o εt

where:-

fs = Sag of the conductor as defined in Figures 26-2.4 and 26-2.5 in cm.

εt = Coefficient of temperature
εtA1 = 23 . 10
-6 o -1
C
εtcu = 17 . 10
-6 o -1
C
ℓ = Span length in cm
E = Youngs Modules
-7 2 -1
EA1 = 1,79 . 10 cm N ???
-7 2 -1
Ecu = 0,77 . 10 cm N ???
Y = Specific gravity of conductor
-2 -3 -2 -1
YA1 = 2,7 . 10 Ncm (= Nmm m )
-2 -3
Ycu = 8,9 . 10 Ncm
Yo = Specific gravity of the conductor only, at the temperature with maximum conductor tension, usually at -
o -3 -2 -1
5 C, in N cm (or Nmm m )
o
Y0 = Y1 @ To = -5 C
when span length is greater than the critical span length:-

 360.ε t 
l kr = σ o .  2  (cm) eq. 26-2.6
Y −Y
 1 
−4
180. d .10
and Y1 = Y + eq. 26-2.7
A
o
Y0 = Y @ T = - 20 C
when the span length is smaller than the critical span length (ℓkr)
-3 -2 -1
Y1 = Specific gravity of the conductor including the weight of a layer of ice, in N cm (or Nmm m )
o
T = Conductor temperature at which the calculation is performed in C
o o
T0 = Conductor temperature at the maximum allowable tension, usually -5 C or -20 C depending on the
critical span ℓkr
σ0
-2
= Stress at the lowest temperature in Ncm
d = Diameter of conductor in mm
2
A = Cross-sectional area of conductor in cm
o
Example 1: Calculating the sag of a conductor at 15 C with the following parameters:-

εtA1
-6 o -1
= 23 . 10 C
ℓ = 800 cm
-7 2 -1
EA1 = 1,79 . 10 cm N
-2 -2 -1
Y = 2,7 . 10 Nmm m
o
T = 15 C
d = 26,46 mm
2
A = 4 cm
σ = 1000 N
−4
−6 180 . 26,46 . 10
2,7.10 +
Y1 = 4
-2 -2 -1
= 5,01 . 10 Nmm m
σ0 = Tc (Newtons) 2
2
(N/cm ) eq. 26-2.8
A(cm )
= 1000
4

2
= 250 N/cm
−6
(360 . 23 . 10 )
ℓkr = 250. 2 2 −2 2
(5,01 − 2,7 ).(10 )
= 539 cm (or 5,39 m)
∴ℓ
o
= 800>539 = ℓkr then T0 = -20 C and Y0 = Y1

Using equation 26-2.5:-

2 2 2 2
8.fs E.Y.l Yo .l E.σ o
2
− −T = 2
− − T0 eq. 26-2.5
3.ε t .l 8.ε t .fs 24.ε t .σ o εt

2 −7 −2 2
8.fs 1,79 . 10 . 2,7 . 10 . 800
−6 2
- −6
3 . 23 . 10 . 800 8 . 23 . 10 . fs

−2 2 2 −7
(5,01. 10 ) . 800 1,79 . 10 . 250
= −6 2
− −6
− ( −5)
24 . 23 . 10 . 250 23 . 10

2 16,810435
⇒ 0.181159.fs − − 15 = 46,562504 − 1,945652 + 5
fs

2 16,810435
⇒ 0,181159.fs − − 64,616852 = 0
fs

3
⇒ 0,181159.fs − 64,616852.fs − 16,810435 = 0

3
⇒ fs − 356,685851 .fs − 92,793816 = 0

Solving the cubic function using the Newton-Raphson results in fs = 19,015

f ≈ 19 cm at 15 o C
i.e. 
s
   →

The value fs is the maximum deviation between a straight line which joins two successive attachment points and the
conductor. To illustrate this, see Figures 26-2.4 and 26-2.5.

2.1.2.1 Two Successive Attachment Points at the Same Level

Figure 26-2.4: Attachment Points A and B are at the Same Height i.e. H1 = H2.

2.1.2.2. Two Successive Attachment Points at Different Levels.

It sometimes occurs that the spans in a section of an overhead conductor are on sloping ground and in many instances
the supports are at considerably different levels. This makes the calculation of sags and tensions a little more difficult,
while the checking of the actual sag in practice is more complicated than that on level ground.

The calculations are similar to those used for supports at the same level with the modification that the calculations are
done on the equivalent complete span length. Span lengths are always measured horizontally on the survey. If,
however, the slope of the ground is known, it is a fairly simple matter to determine the actual span length on the slope
from the horizontal span length and the ground slope.

The calculations are based on the parabolic formulae, which is sufficiently accurate so long as the tension ratio is
greater than 2. If the tension ratio is less than 2, a correction should be applied.

l2
Now, due to the different heights in the strain points, the sag fs, has to corrected by the ratio i.e. the maximum sag
l
l2
from the straight line along ℓ2 is times lower than the sag when the straight points are at the same height along ℓ1:-
l

l2
fsmax = fs . eq. 26-2.8
l

Once the sag at a particular temperature has been determined, it is possible from eq. 26-2.4 to then calculate the
tension in the conductor at a given temperature.

The sag from the straight line between A and B, fc (see Figure 26-2.5), can be calculated for every point on the catenary
using the formula:-

4.fsmax .c.( l − c)
fC = 2
eq. 26-2.9
l

Figure 26-2.5: Attachments A and B at Different Levels.

(i) It can be shown that the equivalent complete span can be determined from:-

2.Tc .(H2 − H1 )
l1 = l + 1
eq. 26-2.10
m .l
where:-

ℓ1 = Equivalent complete conductor span length in metres (m)

ℓ = Actual conductor span length between the supports in metres (m)
Tc = Tension in Newtons (N) (per conductor)
1
m = Mass of conductor in kilograms per metre (kg/m)
H2 = Height above the same ground reference level as H1 to the highest attachment point in
metres (m)
H1 = Height above ground to the lower attachment point in metres (m)

(ii) The distance of the lowest support to the lowest point sag “a” can be calculated from the following formula:-

1 2
m .l − 2.Tc .(H2 − H1 )
a= 1
eq. 26-2.11
2.m .l

If the value of a is negative, the lowest point of the sag on the parabola is outside the actual span length.

(iii) The direct shortest distance between the two attachment points L2 can be determined from the following formula:-

2 2
l2 = l + (H2 − H1 ) eq. 12-2.12

Example 2: ℓ = 10 m

ℓ2 = 14 m
2 2
A = 120 mm (1,2 cm ) Al ⇒ d = 14 mm (1,4 cm)
o
T = 80 C

Tc = 1000 N
1
m = 0,322 kg/m

(i) Check for critical length (see eq. 26-2.7):-

−4
−2 180 . 14 . 10
Y1 = 2,7 . 10 +
1,2 (from eq. 26-2.7)
−2 −2
= 4,4748 . 10 N.mm .m

(ii) from eq. 12-2.6:-

−6
1000 360 . 23 . 10
l kr =
2 2 −4
1,2 (4,4748 − 2,7 ).10 (from eq. 26-2.6)

= 1116,4 cm (or 11,16 m)

Since ℓ = 10 <11,16 = ℓkr, then

o
Y0 = Y @ T0 = -20 C

(iii) Calculate sag with ℓ = 10 m, from eq. 26-2.5:-

2 −7 −2 2
8.fs 1,79 . 10 . 2,8775 . 10 . 1000
−6 2
− −6
− 80
3 . 23 . 10 . 1000 8 . 23 . 10 . fs

−2 2 2 2 −7
(8,3125 . 10 ) . 1000 . 1,2 1,79 . 10 . 1000
= −6 2
− −6
− ( −5) (from eq. 26-2.5)
24 . 23 . 10 . 1000 23 . 10 . 1,2

2 26,266304
⇒ 0,115942.fs − − 80 = 16,539969
fs

3
fs - 832,657741.fs - 226, 54 6929 = 0

Solving the cubic function yields:-

fs = 28,991
f ≈ 29 cm

s

→
CONTROLLED DISCLOSURE
When downloaded from the EDS database, this document is uncontrolled, and the responsibility rests with the user to
ensure that it is line with the authorised version on the database.
SUBSTATION LAYOUT DESIGN GUIDE Unique Identifier: 240-55922824
Revision: 0
Page: 1028 of 2146

(iv) Due to the difference in the conductor attachment heights, fs, has to be corrected (see eq. 26-2.8):-

14
fsmax = 28,991.
10
fsmax ≈ 40,6 cm
    
→

(v) The distance of the lowest point on the catenary from the lowest attachment point is found using eq. 26-2.11:-

1 2 1 2
m .l m .l
fsmax = ⇒ Tc =
8.Tc 8.fsmax
1 2
1 2 m .l
m .l − (H2 − H1 )
4.fsmax
⇒a= 1
2.l.m

This reduces to:-

a = l.
[4.fsmax − (H2 − H1 )]
8.fsmax

From eq. 26-2.12:-

(H2 − H1 ) = 2
14 − 10
2

≈ 9,8 m

Then from the above:-

a=
[
10 . 4 . 40,6 − 980 ]
8 . 40,6
= −25,2 m

i.e. the lowest point on the parabola is outside the section being considered, so that the lowest point on the catenary is
at H1.

It may be useful to generate a table of sags verses temperature for a specific application as shown below.

Table 26-2.1: Schedule on Span Lengths vs. Sag at Various Temperatures

Maximum Span Conductor

Static length cross- Sag in cm at temperatures
Tension in sectional -20 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
(m)
Conductor 2
area (mm )
(kPa)

290 22,00 2 x 400 142,3 142,5 143,1 143,7 144,3 144,9 146,0 146,6 147,2

The “SEIL” program described in SLDG 41-1 paragraph 5 can carry out sag calculations for a range of assigned
values of temperatures. It can, however, only do this for a maximum of a two conductor bundle.

Example 3: Calculation for Sag Determining Sag Due To Reinforced Conductors

Aluminium/steel conductors are predominantly used for tensioned busbars, aluminium conductor of the same cross-
section being, employed for short connectors between equipment and for droppers.

The specific values for reinforced conductors (aluminium / steel) have to be determined, but their validity is based on the
following two assumptions:

i) The aluminium sheath cannot move relative to the steel core. This is prevented by friction between the wires and
wire layers.

ii) A tensile load stresses both steel core and aluminium sheath. The aluminium is assumed to take part of the load.

Symbols used:-

d = Conductor diameter (mm)

ρ = Density of reinforced conductor
ρAI, ρST = Density of aluminium and steel core
A = Total (nominal) cross-sectional area
AAL, AST = Section area of aluminium sheath and steel core
qr = Cross section ratio AM/AST
E = Elasticity modules of reinforced wires
EAI, EST = Elasticity modules of aluminium sheath and steel core
αth = Thermal expansion coefficient of reinforced wire
αthAL αthST = Thermal expansion coefficient of aluminium sheath and steel
m = Mass of wire referred to length
gn = Acceleration due to gravity
1
F = Force due to weight per unit length referred to x-section

Specific values of a reinforced wire Al / ST 210/50

3. APPLICATION OF TENSION SPRINGS

A way of reducing sag variation in long conductor spans due to the variation of ambient temperature is to incorporate a
spring device (see Figure 26-26) in series with the strain insulators at both strain ends. The expansion and contraction
in the conductor is absorbed by this device, keeping the conductor tension, thus conductor sag, constant.

Figure 26-2.6: Tension Spring

These devices have, however, only been used at two substations. Since lattice type portals are commonly used in
substations, these spring device are not necessary, since there is enough spring action in the lattice portals to keep the
conductor sag relatively constant.

SLDG 26-2 APPENDIX ‘A’

EXAMPLE A1: PROBLEM STATEMENT

The busbar at Jupiter Substation is to be re-strung from having 2 x bull conductor to 3 x bull conductor. The existing
busbar is only supported at every second bay whilst the new triple bull busbar is to be supported at every bay in various
combinations of strain - suspension points. The conductor is to be tensioned to 6 kN per conductor. From this, it was
necessary to determine the length of the solid aluminium rod required to suspend the pantograph isolator male contact
below the busbar conductor.

Refer to SLDG 43 - 3 Figure 43-1.1 and Tables 43-1.1 and 43-1.2 in order to calculate the lengths of the strain and
suspension insulator strings. It is assumed that the V-strain assembly is without an extension strap while the V-
suspension assembly is fitted with an extension strap on each leg.

i) The First Step in the Calculation

The length of one leg of the strain insulator ℓst is the sum of all the components making the leg. This is to be calculated
in two parts, the first on the V-section, and the second, from the yoke plate to the conductor attachment (see SLDG 43 -
1 Figure 43-1.1)

2 2
l1 = (82 + 20 . 146 + 60) − 1143

= 2841 mm
l 2 = 100 + 78 + 508

= 686 mm

∴ℓst = ℓ1 + ℓ 2 eq. 26-2.A1

= 3527 mm

ii) The second step that is required is to calculate the effect horizontal length of the strain insulator assembly
as seen in the “side elevation” (see Figure 26-2A.1a))

ℓeff = ℓst .cos φ eq. 26-2.A2

where:-
φ = Angle between the horizontal and the centre line of the assembly as calculated by eq. 4-1.39

Beam Width
½ Beam
Width ℓeff = ℓst.cos
Beam Width ℓ1 ℓ2
½ Beam
Attachment Spacing

Width ℓeff = ℓst.cos φ

½ Attachment
Spacing

φ
ℓst.sin φ

ℓst

(a) Strain Assembly (Side Elevation) (b) Strain Assembly (Plan View)

Attachment
Spacing
½ Attachment
Spacing
½ Beam
Beam

Width
Width

ℓ1
ℓsus
ℓ2
(c) Suspension Assembly (Side Elevation) (d) Suspension Assembly (Front Elevation)

Figure 26-2A.1: Determination of the Effective Length of the Insulator Assembly

To calculate φ, see SLDG 4-1. The mass of each component of the insulator string is provided in Table 43-1.2.

WI = 9,81.[2. (0,5 + 20 . 3,8 + 1,0 + 3,5 + 2. (0,7 + 10,0)]

≈ 1765,8 N

1
mC = 2,391 kg / m

WC = 9,81.[3. 2,391. (18,288 - 3,527).½]

= 519,3 N (3 x Bull) (weight of half a span

WH = 9,81.3

= 29,4 N

T= 6 kN (tension per conductor)

 WI + WC + WH 
φ = arctan (from eq. 42-1.5)
 
 3.T 

 1765,8 + 519,3 + 29,4 

= arctan
 3.6000 

o
= 7,33

o
∴ℓeff = 3527. cos 7,33

= 3498 mm

Length of busbar conductor to the first PG isolator (see Figure 26-2A.2)

x = 6096 - (½.762 + 3498)

= 2217 mm

Actual conductor span across first bay (also bay width less ℓeff)

= 2217 +2.4572 + 3048

= 14409 mm

iii) The third step is to determine the vertical effective length of the V-suspension insulator (ℓ1 + ℓ2)

Determining ℓsus (see also Figure 26-2A.1c) & d) and Figure 43-1.1)

2 2
ℓ1 = (450 + 82 + 20 .146 + 60) − 2286

= 2666 mm

ℓ2 = 100 + 78 + 70

= 248 mm

ℓsus = ℓ1 + ℓ2

= 2914 mm

The sag in the conductor due to the weight of the insulator strain assembly is given by SLDG 4-1, eq. 4 -12.36

fSI = ℓst . sin φ eq. 26-2A.3

o
= 3527. sin 7,33

= 450 mm

Where attachment points are at different heights, it is often convenient to refer sag to the highest attachment point (B)
as will be shown in a number of cases below. This can be done simply by the proportion rule of a triangle.

By proportion:-

hc (L − c)
= eq. 26-2A.4
h L

(L − c)
∴ hc = .h eq. 26-2A.5
L

hC
h = H2 – H1

fC fmax

C H2

PG Fdn
TOC

Figure 26-2A.1: Attachment Points at Different Heights

a) Feeder 1

In this case there is a strain point and a suspension point (see Figure 26-2A.2). The calculation should use the span of
the conductor only (i.e. overall span, 18288 mm, less the horizontal component of the insulator length).

The attachment points are at two different heights relative to the PG isolator foundations.

The strain beam height above PG foundation TOC

HBM1 = 9754 + (4877 - 4389)

= 10242 mm

Conductor attachment point height above PG foundation TOC

H1 = 10242 - 549

= 9693 mm

The suspension beam height above PG foundation TOC

HBM2 = 13106 + (4877 - 4389)

= 13594 mm

The conductor attachment point height above PG foundation TOC

H2 = 13594 - (2914 + ½ . 546)

= 10407 mm

6096 4572 4572 3048

546
762 ℓeff x

ℓsus
hPG2 hPG3
hPG1 fPG3
fPG1 fPG2

13106
DPG1

DPG2

DPG3

HBM2
9754
HBM1

H2
C
H1

C4 C11
TOC PG TOC
TOC E
y1

y2
Strain Beam

Suspension
Column &
Column &

PG1

PG3
PG2

Beam
18288

Figure 26-2A.2: An Elevation along Centre Phases of PG1, PG2 and PG3 on 275 kV Feeder 1 (Conductor
Attachment Points at Different Levels

The equivalent complete span is calculated from eq. 26-2.10

2.6000 . (10407 − 9693)

L1 = 14409 +
2,391. 14409

= 14658 mm

From eq. 26-2.12, the direct shortest distance between the two attachment points is:-

2 2
L2 = 14409 + (10407 − 9693)

= 14427 mm

Maximum sag fsmax from Eq. 26-2.4

2
9,81. 2,391. (14,658)
fsmax = ⋅ 1000
8 .6000

= 105 mm (sag)

The adjustment due to the difference in the conductor attachment heights fsmax from eq. 26-2.8

1 14427
f smax = 105 .
14409

≈ 105 mm (not significantly different)

The difference in heights of attachment points is obviously not enough to make any difference in the sag.

To calculate the sag of the conductor at the PG isolator positions from eq. 26-2.9:-

4 . 105 . 2217. (14409 - 2217)

fCPG1 = 2
14409
≈ 55 mm

fCPG2 =
( [
4 . 105 . (2217 + 4572). 14409 − 2217 + 4572 ])
2
14409
≈ 105 mm

fCPG3 =
( [
4 .105.(2217 + 2 ⋅ 4572). 14409 − 2217 + 2 ⋅ 4572 ])
2
14409
= 70 mm

Correct sag at PG isolator relative to highest attachment point. From eq. 26-2A.2:-

The difference between the highest point and the straight line between the two attachment points is:-

(14409 − 2217)
hPG1 = ⋅ (10407 − 9693)
14409

= 604 mm

hPG2 =
(14409 − (2217 + 4572) ) ⋅ (10407 − 9693)
14409

= 378 mm

hPG3 =
(14409 − (2217 + 2 . 4572)) ⋅ (10407 − 9693)
14409

= 151 mm

∴ Sag at PG isolator relative to highest attachment point is:-

fPG1 + hPG1 = 55 + 604

= 659 mm

fPG2 + hPG2 = 105 + 378

= 483 mm

fPG3 + hPG3 = 70 + 151

= 221 mm

Therefore the difference between the conductor height above the PG isolator foundations and the PG isolator contact
midpoints are:-

DPG1 = 10407 - (9061 + 659 mm)

= 687 mm.

DPG2 = 10407 - (9061 + 483)

= 863 mm

DPG3 = 10407 - (9061 + 151)

= 1195 mm

b) Feeder 2

This case is slightly simpler in that both attachment points are suspension points at the same level (see Figure 26-
2A.3). No adjustment needs to be effected since there is no difference in the two attachment heights, and no sag in
the conductor due to the weight of an insulator strain assembly.

6096 4572 4572 3048

546

546
ℓsus

ℓsus
13106
HBM1

13106
DPG1

DPG2

HBM2
DPG3

H2
C
H1

C11 C18
TOC PG TOC
TOC E
y1

y2
Suspension
Suspension

Column &
Column &

Beam
PG1

PG2

PG3
Beam

18288

Figure 26-2A.3: An Elevation along Centre Phases of PG1, PG2 and PG3 on 275 kV Feeder 2 (Conductor
Attachment Points at the Same Level)

Attachment point height (i.e. mounting height of busbar suspension beam)

= 13106 mm

Suspension beam height relative to TOC of PG foundation.

HBM1 & HBM2 = 13106 + (4877 - 4389)

= 13594 mm

Conductor attachment point height above PG foundation TOC

H1 & H2 = 13594 - (2914 + ½.546)

= 10407 mm

2
9,81. 2,391. (18,288)
Conductor sag = .1000
8 . 6000

fsmax = 163 mm

To calculate the sag of the conductor at the P.G. isolator positions: From eq. 26-2.9:-

4 . 163 . 6096.(1828 8 − 6096)

fPG1 = 2
18288

= 145 mm

fPG2 =
( [
4 . 163 . (6096 + 4572). 18288 − 6096 + 4572 ])
2
18288

= 158 mm

4 . 163 . (6096+ 2 . 4572).(18288 −[6096 + 2 . 4572])

fPG3 =
18288 2

= 91 mm

Since the two suspension heights are at the same level, no correction relative to the highest attachment point need be
made (hPGi = 0)

Therefore the difference between the conductor height above the P.G. foundations TOC and the PG contact midpoints
are:-

DPG1 = 10407 - (9061 + 145)

= 1201 mm

DPG2 = 10407 - (9061 + 158)

= 1188 mm

DPG3 = 10407 - (9061 + 91)

= 1255 mm

c) Feeder 3:

In this case, the two suspension heights are at different levels, hence and adjustment to the maximum sag has to be
made.

Busbar suspension beam mounting height above each set of column foundations is = 13106 mm

Suspension beam height of C16 relative to TOC of P.G. foundation is:-

HBM1 = 13106 + (4877 - 4292)

= 13691 mm

= 13508 mm

6096 4572 4572 3048

546

546
ℓsus
ℓsus hPG hPG2 hPG3

fPG1 fPG3
fPG2
13106

13106
HBM1

DPG2

DPG3
DPG1

HBM2
H2
C
H1

C16
C56
TOC PG TOC
TOC E
y1

y2
Suspension

Suspension
Column &

Colum &
Beam

Beam
PG1

PG3
PG2

18288

Figure 26-2A.4: An Elevation along Centre Phases of PG1, PG2 and PG3 on 275 kV Feeder 3 (Conductor
Attachment Points at Different Levels)

Suspension beam height of C56 relative to TOC of PG foundation is:-

HBM2 = 13106 + (4694 - 4292)

The conductor suspension point heights above PG foundation TOC:-

C16: 13691 - (2914 + ½ . 546)

H1 = 10504 mm

C56: 13508 - (2914 + ½ . 546)

H2 = 10321 mm

The equivalent complete span is calculated from eq. 26-2.10

2 . 6000.(10504 − 10321)
L1 = 18288 +
2,391. 18288

= 18338 mm

From eq. 26-2.12, the direct shortest distance between the two attachment points is:-

L2 = 18288 2 +(10504 −10321)2

= 18289 mm (not significantly different)

Maximum sag is given by eq. 26-2.4:-

2
9,81. 2,391. 18,338
fsmax = .1000
8 . 6000

= 164 mm

The adjustment due to the difference in conductor attachment heights fsmax, from eq. 26-2.8

1 18289
f smax = 164 .
18288

= 164 mm (not significantly different)

To calculate the sag of the conductor at the PG isolator positions: From eq. 26-2.9

4 . 164 . 6096.(18288 −6096)

fPG1 =
18288 2

= 146 mm

fPG2 =
(
4 . 164 . (6096 + 4572). 18288 − (6096 + 4572) )
2
18288

= 159 mm

fPG3 =
(
4 . 164 . (6096 + 2 . 4572). 18288 − (6096 + 2 . 4572) )
2
18288

= 91 mm

Correct sag for relative to highest attachment point from eq. 26-2.A2:-

(18288 − 6096)
hPG1 = ⋅ (10504 − 10321)
18288

= 122 mm

(18288 − (6096 + 4572)

hPG2 = ⋅ (10504 − 10321)
18288

= 76 mm

hPG3 =
(18288 − (6096 + 2 . 4572)) ⋅ (10504 − 10321)
18288

= 31 mm

∴ Sag at PG isolator relative to highest attachment point is:-

fPG1 + hPG1 = 146 + 122

= 268 mm

fPG2 + hPG2 = 159 + 76

= 235 mm

fPG3 + hPG3 = 91 + 31

= 122 mm

Therefore the difference between the conductor height above the PG foundations and PG contact midpoints are:-

DPG1 = 10504 - (9061 + 268)

= 1175 mm

DPG2 = 10504 - (9061 + 235)

= 1208 mm

DPG3 = 10504 - (9061 + 122)

= 1321 mm

d) Feeder 4

The two suspension heights at different levels, hence adjustment to the maximum sag is required. (see calculations for
Feeder 3).

3048 4572 4572 6096

546

546
ℓsus

ℓsus
hPG1 hPG2 hPG3
fPG1 fPG3
fPG2
13106
HBM1

13106
DPG1

DPG2

DPG3

HBM2
H2

C
H1

C32
C62
TOC PG TOC
E TOC
y1

y2
Suspension

Suspension
Column &

Column &
PG1

PG3
PG2
Beam

Beam

18288

Figure 26-2A.5: An Elevation along Centre Phases of PG1, PG2 and PG3 on 275 kV Feeder 4 (Conductor
Attachment Points at Different Levels)

Busbar suspension beam mounting height above each set of column foundations is calculated as follows:-

Suspension beam height of C32 to TOC of PG foundation is:-

HBM1 = 13106 + (4450 - 3941)

= 13615 mm

Suspension beam height of C62 relative to TOC of PG foundation is:-

HBM2 = 13106 + (4368 - 3941)

= 13533 mm

Conductor suspension points above PG foundation TOC:-

C32: 13615 - (2914 + ½ . 546)

H1 = 10428 mm

C62: 13533 - (2914 + ½ . 546)

H2 = 10346 mm

The equivalent complete span from eq. 26-2.10

2 . 6000.(10428 − 10346)
L1 = 18288 +
2,391. 18288

= 18311 mm

From eq. 26-2.12, direct shortest distance between the two attachment points is:-

2 2
L2 = 18288 + (10428 − 10346)

= 18288 (not significantly different)

Maximum sag given by eq. 26-2.4

2
9,81. 2,391. 18,311
fsmax = .1000
8 . 6000

= 163 mm

l2
No adjustment required since =1
l

1
f smax = 163 mm

The sag of the conductor at the PG isolator positions from eq. 26-2.9

4 . 163 . 3048.(18288 − 3048)

fPG1 = 2
18288

= 91 mm

fPG2 =
(
4 . 163 . (3048 + 4572). 18288 − (3048 + 4572) )
2
18288

= 158 mm

fPG3 =
(
4 . 163 . (3048 + 2 . 4572). 18288 − (3048 + 2 . 4572) )
2
18288

= 145 mm

Correct sag for relative to highest attachment point from eq. 26-2.A2 :-

(18288 − 3048)
hPG1 = ⋅ (10428 − 10346)
18288

= 68 mm

hPG2 =
(18288 − (3048 + 4572) ) ⋅ (10428 − 10346)
18288

= 47 mm

hPG3 =
(18288 − (3048 + 2 . 4572)) ⋅ (10183 − 10101)
18288

= 27 mm

∴Sag at PG isolator relative to highest attachment point is:-

fPG1 + hPG1 = 91 + 68

= 159 mm

fPG2 + hPG2 = 158 + 47

= 205 mm

fPG3 + hPG3 = 145 + 27

= 172 mm

PG for Feeder 4 Overall height to contact midpoint including support:-

= 6195 + 2900

= 9095 mm

Therefore the difference between the conductor height above the PG feeders and PG contact midpoints are:-

DPG1 = 10428 - (9095 + 159)

= 1174 mm

DPG2 = 10428 - (9095 + 205)

= 1128 mm

DPG3 = 10428 - (9095 + 172)

= 1161 mm

e) TRFR 1

As with Feeder 1, here we have a strain-suspension insulator configuration. Similar calculations as for Feeder 1 will
therefore be required.

6096 4572 4572 3048

546
762 ℓeff x

ℓsus
hPG2 hPG3
hPG1 fPG3
fPG1 fPG2

13106
DPG1

DPG2

DPG3

HBM2
9754
HBM1

H2
C
H1

C58 C26
TOC PG TOC
TOC E
y1

y2
Suspension
Strai Beam

Column &
Column &

PG1

PG3
PG2

Beam
18288

Figure 26-2A.6: An Elevation along Centre Phases of PG1, PG2 and PG3 on 275 kV Transformer 1 (Conductor
Attachment Points at Different Levels)

The attachment points are at two different heights relative to the P.G. isolator foundations.

The strain beam (C58) height above PG foundation TOC:-

HBM1 = 9754 + (4768 - 4212)

= 10310 mm (above column foundation)

The conductor attachment point height above PG foundation TOC:-

H1 = 10310 - 549

= 9761 mm

The suspension beam (C76) height above PG foundation TOC:-

HBM2 = 13106 + (4694 - 4212)

= 13588 mm

The conductor attachment point height above PG foundation TOC:-

H2 = 13588 - (2914 + ½ . 546)

= 10401 mm

The equivalent complete span is calculated from eq. 26-2.10

2 . 6000(10401 − 9761)
L1 = 14409 +
2,391. 14409

= 14632 mm

From eq. 26-2.12, the direct shortest distance between the two attachment points is:-

2 2
L2 = 14409 + (10401 − 9761)

= 14423 mm

Maximum sag before adjustment using eq. 26-2.4:-

2
9,81. 2,391. (14,632)
fsmax = ⋅ 1000
8 . 6000

= 105 mm

The adjustment due to the difference in conductor attachment heights from eq. 26-2.8

1
14423
f smax = 105 .
14409

≈ 105 mm (not significantly different)

To calculate sag of conductor at the P.G. isolator positions from eq. 26-2.9:-

4 . 105 . 2217.(1440 9 - 2217)

fPG1 = 2
14409

= 55 mm

fPG2 =
(
4 . 105 . (2217 + 4572). 14409 - 2217 + 4572 [ ])
2
14409

= 105 mm

fPG3 =
( [
4 . 105 . (2217 + 2 . 4572). 14409 - 2217 + 2 . 4572 ])
2
14409

= 70 mm

Correct sag for relative to highest attachment point, from eq. 26-2.A2:-

(14409 − 2217)
hPG1 = ⋅ (10401 − 9761)
14409

= 542 mm

∴ Sag at PG isolator relative to highest attachment point is:-

(14409 − (2217 + 4572))

hPG2 = ⋅ (10401 − 9761)
14409

= 338 mm

(14409 − (2272 + 2 . 4572)) ⋅ (10401 − 9761)

hPG3 =
14409

= 133 mm

fPG1 + hPG1 = 55 + 542

= 597 mm

fPG2 + hPG2 = 105 + 388

= 443 mm

fPG3 + hPG3 = 70 + 133

= 203 mm

Therefore the difference between the conductor height above the PG feeders and PG contact midpoints are:-

DPG1 = 10401 - (9061 + 597)

= 743 mm

DPG2 = 10401 - (9061 + 443)

= 897 mm

DPG3 = 10401 - (9061 + 203)

= 1137 mm

f) TRFR 2

Strain - suspension (see item (a) feeder and (e) TRFR1). The attachment points are at different heights relative to P.G.
isolator Feeder TOCs.

The strain beam (C60) height above PG foundation TOC:-

HBM1 = 9754 + (4694 - 4029)

= 10419 mm

The conductor attachment point height above PG foundation:-

H1 = 10419 - 549

= 9870 mm

The suspension beam (C34) height above PG foundation TOC :-

HBM2 = 13106 + (4450 - 4029)

= 13527 mm

The conductor attachment point height above PG foundation TOC:-

H2 = 13527 - (2914 + ½ . 546)

= 10340 mm

6096 4572 4572 3048

546
762 ℓeff x

ℓsus
hPG2 hPG3
hPG1 fPG3
fPG1 fPG2

13106
DPG1

DPG2

DPG3

HBM2
9754
HBM1

H2
C
H1

C60 C34
TOC PG TOC
TOC E
y1

y2
STRAIN BEAM

SUSPENSION
COLUMN &
COLUMN &

PG1

PG3
PG2

BEAM

18288

Figure A7: An Elevation along Centre Phases of PG1, PG2 and PG3 on 275 kV Transformer 2 (Conductor
Attachment Points at Different Levels)

The equivalent complete span is calculated from eq. 26-2.10

2 . 6000. (10340 - 9870)

L1 = 14409 +
2,391. 14409

= 14573 mm

From eq. 26-2.12, the direct shortest distance between the two attachment points is:-

2 2
L2 = 14409 + (10340 − 9870)

= 14417 mm

Maximum sag before adjustment

2
9,81. 2,391. (14,573)
fsmax = ⋅ 1000
8 . 6000

= 104 mm

The adjustment due to the difference in conductor attachment heights, from eq. 26-2.8:-

1
14417
f smax = 104 .
14409

≈ 104 mm (not significantly different)

To calculate sag of conductor at the P.G. isolator positions from eq. 26-2.9:-

2272 . (14409 - 2272)

fPG1 = 4 . 104 . 2
14409

= 55 mm

fPG2 = 4 . 104 .
(
(2272 + 4572) 14409 − (2272 + 4572) )
2
14409

= 103 mm

fPG3 = 4 . 104 .
(
(2272 + 2 . 4572) 14409 − (2272 + 2 . 4572) )
2
14409

= 68 mm

Correct sag for relative to highest attachment point, from eq. 26-2.A2:-

(14409 − 2272)
hPG1 = ⋅ (10340 − 9870)
14409

= 396 mm

(14409 − (2272 + 4572)) . (10340 - 9870)

hPG2 =
14409

= 247 mm

(14409 − (2272 + 2 . 4572)).(10340 - 9870)

hPG3 =
14409

= 98 mm

∴ Sag at PG isolator relative to highest attachment point is:-

fPG1 + hPG1 = 55 + 396

= 451 mm

fPG2 + hPG2 = 103 + 247

= 350 mm

fPG3 + hPG3 = 68 + 98

= 166 mm

Therefore the difference between the conductor height above the PG foundations and PG contact midpoints are:-

DPG1 = 10340 - (9061 + 451)

= 828 mm

DPG2 = 10340 - (9061 + 350)

= 929 mm

DPG3 = 10340 - (9061 + 166)

= 1113 mm

g) TRFR 3

Suspension attachment points at the same height. No adjustments due to different conductor attachment point heights
are required.

3048 4572 4572 6096

546

546
ℓsus
ℓsus

13106
13106
HBM1

DPG3
DPG1

HBM2
DPG2

C
H1

C40 C47
TOC PG TOC
E TOC
y2
y1

Suspension
Suspension

Column &
Column &

Beam
PG1

PG2

PG3
Beam

18288

Figure 26-2A.8: An Elevation along Centre Phases of PG1, PG2 and PG3 on 275 kV Transformer 3 (Conductor
Attachment Points at the Same Level)

The suspension beam (B29) height above PG foundation TOC is:-

HBM1 & HBM2 = 13106 + (4368 - 3862)

= 13612 mm

The conductor attachment point height above PG foundation TOC:-

H1 & H2 = 13612 - (2914 + ½ 546)

= 10425 mm

2
9,81. 2,391. (18,288)
fsmax = . 1000
8 . 6000

= 163 mm

The sag of the conductor at PG isolator position from eq. 26-2.9 (see calculations for Feeder 4 (d))

fPG1 = 91 mm

fPG2 = 158 mm

fPG3 = 145 mm

Since the two suspension heights are at the same level, no correction relative to the highest attachment point need be
made (hPGi = 0).

The difference between the conductor height above the PG feeders and PG contact midpoints are:-

DPG1 = 10425 - (9061 + 91)

= 1273 mm

DPG2 = 10425 - (9061 + 158)

= 1206 mm

DPG3 = 10425 - (9061 + 145)

= 1219 mm

Column Foundation Toc Above Datum Difference P.G. Foundation DIFFERENCE BETWEEN COLUMN AND
Bay
In TOC's TOC Above
P.G. Foundation TOC's
DTOC (mm) Datum (mm)
Col. No. (mm) Col. No. (mm) Col. No. y1 (mm) Col. No. y2 (mm)
Feeder 1 C4 4877 C11 4877 0 4389 C4 488 C11 488
Feeder 2 C11 4877 C18 4877 0 4389 C11 488 C18 488
Feeder 3 C16 4877 C56 4694 183 4292 C16 585 C56 402
Feeder 4 C32 4450 C62 4368 82 3941 C32 509 C62 427
Transformer 1 C58 4768 C26 4694 74 4212 C58 556 C26 482
Transformer 2 C60 4694 C34 4450 244 4029 C60 665 C34 421
Transformer 3 C40 4368 C47 4368 0 3862 C40 506 C47 506

Bay Height Of Busbar Beam Height Of Busbar Beam. Effective Length Of Insulator Assembly
Attachment Attachment Point Above P.G.
(mm)
Point Above Column Foundation Foundation
(mm) (mm)
Strain Suspension Strain Suspension Strain Suspension
HBM1 HBM2 HBM1 HBM2
Feeder 1 9754 - - 13106 10242 - - 13594 3498 - - 2914
Feeder 2 - - 13106 13106 - - 13594 13594 - - 2914 2914
Feeder 3 - - 13106 13106 - - 13691 13508 - - 2914 2914
Feeder 4 - - 13106 13106 - - 13615 13533 - - 2914 2914
Transformer 1 9754 - - 13106 10310 - - 13588 3498 - - 2914
Transformer 2 9754 - - 13106 10419 - - 13527 3498 - -
Transformer 3 - - 13106 13106 - - 13612 13612 - - 2914 2914

Height Of Conductor Height Of Equivalent Shortest Distance Maximum Maximum

Bay Attachment Point Above P.G. Contact Complete Between Sag Before Sag Before
Foundation Mid-Point Above Span Attachment Correction Correction
P.G. Foundation if DTOC ≠ 0 Points fsmax fsmax
(mm)
(C+E) (mm) if DTOC ≠ 0 (mm) (mm)
Strain Suspension (mm) (mm)
H1 H2 H1 H2
Feeder 1 9693 - - 10407 9061 14658 14427 105 105
Feeder 2 - - 10407 10407 9061 18288 18288 163 163
Feeder 3 - - 10504 10321 9061 18338 18289 164 164
Feeder 4 - - 10428 10346 *9095 18311 18288 163 163
Transformer 1 9761 - - 10401 9061 14652 14423 105 105
Transformer 2 9870 - - 10340 9061 14573 14417 104 104
Transformer 3 - - 10425 10425 9061 18288 18288 163 163

Bay Conductor Sag At P.G. Difference Between Conductor Sag At P.G. Positions Difference Between
Isolator Positions Highest Point And Relative To Highest Attachment Conductor Height And
(mm) Straight Line Connecting Point P.G. Contact Mid-Point
The Attachment Points (mm) (mm)
(mm)

fPG1 fPG2 fPG3 hPG1 hPG2 hPG3 (fPG1+hPG1) (fPG2+hPG2) (fPG3+hPG3) DPG1 DPG2 DPG3
Feeder 1 55 105 70 604 378 151 659 483 221 687 863 1195
Feeder 2 145 158 91 0 0 0 145 158 91 1201 1188 1255
Feeder 3 146 159 91 122 76 31 268 235 122 1175 1208 1321
Feeder 4 91 158 145 68 47 27 159 205 172 1174 1128 1161
Transformer 1 55 105 70 542 338 133 597 443 203 743 897 1137
Transformer 2 55 103 68 396 247 98 451 350 166 828 929 1113
Transformer 3 91 158 145 0 0 0 91 158 145 1273 1206 1219

Due to the repetitiveness of these calculations, a Micro-Soft Excel software package has been created to produce outputs for all the possible strain-suspension combinations.
A flow chart is presented together with an explanation of how data is inputted via the menu, and an output sheet included

S.L.D.G. 26-3

ISOLATOR AUXILIARY CONTACTS

1. DEFINITION OF CONTACTS

Isolator auxiliary contacts can be arranged to operate at various times relative to the operation of the main contacts. Three
types respectively designed G, M and N are available with timing sequence as follows:-

Table 26-3.1: Types of Isolator Auxiliary Contacts

Type Closes Opens

G Before main contacts close -
M After main contacts close -
N - Before main contacts close

Drawing 0.54/681 gives more details of the contract timing sequences.

(Note: This drawing includes and 'F' contact which is no longer specified).

2. CONTACT ASSEMBLIES

Auxiliary switch assemblies comprising various combinations of G, M or N contacts can be built up to suit specific
requirements, and in the past the following arrangements have been used:-

Table 26-3.2: Previous Isolator Auxiliary Contact Arrangements

Number of Contacts Made up of Old EED 6/5/4 Ref.

6 1G, 4M, 1N Type A
4G, 2N Type B
12 7G, 4M, 1N Type C
7G, 5N Type D
14 8G, 4M, 2N Type E
8G, 4M, 2N Type F
16 10G, 4M, 2N Type G
10G, 6N Type H

Recently, the standardization of protection schemes has received a great deal of attention and arising out of this work it
would seem that the following limited number of auxiliary switch assemblies can be adopted as standard.

Table 26-3.3: Present Standard Isolator Auxiliary Contact Arrangements

Number of Contacts Made up of New Type Reference

6 5M, 1N 6A
12* 3G, 4M, 5N 12A
14 7G, 5M, 2N 14A
16 8G, 4M, 4N 16A

* For single-pole isolators, 220 kV and above

3. APPLICATION GUIDE

Although the number and type of auxiliary switches required with an isolator can vary considerably depending on the
complexity of the protection and control scheme, the assemblies listed as standard in Section 3 should cater for most
requirements, particularly if flip-flop relays are used to multiply the contacts where necessary.

Table 26-3.4 gives a general guide to the requirements for various system voltages.

Table 26-3.4: Isolator Auxiliary Contacts - Application Guide

System CONTACT
Voltage Assembly Type Ref Arrangement Function
11 - 22 kV 3 VT Switching
and M:5 1 Possible indication
6A
33 - 132 kV 1 Spare (Jericho scheme)
Minor circuits N:1 1 Possible indication
G:7 7 Bus Zone
3 VT Switching
1 Supervisory indication or main d.c.
M:5
33 - 132 kV switching.
Major Circuits 14A 1 Back-up d.c. switching.
1 Supervisory indication or main d.c.
N:2 switching.
1 Back-up d.c. switching
7 Bus Zone
G:8
1 Spare
220 - 400 kV 1 Supervisory indication
16A
3-phase isolators M:4 1 Local indication
1 Main d.c. switching.
N:4 As for M contacts
G:3 3 Bus zone or discrepancy alarm.
220 - 400 kV
M:4 As for 3-phase isolator
1-phase 12A
4 As for 3-phase isolator
isolators N:5
1 Spare or discrepancy alarm

Note: Minor circuits are considered to be those at the smaller substations, generally supplying consumers, where
sophisticated control schemer (auto-synchronizing, supervisory control, busbar protection, etc.) are hardly likely
to be applied.

% Travel of
0 2 4 6 8 10 Main Contact
to Contact
touch point

Main Contacts

“Y”

F Contacts

No Overlap of
F&M

M Contacts
80 %
Contacts Open Limits for “X” Limits for “Y”

G Contacts
Contacts Closed
“X”

No Overlap of
G&N

N Contacts

Isolator Open Main Contacts Isolator Fully

Touch Closed

Figure 26-3.1: H.V. Isolators Auxiliary Switch Contacts Relative Timing

4. REFERENCES

4.1 Old Electrical Engineering Department Directive EED 6/5/4-1

SLDG 26 - 4

ISOLATORS
GENERAL INFORMATION

1. DETERMINATION OF PHASE SPACING

Isolators (or disconnectors) are designed so that insulation breakdown should not occur across the isolating distance
nor between phases. If breakdown does occur, it should happen across a supporting post insulator to earth. This leads
to increased dimensions in the order of 15 % (for single gap types) or 30 % (for double gap types) across the isolating
distance as well as for the phase-to-phase clearance when compared with phase-to-earth clearance. Maintaining
adequate phase-to-phase clearance in the open position therefore establishes minimum allowable phase spacing and
this varies according to the type of isolator employed.

Phase spacing is determined on the following basis:-

Table 26-4.1: Determination of Phase Spacing

Type of Isolator Minimum Phase Spacing

(See Figure 26-4.1)
Centre Break (0,5 . 1,15 Phase-to-earth clearance) + (Phase-to-phase clearance)
Side Break (1,0 . 1,15 Phase-to-earth clearance) + (Phase-to-phase clearance)
Centre Rotating Post Double Break 1,3 . (Phase-to-earth clearance) or Phase-to-phase clearance,
whichever is the greater

It should be noted that the centre break and side break types require greater phase spacing and clearance to
surrounding earthed steelwork than with a centre rotating post double break type. At higher voltages, the symmetrically
balanced design of the centre rotating post double break gives certain advantages and is therefore the standard type
specified for voltages equal to or higher than 88 kV.

2. STRENGTH OF INSULATORS

The rated cantilever strength of post insulators mounted in the vertical position is normally 4000 Newtons, but often
higher values such as 6000 Newtons or more are necessary when significant forces, mainly due to electro-dynamic
effects of through faults, must be withstood. The continuous mechanical loading from the weight of connected
conductors, clamps, wind forces, etc. should be kept to a minimum wherever possible and should not be allowed to
exceed 1500 Newtons.

These forces can be checked using the methodology discussed in SLDG 41-1 or the “SEIL” program described in the
same chapter which also enables one to dimension post insulators.

3. OPERATING MECHANISMS

All isolators intended for remote supervisory operation should be equipped with geared electric motor drives. This is
standard practice for voltages of 220 kV and above as it facilitates local operation as well. As a general rule, DC motors
and control circuitry should be specified, because AC supplies are regarded as less reliable for substation applications.

Earth switches are normally manually operated and motor drives are not required here.

With exception of pantograph isolators for 275 kV and 400 kV, which tend to have physically awkward layouts, isolators
and earthing switches should have all phases mechanically driven in “ganged” fashion.

Stored energy drives such as weight or spring actuated mechanisms find economic application where the use of a
circuit breaker can be avoided e.g. for transformer banking and the so-called “Jericho” protection scheme. However,
experience with such devices has been very disappointing and adoption should be treated with circumspection.

4. EARTHING SWITCHES

It is necessary to provide earthing switches at the higher voltages since application of safety earths is cumbersome and
dangerous because of the large physical dimensions involved. Until recently, it was considered unnecessary to do so
for the lower voltages. However, after reviewing site practices and performance verification of portable earths it was
decided to apply earthing switches at the lower voltages as well. Here the key factor is the rated fault level and if this
parameter exceeds 20 kA, then earthing switches should be provided.

Earthing switches are either separate units or mounted integral with the isolators.

The location of these earthing switches depends on the type of circuit concerned following a general rule of providing
earthing facilities on every individual section of any main circuit of the substation.

Figure 2 shows the earthing switch arrangements for the following circuits:-

a) Transformer
b) Transmission line (without bypass)
c) Transmission line (with bypass)
d) Bus couplers and bus sections

It will be noted that in the case of Figure 26-4.2(c) a separate earth switch is strategically located on the line side of the
line and bypass isolator common connection. It is deliberately located between the line trap and current transformer so
that it does not affect carrier transmission, nor can it cause an incorrect buszone protection operation in the event of
current flowing to earth at this point.

As indicated in Figure 26-4.2(d), earth switches are provided on both sides of the isolators associated with bus coupler
and bus section circuit breakers. Not only are earthing facilities provided for circuit breaker maintenance, but earthing
points are also provided for the busbars. In instances where no bus couplers or bus sections exist, additional earthing
switches may have to be added to busbar selection isolators of a line or transformer circuit for the purpose of
incorporating busbar earthing facilities.

Earthing switches integral with isolators are normally mechanically interlocked with the isolator contacts to enable
operation only when the isolator is in the open position. This interlock mainly serves to ensure contact systems are
correctly positioned, and is not an interlock against inadvertent connection of an earth onto a live circuit. The latter
requires much more sophisticated interlocking such as a key or “magnetic bolt” system. Current outdoor switchyard
operating practice places the onus on responsible persons to apply and remove earths correctly and interlocking in the
true sense does not exist. The following conditions illustrate the many pitfalls faced by operations when earthing
switches or portable earths are involved, viz.:-

a) Line is alive by virtue of circuit breaker closed at the other end.

b) Closing an isolator onto a circuit with an applied earth. If the circuit happens to be a busbar, then widespread
disruption is highly likely.

c) Closing a bus coupler or bus section circuit breaker with the “downstream” position of busbar earthed.

d) Energising a transformer with the low voltage side earthed.

The placement of earthing switches in a standard manner is seen as a useful aid to operators and should always be
borne in mind by the designer.

As a further possible aid, earthing switches should be provided with auxiliary switches for remote signalling purposes.

5. “HANDLING” OF ISOLATORS

It should be noted that repositioning an earth switch from one side of an isolator to the other is not as straightforward as
it seems, and invariably causes a great deal of inconvenience and extra cost. It is therefore necessary to adopt a
convention which clearly defines on which side of the isolator an integral earth switch is to be mounted. This is
illustrated in Figures 26-4.3 and 26-4.4 which defines the concept of “Left-Hand” and “Right-Hand” earthing switches.

It should be further noted that with centre rotating post double break isolators, (Figure 26-4.4) the definition of “Left-
Hand” or “Right-Hand is somewhat arbitrary. Effectively this means that with this type of isolator turning the isolator /
o
earthing switch combination by 180 to gain correct functional location of the earthing switch, can often be tolerated.

Table 26-.2: Preferred Phase Spacing for Isolators

System Voltage Preferred Phase Minimum Phase Spacing (mm)

Spacing Single - Arm Centre-post
(kV) (mm) Centre - Break Horizontal - Double Break
Break
6,6 1000 286 320 195
11 1000 385 500 260
22 1000 614 700 415
33 1200 827 1070 560
44 1800 1040 1350 700
66 2000 1500 1930 1000
88 2400 1630 2120 1100
132 3000 2340 3030 1560
220 4300 3360 - 2400
275 4300 4300 - 3050
330 6500 5270 - 3750
400 6500 5840 - 4200

1,15 Ce

)
Phase a 0,5 .1,15.Ce
Ce
Cp

o
Phase b 90 Assumed

a) Centre-break Isolator

1,15 Ce

( Phase a
1,15.Ce
Ce

Phase b

b) Horizontal Single-break Isolator

Approx 1,25 Ce
y x
( )
½(1,3.Ce)
Ce Phase a
1,3 Ce

Phase b

Phase to Earth Clearance x and y

c) Centre-rotating Post Isolator

Figure 26-4.1: Isolator Phase Spacing

Transformer

(a)
ES
ES

Line Without
Bypass

(b) LT Ce
ES ES
ES

Line With
Bypass

LT Ce
ES ES ES
(c)
ES

ES ES Bus Coupler

(d)

ES ES

Figure 2: Position of Earth Switches

ES
Left Hand Right Hand

(a) “Handing” of Earth Switches

Normal Direction of
Power Flow

Isolator Open
Towards the Left
Single Earth
ES Switches are
Left Hand

(b) General Rule for Layouts

Figure 26-4.3: “Handing” of Isolators (Centre Break Isolator)

Earthing Blades
Hand of Earthing
Switch determined by
Viewing from this end

Front of Isolator
Operating Mechanism

(a) Rotating Centre Post with Left-Hand Earthing Switches

Hand of Earthing
Switch determined by
Viewing from this end

Earthing Blades
Front of Isolator
Operating Mechanism

(b) Rotating Centre Post with Right-Hand Earthing Switches

Figure 26-4.4: “Handing” Of Isolators (Rotating Centre Post Isolator)

SLDG 27-1

EARTH-SWITCHES

1. INTRODUCTION

Earth-switches are normally used in conjunction with isolators to provide a safety earth on the isolated component for
maintenance. Another function of the earth-switch is the deliberate placement of an earth fault on a transmission line in
order to cause the protection scheme of the line to operate and de-energise it.

Terminal
Fixed
Contact

Solid Core
Post
Insulator

Earth Moving
Blade Contact

Mech

Figure 27-1.1: Earthswitch for Maintenance

Terminal
Fixed Contact

Solid Core Post

Insulator Stack

Earth Moving
Blade Contact

Mech

Figure 27-1.2: Isolator Mounted Earth-switch

Earth-switches can be mounted on the jaw hinge or hinge end of the isolator, or both sides. They can also be supplied
with their own base and insulator stack rather than being attached to the isolator. They can be mounted so that the blade

is either parallel or perpendicular to the main switch blade when the earth blade is open. If mounted in the parallel
position, the blade may describe an arc (when operated) which may reduce the BIL clearance to the live parts of the
switch.

Earth-switches are usually manually operated (when used for maintenance safety purposes), and are interlocked with the
main isolator blade of the isolator they are mounted on. The purpose of the interlocking is to prevent closing of the earth-
switch while the side of the isolator to be earthed is energised.

Automatic, high speed earthing switches are sometimes used in a transformer protection scheme, or for de-energising a
line that has trapped charge after a breaker opening event. The switch is used to create a deliberate fault on the line
feeding the transformer upon a signal from the protection relays on the transformer. Fault current relays at the remote
end of the line, trip the remote breaker and de-energise both the line and the faulted transformer. Since the high speed
earthing switch is a fault initiating device, it is normally supplied for a single pole operation, however, three-pole group
operation is available. It can be reset with an operating handle at ground level.

Terminal
Fixed
Contact

Solid Core
Post
Insulator

Earth Moving
Blade Contact

Spring
Mech

Figure 27-1.3: High Speed Earth-switch

2. TYPICAL AVAILABILITY

Table 27-1.1 shows the typical voltage and current rating ranges that are available for each earthswitch type. The actual
types and ratings that are available may vary from manufacturer to manufacturer

Table 27-1.1: Typical Ratings

Earth-switch Type Typical Voltage Ratings Typical Rupturing

Um (kV) Capacities IF (kA)
Earth-switch 7,2 - 245 40 - 80
Earth-switch 115 - 800 70 - 120

3. EARTH-SWITCH ACCESSORIES

3.1 Shaft Mounted Auxiliary Switch Contacts

openings for conduit entry. The enclosure is attached to the supporting structure for the isolator and an operating linkage
is connected from the auxiliary switch operating shaft of the operating rod for the main isolator. This linkage assures that
the auxiliary switch contacts will faithfully reflect the position of the blade of the main isolator.

These auxiliary switches are available with 2 to 16 contacts in the enclosure. The contacts are usually labelled G, M and
N (see SLDG 27-2) and are site convertible in some cases. If more than 16 contacts are required for control and
interlocking purposes, additional auxiliary switch enclosures/assemblies can usually be mounted on the isolator structure
and coupled to the operating rod.

3.2 Service Conditions

Standard service conditions are:-

•
o o
Temperature of cooling air (ambient) is within the range of -30 C to +40 C

• Altitude does not exceed 1000 m

• Unusual service conditions, some of which are:-

- Temperature other than standard

- Altitude greater than 1000 m. Increased altitude causes the isolator to have a lower dielectric strength than
standard

- Contamination/Pollution

- Abnormal vibration, shocks or tilting (e.g. seismic requirements)

- Unusual transportation or storage conditions

- Unusual operating duty or frequency of operation

3.3 Terminal connections

Requirements for any strain or pull-off holes in the isolator base including the strength requirements of the pull-off points.

4. DETAILED SPECIFICATIONS

A description and quantity of each earthswitch requirements which needs to include the following as a minimum:-

• Requirements for three pole group operation

• Earth-switch type

• Type of operating mechanism (manual)

• Minimum live part clearance required, and the phase-to-phase spacing required

• Mounting height of the earth-switch (i.e. the height of the top of the terminal pads above the top of concrete (TOC))
of the foundation.

4.1 Equipment Ratings

Table 27-1.2: Typical Ratings to be Specified

Description Reference
Nominal Voltage Class Un (kV)
Rated Maximum Voltage Um (kV)
Rated Frequency (Hz)
Rupturing Capacity IF (kA rms symmetrical)
Phase-to-Earth Insulation:
Impulse withstand (kV Crest)
1 Minute 50 Hz. Dry Withstand
10 Second 50 Hz. Wet Withstand
Wet Switching Surge Withstand (kV Crest)
Radio Interference Voltage (RIV)
Open Gap Insulation Coordination

4.2 Requirements for Earthing Switches on Isolators

There is a need to define the location of the earthing-switches on the isolator if earthing switches are required, as well as
the orientation of the earth-switch (parallel or perpendicular to the isolator support), the type (maintenance or high speed
earthing), type of operating drive, and the ratings.

4.3 Requirements of Insulators

The type of insulators that need to be used must be specified, porcelain, glass or polymeric.

4.4 Supporting Structures

• Type (lattice, tubular, wide flange, etc.)

• Material (steel, aluminium, etc.)

• Finish (galvanised, painted, etc.)

• Height of top of isolator terminal stems/pads above the foundation

• Holding down bolts

5. ICE TESTING REQUIREMENTS

5.1 Drawing Requirements

The specification should require the manufacturer to provide the following drawings and data for the isolator that is being
supplied:

• Outline drawings showing dimensions, masses and location of accessories

• Detailed erection drawings

• Bills of material

• Detailed wiring and schematic diagrams for motor drives

• Operating mechanism arrangement drawings

• Force and loading diagrams for foundations

• Nameplate drawings

SLDG 27-2

EARTHSWITCH AUXILIARY CONTACTS

1. DEFINITION OF CONTACTS

Earthswitch auxiliary contacts can be arranged to operate at various times relative to the operation of the main contacts.
Three types respectively designed G, M and N are available with timing sequence as follows:-

Table 27-2.1: Types of Earthswitch Auxiliary Contacts

Type Closes Opens

M After main contacts close -
N - Before main contacts close

(Note: This drawing includes and 'F' contact which is no longer specified).

2. CONTACT ASSEMBLIES

Auxiliary switch assemblies comprising various combinations of M or N contacts can be built up to suit specific
requirements, and in the past the following arrangements have been used. Recently, the standardization of protection
schemes has received a great deal of attention and arising out of this work it would seem that the following limited number
of auxiliary switch assemblies can be adopted as standard.

Table 27-2.2: Earthswitch Auxiliary Contact

Legend
Item Description Terminals
1-2
“M” Contacts 3-4
(N/O Contacts) 5-6
7-8
9-10
“N” Contacts 11-12
(N/C Contacts) 13-14
15-16

Figure 27-2.1: Earthswitch Auxiliary Contact Arrangements

% Travel of
0 2 4 6 8 10 Main Contact
to Contact
touch point

Main Contacts

“Y”

F Contacts

No Overlap of
F&M

M Contacts
80 %
Contacts Open Limits for “X” Limits for “Y”

G Contacts
Contacts Closed
“X”

No Overlap of
G&N

N Contacts

Isolator Open Main Contacts Isolator Fully

Touch Closed

Figure 27-2.3: H.V. Isolators Auxiliary Switch Contacts Relative Timing

3. REFERENCE DOCUMENT

3.1 Old Electrical Engineering Department Directive EED 6/5/4-1

SLDG 28 - 1

INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMERS

1. INTRODUCTION

Instrument transformers are used to transform high voltages or currents to values that are unified or can be measured
safely, while incurring low internal losses. In the case of current transformers the primary winding carries the operating
current, while with voltage transformers it is connected to the operating voltage. The voltage or current of the
secondary winding is identical to the value on the primary side in phase and ratio, except for the error of the
transformer. Current transformers operate under almost short-circuit conditions, while voltage transformers operate at
no-load. Primary and secondary sides are nearly always electrically independent and insulated from each other as
required by the operating voltage. From 110 kV upwards, instrument transformers are often made as combined current
and voltage transformers. This philosophy, however, has not found wide acceptance within some utilities.

2. DEFINITIONS AND ELECTRICAL QUANTITIES

Instrument transformers are used either for measuring purposes when connected to measuring instruments, meters
and the like, or for protection purposes, in which case they are connected to protective devices.

Instrument transformers are divided into classes according to their accuracy of measurement. Their applications are
summarized in Table 28-1.1.

Table 28-1.1: Applications and Classes of Instrument Transformers

APPLICATION VDE IEC ANSI

CLASS CLASS CLASS
Precision measurements and calibration 0,1 0,1 0,3
Accurate power measurement, tariff metering 0,2 0,2 0,3
Tariff metering, accurate measuring instruments 0,5 0,5 0,6
Industrial meters: voltage, current, power, etc. 1 1 1,2
Ammeters or voltmeters, over-current or voltage relays 3 3,5 1,2
Protection cores of current transformers 5 P, 10 P C, T
Class x

3. DEFINITIONS ACCORDING TO DIN VDE 0414

3.1 Current Transformers

• Primary and secondary rated current are the primary and secondary currents stated on the nameplate.

• Rated transformation ratio is the ratio of the primary rated current to the secondary rated current.

• Burden is the impedance of the secondary circuit expressed in terms of its modulus and power factor cos φ.

• Rated burden is the burden to which specifications regarding error limits are referred.

• Rated output is the apparent power in VA at rated secondary current and rated burden.

• Current error is the deviation in per cent of the secondary current, multiplied by the nominal transformation ratio,
from the primary current.

• Phase displacement is the difference in phase angle of the secondary current relative to the primary current.

• The Composite error of a current transformer is the ratio in percent having as divisor the rms value of the primary
current, and as dividend the rms value taken over one cycle of the difference between the instantaneous values of
the secondary current multiplied by the rated transformation ratio and the instantaneous values of the primary
current.

1T
( )2
∫ K N .i 2 − i 1 d t
T0
Fg = 100. eq. 28-1.1
I1

where:

Fg = Composite error in %.
T = Duration of one cycle in s
KN = Rated transformation ratio
I1 = RMS value of primary current in A
i1 = Instantaneous value of primary current in A
i2 = Instantaneous value of secondary current in A

• Primary rated accuracy limit current is a current at which at rated burden the composite error specified for
instrument transformers for protection purposes is not exceeded and at which the composite error for instrument
transformers measuring purposes is greater than 15 %.

• Rated accuracy limit factor is a defined number by which the primary rated current must be multiplied to obtain the
primary accuracy limit current.

• Rated continuous thermal current is 1,2 times the rated current, and 1,5 or 2 times this current in the case of
current transformers with extended range.

• A current transformer with extended range is a transformer whose rated continuous thermal current is greater than
1,2 times the rated current and which complies with the specified error limits.

• Rated short-time thermal current (Ith) is stated on the nameplate as the rms value of the primary current of one
second duration which the current transformer can withstand without suffering damage when the secondary
winding is short-circuited.

• Rated dynamic current (Idyn) is the value of the first current crest the related forces of which a current transformer
can withstand without damage with the secondary winding short-circuited.

3.2 Voltage Transformers

• Primary rated voltage is the value of the primary voltage stated on the nameplate. In the case of phase-insulated
√3, U1 being
transformers connected in three-phase networks between phase and earth it is stated in the form U1/√
the voltage between the phase conductors.

• √3. In
Secondary rated voltage is the value of the secondary voltage stated on the nameplate, also stated as U2/√
the case of earth-fault detection windings it is stated in the form U2/3.

• An earth-fault detection winding for three-phase networks consists of a set of three phase-isolated transformers.

• Rated transformation ratio is the ratio of the primary to the secondary rated voltage.

• φ).
Burden is the admittance of the secondary circuit expressed in terms of its value and burden power factor cos(φ

• Rated burden is the burden to which the specifications regarding error limits are referred.

• Rated output is the apparent power at secondary rated voltage and rated burden.

• Voltage error of a voltage transformer at a given primary voltage is the difference in per cent between the
secondary voltage, multiplied by the rated transformation ratio, and the primary voltage. The voltage error is taken
to be positive if the actual value of the secondary voltage is greater than the desired value.

The voltage error of a voltage transformer is:-

U 2 .K N − U1
FU = 100. eq. 28-1.2
U1

where:-

FU = Voltage error in percent (%)

U1 = Primary voltage in volts (V)
U2 = Secondary voltage in volts (V)
KN = Rated transformation ratio.

• Error angle is the phase displacement of the secondary voltage relative to the primary voltage.

• Rated long-duration current is the current in an earth-fault detection winding which this can withstand for 4 or 8
hours in the event of an earth fault at 1,9 times the primary voltage and with the other windings simultaneously
o
connected to rated burden, without the permitted temperature rise being exceeded by more than 10 C.

• Short-time load rating is determined by the rated voltage factors and duration of the load at elevated voltages.

SLDG 28 - 2

CURRENT TRANSFORMERS

1. INTRODUCTION

The primary winding is incorporated in the line and carries the current flowing in the network. It is provided with various
secondary cores. The purpose of current transformers is to transform the primary current in respect of magnitude and
phase angle within prescribed error limits. The main source of transformation errors is the magnetising current. So that
this and the transformation errors remain small, all current transformers are equipped with high-grade core magnets.
The cores are made of silicon-iron or high-alloy nickel-iron (Mu - metal). Figure 28-1.1 shows the magnetising curves of
different core materials. In special cases cores with an air gap are used in order to influence the core's behaviour in the
event of transients.

20
18 3
16 2
14
B (Gauss)

12
10
8 1
6
4
2
0
0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5 0,6 0,7 0,8 0,9 1,0
H (A/cm)

Figure 28-2.1: Magnetizing Curves of Different Core Materials. Material 1 is Used Mainly for Measuring
Cores, and Material 3 for Protection Cores

H = Magnetic field strength in amperes per centimetre (A/cm)

B = Peak magnetic flux density in gauss
1 = Nickel-iron with approx. 75 % Ni
2 = Nickel-iron with approx. 50 % Ni
3 = Mill-patterned cold-rolled silicon-iron

Current transformers are divided into single-turn transformers and wound-type transformers depending on the
construction of the primary winding. Single-turn transformers are made in the form of outdoor inverted-type
transformers, straight-through transformers, slipover and bar transformers.

Wound-type transformers can be bushing transformers, post-type and miniature transformers and also outdoor post-
type and tank transformers with oil-paper insulation. Figure 28-1.2 shows the basic construction of an inverted-type
transformer (Figure 28-1.2 (a) and a tank-type transformer Figure 28-1.2(b)).

The different designs of current transformer according to insulating medium are shown in Table 28-1.1.

Bellows

P1 P2
Primary Bar
Insulato Secondary
Coils
Hollow Post
Graded Insulator
Insulatio
Secondary
Tapings

Oil/SF6
Dielectric

Secondary Tap

a) Inverted-Type for 145 - 525 kV, 40 - 6000 A,

Cap Connected
To P2
P P
Terminal

Hollow Post
Insulator

Full
Insulation

Oil
Dielectric
Secondary
Hair Pin Coils
Primary
Secondary Tap
Connection

b) Tank-Type for 36 - 300 kV, 50 - 2000 A

Figure 28-2.2: Types of Current Transformers

Table 28-2.1: Design of Current Transformers

Insulation Type Voltage Range Application

Dry Slipover, wound and cable-type Low voltage Indoors
transformers
Cast resin Post-type and bushing Medium voltage Indoors and SF6
transformers installations
Oil-impregnated paper Tank and inverted type High and very Outdoors
/ porcelain transformers high voltage
Gas - SF6 Inverted / Top-core High and very Indoors and outdoors
high voltage

If required, current transformers can be provided with reconnecting facilities for two or more different primary currents.
The following versions are possible.

1.1 Primary Changeover

Changeover takes the form of switching two or more partial primary windings in series / series-parallel or parallel. The
rated output and rated over-current factor remain unchanged.

1.2 Secondary Tapping

Changeover is performed with the aid of tappings on the secondary winding. When the primary rated current is
reduced in this way, the rated output in classes 0,1 to 3 decreases approximately as the square of the reduction in
primary current, and in protection classes 5P to 10P roughly in direct proportion to this reduction. The absolute values
of the thermal rated short-circuit current and rated dynamic current also remain the same for all ratios.

2. SELECTION OF CURRENT TRANSFORMERS

The factors determining the choice of current transformers are the values of the primary and secondary rated currents,
the rated outputs of the different cores for a given accuracy class, and the rated over-current factor. The rated current
of the transformer has to be adapted to suit the operating current.

Current transformers can be continuously overloaded by 20 %. With an operating current of 120 A, for example, this
means a transformer for 100 A can be used. Current transformers for wide-range use can be loaded continuously to
1,5 . In (ext. 150 %) or 2,0 . In (ext. 200 %). Overloading of current transformers is, however, not recommended at the
design stage.

3. DETERMINING THE OUTPUT OF A CURRENT TRANSFORMER

The secondary output of a current transformer is governed by the number of ampere-turns, the core material and the
construction of the core. The output varies approximately as the square of the number of ampere-turns (roughly linear
with protection cores).

However, it also decreases roughly as the square of the difference between operating current and the rated current of
the transformer (approximately linearly in case of protection cores), so that with a transformer rated 30 VA and loaded
with half the rated current, the output is reduced to a quarter, i.e. to about 7,5 VA.

The rated output of a current transformer is the product of the nominal burden Z and the square of the rated secondary
current I2n i.e.:-

2
Sn = Z . I 2n (VA) eq. 28-2.1

A current transformer with a secondary current of I2n = 5 A and a connected burden of 1,2 Ω thus has a rated output of
2
1,2 . 5 = 30 VA. The transformer may be loaded with the rated output stated on the nameplate, without exceeding the
limits of error. This means that all series-connected current paths of measuring instruments, meters and protective
relays in the secondary circuit, including the resistance of their associated connection wires and cables, must not in
total exceed this nominal burden (see Table 28-2.2).

Table 28-2.2: Rated Outputs and Nominal Burdens of Current Transformers (For 50 Hz)

Rated output in VA 5 10 15 30 60
Nominal burden at 5 A in Ω Nominal burden at 1 0,2 0,4 0,6 1,2 2,4
A in Ω 5 10 15 30 60

When selecting current transformers, attention must be paid to the rated over-current factor, as well as to the output.
The rated over-current is stated on the nameplate.

3.1 Measuring and Metering Cores

The rated over-current factor should be as small as possible, e.g. M5 or M10, to protect the connected measuring
instruments from excessive over-currents or short-circuit currents. Since the rated over-current factor is valid only for
the nominal burden, while the actual over-current factor increases roughly in inverse proportion to the decrease in
burden or transformer loading, care must be taken to ensure that the operating burden of the connected measuring
instruments, including the necessary connecting wires and cables, is as close as possible to the nominal burden of the
transformer, to prevent the instruments from being damaged. Otherwise an extra burden should be included in the
secondary circuit.

Example 1 : Current transformer to 100/5 A, 30 VA class 0,5 M5

Power requirement : 1 ammeter 2,5 VA
1 wattmeter 3 VA
2
25 m cable of 2,5 mm 4,5 VA
Total power requirement 10 VA

Since the product of the core output and rated over-current factor is almost constant, in the example we have 30 VA . 5
= 150. With a burden of only 10 VA this then gives an over-current factor of 150 : 10 = 15. The measuring
instruments are then insufficiently protected. If a transformer of only 15 VA is selected, the over-current factor is 7,5.
The transformer output could thus be even smaller, or an additional burden would have to be provided.

3.2 Protection Cores

For connection to protective relays must, unlike measuring cores, be so chosen that, depending on the settings of the
relays, their total error in the region (short-circuit currents) where the relays have to function reliably, e.g. between 6 and
8 times the rated current, is not too large. The protection core must therefore be so designed that the product of rated
output and rated over-current factor is at least equal to the product of the secondary circuit power requirement at rated
current and the necessary rated over-current factor. This must be considered especially if verification of the thermal
short-circuit stress indicates an enlarged conductor cross-section on the primary side. In this case one can either
choose a current transformer for a higher rated current, where-upon this number of primary turns will be smaller (but so
will the output because the operating current is lower than the rated current), or one can use a special transformer.

Example 2 : Current transformer for 400/5 A, 15 VA class 5P10

Power requirement: over-current relays 8 VA

differential relays 1 VA

cable 3 VA

Total power requirement 12 VA

15 (VA).10
Over-current factor = = 12,5
12 (VA)

i.e. the transformer has been chosen correctly.

An over-current relay set to 8. In will trip because in the present case the current rises in direct proportion to the primary
current, up to 12,5 x rated current.

In the event of a fully displaced short-circuit current, the d.c. component occurring at the beginning of the short circuit
gives rise to transmission errors owing to saturation of the core. This can be remedied by using linearized cores with a
high rated over-current factor (e.g. 200), or by selecting a high transformation ratio for the protection core.

The above selection criteria relate as well to current transformers in metal-enclosed switching installations.

The selection of current transformers in accordance with international standards (IEC) and the major foreign standards
(e.g. ANSI) is generally based on similar criteria. The following short summary and Tables 28-2.3 to 28-2.8 are
intended to assist in selecting transformers to the above standards.

4. DEFINITIONS AND STANDARD RATINGS TO IEC PUBLICATION 185 (1987)

4.1 Measuring Cores

Rated output : 2,5 - 5,0 - 10 - 15 - 30 VA; Burden power factor cos φ = 0,8
Classes : 0,1 - 0,2 - 0,5 - 1 valid between 25 % and 100 % of rated power.
0,25 - 0,5 only for 5 A secondary current
3 - 5 valid between 50 % and 100 % of rated power.
Designation : Measuring cores are designated by a combination of rated output and class,
e.g.
15 VA class 0,5
15 VA class 0,5 ext. 150 % (wide-range transformer)

Table 28-2.3: Limits of Error

Accuracy ± Percentage Current ± Phase Displacement At Percentage Of Rated Current

Class (Ratio) Error At Shown Below
Percentage Of Rated Minutes Centi-radians
Current Shown Below
2 20 100 120 5 20 100 120 5 20 100 120
0,1 0,4 0,2 0,1 0,1 15 8 5 5 0,45 0,24 0,15 0,15
0,2 0,75 0,35 0,2 0,2 30 15 10 10 0,9 0,45 0,3 0,3
0,5 1,5 0,75 0,5 0,5 90 45 30 30 2,7 1,35 0,9 0,9
1,0 3,0 1,5 1,0 1,0 180 90 60 60 5,4 2,7 1,8 1,8

Table 28-2.4: Limits of Error for Current Transformers or Special Application. This Table Is Applicable Only To Transformers Having A Rated Secondary Current of 5 A
Accuracy ± Percentage Current Ratio Error At ± Phase Displacement At Percentage Of Rated Current Shown Below
Class Percentage Of Rated Current Shown Minutes Centi-radians
Below
1 5 20 100 120 1 5 20 100 120 1 5 20 100 120
0,2S 0,75 0,35 0,2 0,2 0,2 30 15 10 10 10 0,9 0,45 0,3 0,3 0,3
0,5S 1,5 0,75 0,5 0,5 0,5 90 45 30 30 30 2,7 1,35 0,9 0,9 0,9

Current transformers of classes 0,1 - 1 are also defined as wide-range transformers for 120 %, 150 % and 200 % of rated primary current. Phase displacement limits are not defined
for classes 3 and 5.

Protection cores: Rated output: preferred 10, 15 and 30VA

Classes: 5P and 10P; here the numbers denote the maximum permitted composite error at the error limit current; the
letter P stands for protection.

Error limit factor: 5 - 10 - 15 - 20 - 30

Table 28-2.5: Error Limits for Protection Cores

Class Current Error In % At Phase Displacement At Rated Composite Error In %
Rated Primary Current Primary Current At Error Limit Factor
Minutes Centi-radians
5P ±1 ± 60 ± 1,8 5
10 P ±3 - - 10

Designation: The rated output and class is followed by the error limit factor e.g. 30 VA class 5P10.

5. DEFINITIONS AND STANDARDIZED VALUES TO ANSI / IEEE STANDARD C57.13 - 1987 (FOR 60 HZ) RATED
FREQUENCY)

5.1 Measuring Cores Classes 0,3 - 0,6 - 0,2

Table 28-2.6: Standard Burdens (For 5 A Secondary Current)

Burden Design. Ω)
Resistance (Ω Induct. (mH) Ω)
Impedance (Ω Rated Output Power Factor
(VA) (cos β)
B-0,1 0,09 0,116 0,1 2,5 0,9
B - 0,2 0,18 0,232 0,2 5,0 0,9
B - 0,5 0,45 0,580 0,5 12,5 0,9
B - 0,9 0,81 1,04 0,9 22,5 0,9
B - 1,8 1,62 2,03 1,8 45,0 0,9

Table 28-2.7: Error Limits In Range Cos β = 0,6 - 1,0

Ratio Error (Factor) Referred To Rated Current ± Phase Displacement Equiv. IEC
Referred To Rated
Current
Class 100 % 10 % 100 % 10 % Class
1 1
Min. Max. Min. Max. Minutes Minutes
0,3 0,997 1,003 0,994 1,006 16 33 0,2
0,6 0,994 1,006 0,988 1,012 33 65 0,5
1,2 0,968 1,012 0,976 1,024 65 130 1
1
) approx. Values derived from diagram

Designation: Measuring cores are identified by a combination of the class and the burden designation, e.g. 0,3 B-0,1
or 0,6 B-0,5

5.2 Protection Cores

1
Table 28-2.8: Standard Burdens (For 5 A Secondary Current)

Burden Resistance Inductance Impedance Rated Output Power Factor

Designation Ω)
(Ω (mH) Ω)
(Ω (VA) (cos β)
B-1 0,5 2,3 1,0 25 0,5
B-2 1,0 4,6 2,0 50 0,5
B-4 2,0 9,2 4,0 100 0,5
B-8 4,0 18,4 8,0 200 0,5
1
) With other secondary currents the burden values are converted while rated output and power factor remain
unchanged.

5.3 Classes / Error Limits

"C" and "T" with max. composite error ≤ 10 % in the range 1 - 20 x rated primary current (equivalent to IEC class
10P20).

With C class transformers the leakage flux in the transformer core must not influence the transformation ratio. With T
class transformers some influence by leakage flux is permitted, but must be verified by testing.

5.4 Secondary Terminal Voltage

The transformer must supply this voltage with rated burden at 20 times the rated secondary current, without exceeding
the max. ratio error of 10 %.

Table 28-2.9: Secondary Terminal Voltage for standard Burdens

Secondary Terminal Voltage (V) Standard Burden

100 B-1
200 B-2
400 B-4
800 B-8

5.5 Designation

Protection cores are identified by class and secondary terminal voltage, e.g. C 100, and C class transformer with sec.
terminal voltage 100 V for rated burden B-1.

Before shipment the transformers must undergo the routine tests specified in the standards. Table 28-2.10 lists these
tests as required by IEC, DIN VDE and ANSI.

Table 28-2.10: Routine Tests for Current Transformers

Test DIN VDE 0414 IEC-185 ANSI C 57.13
Parts 1 + 2 (1987) (1978)
1. Terminal identification and information on X X X
nameplate
2. Dielectric strength / power frequency voltage X X X
testing of primary winding to earth
3. Dielectric strength / power frequency voltage X X X
testing of secondary windings to each other and to
earth
4. Inter-turn test X X
5. Verification / accuracy measurement of current X X X
error and phase displacement
6. Verification / accuracy measurement of composite X X
error for protection cores
7. Measurement of magnetizing current for protection X
cores
8. Partial discharge measurement X X
Part 10 IEC 44-4
May 1985 edition
1980
9. Polarity test X

6. PRIMARY CONNECTIONS

The primary terminals are marked P1 and P2.

P1 being the terminal which is insulated from the transformer head.

P2 being the terminal which is electrically connected to the transformer head.

The P1 terminals should always be connected to the breaker and the P2 terminal to the line-side of the breaker as
shown in Figure 28-2.3. All terminals are horizontal. The terminals should be either copper electro-tinned or aluminium.

Feeder
or
Transformer

P2
P1

P2
Bus Coupler
P1
Bus Section

P2 P1

Figure 28-2.3: High Voltage Connection of Current Transformers

6.1 400 kV, 275 kV and 220 kV CTs

Table 28-2.11: Cylindrical Type with the Following Dimensions

Current Before 1994 Since 1994

(A) Diameter Length Diameter Length
(mm) (mm) (mm) (mm)
3150 60 150 60 150
2500 38 125 60 150

Note: Eight bolt terminal pads which comply to IEC 518 (See Drawing 0.54/412) is also acceptable to Eskom and
could be found in some cases.

6.2 132 kV CTs And Below

Table 28-2.12: Only Cylindrical Type with the Following Dimensions

132 kV 88 kV 66 kV 44 kV 33 kV 22 kV
2500 A 38/125 38/125 - - - 38/125
1600 A - - 38/125 38/125 38/125 38/125
1200 A 38/125 38/125 - - - -
800 A - - 26/100 26/100 26/100 26/100
400 A - - 26/100 - - 26/100

38/125 >> diameter = 38 mm and length = 125 mm

6.3 Primary Fault Current Ratings: Definitions

6.3.1 Rated Short-time Thermal Current (Ith)

The rms value of the primary current that a transformer will withstand for one second without suffering harmful effects:-

The primary fault current rating of the transformer should be higher than the fault level of the substation, taking the
2 2
maximum time duration of such a fault into consideration i.e. the I .t of the CT should exceed the maximum I .t of the
substation.

Example 3

Fault level of substation: 12,5 kA

Maximum fault duration: 3 seconds (This depends on the substation protection philosophy)

2 2
I .t = (12) . 3 eq. 28-2.2

2
= 432 (kA s)

2
I .t of CT based on 1 second should exceed the above value

Thus Ith > (√432)/1

> 20,7 kA (a CT with Ith = 21,5 kA / 1 second will be suitable)

Table 28-2.13: Standard Ith Ratings for 1 Second

System Voltage 3150 A 2500 A 1600 A 1200 A 800 A 400 A

(kV)
400 50 kA 50 kA - - - -
275 50 kA 50 kA - - - -
220 50 kA 50 kA - - - -
132 - 40 kA - 27,5 kA - -
88 - 40 kA - 27,5 kA - -
66 - - 35 kA - 21,5 kA 21,5 kA
44 - - 35 kA - 21,5 kA -
33 - - 35 kA - 21,5 kA -
22 - 35 kA 35 kA - 21,5 kA 21,5 kA

Table 28-2.14: ± Ith Ratings for 3 Second

System Voltage 3150 A 2500 A 1600 A 1200 A 800 A 400 A

(kV)
400 30 kA 30 kA - - - -
275 30 kA 30 kA - - - -
220 30 kA 30 kA - - - -
132 - 25 kA - 16 kA - -
88 - 25 kA - 16 kA - -
66 - - 20 kA - 12,5 kA 12,5 kA
44 - - 20 kA - 12,5 kA -
33 - - 20 kA - 12,5 kA -
22 - 20 kA 20 kA - 12,5 kA 12,5 kA

6.4 Secondary Core Ratios and Ratings

6.4.1 Measurement cores

Table 28-2.15: Measurement Cores for Tariff Metering (As From 1997/8 - Under Discussion)

Nominal Ratio Tapping Points Ratios Available Burden Accuracy Class

3200 : 1 |1600|800|800| |3200|2400|1600|800| 10 VA 0.2 on 800:1
2400 : 1 |800|1200|400| |2400|2000|1600|1200|800|400| 10 VA 0.2 on 400:1
1600 : 1 |800|400|400| |1600|1200|800|400| 10 VA 0.2 on 400:1
1200 : 1 |400|600|200| |1200|1000|800|600|400|200| 10 VA 0.2 on 200:1
800 : 1 |400|200|200| |800|600|400|200| 10 VA 0.2 on 200:1
400 : 1 |200|100|100| |400|300|200|100| 10 VA 0.2 on 200:1
0.5 on 100:1

Table 28-2.16: Measurement Cores For Tariff Metering (Since 1994/5)

Nominal Ratio Tapping points Ratios available Burden Accuracy class

3200 : 1 |1400|1000|800| |3200|2400|1800|1400|1000|800| 10 VA 0.2 on 800:1
2400 : 1 |800|1200|400| |2400|2000|1600|1200|800|400| 10 VA 0.2 on 400:1
1600 : 1 |800|400|400| |1600|1200|800|400| 10 VA 0.2 on 400:1
1200 : 1 |400|600|200| |1200|1000|800|600|400|200| 10 VA 0.2 on 200:1
800 : 1 |400|200|200| |800|600|400|200| 10 VA 0.2 on 400:1
0.5 on 200:1
400 : 1 |200|100|100| |400|300|200|100| 10 VA 0.2 on 200:1
0.5 on 100:1

Note: Measurement cores for tariff metering (Before 1994/5)

CTs manufactured before 1994 do not necessarily comply with ESKASAAL6 (Standard minimum requirements for the
metering of electrical energy and demand). The accuracy of the measurement cores was not specified on the lowest
tapping point.

6.4.2 Protection cores

Table 28-2.17a: Since 1994/5

Nominal Ratio Tapping Points Ratios Available

3200 : 1 |1600|800|800| |3200|2400|1600|800|
(As from 1997/8)
3200 : 1 |1400|1000|800| |3200|2400|1800|1400|1000|800|
2400 : 1 |800|1200|400| |2400|2000|1600|1200|800|400|
1600 : 1 |800|400|400| |1600|1200|800|400|
1200 : 1 |400|600|200| |1200|1000|800|600|400|200|
800 : 1 |400|200|200| |800|600|400|200|
400 : 1 |200|100|100| |400|300|200|100|

Table 28-2.17b: Prior to 1994/5

Nominal Ratio Tapping Points Ratios Available

3200 : 1 |800|800|1200|400| |3200|2800|2400|2000|1600|1200|800|400|
2400 : 1 |800|1000|200|400| |2400|2000|1800|1600|1200|1000|800|600|400|200|
2000 : 1 |400|800|200|600| |2000|1600|1400|1200|1000|800|600|400|200|
1600 : 1 |400|400|600|200| |1600|1400|1200|1000|800|600|400| 200|
1200 : 1 |400|500|100|200| |1200|1000|900|800|600|500|400|300| 200|100|
800 : 1 |200|200|300|100| |800|700|600|500|400|300|200|100|
400 : 1 |100|100|150|50| |400|350|300|250|200|150|100|50|

6.4.3 Bus-zone cores

6.4.3.1 Phase I Protection

Bus-zone cores do not have tapping points and the ratio of the core has to correspond with the ratio of the buszone
protection scheme and with the other CTs in the substation.

6.4.3.2 Phase II and III Protection

In these buszone protection schemes the ratio of the bus-zone cores can be different, but the ratio of the CTs in the
same bay i.e. R, W and B of a Feeder or a Bus Coupler etc. has to be the same.

6.5 Revised Current Transformer Requirements For All Bus Coupler And Bus Section Circuits For Main
Transmission Substations (Excluding Power Station HV Yards).

Following exhaustive discussions at the Eskom Substation Design Review Committee it has been agreed that with
immediate effect bus coupler and bus section circuits will no longer be equipped with six single phase CTs (i.e. two
three phase sets).

This stems from the fact that the busbar currents need only be measured once and the reduction of CTs improve the
reliability of the substation and is more cost effective. The cost is an important issue since in future these positions will
be equipped with expensive explosion safe designs.

The Phase III digital busbar protection can accommodate these changes. In principle Phase I and Phase II protection
equipment should be able to do the same but because of some practical protection situations the protection application
specialists must be consulted where these older systems are involved.

It is therefore proposed that the changes be implemented on all new and refurbishment protects where new CTs and
Phase III busbar protection are being installed. It would be an advantage if the reduction in CTs can also be phased in
with busbar protection refurbishment programs.

The change has also been made possible with the recognition that CTs can be designed to reflect HV C T faults in such
a manner that it appears to be on the busbar side (so-called P2). This then also allows fast and correct clearance of
the very rare cases of current transformer failures. It is therefore very important to ensure that all CTs are always
correctly installed with their P1 terminal facing the breaker.

Due to a concern that System Operations still has with regard to the low probability of coupler and section end zone
failures which may cause double busbar outages, it has been agreed that the designs of existing old current
transformers shall be evaluated to confirm the same performance with relation to the above protection fail safe features.
It is therefore necessary that when it is proposed to use "old" current transformers, that written conformation be
obtained from the C T specialist.

The practical substation layout implies and preferences have been analysed.

7. APPLICATION OF A SINGLE POST CURRENT TRANSFORMER ON BUS COUPLER / BUS SECTION CIRCUITS:
PROTECTION CONSIDERATIONS

7.1 Introduction

During 1993, the Substation Design Review Committee reviewed the philosophy of overlapping the buszone protection
across the bus coupler / bus section breakers. A decision was taken to install in future only one set of CTs with bus
couplers / bus sections at Transmission Substations provided that the CTs are out of a "fail safe" design (i.e. that an
internal current transformer fault will inevitably appear to be on the P2 side of the current transformer). The motivation
for this was:-

i) The rareness of faults on the copper work between current transformer and bus coupler / bus section breaker and
on the breakers themselves,

ii) The increase in system reliability on account of the reduced number of current transformers,

iii) The significant capital cost saving in not installing the additional set of post current transformers.

In implementing this decision, aside from new substations, the opportunity exists to adopt this philosophy at
transmission substations where the bus-zone protection is being refurbished (with either Phase II or Phase III
Protection equipment).

This note examines the impact of the single set of CTs as well as the influence of the current transformer location on
the bus-zone protection system.

7.2 Protection of the End Zone with a Single Set of Current Transformers

Zone 1

F1 F2 F3
Zone 2

Figure 28-2.4: Overlapping Current Transformers Cores

7.2.1 Fault Probabilities

Reports tabled before the Substation Design Review Committee entitled "Analysis of Busbar Protection Operations
1988 - 1992" and "Bus-zone Protection - bus coupler and bus section overlap" indicate that the likelihood of faults F2
and F3 occurring is extremely rare. Fault type F1 occurs more often but can appear as a zone 1 fault if the correct type
of current transformer is installed. (Eskom MTS statistics; F2 and F3 occurred once in five years; F1 occurred thirteen
times in five years).

7.2.2 Phase II Buszone Protection Operating off a Single Set of Current Transformer

Fault F1 is cleared a normal zone 1 fault (no protection time delay). Faults F2 and F3 will be cleared by the circuit
breaker fail function resident on the bus coupler / bus section protection scheme in time delayed fashion. Faults F2 and
F3 result in double zone operations.

Fault clearance times:-

10 ms
F1 = + longest CB trip time on the faulted zone eq. 28-2.3
buszone protection operate time

F2 & 10 ms 135 ms
= + + longest CB tip time for bus strip operation eq. 28-2.4
F3 buszone protection operate time breaker fail time

With the overlapping scheme (two sets of CTs) all faults are cleared in time as per F1. Faults F2 and F3 also result in
double zone operations. There are statistically double the number of F1 operations.

7.2.3 Phase III Buszone Protection Operating off a Single Set of CTs

F1 is cleared as a normal zone 1 fault (no protection time delay). Faults F2 and F3 will be acted on by either the end
zone protection feature of the bus zone protection or the circuit breaker fail function on the bus coupler / bus section
protection scheme (if equipped in time delayed fashion. Faults F2 and F3 result in double zone operations.

Fault clearance time:-

15 ms
F1 = + longest CB trip time on the faulted zone eq. 28-2.5
buszone protection operating time

F2 & 15 ms
= + bus coupler/ bus section CB trip time
F3 buszone protection operating time
eq. 28-2.6
40 ms
+ + longest CB trip time on the failed zone
bus zone end zone protection operate time

F2 & 15 ms 135 ms
= + + longest CB trip for bus strip operation eq. 28-2.7
F3 bus zone protection operating time breaker fail time

In full overlapping mode (two sets of CTs) the same comment as paragraph 7.2.2 apply.

7.3 Influence of the Bus Coupler Current Transformer Location on the Buszone and Bus Coupler Protection
System.

If one set of CTs is to be removed on the bus coupler circuits, it is preferable to remove the set that has the most
likelihood of affecting other circuits in the event of a current transformer explosion. It is also preferable to standardize
the layout of primary equipment associated with the bus coupler bay.

In order to assess the impact of the current transformer location on the protection systems, one needs to consider the
various bus coupler layouts that exist within the present Eskom network.

7.3.1 Bus Coupler Circuit at a Station Without Transfer / Bypass

If the current transformers are arranged as in Figure 28-2.5 there is no impact on the protection systems other than that
covered under section 7.2.

Zone

P1 P2

P2
Zone
P1
P
Zone
P2

P2 P1
Zone

Figure 28-2.5: Buszone Protection at a Station without Transfer / Bypass (Ideal Configuration)

This is the ideal configuration as regards the buszone protection system.

If the bus coupler current transformers cannot be arranged in this way (e.g. CTs always on the same side of the circuit
breaker - see Figure 28-2.6).

Zone

P1 P2

P2 P1
Zone Zone
P1 P2

P2 P1

Zone

Figure 28-2.6: Buszone Protection at a Station without Transfer / Bypass

then on one bus-zone there will be two "end zones" and on another bus-zone there will be no "end zones". This means
that on the former there will be a greater probability for end zone faults and related bus-zone operations. Other than
this there is no impact on the protection system.

7.3.2 Bus Coupler circuit at the substation with transfer bypass facilities (e.g. Figure 28.2.7)

Feeder

Busbar 1
P2
P1
Bus Coupler
P1
P2
Busbar 2

Figure 28-2.7: Buszone Protection at a Station with Transfer / Bypass

Similar "end zone" exposures apply as per 6.6.3.1 if either CT 1 or CT 2 is removed.

Consider CT 1 to be removed:-

• the bus coupler breaker is excluded from the bypass bus-zone

• protection of the transfer / bypass busbar is catered for by the normal bus-zone protection

• a fault in the bus coupler end zone results in direct tripping of the bus coupler circuit and all circuits linked to the
bus section of B / B1 as well as direct inter-tripping of the feeder remote end circuit breaker.

Consider CT 2 to be removed:-

• the bus coupler breaker is included in the bypass bus-zone.

• protection of the transfer / bypass bus section is catered for by the bus-zone protection system.

• a fault in the bus coupler end zone results in direct tripping of the bus coupler circuit and direct inter-tripping of the
feeder remote end circuit breaker. The fault, however, is only cleared when the circuit breaker fail facility resident
on the bus coupler protection initiates bus stripping of all circuits linked to that section of B / B1.

Individual considerations:-

• if an interlocked over-current facility and end zone differential relay is installed on the bus coupler protection, then
one cannot remove either CT 1 or CT 2 without modifying / refurbishing the bus coupler protection

• for those cases where the transfer differential relay is located in the bus coupler protection scheme one needs to
confirm that the various inter-tripping and breaker failure protection operations are correct before removing CT 1
or CT 2

• if the feeder current transformers are inboard of the bypass / transfer link then the transfer / bypass busbar
becomes part of the feeder circuit and can only be protected by a feeder protection scheme resident on the bus
coupler. Tripping for faults in the bus coupler end zone is similar to the above where either CT 1 and CT 2 is
removed.

7.4 Conclusions

A single set of post current transformers can be applied on bus coupler / bus section circuits and Transmission
Substations where Phase II or Phase III bus-zone protection is applied.

From a protection performance point of view it is preferable to remove the current transformer closest to Busbar 1 (the
source busbar).

8. PROTECTION FAIL SAFE CURRENT TRANSFORMERS

8.1 Explosion safe current transformers

Explosion safe current transformer comply with the internal arc withstand capability tests as specified in NMS 1538.
They are designed to prevent violent explosions during HV insulation failures.

8.2 Protection fail safe current transformers "protection secure design"

Current transformers with a protection fail safe will reflect high voltage insulation failures in such a manner that it will
appear to be on the P2 side of the current transformer.

Note:-

a) Explosion safe current transformers are only available on the 275 kV and 400 kV voltage levels.

b) All explosion safe current transformers are protection fail safe.

c) Some Heafely and Balteau current transformers are not explosion safe but are protection fail safe current
transformers.

Figure 28-2.8: Top Core Current Transformer (Protection Fail Safe Design)

8.3 Conversion Adopted

The conversion adopted in the positioning of the bus coupler and bus section current transformers is illustrated in
Figure 9. By moving anti-clockwise around the two busbars of the double busbar system, the first C T encountered
before the circuit breaker is left in, the next after the circuit breaker is left out, with the exception of the bus couplers e.g.
B/C 'B' in the case of the 400 kV yard and B/C 'A' in the 275 kV yard, were the current transformer must always be on
the circuit breaker connected to the bypass busbar (Busbar 2).

Figure 28-2.9: Typical Layout Arrangement for M.T.S. Substations Equipped With a Single Set of Bus Coupler
and Section Current Transformers

9. RATIOS AND RATINGS

Standard ratios and ratings for multi-ratio protection current transformers are given in Table 28-2.18

Standard ratios and ratings for multi-ratio metering current transformers are given in Table 28-2.19.

Table 28-2.20 lists the standard ratios for busbar protection cores together with the characteristics of these cores
(internal burden and magnetising current) and the maximum lead resistance permissible for various levels of short
circuit current. This resistance is calculated on the basis of a factor of safety of 2,0 as follows :-

C.T. Knee-point voltage = At least 550 volts

= At least 2 x Relay Setting to ensure high speed operation
Thus, Relay Setting = Not more than 275 volts
= 2 x maximum voltage across relay under external fault
conditions (for a factor of safety of 2,0).
Maximum voltage across relay = Not more than 137,5 volts
under external fault
= I2 (RL + ZCT)
I2 = C.T. secondary current under fault conditions
= I (short-circuit) / C.T. Ratio

(For system voltages of 88 kV and above the maximum earth - fault current is taken as 1,15 x nominal fault level)

ZCT = CT internal impedance which has a specified maximum value.

RL = Loop resistance of leads from CT to relay.
2 2
The corresponding lead length in metres for a given RL using 2,5 mm or 4,0 mm cable are included in the table.

While a factor of safety of 2,0 is ideal, lower values down to say 1,5 can be accepted for less-important stations.

It should be noted that the current rating of a busbar protection core is specified to match that of the C.T. post as a
whole, i.e. a 1/500 turns-ratio bus zone core in a 1200 amp post can carry 1200 amps on the primary side and 2,4
amps on the secondary side continuously.

Table 28-2.18: Multi-Ratio Protection Current Transformers (Prior To 1994 / 1995)

Nominal Rating to BS 3938 :

Tapping Points Ratios Available
Ratio 1973
200/1 150/100/25/1 200/175/150/125/100/75/50/25/1 15.10P.15 on 50/1
400/1 300/200/50/1 400/350/300/250/200/150/50/1 15.10P.15 on 200/1
600/1 400/150/100/1 600/500/450/400/300/250/200/150/100/50/1 15.10P.15 on 200/1
800/1 600/400/100/1 800/700/600/500/400/300/200/100/1 15.10P.15 on 200/1
1200/1 800/300/200/1 1200/1000/900/800/600/500/400/300/200/100/1 15.10P.15 on 200/1
1600/1 1200/800/200/1 1600/1400/1200/1000/800/600/400/200/1 15.10P.15 on 200/1
2000/1 1600/800/600/1 2000/1600/1400/1200/1000/800/600/400/200/1 15.10P.15 on 400/1
2400/1 1600/600/400/1 2400/2000/1800/1600/1200/1000/800/600/400/200/1 15.10P.15 on 400/1
4000/1 3000/2000/500/1 4000/3500/3000/2500/2000/1500/1000/500/1 15.10P.15 on 500/1

Notes:-

a) Secondary current may also be 5 amperes.

b) Tapping points refer to taps on the secondary winding.

c) A rating of 15.10P.15 to BS 3938: 1973 is equivalent to the old 15T15 rating.

Table 28-2.19: Multi-Ratio Metering Current Transformers (Prior To 1994/1995)

Nominal Ratio Ratios Available Rating to BS 3938 : 1973

1,0 25/1
200/1 200/100/50/25/1 10 VA 0,5 on 50/1
0,2 100/1
0,5 200/1
400/1 400/300/200/100/1 10 VA on
0,2 400/1
0,5 200/1
600/1 600/400/200/100/1 10 VA
0,2 on 400/1
0,5 200/1
800/1 800/600/400/200/1 10 VA
0,2 on 400/1
1200/1 1200/800/400/200/1 10 VA 0,2 on 400/1
1600/1 1600/1200/800/400/1 10 VA 0,2 on 400/1
2000/1 2000/1600/1200/800/400/1 10 VA 0,2 on 400/1
2400/1 2400/1600/1200/800/400/1 10 VA 0,2 on 400/1
4000/1 4000/3000/2000/1000/1 10 VA 0,2 on 1000/1

Notes:-

a) Because of turns-compensation requirements separate taps are normally provided for each ratio.

b) Accuracy classes 0,2; 0,5 and 1,0 to BS 3938 : 1973 correspond to the old AM, BM and CM accuracy
classes.

Table 28-2.20: Current Transformer Cores for Busbar Protection (Prior To 1994 / 95)
System Nominal Load Bus Zone C,T, Maximum Max, Lead Length
2 2
Voltage Fault Current Ratio Internal Exciting Lead 2,5 mm 4,0 mm
Level Burden Current Resistance cable cable
ZCT (Loop) RL
kV kA A N Ohms Ohms Metres Metres
12,5 800 9,0 610 970
Up to 44 500/1 2,0
20,0 1600 4,9 330 510
12,5 800 4,0 270 430
66 500/1 1,5
20,0 1600 2,0 135 210
Not more
16,0 1250 5,5 370 600
88 1000/1 2,0 than 100
25,0 2500 2,8 190 300
mA
20,0 1600 5,1 350 550
220 1200/1 2,0 at a
31,5 2500 2,5 170 270
secondary
20,0 1600 7,6 510 820
275 voltage of
31,5 2500 4,0 270 430
550 volts
20,0 1600 7,6 510 820
330 1600/1 2,0
31,5 2500 4,0 270 430
31,5 4,0 270 430
400 2500 1600/1 2,0
50 1,8 120 200
Notes:-

(*1,15 )
i) RL calculated from (RL + Z CT ) = 137,5 eq. 28-2.8
N

(* 1,0 for voltages less than 88 kV)

2
ii) Resistance of 2,5 mm cable = 7,41 ohms / km

2
4,0 mm cable = 4,61 ohms / km

9.1 Application Guide (Prior To 1994 / 95)

9.1.1 Number of cores

The recommended number of cores in post-type current transformers for various system voltages is given in Table 28-
2.18.

Because of statistical and control metering requirements and because of the need to reduce the burdens on CT's
associated with high-speed relays to a minimum, all post CT's for system voltages of 220 kV and above where fitted
with 6 cores. Three of these cores were for general protection purposes, two cores for busbar protection and the
remaining core for metering.

Current transformers in the range of 66 kV to 132 kV were normally fitted with 4 cores (2 protection, 2 bus zone); 6
cores (2 protection, 2 bus zone and 2 metering) being provided on consumer circuits requiring metering. 6 Core current
transformers (3 protection, 2 bus zone and 1 metering) were provided at stations supplied directly from the main Grid
(e.g. 400 / 132 kV) where it was desirable for duplicate main protection to be installed in order to minimise the
possibility of the back-up protection on the Grid operating for a LV-side fault.

Below 66 kV busbar protection was rarely used and the recommended standard was a 3-core CT having 2 cores for
protection and one core for metering.

9.1.2 Arrangement of cores

In general terms, the arrangement of cores were such as to ensure that any fault within the current transformer is
detected. Figure 28-2.10 indicates a number of possible arrangements, some of which comply with the above
requirement and some which are not acceptable. A more detailed discussion of this problem is given in Protection
Report No. E.2/44-16 issued in September 1997.

9.1.3 Current transformer Orientation

According to our specification the P1 primary terminal of a current transformer was to be the insulated terminal while
the other terminal P2 is connected to the head of the CT Figure 28-2.11 shows the arrangement.

Any external flashover of the CT was more likely to originate from the head rather than from the insulated P1 terminal,
and to ensure that a fault of this nature effectively lies on the line side of the CT (and thus within the operating zone of
the line protection relays and outside the zone of the busbar protection) the P1 terminal was to be connected to the
breaker and the P2 terminal to the line as shown in Figure 28-2.11.

A reversal of these connections, i.e. breaker to P2, means that a flashover from the CT head represents a fault between
the CT and the breaker, a condition which will cause the busbar protection to operate quite unnecessarily.

TO REPEAT, INSULTED TERMINAL P1 MUST BE CONNECTED TO THE BREAKER WHILE P2 (HEAD-SIDE) IS

CONNECTED TO THE CIRCUIT BEING CONTROLLED.

Table 28-2.21: Recommended Number of C.T. Cores (Prior To 1994 / 95)

System Voltage Recommended number of cores Purpose of cores

kV
2 - Protection
Up to 44 3
1 - Metering
2 - Protection
4
2 - Bus Zone
2 - Protection
6 2 - Bus Zone
66 to 132
2 - Metering
3 - Protection
6 2 - Bus Zone
1 - Metering
3 - Protection
220 to 400 6 2 - Bus Zone
1 - Metering

Figure 28-2.10: Arrangement of Cores

Figure 28-2.11: Current Transformer Orientation

10. REFERENCES

10.1 Standard specification CT1 - CT4

10.2 Old Electrical Eng. Dept. Directive EED 9/11/1-1.

SLDG 28 - 3

ELECTROMAGNETIC AND CAPACITOR VOLTAGE TRANSFORMERS

1. ELECTROMAGNETIC VOLTAGE TRANSFORMERS

Inductive voltage transformers are low-power transformers in which the secondary voltage is for all practical purposes
proportional to and in phase with the primary voltage. The purpose of voltage transformers is to transform network
voltage to be measured into a secondary voltage that is fed to measuring and protective devices. The primary and
secondary windings are galvanically separated from each other.

Inductive voltage transformers are manufactured in the following forms:-

1.1 Voltage Transformers with Two-Phase Insulation

For connection between two phases, ratio 6000/100 V, for example. Two voltage transformers in vee connection are
normally used for measuring power in three phase networks.

1.2 Voltage Transformers with Single-Phase Insulation

for connection between one phase and earth, ratio e.g.:-

 110 000  (V)

 3
 100  (V))
 3

For measuring power in three-phase networks one needs three voltage transformers connected in star. If single-phase
insulated voltage transformers include an auxiliary winding for signalling earth faults, in three-phase networks this
winding must be sized for (100/√3) V. The "open triangle" in the three-phase set can also be provided with a fixed
resistor to damp relaxation oscillations (caused by ferro-resonance in insulated networks with small capacitances).

1.3 Three-phase Voltage Transformers

With the measuring windings connected in star and an auxiliary winding on the 4 th and 5 th limb for signalling earth
faults. In the event of an earth fault the auxiliary winding has a voltage of 100 V.

Inductive voltage transformers are selected according to the primary and secondary rated voltages and also the
accuracy class and rated output of the secondary windings so as to meet the requirements of the devices they are
connected to.

If there is a winding for detecting earth faults, its rated long-duration currents must be stated. For the short-time load
rating it is necessary to state the rated voltage factor and the duration of stress at elevated voltage.

2. CAPACITIVE VOLTAGE TRANSFORMERS

For higher system voltages up to 765 kV it is also possible to use voltage transformers that work on the capacitive divider
principle. Capacitive voltage transformers (CVT) can be connected to all customary measuring instruments and
protection relays. They are also authorized for tariff metering purposes.

The basic diagram of a capacitive voltage transformer is shown in Figure 28-3.1. A CVT consists of a capacitor voltage
divider (CVD) and an intermediate voltage transformer (IVT). The IVT comprises a transformer, a compensating reactor
and a damping device for suppressing ferro-resonance oscillations.

Capacitive voltage transformers have the added advantage that they can be used for coupling high-frequency power-line
carrier systems, e.g. for telephony, telecontrol, and so on.

The essential features to consider when selecting voltage transformers are the primary and secondary rating, rated
frequency, rated output and class. However, account must also be taken of the rated long-duration current of any earth-
fault detection winding, rated voltage factor and the duration of stress at elevated voltage.

Capacitive voltage transformers are selected in the same way as inductive types, except that the rated capacitance must
also be defined. An example of determining the main technical data of a capacitive voltage transformer is given below:-

110000
Rated primary voltage
3 V
110
Rated primary voltage of measuring winding
3 V
100
Rated primary voltage of earth-fault detection winding
3 V
Rated burden 380 VA, CI. 0,5
Rated voltage factor 1,9 . Un, 8h
Rated capacitance 22 000 pF
Rated frequency 50 Hz

With capacitive transformers, the rated capacitance and behaviour under transient conditions (interaction with network
protection system) are also important.

Inductive and capacitive voltage transformers are also used in SF6 insulated switching stations.

3
4
5
10
6
9 7
8

Figure 28-2.1: Basic Diagram of a Capacitive Voltage Transformer (CVT)

1 Capacitor voltage divider (CVD) 7 Transformer windings

2 High voltage capacitor (C1) 8 Damping device

3 Intermediate voltage capacitor (C2) 9 Trimming windings

4 Intermediate voltage transformer (IVT) 10 Trimming terminals low

5 Compensating reactor voltage terminal (the

6 Secondary terminals latter is to be earthed

when carrier equipment
is not required)

SLDG 29-1

CARRIER COUPLING ARRANGEMENTS

1. GENERAL

This design guide covers the standard coupling arrangements for coupling Power Line Carrier (PLC) signals to HV
transmission lines. Other PLC coupling design considerations are also explained. PLC systems are utilised for tele-
protection, voice communications and data communications. The method of coupling however is of particular
importance to the tele-protection signalling, as faults adversely affect the propagation characteristics of PLC signals.

2. STANDARD ABBREVIATIONS USED

CB - Circuit Breaker
LI - Line Isolator
BI - By-pass Isolator
TI - Transfer Isolator
LT - Line Trap
CC - Coupling Capacitor
CVT - Capacitor Voltage Transformer
LME - Line Matching Equipment
MT - Matching Transformer
CCU - Carrier Combining Unit

3. STANDARD COUPLING ARRANGEMENTS

Parallel lines, as referred to in this document denote lines which share the same servitudes between stations.

3.1 Subsidiary Lines

In general, all circuits at voltages of 132 kV and below, which are not part of the main transmission grid, are classed as
subsidiary circuits.

However, 132 kV lines that operate across South African borders must be regarded as major lines and coupled
appropriately.

The following coupling arrangements are to be utilised on all subsidiary lines:-

3.1.1 Single Lines

Figure 29-1.1: Centre Phase to Earth Coupling

Notes:-

- No CCU required for this form of coupling

- LT normally mounted on top of the CC/CVT

3.1.2 Parallel Lines on Separate Towers (on the Same Servitude)

Intercircuit coupling using a centre phase to centre phase coupling arrangement.

Intercircuit coupling is more reliable than single line phase-to-earth coupling for the following reason:-

In the event of a centre-phase-to-ground line fault occurring close to the terminal station at either end, the carrier
signals, although highly attenuated by the fault on the affected line, would still be transmitted via the other line. The
probability of this fault phenomenon coinciding with parallel line outages is extremely remote.

Note that this arrangement can easily be converted to single line phase to ground coupling, should the configuration of
one of the parallel lines be altered. Refer to drawing on next page.

Figure 29-1.2: Inter-Circuit Coupling Using a Centre-Phase-to-Centre-Phase Coupling Arrangement

NOTES:-

*1) Combining of co-axe cables for centre-phase-to-centre-phase performed in Telecommunications room.

*2) CCs are usually utilised at line voltages of 132 kV and lower as the protection relay VT supplies are provided by
the busbar voltage transformers.

3.1.3 Double Circuit Lines on the Same Towers

Figure 29-1.3: Inter-Circuit Coupling Using a Centre-Phase-to-Centre-Phase coupling Arrangement

(Vertical Configuration)

Notes:-

*1) Combining of co-axe cables for centre-phase-to-centre-phase performed in Telecommunications room.

*2) CCs are utilised at voltages of 132 kV and lower as the protection relay VT supplies are provided by the busbar
voltage transformers.

*3) In the case of parallel lines, intersystem working with centre-phase-to-earth coupling is used on the basis that the
probability is extremely remote of having centre-phase-to-earth fault on the 10% line section at either end of one
line while the other is out and at the same time not able to transfer carrier signals.

3.2 Major Lines

In general, all 765 kV, 400 kV, 330 kV, 275 kV and 220 kV lines are classed as Major lines.

Phase to phase or three phase coupling must be utilised for permissive protection schemes on major lines. Thus
specified to overcome the extremely high additional attenuation encountered during single phase to ground faults in
close proximity to the substation, especially when the centre phase of a flat horizontal line is involved.

Multiple coupling is not always required for direct tripping channels, as they are often utilised for equipment protection
and not line protection.

Faults on such equipment, like transformers, usually do not occur at the same time as a line fault. However, permissive
and direct inter tripping schemes often share the same PLC bearer so phase to phase coupling is required in any event,
particularly so when the direct tripping channel also forms part of the line protection scheme.

From a pure telecommunications point of view, inter-circuit coupling is preferred on parallel lines sharing the same
servitude, as communications are maintained even if one of the lines is taken out of service for maintenance purposes.
However, inter-circuit coupling is inflexible in some respects as the frequent line changes performed, e.g. looping in of
lines into new substations, cause unnecessary difficulties from an applications point of view. Consequently it is
preferable if single line coupling is utilised from the onset, on major lines, even though it is initially more expensive.

The following coupling arrangements are to be utilised on all Major lines:-

3.2.1 Single Line

Figure 29-1.4: Centre-Phase-to-Outer-Phase Coupling

Notes:-

*1) Combining of co-axe cables for centre-phase-to-outer-phase coupling performed in Telecommunications room.

*2) CVTs utilised

3.2.2 Three Phase Coupling on a Single Line

This approach is utilised for long transposed lines or extremely long un-transposed lines, especially if the PLC is relied
upon for transmission of both main 1 and main 2 teleprotection signalling.

Figure 29-1.5: Three Phase Coupling

This method of coupling has the capability of coping with phase-to-phase faults which occur close to the terminal
stations.

Notes:-

*1) Combining of co-axial cables for three-phase coupling performed in Telecommunications room.

*2) CVTs are utilised.

*3) The polarity of an outer phase LME must be reversed to obtain the correct phasing for mode 1 signal injection.
Refer to attachment CCQ sheets 2 and 5 for further details.

3.2.3 Double Circuit Lines on the Same Tower

Inter-circuit, phase-to-phase coupling (vertical configuration)

Figure 29-1.6: Inter-Circuit, Phase-to-Phase Coupling (Vertical Configuration)

Notes:-

*1) Combining of co-axe cables for inter-circuit phase-to-phase coupling performed in Telecommunications room.

*2) CVTs utilised.

3.2.4 Parallel lines on separate towers

(Single circuit lines on separate towers)

Due to the relative inflexibility of inter-circuit coupling and the frequent changes continually being made to the network,
each line is to be treated as a separate entity and coupled as detailed in section 3.2.1.

Furthermore, due to the extent of the radio bearer network nowadays, voice requirements via PLC channels is greatly
reduced and therefore inter-circuit coupling, originally a prerequisite to ensure maximum speech channel availability
even when one line is out of service, is no longer required.

3.3 Multiple Line Arrangements

Where more than two lines occupy the same servitude between two stations, the lines must be treated as single
independent lines, unless they fall into the subsidiary line category, where they are taken in pairs to facilitate parallel line
inter-circuit coupling.

Teleprotection signalling must be transmitted partially, if not entirely, over the transmission line being protected. For
instance, with inter-circuit coupling, only the teleprotection signalling associated with the two lines is to be transmitted
via the coupled PLC system.

Two parallel lines terminating in two separate relay rooms, at either or both stations, are to be treated as two single
lines. Only in exceptional cases can inter-circuit coupling be permitted, if one ensures that no excessive frequency
phase shift exists between the PLC signals received on each line. A typical technique would be to install an extra length
of coaxial cable between the closest LME and PLC, to compensate for the additional phase shift along the longer
coaxial cable.

3.4 PLC Coupling With Feeder By-Pass Facilities

If the uncommon phenomenon of a by-pass circuit is encountered, the following two coupling possibilities exist.

3.4.1 By-pass on Station Side of Coupling Equipment

Figure 29-1.7: Two Circuit Breaker Scheme

Figure 29-1.8: One Circuit Breaker Scheme

Advantages:-

a. Provides minimum cost of coupling equipment.

Disadvantages:-

a. Coupling equipment is only available for maintenance when line is out of service.

b. Additional yard space is required for the by-pass section.

3.4.2 By-pass on Line Side of Coupling Equipment

Two sets of LTs, one in each power circuit and either one or two sets of CCs / CVTs on the line side of the isolators.

Figure 29-1.9: Two Circuit Breaker Scheme

Figure 29-1.10: One Circuit Breaker Scheme

Notes: regarding the CCs / CVTs marked with an asterisk.

a. They may or may not be installed, depending on the protection requirements.

b. To avoid short circuiting the PLC transmission part, the earths on the LV terminals of these CCs / CVTs must be
removed. However, if the CCs / CVTs do not have incorporated drain coils and are fitted from the onset of the
bypass arrangement, LMEs must be installed to provide the necessary drain coils, but the 75 Ω output of the LME
must be left open circuit.

Disadvantages:-

a. Once again, the coupling equipment is only accessible for maintenance when the line is out of service.

b. Accommodation for the by-pass is external to the HV yard where space is generally at a premium.

c. The length of the stub formed by the connection between the line and the by-pass bay can negatively influence the
PLC signal propagation characteristics, if the bypass is significantly long enough in relation to the wave length of the
PLC frequency utilised. Refer to Table 29-1.1 and Figure 29-1.17.

3.5 Carrier Coupling On Feeders with Transfer Facilities

The following, outboard, coupling arrangements are to be adopted on all major feeders.

Figure 29-1.11: Carrier Coupling On Feeders with Transfer Facilities

In all other respects, the coupling arrangements are as described for single line coupling of major lines, in section 3.2.1
and 3.2.2.

3.6 Special Line Systems

3.6.1 Tees on lines

Occasionally there is a requirement to tap into an existing transmission line to provide a supply to a new station e.g. a
traction supply point. Generally there is no necessity for PLC telecommunications to the new supply point, but the PLC
link between the two original terminals must be maintained.

Tees on major lines are extremely undesirable. However, they can be accommodated on subsidiary lines, provided
suitable measures are taken to ensure that the performance of the through-going PLC links are not excessively
degraded, due to the additional frequency dependant losses caused by the Tee.

The measures required depend on the specific configuration of the Tee. The possibilities are as follows:-

3.6.1.1 Short Tee

A situation where the total length of the attached stub, formed by the line between the tee point on the
original line and the new substation, is less than one eight of a wavelength at the highest frequency of
the through-going PLC signal, e.g. less than 375 m at 100 kHz.

No additional measures need be taken provided the stub line is terminated in a high impedance, such as the primary
winding of an HV to LV transformer. Under such circumstances the additional attenuation will be negligible.

If, however, the stub line is terminated in conventional busbars etc., the additional shunt capacitance to ground will
cause a large amount of attenuation to the through-going PLC signals. Hence the tee must be treated in the manner
outlined as for a long tee, irrespective of its electrical length.

Figure 29-1.12: Short Tee – Substation Tee

3.6.1.2 Long Tee

The attached stub length will be anything above an eighth wavelength of the through-going PLC’s frequency. If the tee
line is an odd number of eighth wavelengths of the PLC frequency, the PLC signals will be short circuited even if the
substation shunt impedance is high. Consequently, to avoid such an effect, a line trap should be installed, as close as
possible to the tee connection, on the phase transmitting the bulk of the PLC signal power. This will be the centre
phase on an end to end flat horizontal line configuration. However, when other line configurations are encountered,
National PTM&C must be consulted. The most convenient way to erect the line trap at the tee, is to suspend it from a
gantry or an existing tower. Alternatively, a mini substation will have to be constructed, with a line trap support structure
and post insulator arrangement with security fence etc.

This method should be used on all long tees, as the approach is far more flexible and secure than trying to find suitable
PLC frequencies which fall between the attenuation peaks. Besides these attenuation peaks are difficult to interpret
accurately as they are dependant on the exact line length and substation switching conditions at the end of the stub line.
The shunt loss introduced by a trapped tee will cause a maximum of 6 dB additional attenuation on the through-going
PLC signals.

Figure 29-1.13: Long Tee – Line Tee

3.6.1.3 Two Phase Traction Tees

Similar comments to those made for short and long tees apply in this case. However, if the end to end line configuration
is flat horizontal and the two teed phases do not include the centre phase, which transmits the bulk of the PLC signals in
this case, no line trap is necessary. When other line configuration are encountered and doubt exists as to which phase
transmits the bulk of the PLC signal, National PTM&C must be consulted.

3.6.2 Station By-pass Arrangements

This arrangement is utilised to provide a PLC communications bypass of a substation that does not require carrier
communications itself.

Figure 29-1.14: Substation By-pass

This arrangement is also utilised on some interconnections across international boarders, when each authority requires
installation of their own set of line isolators on either side of the transit point. These measures guarantee an isolated
line during line maintenance.

Figure 29-1.15: By-passing Isolation Zone on an International Line

In this type of arrangement the coax cable is usually quite long, consequently a significant phase sift is introduced to the
PLC signal. Partial PLC signal cancellation can occur when the line isolators are closed, if the signals travelling along
the coax cable arrive out of phase with the attenuated signals transmitted via the line isolators and line trap.

When the system is commissioned and the line isolators are closed, end to end attenuation measurements must be
performed to ensure that a coax cable polarity reversal, at one of the border crossing LMEs, does not decrease the
overall transmission path loss. Current practice, however, is to avoid line isolators and PLC coupling equipment at
border crossings.

3.6.3 Temporary Construction By-pass Arrangement

During the construction phase of a substation bay rearrangement, or during the turning in of an existing line, a
temporary line by-pass is often made to facilitate the process. Unfortunately, undesirable line stubs can result, as
indicated in the sketch below.

Figure 29-1.16: Stubs on Line Turn-ins with Temporary By-pass Connection

Great care must be taken to ensure that the maximum length of these stubs never exceed one eighth of a wavelength at
the highest through-going PLC frequency. Refer to Table 29-1.1 and Figure 29-1.17.

Table 29-1.1: Maximum Stub Lengths (ℓ) for Given Carrier Frequency (f)

f (kHz) ℓ = λ/8 (m)

100 375
150 250
200 187,5
250 150
300 125
350 107,14
400 93,75
450 83,33
500 75
550 68,18
600 62,50
650 57,69
700 53,57
750 50
800 46,08

Examples:-

c
λ) =
Wavelength (λ eq. 29-1.1
f

where:-
8
c = Speed of light (3.10 m/s)
f = Carrier frequency in Hertz (Hz)

(i) PLC frequency of 500 kHz

6
300 . 10
Wavelength (λ) = 3
= 600 m
500 . 10

λ
Hence stub length must not exceed , i.e. 75 m
8

(ii) PLC frequency of 100 kHz

6
300 . 10
Wavelength (λ) = 3
= 3000 m
100 . 10

λ
Hence stub length must not exceed i.e. 375 m
8

Figure 29-1.17: Permissible Stub Length (ℓ)

(below curve)

Any stubs in excess of the lengths calculated will cause significant additional attenuation to the through-going PLC
signals. Theoretically, this additional attenuation is infinite when the stub length is exactly a quarter wavelength of the
relevant PLC frequency. However one can redress stub ends, on all three phases, with CCs / CVTs and LMEs. Refer
to drawing below.

Figure 29-1.18: CVTs Used as Drain Coils

Note:-

1. LMEs connected as drain coils

3.6.4 Artificial Busbars

To avoid interference between PLC links operating at the same frequencies, a principle of three busbar spacing is
strictly applied. Due to the many PLC links utilised, especially in some areas, it is impossible to expand the PLC
network due to frequency congestion. Consequently an artificial busbar is inserted to provide the additional attenuation
required to alleviate the frequency congestion. The artificial busbar consists of additional LTs, CCs / CVTs and LMEs
being inserted on the station busbar side of the applicable feeders coupling equipment. Refer to drawing below.

a) Three Phase Coupling

b) Phase-to-Phase Coupling

Figure 29-1.19: De-coupling Systems - Artificial Busbars

Notes:-

2. Co-axial outputs of LMUs used for decoupling terminated with 75Ω resistor (50W).

3. Position of CVTs and CCs can be interchanged.

4. ADDITIONAL NOTES

4.1 Line Traps (LTs), Capacitor Voltage Transformers (CVTs) and Coupling Capacitors (CCs)

4.1.1 At voltages above 132 kV, line traps are supplied with post insulators to support the units on concrete or lattice
steel pedestals for maintaining the required ground clearance. Line traps at voltage levels of 132 kV and below
are supplied for mounting on the associated coupling capacitor. However, in cases where it is not possible to
mount the line trap on the CC / CVT, or when a CC is not required, LT support post insulators are normally
available as separate items.

4.1.2 Line traps are required to prevent the PLC frequencies from being dissipated in the yard and to attenuate noise
from the yard from interfering with the PLC system. The specific details of the line traps are indicated in
Appendix 1 and 2, (e.g. 765 kV/5000A/50kA/0,5mH = line voltage/continuous current rating/short duration fault
current rating/main coil inductance). The resistive component of the line trap impedance over the specified
blocking ranges is greater than 400 Ω in every case.

4.1.3 At higher line voltages, where corona noise is more prevalent, preventive measures are taken by fitting corona
rings or corona caps to line traps. Corona being a phenomenon caused by electrical overstressing, that
generates H.F noise.

4.1.4 The general rules for the choice of line traps for any application are as follows:-

(i) Subsidiary circuits :- 0,2 mH main coils

With TU blocking bandwidth of : 80 - 108 kHz
104 - 156 kHz
124 - 204 kHz

194 - 500 kHz

(ii) Radial feeds :- 0,2 mH main coil

With TU blocking bandwidth of : 80 - 108 kHz
104 - 156 kHz
124 - 204 kHz
194 - 500 kHz

(iii) Major circuits :- 0,5 mH main coil

With TU blocking bandwidth of : 48 - 78 kHz
70 - 156 kHz
101 - 500 kHz

(iv) Artificial busbars :- 1,2 mH main coil

With TU blocking bandwidth of : 48 - 500 kHz

In all cases, when ordering a line trap, the frequency blocking range required must be clearly stated.

The exceptions to the rules are:-

⇒ where frequency allocation problems arise, due to frequencies present on adjacent sections and sections one
busbar removed.

⇒ where special engineering solutions are required, as in the case of transposed lines.

4.1.5 The choice of LT blocking range required is dependant on the PLC frequencies allocated to the specific line.
Before ordering line traps, frequency allocations must be obtained from National PTM&C Telecommunications,
Simmerpan.

Note: Regardless of the frequencies allocated, it is important to use the size of the line trap determined from the
preceding general rules, unless specifically instructed by Telecommunications department.

4.1.6 The continuous current rating of the LT selected must be equal or higher than the lines current rating, while the
short time fault current rating must equal or exceed the calculated fault current of the network in that specific
area. The fault current selected must take future expansion into consideration. The LTs current ratings may not
correspond to those of the breakers, utilised on the feeder, as the breakers are often overrated.

4.1.7 Details of line coupling equipment connections are given in Figures 29-1.21 and 29-1.22, respectively showing
the line trap mounted on a coupling capacitor or on a separate post insulator. These two figures also indicate
equipment earthing requirements.

4.1.8 Equipment (CCs, CVTs and LT post support insulators) with high creepage (25 mm per kV) should always be
specified for applications in maritime environments. The normal equipment available has creepage distances
corresponding to accepted medium creepage definition (20 mm per kV).

4.1.9 As 88 kV is not a standard European voltage, coupling equipment at this voltage is more expensive than
equipment manufactured for the world-wide standard of 132 kV. Therefore 132 kV must be utilised on 88 kV
feeders.

4.2 Line Matching Equipment (LME)

4.2.1 There are three basic LME items available:-

XH - Line matching equipment with high-pass filter - for general applications.

XB - Line matching equipment with band-pass filter - for special applications only (e.g. very low PLC
frequencies).
When ordering such equipment the following must be stipulated -:
i) Value of coupling capacitor
ii) Lowest frequency required
iii) Line impedance
Y - Symmetrical hybrid

4.2.2 Line matching equipment with built-in symmetrical hybrids are no longer standard items on the ENC, as it is
recommended that Carrier Combining units, be installed in the PLC cabinets, with two or four coaxes extended to
the yard for inter-circuit and inter-phase applications.

4.2.3 Figure 6 shows the correct method of interconnection between the low voltage terminal of the CC / CVT and the
LME, while figure 3 shows the equipment earthing requirements.

4.3 Carrier Combining Units (CCU)

There are three versions:-

CCU-1 - Phase to phase coupling

This is a single transformer combiner and is intended for use either between two phases of the same line or between
centre phases of parallel lines.

CCU-2 - Phase to phase inter-circuit coupling.

This is a three transformer combiner and is intended for use for phase-to-phase inter-circuit coupling of parallel lines.

CCU-3 - Three phase coupling. (≈ Mode 1)

This is a two transformer combiner and is intended for use for three-phase coupling of very long single 400 kV and 765
kV lines which are generally transposed.

These units also provide HF input over-voltage protection, in the form of gas-filled surge arresters. Therefore the
2
attachment plate of the unit must be connected to the PLC cabinet earth bar with a 4 mm conductor.

5. INDEX TO ATTACHMENTS

5.1 Combining information

CCQ Sheet 1 Combining information for single and two phase coupling
Sheet 2 Combining information for three and four phase coupling.

Sheet 3 Carrier combining unit :

phase-to-phase coupling (CCU-1)
Sheet 4 Carrier combining unit :
phase-to-phase inter-circuit coupling (CCU-2)
Sheet 5 Carrier combining unit :
three-phase coupling (CCU-3)
5.2 Phase selection for different line configurations

CCA Line arrangement requiring single line or inter-circuit coupling

CCB Single feeder, flat horizontal configuration - major line
CCC Twin feeder, flat horizontal configuration - major lines
CCD Single feeder, three-phase coupling, flat horizontal line - major line
CCG Single feeder, vertical configuration - major line
CCH Twin feeder, vertical configuration - major line
CCJ Single feeder, delta configuration - major line
CCK Twin feeder, delta configuration - major lines
CCL Single feeder, flat horizontal configuration - subsidiary line
CCL-2 Twin feeder, flat horizontal configuration - subsidiary lines.
CCM Single feeder, vertical configuration - subsidiary line
CCM-2 Twin feeder, vertical configuration - subsidiary lines
CCN Single feeder, delta configuration - subsidiary line
CCN-2 Twin feeder, delta configuration - subsidiary lines
CCR Repeater stations and series capacitor bank stations
CCS Artificial busbars

a) Single Feeder (Couple Single Line) b) Two Feeders on the Same Servitude (Couple
Inter-circuit)

c) Two Feeders on Different Servitudes (Couple d) Two Feeders on the Same Servitude Terminating
each Feeder on a Single Line Basis) in Separate Telecommunications Rooms (Couple
each Feeder on a Single Line Basis)

e) Three Feeders on the Same Servitude f) Four Feeders on the Same Servitude (Couple
Terminating in Separate Telecommunications Lines 1 & 2 on an Inter-circuit Basis and Lines 3

Rooms (Couple Lines 1 & 2 on an Inter-circuit & 4on an Inter-circuit Line Basis)
Basis and Line 3 on a Single Line Basis)

g) Multiple Feeders with Phase Comparison

Protection and Unimportant Communications
Circuits (Couple each Feeder on a Single Line
Basis)

Figure 29-1.20: Carrier Coupling Line Arrangement Requiring Single Line or Inter-circuit Coupling

Figure 29-1.21: Coupling Equipment for Distribution Level Systems – Line Trap Mounted on Coupling Capacitor

Figure 29-1.22: Coupling Equipment for Transmission Level Systems – Line Trap Mounted Separately from
Capacitor Voltage Transformer

a) Single Flat Horizontal Line

b) Schematic for Phase-to-Phase Coupling

Figure 29-1.23: Carrier Coupling on Major Lines

a) Twin Flat Horizontal Lines on Same Servitude – Line Traps Installed on the Outer Phases Closest to Adjacent
Lines

b) Schematic for Phase-to-Phase Inter-Circuit Coupling

Figure 29-1.24: Carrier Coupling on Major Lines

a) Single Flat Horizontal Line– Line Traps Installed on Phases 1, 2 & 3

b) Schematic for Three Phase Coupling

Figure 29-1.25: Carrier Coupling on Major Lines

a) Single Vertical Line– Line Traps Installed on Phases 1 & 2

b) Schematic for Phase-to-Phase Coupling

Figure 29-1.26: Carrier Coupling on Major Lines

i) Double Circuit Tower ii) Two Single Circuit Towers

a) Twin Vertical Lines on Same Servitude – Line Traps Installed on Phases 1a & 2a and 1b & 2b of the two Lines

b) Schematic for Phase-to-Phase Inter-Circuit Coupling

Figure 29-1.27: Carrier Coupling on Major Lines

i) Delta Tower Type A ii) Delta Tower Type B

a) Single Delta Line– Line Traps Installed on Phases 1 & 3

c) Schematic for Phase-to-Phase Inter-Circuit Coupling

Figure 29-1.28: Carrier Coupling on Major Lines

i) Delta Tower Type A ii) Delta Tower Type B

a) Twin Delta Lines on Same Servitude – Line Traps Installed on Phases 1a & 3a and 1b & 3b of the two Lines

b) Schematic for Phase-to-Phase Inter-Circuit Coupling

Figure 29-1.29: Carrier Coupling on Major Lines

a) Singe Flat Horizontal Line on Same Servitude – Line Trap Installed on Phases 2

b) Schematic for Phase-to-Earth Coupling

Figure 29-1.30: Carrier Coupling on Subsidiary Line

a) Twin Flat Horizontal Lines on Same Servitude – Line Traps Installed on Phases 2a & 2b

b) Schematic for Phase-to-Phase Inter-Circuit Coupling

Figure 29-1.31: Carrier Coupling on Major Lines

a) Single Vertical Line– Line Trap Installed on Phases 2

b) Schematic for Phase-to-Earth Coupling

Figure 29-1.32: Carrier Coupling on Major Lines

a) Twin Vertical Lines on Same Servitude – Line Traps Installed on Phases 2a & 2b

b) Schematic for Inter-Circuit Coupling

Figure 29-1.33: Carrier Coupling on Subsidiary Lines

a) Single Delta Line – Line Trap Installed on Phase 3

b) Schematic for Phase-to-Earth Coupling

Figure 29-1.34: Carrier Coupling on Subsidiary Line

a) Twin Delta Lines on Same Servitude – Line Traps Installed on Phases 3a & 3b

b) Schematic for Phase-to-Phase Inter-Circuit Coupling

Figure 29-1.35: Carrier Coupling on Subsidiary Lines

6. REFERENCES

6.1 ABB Line Trap handbook

6.2 Haefely Line Trap handbook

6.3 ABB Line Matching Equipment handbook

6.4 ABB Coupling Capacitor and Capacitor Voltage Transformer handbook

6.5 ABB Power Line Carrier Handbook (ETL equipment)

SLDG 29-2

COMMUNICATION ROOM LAYOUT

1. GENERAL

1.1 The purpose of this design guide is to provide designs covering the minimum requirements for Communication
Rooms associated with H.V. switching yards at power stations, distribution stations and substations.

1.2 The room layout designs must comply with two important requirements.

i) The room must be able to accommodate equipment of different makes and designs,

ii) The layout must facilitate the addition of equipment subsequent to the initial installation.

1.3 The Communication Room layouts provided in this design guide include the use of over-head cable racks. This
avoids the problem of matching equipment cubicles of various sizes and designs to one design of cable trench.
Cubicles can stand directly on the floor.

1.4 Cable trenches are still included for auxiliary power supply and equipment panels as well as for communication
equipment were the cubicles cannot accommodate over-head cabling techniques.

1.5 Provision is made for the installation of multi-channel radio equipment, if required. The equipment row allocated
has an antenna bushing in the wall, 3 m above floor level, in line with the radio equipment row. If the radio
equipment is installed in an external building or if there is no intention to install such equipment at a particular
substation, the row allocated to radio equipment can be used for other communications equipment.

1.6 Where possible, the middle rows should be filled last so as to preserve space in the middle of the room, when the
station is not equipped to its ultimate capacity.

2. SIZES OF COMMUNICATION ROOMS

2.1 Standard Communication Room layouts CRD1, CRD2, CRD3, CRD 4 and CRD8, form part of the Substation
Building Design Guide are to be found in the text below.

2.2 The four Communication Room layouts CRD1 to CRD4 inclusive and CRD8, have been designed to meet all
requirements in the following classification:

i) CRD1 - Large switching stations (usually double battery 400 kV stations and some 275 kV
stations). Note: The CRD1 room can be orientated in the building design in two
ways, hence equipment layout arrangements are given for both building
arrangements.

Figure 29-2.1: Communications Room for Large Substations – CDR 1 (a)

Figure 29-2.2: Communications Room for Large Substations – CDR 1 (b)

ii) CRD2 - Medium size switching stations (usually large and medium 330 kV, 275 kV, 220 kV
and 132 kV single battery stations).

Figure 29-2.3: Communications Room for Medium Sized Substations – CDR 2

iii) CRD3 - Small Substations (usually 132 kV and 88/66 kV stations and some large consumer
substations.

Figure 29-2.4: Communications Room for Small Sized Substations – CDR 3

iv) CRD4 - Consumer Substations (Terminal stations, any voltage).

Figure 29-2.5: Communications Room for Consumer Substations – CDR 4

v) CRD8 - Extra large switching stations (double battery 400 kV stations) with more than 5 400
kV feeders.

Figure 29-2.6: Communications Room for Consumer Substations – CDR 8

Standard building designs will incorporate the appropriate CRD standard and the choice of building made to meet the
control panel requirements will automatically determine the CRD standard used.

Where a non-standard building is used, it is obviously impossible to lay down a specific guide for the choice of a CRD
standard for any particular application. An estimate of all the equipment necessary to cater for the ultimate capacity of
the station is required to determine this choice.

3. FACILITIES TO BE PROVIDED

3.1 Cable Trenches

The sketches indicate the position of cable trenches in single storey control blocks at distribution stations.

All trenches are to be 900 mm wide by 600 mm deep. Trenches and panel bases to be provided with supporting lips
and / or brackets, as indicated on the relevant construction drawing, to carry the checker plating. This arrangement is
identical with that used in relay rooms, and allows from 600 mm to 750 mm of access to the cable trench with the panels
in position. At all new installations, the panels will overhang the cable trench the full depth of the gland plates in the
base of the panel (175 mm) and supporting cross members will not be fitted.

In existing installations, where angle iron cross members are fitted to trenches, these are to be spaced at 760 mm
centres.

3.2 Auxiliary Power Supply And Equipment Panels

The positioning of auxiliary power supply and equipment panels, etc., is indicated in the sketches. At least 900 mm
clearance is provided for front and rear access to all panels. All such panels are to be mounted on channel bases 100
mm in height.

3.3 Lightning and Socket-outlet Points

Communication rooms are to be equipped with fluorescent lighting, DC emergency lighting, and socket-outlet points for
general purposes.

The position of these facilities together with lighting switches are not indicated on the sketches. It is important that the
light fittings be positioned between the equipment rows, as cable entry to the equipment racks will be from overhead
cable trays, running the full length of the rack.

3.4 Access to Room

A minimum access height of 2600 mm is required to permit entry of bulky equipment. This may comprise a 2000 mm
door with a 600 mm removable panel above.

4. CABLING FACILITIES

4.1 All cables between equipment outside the communication room and equipment inside the communication room are
to be positioned in the cable trenches.

4.2 Communications cables to the control room shall be supported on independent dedicated cable racks in the cable
trenches in the control room, to prevent damage to the telephone cabling by heavy power and protection cables.

4.3 Where possible, all cables internal to the communications room are to be positioned on cable racks or trays
situated above the panels. Cable trays are to be a minimum of 2700 mm above floor level and provision should be
made for dropping cables down into the communication panels.

Cable trays shall be of “UNISTRUT” construction.

Fixing and assembly details are shown on drawing 0.54/1150 sheets 15, 16, 17, 18, 19 and 30 inclusive.

4.4 Provision must be made for fixing cable tray supporting struts to the roof of ceiling. The fixing points are to be
positioned directly above existing and future rows of panels, even if cable trays are not installed initially.

4.5 Cable trays shall be capable of carrying the following maximum weight of cables:-

CRD1 - 400 kg (Total)

CRD2 - 300 kg (Total)

CRD3 - 200 kg (Total)

CRD4 - 100 kg (Total)

CRD8 - 400 kg (Total)

The maximum loading will not exceed 30 kg/m in any design.

The above figures are for cables only, and no allowance has been made for any other form of loading.

5. AIR CONDITIONING

The communication room should preferably be positioned between the relay room and the battery room to avoid solar
heat load from external walls.

5.1 Air-conditioning units are shown on the drawing. The type and size of these units must be determined by the
building designer. Air-conditioning requirements can be determined by considering the meteorological conditions
for the particular location, as set out in the annual “REPORT ON METEOROLOGICAL DATA”, published by the
Department of Transport Weather Bureau, together with the orientation and construction of the buildings. The
positioning of the air-conditioning units is shown on the various sketches.

5.2 The Communication equipment will, in general, be designed to operate satisfactorily in an ambient room
temperature in the range 0 - 40 C, with a mean of 20 C ± 50 C, and any air-conditioning equipment provided shall
o o o

be capable of maintaining the room temperature within these limits.

However, as temperatures in excess of the specified range can be tolerated for short periods, 100 % stand-by air-
conditioning plant will not normally be required.

5.3 Dust-proofing of the room is essential. Dust-proof type doors and removable panels shall be used.

5.4 A minimum 40 mm layer of insulating material shall be installed in the ceiling space, and the roof shall be painted
with aluminium room paint.

5.5 The cable trenches between the communication room and adjacent rooms shall be fitted with a grid of 100 mm
diameter cable pipes, which shall be closed off with soft fill when all cabling is completed.

5.6 The heat dissipation of equipment installed (excluding lighting) is approximately:-

CRD1 - 7 kW (24,500 Btu/hr)

CRD2 - 4 kW (14,000 Btu/hr)

CRD3 - 1,5 kW (5,250 Btu/hr)

CRD4 - 0,75 kW (2,625 Btu/hr)

CRD8 - 8 kW (28,000 Btu/hr)

These values are indicative only and need to be calculated each time for a given set of equipment.

6. POWER STATIONS AND MULTI-STOREY DISTRIBUTION STATIONS

6.1 At power stations where the communication room is either in the S.O.B. complex or in the H.V. yard (900 mm off
the ground) and at distributions stations where the communication room is on the 1 st floor, cable trenches are not
provided. Holes of at least 100 mm diameter should be provided for the power supply panels with a minimum of
one hole for each panel. Slots, 150 x 100 mm are to be provided for each vertical frame of the I.D.F. Slots 300 x
100 mm are to be provided at each end of the communication equipment panel row. These holes shall be sealed
with soft fill when cabling is complete, to prevent conditioned air escaping or unconditioned air entering the
communications room.

6.2 At double storey substations provision shall be made against one wall of the ground floor, over the cable trench, for
vertical cable racks leading from the ground floor cable trench to the ground floor overhead racking. This cable
rack can be enclosed in the wooden or metal cabinet. The cable racking is required for coax and telephone cables
running form the H.V. yard to the first floor communications equipment.

6.3 All internal cabling is to be carrier overhead as in communication rooms in distribution stations comprising single-
storey buildings, and the same provision made for overhead cable trays.

SLDG 30-1

LINE TRAPS

1. INTRODUCTION

High voltage transmission lines are also used for transmitting carrier signals between 30 kHz and 500 kHz for remote
control, voice communication, remote metering & protection, and so forth, and are often referred to as Power Line Carrier
(PLC) systems.

Line traps prevent transmission of these high frequency signals to unwanted directions without loss of energy at power
frequency. They are series-connected to the transmission lines, and are designed to withstand the rated power
frequency current and the short-circuit current to which the lines are subjected.

2. CONSTRUCTION

2.1 Main Coil

The main coil carries the rated current of the transmission line and is designed to withstand the maximum short-circuit
current. Its winding consists of high mechanical strength aluminium profiles of rectangular cross section. Depending on
the current, one or more profiles are connected in parallel. Each turn is separated by fibreglass-reinforced spacers. The
winding is held together by aluminium cross arms at the top and bottom end of the main coil, and one or more fibreglass
insulated tie rods.

The main coil is mechanically robust and lightweight. It is an open, air-insulated spool and therefore offers excellent
cooling properties. Due to this design, no surface cracking will occur. Its low self-capacitance provides a high self-
resonance frequency making it particularly suitable for high frequency applications, such as PLC.

These important characteristics ensure excellent performance, in particular, in the event of a fault. As a result, a long
service life is obtained.

Figure 30-1.1: Line Trap Main Components

2.2 Extremely Reliable Tuning Devices

This key sub-component of a line trap is mounted inside the main coil on the central tie rod. It is easily accessible and
exchangeable. It can be replaced without removing the line trap from the line. All components are chosen to ensure
exceptional operating reliability and a long service life.

The tuning device can be factory fixed or field adjustable, designed for single-frequency, double frequency or wide-band
tuning. In addition, the tuning device can be furnished for use in line traps of other manufacturers.

All components are encapsulated in a triple weather protection housing resistant to ever-changing environmental
conditions and mechanical shocks. The temperature coefficients of the tuning device elements are chosen to yield a very
high degree of tuning consistency.

2.3 Protective Device

The protective device is connected across the main coil and the tuning device to prevent the line trap from being
damaged by transient over-voltages. Its ratings are chosen to respond to high transient over-voltages, but it will not
operate as a result of the power frequency voltage developed across the line trap by the rated short-circuit, nor will it
remain in operation after the response to a transient over-voltage developed across the line trap by the rated short-
circuit.

Gapless (or gapped) metal-oxide (ZnO) or gapped silicon carbide (SiC) types are used depending on the line trap
characteristics.

3. MOUNTING

3.1 Suspension Mounting

All line traps are equipped with a lifting lug, which is bolted directly to the central tie rod. For this type of mounting, an
eyebolt is similarly added to the bottom cross arm to anchor the line trap and prevent swaying. Two, three or four-point
suspension can be provided upon request (see Figure 30-1.2).

a) Elements of a Line Trap b) Line Traps Suspended via Vee-Insulator Strings Below a Beam

Figure 30-1.2: Vertical Suspension of Line Traps

3.2 Pedestal Mounting

3.2.1 Vertical Mounting

For this type of mounting, the line traps feature an aluminium pedestal. The pedestals have adequate height to prevent
excessive heating of the post insulator or coupling capacitor voltage transformer (CCVT) fittings due to the magnetic field
of the main coil.

Small or medium sized line traps can be mounted directly on a single post insulator or CCVT by using a pedestal (vertical
pedestal A type).

Standard pitch circle mounting diameters (PCD), Dfa, are 296 mm, 220 mm and 127 mm. Other PCD's can be provided
upon request.

For large sized line traps, the use of the three insulator columns pedestal (vertical pedestal B type) is recommended.
Standard bolt circle mounting diameters (BCD), Dfb, are 1000 mm for line traps with Ds = 1396 mm and 1395 mm for line
traps with Ds = 1846 mm.

The number of columns and other mounting details of the vertical pedestal B type can be adapted to meet customer
requirements (see Figure 30-1.3).

Figure 30-1.3: Vertical Pedestal A & B

3.2.2 Horizontal Mounting

Given that the open style winding offers an equally effective cooling property in the horizontal position as in the vertical,
the line traps are adequate for operation in the horizontal position. The line traps are furnished with two or four aluminium
pedestals mountable on base flanges with eight 18mm diameter holes to fit 127 mm or 178 m PCD's or other patterns
upon request (see Figure 30-1.4).

Figure 30-1.4: Horizontal Pedestal

3.3 Terminals

The line traps are supplied with 4-hole NEMA flat pad aluminium terminals (refer to Figure 30-1.5a for details). For
copper connectors, tin-plated copper adapter plates are provided. Other hole patterns are available upon request. The

number of terminals and cross-section depend on the rated current of the line trap (refer to Figure 30-1.5b for typical
terminal arrangements).

a) Terminals Details

b) Terminals Arrangements

Figure 30-1.5: Terminals Details and Arrangements

3.3.1 Mechanical Strength of Terminal

Permissible static line pull in longitudinal direction: 2940N.

Permissible static bending load applied in the centre of the terminal: 2450N.

3.4 Nameplates

Aluminium or stainless steel nameplates are supplied.

3.5 Bird barriers

Bird barriers prevent the intrusion of birds into the main coil. The bird barriers consist of a temperature and UV resistant
fibreglass reinforced plastic grid with square-shaped 15x15 mm openings. The bird barrier does not adversely affect the
cooling of the line trap.

3.6 Surface Finish

The surface is first cleaned by sandblasting. A finishing coat of alkyd-enamel to a minimum thickness of 30 µm (1.2 mils)
in Munsell N6.5 (ANSI 70) grey is applied. Special customer requirements can be accommodated.

3.7 Thermal Strength

The line traps are designed for temperature Class F (155°C) according to IEC 353 (1989) and Insulation Temperature
Index of 155°C according to ANSI C93.3-1981. These standards allow a temperature rise of 115°C (measured by the
resistance method) and a maximum temperature rise of 135°C (hot spot) above the mean ambient temperature.

Nevertheless, the line traps are designed to display an average temperature rise of only 80°C at rated current at a power
frequency of 50 Hz. This makes it possible to use the same line trap on 60 Hz networks at a continuous ambient
temperature of 45°C.

4. ACCESSORIES

In addition to the standard design consisting of a main coil, a tuning device and a protective device, the following
accessories are available upon request:

• Line connectors (aluminium or bi-metal), for direct connection of the high voltage conductor

• Corona rings are usually not required for system voltages up to 245 kV, given that no special corona discharge
requirement is imposed. Should corona rings be required, rings constructed of aluminium tubes (diameter of 38
mm) are provided. In this case, the overall diameter of the line trap is increased by 40 mm and the coil height by
2x100 mm. In case of pedestal mounting, the overall height is only increased by 100 mm, because the lower corona
ring protrudes over the pedestal.

5. TESTS

The following routine (production) tests are applicable:

5.1 IEC

• Measurement of rated inductance of the main coil (at 100 kHz)

• Measurement of power frequency inductance of the main coil (at 100 Hz)

• Power-frequency dielectric withstand test on tuning device

• Measurement of blocking impedance or blocking resistance or tapping loss or tapping loss based on the blocking
resistance

5.2 ANSI

• Measurement of main coil true inductance (at 100 Hz & 100 kHz)

• Spark-over test of auxiliary protective devices

• Measurement of blocking impedance

• Measurement of tuning device component values

• Power-frequency dielectric withstand test on tuning device

5.3 Testing

The routine testing program for the line traps is performed with a measuring system specifically developed for this
purpose.

Frequency response curves can be plotted for the resistive component, impedance, blocking attenuation or tapping loss
according to the user-defined settings.

5.3.1 Type (Design) Tests

The most common type (design) tests are: temperature rise, measurement of radio influence voltage (RIV) and short-
circuit.

Numerous type tests have been performed at recognized laboratories around the world, such as KEMA (Holland), CESI
(Italy), CEPEL (Brazil), (Canada), LAPEM (Mexico) and CPRI (India).

Type test reports are available upon request.

6. HIGH FREQUENCY CHARACTERISTICS OF LINE TRAPS

The frequencies normally used for high-frequency carrier transmission range from 30 kHz to 500 kHz. The purpose of the
line trap is to block specific frequency bands within this frequency range. Certain characteristic values such as
impedance or resistive component of the impedance must remain above a given minimum value within a specified
bandwidth.

6.1 Resistive Component

The main component of the high-frequency characteristics of a line trap is the resistive part of the impedance, also called
the resistive impedance. This value is inherent to the line trap. In contrast, attenuation or tapping loss values always
represent a comparison.

The main advantage and reason for using the resistive component, as a basis for evaluation is the fact that this value
indicates the lowest line trap impedance under any operating condition, including the presence of a full or partial series
resonance. If a sufficient high ohmic component is attained, the problem of series resonance is eliminated in carrier
transmissions. The possibility of excluding the occurrence of series resonance is of particular importance. In its tuned
frequency range, each line trap has inductive and capacitive components. Each reactive component of the line trap
impedance can be compensated by the corresponding component of the substation or of the network impedance. The
series connection of the two impedances then forms a series resonant circuit whose inherent frequency can be any
carrier frequency. In this case, and in the lack of a sufficient resistive component of the line trap impedance, almost the
entire high-frequency energy is discharged, a phenomenon which will have adverse effects on carrier transmissions. To
prevent this occurrence, the line traps are delivered with suitable tuning devices so that the line trap impedance will
always include the necessary resistive component in each specified frequency range.

6.2 Attenuation Modes

The evaluation of line traps based on tapping loss and blocking attenuation must be mentioned. This involves a
comparison of the line trap impedance at a specific frequency with the impedance of the network as viewed from the line
trap installation site.

Depending on the standards applied, the line impedance (characteristic impedance) is assumed to be between 300 and
600 ohms (400 ohms in the case of phase-to-ground coupling and 600 ohms for phase-to-phase coupling), providing a
uniform basis for comparison purposes. The tapping (insertion) loss, At, and the blocking attenuation, Ab, are distinct
parameters to measure the line trap efficiency. Both values are derived from a voltage ration and are expressed either in
nepers or in decibels and can be obtained from the following formulas:-

 ZL 
A t = ln 1 +  Np
 2.Z 
eq. 30-1.1
 ZL 
= 8,7.ln 1 +  dB
 2.Z 
and

 Z 
A b = ln 1 +  Np

 2.Z 1 
eq. 30-1.2
 Z 
= 8,7.ln
 1 + 2.Z  dB
 1 

where:-

At= tapping loss

ZL= line impedance (Ω)

Z= line trap impedance (Ω)

Ab= blocking attenuation

Z1= network impedance (normally 400 Ω for single-phase coupling and 300 Ω for two-phase coupling)

1 Np= 8.7 dB

6.3 High-frequency Characteristics of the Main Coil

The open, air-insulated, single-layer design of the main coil results in small inherent capacitances of 30 to 100 pF,
depending on the size of the line traps, and features very high self-resonance frequencies.

Furthermore, the specific value of these inherent capacitances is practically constant due to the small production
tolerances in terms of coil diameter and winding distance. When using AREVA line traps, it is possible to exchange a
tuning device in the event of a frequency range alteration without removing the main coil from the line.

6.4 Line Traps with Single-frequency Tuning

When a capacitor is connected in parallel to a relatively low inductance, the result is a resonant circuit with a high
impedance Z at the resonance frequency, fr. The circuit has a very selective operating bandwidth. This tuning device
offers a very low resistive component of the impedance at the bandwidth limits but in turn, delivers a very high blocking
impedance at the resonance frequency (sample of response curve shown in Figure 30-1.6).

Figure 30-1.6: Sample Response Curve of Single-Frequency Tuning.

The desired minimum resistive component of the impedance is obtained by damping the parallel resonant circuit, i.e. by
adding a resistor in series with the tuning capacitor. The minimum resistive component of the blocking impedance in the
single-frequency tuning mode is obtained using the following formulas:-

Rmin = k.π.L.
 f2 .f1  Ω
 eq. 30-1.3
 f2 - f1 

 f2 .f1 
2 .k.π.L.
Zmin =  Ω eq. 30-1.4
 f2 - f1 
where:-

fr = f2 .f1 eq. 30-1.5

f1 = lower band frequency limit

f2 = upper band frequency limit

k is determined from the Table 30-1.1 below (intermediate values of fr can be interpolated).

Table 30-1.1: Values of Factor k vs. Frequency (fr)

fr (kHz) Factor k
20 0,75
25 0,76
30 0,77
35 0,78
40 0,79
50 0,82
60 0,85
70 0,87
80 0,88
90 0,89
≥100 0,90

6.5 Line Traps with Wide Band Tuning

At a same geometric mean (fr), the main coil provides twice the bandwidth of an equivalent single-frequency tuning
device. The minimum resistive component occurs at the limits and in the center of the blocked bandwidth (sample of
response curve shown in Figure 30-1.7).

Figure 30-1.7: Sample Response Curve of Wide Band Tuning.

The minimum resistive component of the blocking impedance and the minimum impedance in the wide band tuning
mode are obtained using the following formulas:

Rmin = k.2.π.L.
 f2 .f1  Ω
 eq. 30-1.6
 f2 - f1 

 f2 .f1  Ω
2 .k.2.π.L.
Zmin =  eq. 30-1.7
 f2 - f1 
where k is determined from the same table as for single-frequency tuning.

Note: Increased bandwidths can be obtained by use of a special wide band tuning circuit as illustrated in Figure 30-1.8.

Figure 30-1.8: Sample Response Curve of a Special Wide Band Tuning Circuit.

6.6 Line Traps For Double-Frequency Tuning

Double-frequency tuning devices can be used to block two non-adjacent frequencies (sample of response curve shown
in Figure 9).

Figure 30-1.9: Sample Response Curve of Double-Frequency Tuning.

6.7 Line traps with Wide Band Tuning

6.7.1 Field-Adjustable Tuning Devices

Field-adjustable tuning devices can be single frequency, double-frequency or wide-band tuned. This kind of tuning is
considered when there is a need to modify the frequency range of the line trap after its installation on the site.

6.7.2 Parameters Required for Inquiry

• Rated inductance

• Rated current

• Rated power frequency

• System voltage

• Rated short-circuit current

• Tuning device type

• Tuning range

• Minimum blocking impedance or resistance

• Mounting requirements

• Terminal arrangement

• Installation conditions (e.g. seismic requirements, wind speed, ambient temperature if over 45°C, operating altitude
if more than 1000 m above sea level)

Table 30-1.2: Line Traps According to IEC Standard

SLDG 31-1

COUPLING CAPACITORS

The coupling capacitors will be discussed before the line tuners since they play a large part in the response of the line
tuner. In fact the coupling capacitor is used as part of the tuning circuit. The coupling capacitor is the device which
provides a low impedance path for the carrier energy to the high voltage line, and at the same time blocks the power
frequency current by being a high impedance path at those frequencies. It can only perform its function of dropping line
voltage across its capacitance if the low voltage end is at ground potential. Since it is desirable to connect the line tuner
output to this low voltage point a device must be used to provide a high impedance path to ground for the carrier signal
and a low impedance path for the power frequency current. This device is an inductor and is called a drain coil. The
coupling capacitor and drain coil circuit are shown in Figure 31-1.1.

Figure 31-1.1: Coupling Capacitor & Drain Coil Combination

It is desirable to have the coupling capacitor value as large as possible in order to lower the loss of carrier energy and
keep the bandwidth of the coupling system as wide as possible. However, due to the high voltage that must be handled
and financial budget limitations, the coupling capacitor values are not as high as one might desire. Technology has
enabled suppliers to continually increase the capacitance of the coupling capacitor for the same price thus improving
performance. Depending on line voltage and capacitor type, the capacitance values in use range from 0,001µF to .05 µF.

SLDG 32 - 1

ZINC OXIDE (ZnO) SURGE ARRESTER APPLICATION GUIDE

1. GENERAL

Insulation co-ordination (which shall only be briefly referred to in this information) is the art and science of choosing the
right insulation strength of electrical apparatus, taking into account normal and abnormal service conditions as well as
the characteristics and location of suitable surge arresters.

Surge arresters provide the primary protection against over-voltage caused by external sources (e.g. lightning) and by
system disturbances (e.g. switching). It is important, therefore, that such vital equipment is carefully and correctly
chosen. This information is an attempt to guide the user in easy steps to choose economically and technically
acceptable arresters for general applications.

Special applications and special systems (like HVDC) and equipment (like capacitor banks) demand a more detailed
approach that is not presented here. Instead, reference is made to suitable ASEA publications.

Since the majority of surge arrester manufacturers have already switched completely to gapless metal-oxide (ZnO)
arresters, this guide is limited to the selection of such arresters only.

1.1 Introduction

Lightning or switching surges result in over-voltages in a substation. If these over-voltages exceed the insulation level
(BIL), the equipment could be damaged.

Over-voltage Without
Surge Protection

BIL

Protective
Margin
Voltage (kV)

Arrester
Protective
Level

Time (µs)
Figure 32-1.1: Over-voltage Limiting By Surge Arresters

Surge arresters limit these over-voltages to a safe level (lower than the BIL of the equipment) and thus protect the
equipment. The maximum voltage that the arrester transmits further is called the arrester protection level. The
difference between the BIL of the equipment and protection level is the protective margin.

Protective Margin = BIL – Arrester Protective Level eq. 32-1.1

An important parameter of the surge arresters is their capability to survive temporary over-voltages and other system
disturbances. The choice of surge arresters is often a compromise between the low protective level and high over-
voltage capability.

1.2 Description of ZnO Arresters

The ASEA arresters use zinc oxide blocks as the only active arrester elements. No gaps are necessary, resulting in a
simple and reliable design. The arresters are built up of series-connected zinc oxide blocks. For high energy
requirements, parallel columns can be used. In versions with parallel columns, the blocks are carefully matched to
ensure uniform current sharing during discharges.

A ZnO block is a dense ceramic body. It consists mainly of ZnO and small amounts of other metal oxides such as
bismuth, cobalt, antimony and manganese oxide.

Figure 32-1.2: An Arrester in Cross-Section

The ZnO block has an extremely non-linear current-voltage characteristic and an excellent energy absorption capability.

400
300
200 ZnO
o
150

Voltage (V/mm)
o
100
100 25
o
80 Capacitive
60 Leakage
Current
40

20
-9 -8 -7 -6
-5 -4 -3 -2 +1 +2
10 10 10 1010 10 10 10 10-1 1 10 10
2
Current (A.mm )
Figure 32-1.3: ZnO Arrester Current-Voltage Characteristics

Figure 32-1.3 shows the current-voltage characteristics for a typical ASEA zinc oxide arrester. The protective level is
determined by the high current range (1 to 20 kA) and the over-voltage capability by low current range (less than one
ampere).

1.3 Important Arresters and Systems Parameters

1.3.1 Rated Voltage

The rated voltage of an arrester is the power frequency voltage that can be applied for a limited time after the arrester
has absorbed a large amount of energy as established in the operating duty tests. The rated voltage is used as a
reference parameter for the specification of operating characteristics.

1.3.2 Continuous Operating Voltage (COV)

The COV (often called the maximum continuous operating voltage - MCOV) is the maximum permissible rms value of
power frequency voltage that may be applied continuously between the terminals of the arresters.

1.3.3 Temporary Over-Voltage (TOV) Capability

An arrester must be selected with a high enough rated voltage to withstand temporary over-voltages which may be
produced by various occurrences on the system. The most common event causing a temporary over-voltage is a
single-line-to-earth fault.

1.3.4 Lightning Impulse Withstand Level (LIWL)

The equipment insulation withstand voltage when subjected to a voltage wave of 1,2/50 microsecond.

1.3.5 Switching Impulse Withstand Level (SIWL)

The equipment insulation withstand test voltage when subjected to a 250/2500 microsecond voltage wave with a front
time longer than 30 milliseconds.

1.3.6 Basic Impulse Level (BIL)

A general term for the equipment insulation withstand

1.3.7 Protective Level, Discharge Voltage, Residual Voltage

The maximum arrester voltage at a given impulse current through the arrester

1.3.8 Energy Capability

The ability of the arrester to dissipate a given amount of energy (in watt.seconds or joules) without damaging itself

1.3.9 Pressure Relief Capability

The ability of the arrester to conduct short circuit current, in the event of its failure, without violent disintegration of the
arrester

1.3.10 Protective Margin (%)

Equipment Insulation Withstand − Arrester Residual Voltage

. 100 eq. 32-1.2
Arrester Residual Voltage

Note: Protective margins for different impulse current wave shapes and amplitudes are generally different.

1.3.11 Type Designation

The maximum system voltage, creepage distances required for different pollution’s levels and rated voltage of the
arrester are used to characterise the ASEA/ABB’s surge arrester. An example of a standard type designation is given
below:-

XAR 145 A 3 120

Arrester Type

Recommended System Voltage

/Phase-Phase

Generation

Creepage Distance
(1 – Light, 2 – Medium,
3 – Heavy Pollution)

Rated Voltage

2. MATCHING THE ARRESTERS TO CONTINUOUS AND TEMPORARY SYSTEM VOLTAGE CONDITIONS

2.1 General

Selecting the proper rated voltage of an arrester is a compromise between protective level and over-voltage capability.
Increasing the rated voltage increases the capability of the arrester to survive temporary over-voltage, but reduces the
margin of protection provided by the arrester for a given insulation level.

The possibility of choosing a lower rated voltage depends on how well the system parameters are known for the specific
application. The greater the knowledge one has about earthing conditions and temporary over-voltages, the lower the
rated voltage which can be chosen. On the other hand, if uncertainty exists for the application, one should bear in mind
that too low an arrester rated voltage could increase the number of arrester failures. Therefore, one should be very
careful while selecting the minimum permissible arrester rated voltage.

Since the continuous operating voltage of the arrester depends on the method of it’s connection in the system, it must
be clear that the rated voltage for an arrester connected phase-phase cannot be the same as that for an arrester
connected phase-earth at the same location.

The most common connection is between phase-earth in a three-phase system, but cases of phase-phase and neutral-
earth connections are not uncommon.

The purpose of the chapter is to help simplify the selection of the arrester rated voltage, using a systematic step-by-step
approach.

Step 1. Obtain System Parameters.

Step 2. Check for Abnormal Operating Conditions

Step 3. Select the Rated Voltage.

2.2 Step 1. Obtain System Parameters

2.2.1 The Highest System Voltage

The highest system voltage (or the maximum system operating voltage) is normally 5 - 10 % higher than the nominal
system voltage. The highest system voltage is used as the base to calculate the continuous operating voltage (COV).

2.2.2 Conditions During Earth Faults

The amplitude and duration of the most commonly expected TOV in the system are normally determined by a single
line-to-ground fault and the time it takes to remove it. Therefore, rated voltage of the arrester will be different,
depending on the grounding conditions and the protection scheme.

7
1,73

6
Over-voltage, p.u.
5
1,6
4

3
1,5

2
1,4

1
1,25

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
X2 = X1 R2 = R1 = 0 X0/X1
Figure 32-1.4: Maximum Healthy Phase Line-To-Earth Voltage at Fault Location for Directly Grounded System
under One Line-To-Earth Fault.

When the system parameters are known, the healthy phase voltage rise can be found from Figure 32-1.4.

2.2.2.1 Directly Earthed Systems

At earth fault, for a directly earthed system, the healthy phase voltage can rise up to 80 % of the phase-to-phase voltage
(which is the same as 1,4 times the phase-to-earth voltage). The duration of the earth fault is determined by the time
required for the breaker to clear the fault. In the worst case it will take up to 3 seconds for transmission systems and up
to 10 seconds for distribution systems, (a conservative assumption).

2.2.2.2 Unearthed Systems or Resonance Earthed Systems.

For these systems, the healthy phase voltage can rise up to 100 % of the line voltage (which is the same as 1,73 times
the phase-to-earth voltage), see Figure 32-1.5. The duration for a single line to ground fault may vary from a few
seconds to a few days.

2.2.3 Other Temporary Over-voltages.

Generally, only the power frequency TOV arising at earth faults, are of interest. Certain network configurations,
however, can give over-voltages with frequencies above or below the normal power frequency (resonance over-
voltages). Non-simultaneous operation of breakers in one or two phases can also give resonance over-voltages. These
are, however, so special that they need not be considered in normal cases, specially for systems under 400 kV.

Temporary over-voltages are one of the most important criteria for selection of the rated voltage of arresters, and thus
the protection levels offered.

2.3 Step 2. Check for Abnormal Operating Conditions

2.3.1 Changes in Earth-fault Factors

In some cases, efforts are made to reduce the earth fault current of the system by selectively earthing a few transformer
neutrals, while at the same time assuring that the net is effectively earthed. However, in the event that one or more of
the earthed transformers are temporary disconnected, some areas of the net may become a non-directly earthed
system with consequent increase in the earth fault factor.

2.3.2 Combined Load Rejection and Earth-faults

If during a load rejection an earth-fault is encountered, the voltages of the healthy sound phases tent to rise further than
they would if either occurred singly.

2.4 Step 3. Select the Rated Voltage

2.4.1 Determine Continuous Operating Voltage (COV)

Depending on the location of an arrester, the COV is noted. For example, for an arrester connected phase-earth in a
three phase system, the COV is the maximum system voltage Um divided by 3 .

Um
COV = eq. 32-1.3
3

2.4.2 Select a Preliminary Rated Voltage (Ro) Based on COV

COV
Ro = eq. 32-1.4
Ko

where:-

Ko = Design factor
= 0,8 for ASEA arresters

2.4.3 Determine Temporary Over-voltage (TOV) at Earth Fault

TOVE = KE . COV eq. 32-1.5

where:-

KE = Earth fault factor 0,8 for Max 1,4 for directly earthed systems
= Normally 1,73 for systems not directly earthed

Multiple of Rated Voltage (r.m.s.)

1,3

1,2

1,1

1,0

0,9

COV
0,8

2 3 4 5
0,1 0,5 1 5 10 10 10 10 10

A: Phase-earth arrester with a maximum permissible switching surge stress

B: Phase-earth arrester with no switching surge stress (0 kJ/kV)

Figure 32-1.5: TOV Capability for Surge Arresters Type XAR-A. (Note Only Used for Systems Up to 170 kV).

2.4.4 Select a Preliminary Rated Voltage (RE) Based on TOVE

TOVE
RE = eq. 32-1.6
KT

where:-

KE = Arresters TOV capability expressed as a multiple of rated

See Figure 32-1.5, 32-1.6 and Table 32-1.1.

1,3
B
A
1,2

Multiple of Rated Voltage (rms)

1,1

1,0

0,9
C
0,8

0,1 0,51 5 10 102 103 104

Time (s)

A: Phase-earth arrester with a maximum permissible switching surge stress

B: Phase-earth arrester with no switching surge stress (0 kJ/kV)

Figure 32-1.6: TOV Capability for Arrester Type XAP and XAQ.

It may be noted that the TOV capability depends also on the proceeding energy consumption and the applied service
voltage after the over-voltage. The influence of these parameters can be seen in Figure 32-1.5, 32-1.6 and Table 32-
1.1. A conservative approach is to use the curve ‘A’ in Figure 32-1.6. The current drawn through the arrester at rated
voltage, varies between different manufacturer designs. Consequently the temporary over-voltage curves also vary
slightly, and a choice of rated voltage from one manufacturer may not be appropriate for another one.

For the reader’s convenience, the factor KT is also expressed in figures in the Table 32-1.1 below.

Table 32-1.1: TOV Capability for ASEA Arrester

Duration of XAQ and XAP XAR

over-voltage Multiple of Rated Voltage (KT) Multiple of rated voltage (KT)
in seconds A B A B
0,1 1,22 1,25 1,15 1,22
0,3 1,19 1,21 1,12 1,16
0,5 1,17 1,20 1,11 1,14
1,0 1,16 1,18 1,10 1,12
3,0 1,13 1,15 1,08 1,09
5,0 1,11 1,14 1,07 1,08
10,0 1,09 1,12 1,06 1,07
30,0 1,06 1,10 1,04 1,06
50,0 1,05 1,09 1,03 1,05
100,0 1,03 1,07 1,02 1,04
300,0 1,01 1,05 1,00 1,02
500,0 0,99 1,04 0,99 1,01
1 000,0 0,98 1,02 0,98 1,00
3 000,0 0,95 0,99 0,97 0,98

Caution: The TOV curves of some manufacturers are expressed as multiples of COV. For comparison the above
figures must then be multiplied suitably.

2.4.5 Determine Other TOVs and Select Additional Preliminary Rated Voltages

Similarly, where other TOVs are known (e.g. TOV1, TOV2, TOVN), or can be guessed at, rated voltages which will accept
such TOVs should be calculated in the same manner. (In cases where the TOV amplitude changes with duration,
estimate or calculate the TOV amplitude for one assumed constant time interval).

TOV1 TOV2 TOVN

R1 = ,R2 = ,RN = eq. 32-1.7
KT KT KT

2.4.6 Select final arrester rated voltage

The rated voltage finally selected, should be the highest of RO, RE, R1, RN. If this value is a non standard rating, select
the next highest standard rated voltage from the Buyers Guide.

2.5 Selectable Table

For the most common system voltages, ASEA recommends the following arrester rated voltages. See Table 32-1.2,
based on the following assumptions.

2.5.1 Directly Earthed Systems

Assumptions:-

• Earth fault factor = 1,4

• Duration of earth fault = 1 sec

• Arrester warm after a prior duty equal to its maximum energy.

• 10 % extra margin for systems below 100 kV and a 5 % extra margin for systems above 100 kV. This takes into
account the uncertainty in evaluation of many factors which are generally not studied, especially for lower system
voltages

• Note that other TOVs that arise especially in EHV voltage systems, are not taken into account here. For such
systems, calculate the rated voltage as in 2.3.5.

2.5.2 Unearthed Systems or Resonance Earthed Systems

Assumptions:-

• Earth fault factor 1,73

• Duration 10s, and 2 hours

• Arrester warm after a prior duty equal to its maximum energy.

2.6 Recommended Rated Voltage for ABB Arresters

Table 32-1.2: Recommended Rated Voltage for ABB Arresters

Max. System Direct Earthed Non Directly-Earthed Systems (kV)

Voltage Systems Fault Clearing Time
(kV) (kV) 10s 2 hours
4 4 4 6
7 6 9 9
12 12 12 15
18 15 18 21
24 21 24 27
36 30 33 (36) 42
45 36 42 (48) 54
52 42 48 (54) 60
60 48 54 (60) 66
72 60 66 (72) 84
84 66 84 96
100 75 96 120
123 96 120 144
145 120 132 (144) 162
170 132 162 192
245 192
300 228
362 276
420 330
550 420

Note: XAR and XBE have a lower TOV-capability for some system voltages, they therefore require higher
recommended arrester rated voltages. These values are in parentheses.

3. PROTECTION PHILOSOPHY

3.1 Introduction

The over-voltage protection of a substation is not only a question of which arresters to choose. For protection against
close lightning surges, it is even more important to install the arresters in the most efficient way. By means of
oscillograms from different calculations, the importance of short leads between the arresters and the object being
protected can be seen. Further, they show the great benefit of additional arresters on the incoming lines outside the line
breaker.

The possible reduction in insulation levels using improved surge arresters has become even more obvious with the
introduction of ZnO arresters. However, this will require a closer look at the actual installations and the arrester
locations in the substations. Arresters on the incoming lines as well as at the transformer may be a necessary.

3.2 Co-ordinating Currents

3.2.1 LIWL Co-ordination

It is often difficult to calculate the arrester current, especially those caused by lightning. Therefore, rough estimations
are mostly used. The fairly small variation in discharge voltage with current wave-shape and amplitude makes this
estimation less critical with ZnO arresters. More careful investigations have shown that using the 10 kA discharge
voltage will cover most of the applications. Very close lightning strokes may cause steeper currents or higher
amplitudes which, in a practical insulation co-ordination study, can be considered by adding 10 % to the 10 kA residual
voltage.

For protection of long cables with arresters only at one end, 20 kA current has to be considered.

3.2.2 SIWL Co-ordination

Until now, the switching surges have determined the insulation dimensioning at the EHV voltages. With ZnO arresters,
the switching surge protective level becomes so low that lightning (or pollution performance) will be the limiting factor for
the insulation co-ordination. However, for 400 kV and above, switching surges still play an important role.

The switching surges produce low current amplitudes (with maximum values ranging from 0,5 kA at medium voltages to
approximately 2 kA at EHV) through the surge arresters.

Table 32-1.3: Switching Surge Current Amplitudes

System Voltage Maximum Current

(kV) (kA)
< 145 0,5
145 - 362 1
525 - 800 2

This is also in accordance with the new IEC stipulations.

3.3 Protective Margins

The difference between the electrical withstand of the insulation and the protective level of the arrester is the protective
margin.

The protective level and the electrical withstand of the insulation changes depending on the steepness, duration and
amplitude of the applied impulse. The protective margin has to be fairly large, especially if only one set of arresters is
used inside the substation. A better solution is to also employ arresters on the incoming side of a line.

3.4 Protective Distances

One might as well ask why a high protective margin is required. The answer is that the calculated protective margins
are only valid if the arrester is directly mounted on the protected object. When there is a distance between arrester and
object, then the protected object will be subjected to a higher over-voltage as can be seen in Figure 32-1.7.

U1 U2

Figure 32-1.7: Voltage Increase Due To Distance Effect (Simplified Method)

The voltage stress on the protected object, U2 will be given by:-

2.s.l
U2 = U1 + eq. 32-1.8
v

where:-

U1 = Residual voltage of the arrester

s = Steepness of the incoming wave (kV / µs)
ℓ = Distance (m) between arrester and object including leads
v = Velocity of wave propagation (m / µs) (app. equal to velocity of light for overhead line)

The margin will therefore drastically decrease with increased separation distances. The distance effect depends also
very much on the steepness of the incoming wave, which is related to how close the lightning strikes the substation.

Example:

Let us assume a transformer on a 132 kV system voltage, 650 kV BIL protected by an arrester, type XAP-A, rated
voltage 120 kV, and that the arrester is located 25 m from the transformer.

Assume:-

v = 300 m / µs

s = 1000 kV / µs

U1 = 276 kV (from tables)

From eq.32-1.8:-

2 . 1000 . 25
U2 = 276 +
300
= 443kV

The voltage at the transformer will be 443 kV.

650 − 443
The protective margin = .100
443

= 47 % which is adequate

SLDG 32-2 provides a schedule of protective distances for transformers.

3.5 Extremely Close Lightning Strokes

Regarding very close lightning strokes it is more important to consider the exact arrester installation and earthing
resistance. Especially the arrester connection leads and the distance to the protected object may rarely reduce the
protection. For more information please refer to ASEA paper “Zinc Oxide Arrester and their installation in substations”

40
Voltage

8 20 µS
30

Switch = 36 60 µS
20

0,1 1 3 10 40 10
5
0
Current (kA)

Figure 32-1.8: Protective Characteristics for XAR (Multiple of Rated Voltage)

40
Voltage

8 20 µS
30

Switch = 36 60 µS
20

0,1 1 3 5 10 40 100
Current (kA)

Figure 32-1.9: Protective Characteristics for XAQ (Multiple of Rated Voltage)

Voltage
8 20 µS
30

20
Switch = 36 60 µS

0,1 1 3 5 10 40 100
Current (kA)
Figure 32-1.10: Protective Characteristics for XAP-A and C (Multiple of Rated Voltage)

40
Voltage

8 20 µS
30

20
Switch = 36 60 µS

0,1 1 3 5 10 40 10
Current (kA)

Figure 32-1.11: Protective Characteristics for XAP-B (Multiple of Rated Voltage)

4. ENERGY WITHSTAND CAPABILITY

4.1 General

The case mainly considered is the determination of surge arrester stresses due to switching at re-closing against a
trapped charge on the line and with the surge arrester installed at the open far end. This case could originate from fast
re-closing and/or breaker re-strike.

In Figure 32-1.12, the situation is illustrated for a single phase line. The breaker is assumed to be closed at positive
crest value of the power frequency voltage.

Surge Impedance (Z)

Z Transmission Line Travel Time (t)

Surge
~ 1 pu - 1 pu Arrester

Figure 32-1.12: Simple Single-Phase Model.

Main case to determine arrester stresses due to switching.

If the surge travel time of the line is short compared with one cycle of power frequency and Z represents a low
impedance, the current through the surge arrester will have a rectangular shape with a duration equal to 2 times the
travel time of the line. The current amplitude could be determined by the diagram in Figure 32-1.13.

Uov
Uc
Voltage

Ia Uov/Z
Current

Figure 32-1.13: Load Diagram

where:-

Uov = Prospective Over-voltage

Z = Line Surge Impedance
Uc = Protective Characteristic of Surge Arrester
Ia = Surge Arrester Current
Ua = Surge Arrester Voltage

In a real single or three-phase case, the arrester current may not look like a pure rectangular wave. The source
impedance, Z, will affect the voltage wave imposed on the line at breaker closing, the wave will be distorted during its
travel along the line, return waves will cause reflection at the sending end and for multiphase lines the phases will
interact.

However, the simple single-phase model can in many cases be useful. To avoid expensive computer or TNA studies,
the simplified method as a first attempt could be applied to estimate arrester stresses due to switching. If these
calculations reveal high energies and the need for more qualified surge arresters than first had been considered, a more
accurate study could be justified.

Different types and makes of arresters could also easily be compared when high accuracy in absolute calculated
stresses is not required.

4.2 Step 1. Determine Switching Parameters

In order to use the simplified method the parameters in Figure 32-1.13 must in some way be determined.

Typical values for different system voltages are given in Table 32-1.4.

Table 32-1.4: System Voltage vs. Surge Impedance and Prospective Over-voltage

System Voltages Surge Impedance Prospective Over-voltage Without Surge Arrester

(kV) Z (ohm) Uov (p.u.)
< 145 450 2,6
145 - 345 400 2,6
362 - 525 350 2,0
765 300 2,0

The prospective over-voltage Uov depends on matters like the location of arresters, type of operation, pre-insertion
resistors, the feeding network and the parallel compensation. For more information see ASEA paper “Energy discharge
capability due to switching”.

4.3 Step 2. Calculate the Arrester Energy

Using the prospective over-voltage Uov, the surge impedance Z, the travel time T which is line length divided by the
velocity of wave propagation, the number of consecutive discharges without cooling n, and the protective level Up at co-
ordination current according, the energy W which the arrester has to discharge could be written as:-

(Uov − Up)
W = . Up . 2 . T . n eq. 32-1.9
Z

As seen, the energy depends on arrester protective level Up. This means that a higher protective level of the arrester
will reduce the energy requirement in kJ / kV rated voltage.

4.4 Step 3. Select an Arrester with Adequate Energy Capability

The energy capability of the arrester is a function of the total volume of the ZnO blocks. ASEA manufacturers a block
with three different diameters, and for higher energy requirements uses the largest blocks in parallel. See Table 32-1.5.

Table 32-1.5 shows energy capability for different types of ASEA arrester.

Table 32-1.5: Energy Capability for Various Types of Arresters

Arrester type Energy capability in kJ / kV rated voltage

XAR 2,5
XAQ 4,5
XAP-A and C 7
XAP-B 13

If the chosen arresters energy capability is not adequate, increase the rated voltage of the arrester. If that is not
possible, select another type with higher energy capability.

Arresters with still higher rated energy capability are quoted on request.

Caution: When comparing energy capability of these arresters with arresters of other makes, where the specific
energy figures relate to COV instead of to rated voltage, the above values should be suitably multiplied.

4.5 Step 4. Check Capability With Respect To Lightning Energy

At lower system voltages (below 200 kV) the energy due to switching will usually be low. The necessary energy
capability of the arrester will then be determined by lightning surges. The lower the system voltage, the less effort is
normally spent on grounding and shielding, thereby increasing the lightning surge stresses on the arresters.

The energy capability for lightning surges is verified in the high current test with wave-shape 4/10 µs, amplitude 100 or
65 kA; two shots.

This wave subjects the arrester to a high energy during a very short period of time. The energy discharged in the
arrester during this test can be used as a conservative estimate for the arrester energy capability due to lightning,
although the wave-shape will be different (normally longer duration). Discharge of this magnitude will occur with a
relatively low probability.

An arrester with a larger ZnO-block diameter will withstand the lightning surges better for two reasons:-

a) The current density will be lower

b) The discharge voltage will be lower, consequently also the discharged energy

For this reason it is advantageous to choose an arrester with larger diameter blocks (and consequently a higher
discharge capability) for:-

• areas with high lightning intensity

• important installations

• where grounding or shielding conditions are incomplete.

This means that ASEA arrester type XAQ (and in some cases even XAP) should be used instead of XAR.

5. MATCHING MECHANICAL CHARACTERISTICS

5.1 Temperature

o o
The arresters are designed for a mean ambient temperature ranging from - 50 C to +45 C. Temporary increases up to
o
+60 C are permissible.

For applications at lower temperatures than above, the arresters sealing system has to be specially made. ABB has to
be consulted.

For application with higher mean temperatures than specified above (for example arresters located inside the
transformer), the arresters rated energy has to be reduced. ABB has to be consulted.

5.2 Ice

Heavy ice will increase the terminal loading.

5.3 Wind

Heavy wind will increase the horizontal load on the arresters. Generally a wind velocity less the 100 km/h is no problem.
The wind force on the surface is calculated according to Hüttel:-

φ.a
Wind force = P . L.φ eq. 32-1.10

where:-

P = Force, see Figure 31-1.14

L = Height of the arrester
φ = Mean outside diameter
a = Correction factor, see Figure 32-1.15

60
Wind Velocity (m/s)

10 10
2
Force (kp/m )

Figure 14: The Force as a Function of the Wind Velocity.

L
The bending movement = . wind force eq. 32-1.11
2

2 4 6 8 10 12 14
L/φ
φ
Figure 15: The Correction Factor “A” As A Function Of The Relation L/φ

5.4 Earthquake

For areas with high seismic risks, the arresters seismic withstand capability should be verified. See ABB paper
“Earthquake Design of ABB ZnO Surge Arrester”.

5.5 Determine Adequate Porcelain Strengths

Table 32-1.6: Porcelain Strengths for Various Types of Arresters

Cantilever Strength (Nm)

Type Guaranteed bending moment Typical failing bending
moment
XAR 4A3-24 A3 1 000 2 000
XAR 36 A3-170 A3 2 000 3 000
XAQ 4 A3-24 A3 1 000 2 000
XAQ 4 B3-24 B2 2 000 3 000
XAQ 36 A3-362 A2 4 000 7 000
XAP 36 A3-362 A2 4 000 7 000
XAP 123 C2-550 C2 12 500 20 000
XAP 550 B3 16 500 25 000
XAP 800 B2 35 000 40 000

Note: Terminal loading can usually be reduced to acceptable values by use of lighter tee-offs and clamps.
Note that arresters are not continuous carrying equipment.

5.6 Determine Pressure Relief Capability

The arrester should be selected with correct pressure relief capability so that its porcelain will meet the standard
requirements i.e. will not explode violently (even though it may shatter) in the event of an arrester failure.

If the short time withstand current is not specified, it can be calculated by using the formula:-

Pk
Ith = eq. 32-2.11
3 .Un

where:-

Pk = Fault level in MVA at the point where the arrester is to be installed. If Pk is not known, the breaking
capacity of the associated breaker can be used as a guide
Un = Nominal service voltage (line-to-line) in kV

Check the arresters pressure relief capability from Table 32-1.7.

Table 32-1.7: Pressure Relief Capability for Various Types of Arresters

Type Short Circuit Current (kA) (ANSI or IEC)

XAR 4 A3-24 A3 65
XAR 36 A3-123 A3 40
XAR 100 A3, 123 A2, 145 A1 25
XAR 145 A2-170 A3 40
XAQ 4 A3-24 A3 65
XAQ 36 A3-362 A2 40
XAP A 40 and 65
XAP-B and XAP-C 65

5.8 Creepage Distances

A simple rule for gapless arresters is to employ the same creepage distance length across it, as is given across the
other equipment in the station.

The Figures 1, 2 or 3 in the type designation of ASEA arresters as illustrated under paragraph 1.3.11 (e.g. XAP 145 A2 /
xxx), corresponds to the level of I, II and III respectively according to IEC as per Table 32-1.8 here below.

Table 32-1.8: Pollution Level vs. Creepage Distance

Pollution level Creepage Distance (1)

Between Phase and Earth
mm / Phase-to-Phase kV (2)
I - Light 16
II - Medium 20
III - Heavy 25

(1) For the actual creepage distance, the specified manufacturing tolerances are applicable (see IEC standards).

(2) Voltage corresponding to the highest voltage for equipment (phase-to-phase).

Note 1: Nominal creepage distances lower than 16 mm / kV or higher than 25 mm / kV can be chosen depending on
service experience.

Note 2: In case of exceptional pollution severity, live-washing or greasing is acceptable provided the washing is carried
out by experienced operators using normally acceptable live-washing equipment and technique.

5.9 External Insulation of the Arrester

An arrester always protects its own external insulation. ANSI C 62.1 / 1981 stipulates that the external LIWL withstand
of the arrester need not to be greater than 20 % above the 20 kA discharge voltage plus a factor for altitude (10 % for
every thousand meters).

S.L.D.G. 32-2

Table 32-2: Schedule of Surge Arrester Protective Distances for Transformers

Protective Distances
System Voltage (kV) Maximum Distance For Transformer Bushing (L) (M)
11 On Transformer Tank*
22 On Transformer Tank*
33 3
44 5
66 6
88 6
132 7
220 14
275 18
400 24
765

Note: * 1. Can also be mounted on separate structure if employed in the auxiliary transformer bay

2. Mounted on tank mainly for Distribution transformer applications.

(L)

(L)
(L)
COL & BM

COL & BM
TRFR
SA

(PREFERRED
POSITION)

Figure32-2.1: Surge Arrester Maximum Protective Distances for Transformers

SLDG 33-1

POST INSULATORS

1. DEFINITIONS

Below are a few definitions relating to insulators that should be understood to understand some of the concepts.

1.1 Creepage Length

The creepage length is the shortest distance between two metallic end fittings of insulator along the surface of insulator.
In the string of insulators for creepage length calculation the metallic portion between two consecutive insulator discs is
not taken into account.

The corrugation below the insulator is for the purpose of obtaining longer creepage path between the end fitings. The
corrugation increases the creepage length so consequently increasing resistance to the insulator leakage
current. The magnitude of the leakage current that flows through the surface of insulators should be as small as possible.

The creepage distance required in clean air may be 16 mm/kV (line voltage), while in polluted air depending on the level
of pollution in the air, the required creepage distance needs to increase.

1.2 Flashover Distance

It is the shortest distance through air between the electrodes of the insulator.

1.3 Flashover Voltage

This is the voltage at which the air around insulator breaks down and flashover takes place shorting out the insulator.

1.4 Puncture Voltage

The voltage at which the insulator breaks down and current flows through the inside of insulator.

2. INTRODUCTION

The purpose of the insulator or insulation is to insulate the electrically charged part of any equipment or machine from
another charged part or uncharged metal part. At lower utilization voltage the insulation also completely covers the live
conductor and acts as a barrier and keeps the live conductors unreachable from human beings or animals. In case of the
high voltage overhead transmission and distribution the transmission towers or poles support the lines, and insulators are
used to insulate the live conductor from the transmission towers. The insulators used in transmission and distribution
system are also required to carry large tensional or compressive load.

Post-type insulators in substations are used to carry or support the bare flexible or tubular phase conductors. They need
to posses the necessary creepage distance between live parts and earth, and also withstand the electro-dynamic
stresses during short circuits

Here our brief discussion will be restricted to high voltage insulators used in substations.

The HV/EHV insulators are broadly divided into two types based on the material used. One is ceramic or porcelain and
the other is polymer (composite) insulator. These are discussed under paragraphs 3.1 and 3.2 respectively.

An insulator may fail due to excessive electrical stress, excessive thermal and mechanical stress or degradation due to
environmental chemical action of surface of the insulator. The electrical failure can happen between conductor and earth
through air or through the volume of insulating material. In one case due to excessive electric stress the insulator may fail
when a flashover takes place through the air between the conductor and structure. In another case, the insulator may be
punctured through the volume. The insulating materials say porcelain has high dielectric strength in comparison to air.
The insulators are designed so that it would flashover before it gets punctured. Failure due to flashover is generally

temporary and self restoring. However, failure due to insulation puncture is permanent and the insulator is damaged and
required to be replaced. An insulator which has internal defects like voids and impurities reduces the electrical strength of
the insulator.

The flashover may results in damage of insulator glaze which can be repaired. In polluted regions contaminants deposit
on the surface of the insulator that leads to a reduction of the flashover voltage of the insulator in wet conditions. For
example if the power frequency flashover voltage of a 33 kV insulator is 95 kV in dry conditions, then in wet conditions
the flashover voltage may be reduced to below 80 kV. Insulators are designed to withstand flashover voltage. In this
example you can observe that even in the wet conditions the flashover voltage (80 kV) is more than twice the insulator
working voltage (33 kV).

The other important electrical parameters of insulator are electromechanical failing load, lightning withstand voltage
and switching impulse withstand voltage etc. HV insulator requirements are based upon the creepage length. The
switching impulse withstand voltage is particularly more important in case of Extra High Voltage (more than 300 kV) and
Ultra High Voltage applications.

Insulators of different design are available for different applications some cases are outlined below. Traditionally ceramic
insulators of porcelain are used in both transmission and distribution stations. Now polymer or composite insulators are
increasingly used in high voltage transmission systems. The polymer insulators have a fibre shell surrounded by outer
sheath of some polymer. Due to the hydrophobic nature of the polymer insulator surface, dry areas are formed between
wet areas resulting in discontinuities in wet creepage path as shown in Figure 1 below.

Figure 33-1.1: Hydrophobic Surface of Insulators

This phenomenon helps improve the performance of the polymer insulator in polluted and coastal areas. The polymer
insulators have one great advantage that it is much lighter in comparison to porcelain insulators. However, it is reported
that the polymeric insulator surface degrades faster in comparison to porcelain insulator. One important disadvantage
with porcelain insulators is that the porcelain insulators can bear large compressive force but has a low tensional force
capacity. The porcelain insulators surface is hydrophilic in nature, which means affinity for water. Polymer insulators age
faster than ceramic insulators.

Post-type porcelain insulators are the weak points of high-voltage switchgear in the case of short-circuit loads. Whether a
device will be damaged due to a break of a post insulator depends (to a high degree) on the strength of the post insulator
as well as on the stress. The manufacturer guarantees for this strength a so-called minimum breaking load. This means
that the post insulator is able to withstand these loads during its life-time without reduction of service. For the user it is
important to know, whether the reliability is significantly reduced by the decreasing strength or the increasing stress.

Ceramic station post insulator ratings are specified in draft standard ANSI C29.19, “Solid Rod Fiberglass Insulators
(Apparatus Post Type)”. Non-ceramic station post insulators may not have the same electrical characteristics as ceramic

insulators of the same length. Compression ratings should be dependent on the compressive forces expected for the
installation and an insulator rated to be able to withstand these forces should be selected. Compression ratings are
generally determined by the ceramic insulator that is to be replaced.

Torsion ratings are a concern with switching applications. Combined load ratings should be considered and mounting
dimensions should be thoroughly reviewed. The manufacturer should be contacted for information on interchangeability.

3. INSULATOR MATERIAL AND MECHANICAL STRENGTH CHARACTERISTICS

Three basic materials are available, viz. porcelain, glass and polymeric composite, or even a combination of these
materials. Glass has essentially fallen out of favour as a material for post type insulators so it will not be discussed any
further.

In-service stresses on post insulators are mainly due to cantilever loads, (e.g. weight, wind force, seismic conditions,
short circuit loads). A few applications require compression strength (e.g. capacitors banks) or torsional strength (e.g.
rotating isolators) or tensile strength (e.g. under-hung post insulator). Cantilever strength is in direct relationship to the
core diameter. Thus, a high-strength insulator provides a higher strength-to-weight ratio. Advantages include a smaller
diameter, reduced quantity of and smaller sized fittings, and lighter post insulators with less visual impact. A high
strength one piece design allows for a reduction in the number of components on insulators comprised of multiple units.
The advantages provided by the reduction of additional fittings include increased strike distance/creep and less assembly
time.

3.1 Porcelain Station Post Insulators

Porcelain station post insulators are assemblages generally consisting of end fittings, bonding medium, and a porcelain
body. Whereas all of the components of the insulator can be sources of failure, the focus of most investigations is the
porcelain body.

Porcelain insulators are manufactured 1 to 3 standard deviations above the rated strength. They are coated with glaze,
approximately 7,62 mm thick to obtain the rated cantilever strength. Glaze has a higher coefficient of thermal expansion
and preloads the porcelain in compression. Compression strength of porcelain is much higher than tensile strength.
Typically porcelain post insulators have relatively good axial compression characteristics to the cantilever strength.
Accordingly, bending strength is normally a significant design parameter.

For bending strength, manufacturers specify a cantilever rating. The cantilever rating is the maximum horizontal load that
can be applied at the top of the insulator with the insulator base fixed. Manufacturers typically recommend multiplying the
cantilever rating by a strength resistance factor (fSR) of 0,4 for working or allowable loads. The moment capacity at
the base (MCB) of the insulator is equal to the product of the strength resistance factor, the cantilever force rating
(Fcant) and the insulator height (hI). The insulator height does not include the distance between the top of the insulator
and the centreline of the busbar conductor. Hence this needs to be included in the calculation.

MCB = FSR .Fcant .hI

= 0,4.6000.1 ,350 eq. 33-1.1

= 3240 N.m

Assuming a 200 mm tube supported in a clamp, adding 200 mm to the height of the insulator:-

hIT = hI + hT

= 1,35 + 0,2 eq. 33-1.2

= 1,55 m

For the same insulator, the moment at the base cannot change so the cantilever force exerted at the top of the insulator
that this arrangement can accommodate is:-

MCB
= Fcant
FSR .hI
3240
Fcant = (from eq. 33-1.1)
0,4.1,55
= 5226 N

The moment at the base due to the additional height is:-

MCB = FSR .Fcant .hI

= 0,4.6000.1,350 (from eq. 33-1.1)

= 3240 N.m

MCB
= Fcant
FSR .hI
3240
Fcant = (from eq. 33-1.1)
0,4.1,55
= 5226 N

The strength of insulator required for a working load of 6kN would be:-

Fcant
FPI =
FSR .hIT
6000
= (from eq. 33-1.1)
0,4.1,55
= 9677 N

The strength resistance factor of 0,4 should be increased to provide similar insulator sections between ultimate strength
and working strength (allowable stress) designs. A strength resistance factor of 0,5 is recommended for ultimate strength
design. This factor is 25% higher than the 0,4 strength resistance factor and, when used with recommended load factors,
should provide similar insulator selections.

3.2 Polymeric Composite Station Post Insulators

The materials that provide the structural strength in composite insulators are much different than from porcelain, but
more importantly, the failure mechanism for composite and porcelain insulators is different. Therefore, the design criteria
for composite stations post insulators are different from those of porcelain. The two major reasons for this are the
following:

3.2.1 Composite insulators are much more ductile than porcelain insulators

3.2.2 Composite insulators have a fibreglass shell and elastomer sheds. The strength is provided by the fibreglass
shell. Porcelain insulators have a porcelain core and porcelain sheds. The strength of porcelain is isotropic
(same in all directions), whereas composite’s strength depends on the orientation of the glass fibres in the
fibreglass. The glass fibres may be longitudinal or in a woven pattern.

Two major ratings are provided for composites. They are the Specified Mechanical Load (SML) and the Maximum
Mechanical Load (MML). For rigid busbar station post insulators, these ratings are based on a cantilever load. The SML
is the value used in conjunction with short-time ultimate loads. The MML is the value at which the fibreglass remains in
the elastic range and can sustain this value for long duration loads. Fifty percent of the SML is used for Allowable Stress

Design (ASD). Fifty percent of the SML value is used for Ultimate Stress Design (USD), with a strength resistance factor
of unity (1). Annex R of IEEE 693 (2005) provides additional information on composite insulators.

3.3 Anti-Pollution Type Composite Post Insulator With Porcelain Core

The inside of SPI insulators are completely filled with a special closed cell foam. This foam material is firmly bonded to
the inside of the tube. Its main purpose is to ensure the inner electrical strength and avoid water accumulation inside of
the tube during the lifetime of the product.

3.4 Anti-Pollution Type Composite Post Insulator With Porcelain Core

A composite post insulator with a porcelain core is consists of the porcelain core, polymeric sheds and metal end fittings
as shown in Figure 33-1.2 below. The inner insulation is made of high-strength porcelain by an isostatic pressing
processing technology and bears the whole mechanical load. Sheds are made of composite material and the raw
material is silicone rubber which is moulded onto the porcelain core using high-temperature injection technology. This
process guarantees the integrity of the insulation and necessary creepage distance, enhancing the composite post
insulator’s long-term and safety performance in the environment in which it is applied. An added benefit of the polymeric
covering around the porcelain core is that if the core breaks, the wrapping around porcelain core will hold it together and
minimise catastrophic failure.

Flange

Bitumen Paper Cushion

Portland Cement

Sand
Porcelain Core

HTV Silicon Rubber Sheath

Figure 33-1.2: Structure of Composite Post Insulator with Porcelain Core

4. ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS

The designer should give careful consideration to the environment in which the insulator will be placed. Environments of
particular concern include those prone to fog, salt spray, high humidity, airborne industrial contaminants, and aerially
applied agricultural fertilizers and sprays.

The designer should be confident that the insulator leakage distance is adequate for the specific application environment.
The leakage distance is the shortest path along the surface of the insulator between the metal end fittings. The required
leakage distance will vary with the type and amount of contamination present. In many cases, experience will determine
the leakage distance requirements for non-ceramic composite insulators. A guide that is generally used by utility
companies for the selection of insulators in polluted environments is IEC 60815, “Guide for the Selection of Insulators in
Respect of Polluted Conditions”. This guide defines pollution level categories for ceramic insulators. It is recommended

that this guide also be used when selecting non-ceramic insulators in polluted environments. The following tables from
IEC 60815 may be used to determine the required leakage distance for insulators in polluted environments.

Table 33-1.1: Pollution Levels for Typical Environments

Pollution Level Examples of Typical Environments

I – Light
• Areas without industries and with low density of houses equipped with heating plants

• Areas with low density of industries or houses but subjected to frequent winds and/or
rainfall

• Agricultural areas

• Mountainous areas

All these areas shall be situated at least 10 km to 20 km from the sea and shall not be
exposed to winds directly from the sea.

II – Medium • Areas with industries not producing particularly polluting smoke and/or with average
density of houses equipped with heating plants

• Areas with high density of houses and/or industries but subjected to frequent winds
and/or rainfall

• Areas exposed to wind from the sea but not too close to the coast (at least several
kilometres’ distance)

III – Heavy
• Areas with high density of industries and suburbs of large cities with high density of
heating plant producing pollution

• Areas close to the sea or in any case exposed to relatively strong winds from the sea
IV – Very Heavy
• Areas generally of moderate extent, subjected to conductive dusts and to industrial
smoke producing particularly thick conductive deposits

• Areas generally of moderate extent, very close to the coast and exposed to sea spray
or to very strong and polluting winds from the sea

• Desert areas, characterized by no rain for long periods, exposed to strong winds
carrying sand and salt, and subjected to regular condensation

1. Use of fertilizers by spraying, or the burning or crop residues, can lead to a higher pollution level due to dispersal by
wind.

2. Distances from the sea coast depend on the topography of the coastal area and on the extreme wind conditions.
The minimum “Specific Leakage Distance” of ceramic insulators in regard to pollution level is provided in IEC 60815.
Table 33-1.2: Minimum Nominal “Specific Leakage Distance” for Various Pollution Levels

Pollution Level Minimum Nominal “Specific Leakage Distance” mm/kV

I - Light 16
II – Medium 20
III – Heavy 25
IV – Very Heavy 31

The “Specific Leakage Distance” is defined as the ratio of the leakage distance of the insulator divided by the rms
phase-to-phase maximum voltage (Um) for the equipment expected on the electrical system to which the insulator will be
installed. It is recommended that non-ceramic composite insulator leakage distance be equal to or greater than that
recommended for ceramic insulators. The “Specific Leakage Distance” values recommended are provided as a
guideline, and environments of severe pollution may require “Specific Leakage Distance” values greater than 31 mm/kV.
If a ceramic insulator installed in the field has performed satisfactorily, then a non-ceramic composite insulator with
similar leakage distance may be used as a replacement. If ceramic insulator performance has proven to be problematic,
then the leakage distance requirement for a non-ceramic replacement insulator should be increased. Laboratory testing
and field installations have shown that these non-ceramic insulating materials exhibit improved short-term flashover
performance over ceramic insulators in contaminated environments.

Generally, EPR insulators are hydrophilic and allow a thin film of water to form on the surface. EPR materials may exhibit
hydrophobic properties initially due to residues left on their surface from the manufacturing process. Once the insulator is
exposed to the environment, these residues wear off, allowing the surface material to wet out. This may lead to greater
leakage current activity under contaminated environments and reduce the flashover performance of the insulator.

SR insulators provide a hydrophobic weather-shed surface by resisting surface wetting and forming water beads from
moisture contact. A continuous water layer cannot form, thereby reducing the probability of leakage currents and
associated discharge activity. When environmental contamination adheres to the surface of silicone, the lightweight
silicone chains in the SR material saturate the pollution layer. Upon wetting, this saturated pollution layer mixes with the
beads of water that form. This mixture eventually becomes heavy enough so that the water along with the contaminant
rolls off the weather-sheds thus cleaning the insulator. SR materials have exhibited superior flashover performance and
aging characteristics compared to those of EPR and are recommended for areas of heavy contamination. It should be
noted that excessive electrical discharge activity may cause degradation in the SR material to occur at a more rapid rate
than with other insulator materials. This degradation will cause the SR material to lose its hydrophobicity thus greatly
reducing the insulator’s performance in contaminated environments.

Non-ceramic composite insulators have performed well in contaminated environments and have been used to correct
numerous flashover problems. In severely contaminated environments where heavy airborne pollution is present, a
periodic inspection program should be performed to detect actual damage to the insulator. If non-ceramic composite
insulators will be located in a contaminated environment, then it is recommended that test results be obtained from the
manufacturer documenting the performance of the specific insulator elastomeric formulation in contaminated areas
similar to the proposed installation environment.

A stable hydrophobicity of the silicone rubber housing makes insulators maintenance free – no cleaning required.

5. SHED DESIGNS

The creepage distance required by ANSI C29.9 can be obtained with different shed designs. But some rules, which are
the result from many years of experience acquired worldwide, are listed below in order to give you the best service for
your long term benefit. The plain alternative shed design offers high specific creepage distance and good self cleaning
properties which usually provides best performance. Today, any design can have the optimum shed configuration
consisting of any combination of sheds.

P
P P1

P2
ℓd1
ℓd
ℓd
C=d C = d1 C=d
S S ℓ
d2 d2

a) Plain Shed b) Alternating Shed c) Standard Shed

Figure 33-1.3: Insulator Shed Designs

5.1 Parameters Characterizing Insulator Profile

5.1.1 Minimum distance between sheds to be c ≥ 30 mm eq. 33-1.3

S
5.1.2 Ratio between spacing (S) and (P) overhang = ≥ 0.65 eq. 33-1.4
P

lI d
5.1.3 Ratio between creepage distance (ℓd) and clearance (d) = eq. 33-1.5
d

 l d1 l d2 
• This ratio is to be calculated for the “worst case” on any section  ,  eq. 33-1.6
 d1 d 2 
• It is to be < 5

5.1.4 Alternating Shed

P1 - P2 ≥ 16mm eq. 33-1.7

5.2 Parameters Characterizing Entire Insulator

As a post insulator can be designed with more than one section with different shed designs the following parameters are
used for the entire insulator:-

5.2.1 Creepage factor C.F.

• C.F.≤3.5 for pollution levels 1 and 2 (light and medium pollution level) eq. 33-1.8

• C.F. ≤ 4 for pollution levels 3 and 4 (heavy and very heavy pollution level) eq. 33-1.9

lt
C.F. = eq. 33-1.10
St

where:-

ℓt = Creepage distance
St = Strike distance

5.2.2 Profile factor P.F.

P.F. = 2.P1 + 2.P2 + S > P.F. = 2.P + S eq. 33-1.11

alternating sheds all other sheds

• P.F. > 0.8 for pollution levels 1 and 2 (light and medium pollution level) eq. 33-1.12

• P.F. > 0.7 for pollution levels 3 and 4 (heavy and very heavy pollution level) eq. 33-1.13

where:-

ℓ = Creepage distance of the insulated leakage path measured between the two points which define S

6. FITTINGS

6.1 Porcelain Insulators

Fittings for the porcelain insulators are made in malleable cast or ductile iron hot dip galvanized according ASTM A-
153M. They are assembled to the porcelain with a Portland base mortar. A bituminous coating is applied on the porcelain
and the fittings to compensate for the difference in thermal expansion. This is especially important for extreme weather
applications.

The metal end fittings are designed to transmit the mechanical load to the core and the end fittings maintain uniform and
consistent mechanical strength.

Figure 33-1.4: Steel Fittings for Porcelain Insulators

6.2 Composite Insulators

The end flanges are parts of the composite hollow insulator and they are assembled with the tube using special
connection technique in order to transmit the mechanical loads and provide the seal to the supporting structure and
adjacent structure. Special flanges can be offered on request. The end flanges are mainly aluminium alloy castings in
order to provide a high performance and corrosion resistance.

Table 33-1.3: Typical Manufacturing Parameters

Rating kV 11 to 400
Cantilever Strength kN 4 to12
Tensile Strength kN Up to 160
Torsion Strength kN 2 to 4
Shed Type Plain or Alternate
Specific Creepage Distance mm/kV 25 to 40
Insulator Type Upright and under-hung
Application Isolator, Support
Testing Standard IEC 60273
Table 33-1.4: Typical Insulator Specification
BIL 1050 kV
Style Tapered
Dimensions
Leakage Distance mm 5309
Height (in) mm 2337
Max Shed Diameter mm 264
Top PCD (in) mm 178
Diameter Dt (in) mm 221
Bottom BCD (in) mm 305
Diameter Db (in) mm 335
Mechanical Values
Cantilever Strength, Upright kN 1,588
Tensile Strength kN 18
Torsion Strength kN.m 1,532
Compression Strength kN 68
Electrical Values
Impulse Flashover, Positive, kV 1210
Low Frequency Withstand 10 Sec. Wet, kV 455
Impulse Withstand kV 1050
Radio Influence Voltage Data
Test Voltage rms to Earth, kV 146
Maximum RIV Microvolts at 1000kHz 500
Weight
Approximate Net Weight kg 223

S = Standard Strength U = Uniform, Upright and Under-hung P = Pollution/High Leakage BCD = Bolt Circle Diameter

H = High Strength T = Tapered, Upright Only Y = Higher Cantilever Option Dt = Diameter Top Fitting

E = Extra High Strength Z = Higher Cantilever Option Db = Diameter Bottom Fitting

IEC Standard

60060-1 High-voltage test techniques Part1: General definitions and test requirements

60168 Test on indoor and outdoor post insulators of ceramic material or glass for systems with normal voltages greater
than 1000V

60273 Characteristics of indoor and outdoor post insulators for systems with normal voltages greater than 1000V

60437 Radio interference test on high-voltage insulators

60507 Artificial pollution tests on high-voltage insulators to be used on AC systems

60815 Guide for the selection of insulators in respect of polluted conditions

61245 Artificial pollution tests on high-voltage insulators to be used on D.C. systems

C29.1 Electrical Power Insulators - Test methods

C29.9 Wet-Process Porcelain insulators - Apparatus, Post-type

Table 33-1.5: Typical Insulator Specification

BIL 170 kV
Type Solid Core
Voltage Class 33 kV
Specification IEC 60273
Dimensions
Height (in) mm 445±1
Pitch Circle Diameter
Top PCD (in) mm 76
Bottom PCD mm 76
Mechanical Strength
Cantilever Strength kN 8
Tensile Strength kN 40
Torsion Strength kN 2
Compression Strength kN 80
Withstand Set Voltage
Dry kV 75
Wet kV 75
Impulse Withstand kVp 170

7. APPLICATIONS

7.1 Use In Strung Busbar Systems

Seil calculations

Underhung on beams

7.2 Use In Tubular Busbar Systems

Tube calculations

SLDG 34 – 1

POWER TRANSFORMER FUNDAMENTALS AND MEASUREMENTS

1. IMPEDANCE VOLTAGE OF A POWER TRANSFORMER

Impedance (Z) voltage is the amount of voltage applied to the primary side to produce full load current in the secondary
side. It is usually listed on the transformer nameplate, expressed as a percent, and measured by conducting a short
circuit test. The impedance of a transformer is marked on most nameplates.

Definition
The percentage impedance of a transformer is the volt drop on full load due to the winding resistance and leakage
reactance expressed as a percentage of the rated voltage.

It is also the percentage of the normal terminal voltage required to circulate full-load current under short circuit
conditions.

1.1 Transformer Impedance

The turns-ratio of a-two-winding transformer determines the ratio between primary and secondary terminal voltages,
when the transformer load current is zero. When load is applied to the transformer, however, the load current
encounters an apparent impedance within the transformer which causes the ratio of terminal voltages to depart from
the actual turns-ratio. This internal impedance consists of two components:-

1.1.1 a reactance derived from the effect of leakage flux in the windings
2
1.1.2 an equivalent resistance which represents all losses traceable to the f l o w of load current, such as conductor I .R
loss and stray eddy-current loss.

1.2 Percent Impedance

Transformer impedance is conveniently expressed in percent and is determined by the ratio of impedance voltage to
rated primary voltage. In three-phase transformer banks, it is usually appropriate to refer both impedance voltage and
rated voltage to a phase-to-earth basis. Percent impedance is also equal to measured Ohmic impedance, expressed as
a percentage of base ohms. Base ohms for a transformer circuit is defined as the rated current (per phase) divided into
rated voltage (line-to-neutral), with the rated current derived from the self-cooled rating of the transformer.

1.3 Measuring Percentage Impedance (Z%)

The impedance is measured by means of a short circuit test. With one winding shorted, a voltage at the rated frequency
is applied to the other winding sufficient to circulate full load current - see below:-

Full Load Current

Impedance Short
Voltage Circuit
I.Z

Figure 34-1.1: Measuring Percentage Impedance (Z%) of a Transformer

To measure the %Z, follow the steps below:-

- Short the secondary side of the transformer with a current measuring device (Ammeter)

- Apply low voltage in primary side and increase the voltage so that the secondary current is the rated secondary current
of the transformer. Measure the primary voltage (V1).

- Divide the V1 by the rated primary voltage of the transformer and multiply by 100. This value is the percentage
impedance of the transformer.

The percentage impedance can then be calculated as follows:-

Impedance Voltage
Z% = .100 eq. 34-1.1
Rated Voltage

For a transformer, the 'Percentage Impedance Voltage' and 'Percentage Impedance (%Z)' mean the same thing.

1.4 Impedance Values

The percent impedance values depend on various factors including the number of windings, particular phase, high and
l o w voltage ratings, transformer kVA rating, and the insulation medium and cooling class. In general, impedance values
increase with higher voltage and kVA ratings. For most purposes, the impedance of power transformers may be
considered equal to their reactances because the resistance component is negligible.

The high value of %Z helps to reduce short circuit current but it causes more voltage dip for motor starting and more
voltage regulation (% change of voltage variation) from no load to full load.

The effect of the low value is the other way around.

1.5 Changing the Impedance Value

The most economical arrangement of core and windings leads to a 'natural' value of impedance determined by the
leakage flux. The leakage flux is a function of winding ampere turns and the area and length of the leakage flux path.
These can be varied at the design stage by changing the volts per turn and the geometric relationship of the windings.

1.6 Fault Current Stresses

The standard transformer is designed with a limited ability to withstand the stresses imposed by external short circuits.
The maximum short-circuit current magnitude and duration that a transformer can endure without incurring thermal
and magnetic damage varies with transformer size and the number of phases. IEC 60076-8 (Power transformers –
Application guide) [A N S I Std. C57.1200] defines the fault current withstand capability for liquid-immersed
transformers. See also SLDG 34-2.

1.6.1 The Effect of Higher and Lower Impedances

The impedance of a transformer has a major effect on system fault levels. It determines the maximum value of current
that will flow under fault conditions.

It is easy to calculate the maximum current that a transformer can deliver under symmetrical fault conditions. By way of
example, consider a 2 MVA transformer with an impedance of 5%. The maximum fault level available on the secondary
side is:

2 MVA x 100/5 = 40 MVA,

and from this figure the equivalent primary and secondary fault currents can be calculated.

A transformer with a lower impedance will lead to a higher fault level (and vice versa) The figure calculated above is a
maximum. In practice, the actual fault level will be reduced by the source impedance, the impedance of cables and
overhead lines between the transformer and the fault, and the fault impedance itself.

2. REGULATION

The full load regulation of a power transformer is the change in secondary voltage, expressed in percent of rated
secondary voltage that occurs when the rated kVA output at a specified power factor is reduced to zero, with the
primary voltage maintained constant. The percent regulation can be calculated from the measured impedance
characteristics at any load and power factor. The regulation can also be determined by loading the transformer
according to the required conditions at rated voltage and measuring the rise in secondary voltage when the load is
disconnected.

2.1 Effect of Variables

The percent regulation varies inversely with respect to the power factor (being lowest at unity power factor) and directly
with the impedance. Transformers having very good regulation (low impedance), however, are also susceptible to
higher fault levels.

As well as fault level considerations, the impedance value also:-

• determines the volt drop that occurs under load - known as 'regulation'

• affects load sharing when two or more transformers operate in parallel

3. SEQUENCE IMPEDANCE (Z1 Z2 Z0)

The calculation in equation 1 above deals with a balanced 3-phase fault. Non-symmetrical faults (phase-earth, phase-
phase etc) lead to more complex calculations requiring the application symmetrical component theory. This in turn
involves the use of positive, negative and zero sequence impedances (Z1, Z2 and Z0 respectively).

As with all passive plant, the positive and negative sequence impedances (Z1 and Z2) of a transformer are identical.

However, the zero sequence impedance is dependent upon the path available for the flow of zero sequence current and
the balancing ampere turns available within the transformer. Generally, zero sequence current requires a delta winding,
or a star connection with the star point earthed. Any impedance in the connection between the star point and earth
increases the overall zero sequence impedance. This has the effect of reducing the zero sequence current and is a
feature that is frequently put to practical use in a distribution network to control the magnitude of current that will flow
under earth fault conditions.

SLDG 34 - 2

POWER TRANSFORMER APPLICATION GUIDE

1. CO-ORDINATION WITH SWITCHGEAR.

Power transformers were specified for short-circuit withstand capabilities similar to the rupturing capabilities of the
switchgear protecting them. Through the years with the expansion of the network fault levels increased to above the
original levels for the different voltage levels. The transformer short circuit design levels are specified to be higher than
the circuit breaker values to compensate for the effect of repetitive short circuits on the transformers. The Table 34-2.1
below summarizes the situation.

Table 34-2.1: Transformer Short Circuit Design Levels

Voltage Level (Un) Previous Fault New Breaker New transformer Short circuit
Current level Rupturing Capacity withstand level
(kV) (kA) (kA) (kA)
765 - 40 50
400 31,5 or 50 50 or 63 63
275 20 or 31,5 50 50
220 20 or 31,5 40 40
132 16 or 25 40 40
88 16 or 25 25 25
66 and below 12,5 or 20 20 20

2. EARTHING OF NEUTRALS

The neutral ends of the HV windings of all YNd1-connected transformers having partially graded HV winding insulation
(88 kV, 66 kV and 44 kV HV windings) require surge arrester protection in the case where their neutral terminals are not
earthed (see Note below).

The transformer manufacturer is required to provide a suitable bracket only for the mounting of the surge arrester which
will be supplied and fitted by the utility.

A separate plate needs to be attached to the transformer adjacent to the rating and diagram plate. This plate should
bear the following cautionary instruction:-

“HV winding insulation partially graded. HV neutral to be solidly earthed or protected by a “___” kV RMS. continuously
rated metal oxide surge arrester having a “___” kV peak residual voltage (10 kA)”.

The continuous voltage rating and residual voltage (10 kA) of the required surge arrester should be inserted as follows:-

a) For a 66 kV and 88 kV partially graded insulation transformer the above values shall be a minimum of 48 kV rms.
and not exceeding 163 kV peak, respectively.

b) For a 44 kV partially graded transformer the above values shall be a minimum of 30 kV rms and not exceeding 101
kV peak, respectively.

Note:-

The reduction in insulation has been adopted in order to effect a worthwhile saving in the cost of these
transformers, whose neutrals would generally be earthed but may occasionally be unearthed.

The insulation levels chosen are adequate to meet the voltages impressed on the neutrals of these transformers
during the work tests, but may be inadequate to ensure the safety of these windings in the case of transformers
whose neutrals are unearthed in service, e.g. in the case of simultaneous voltage surges entering the star
windings from two or more HV line terminals. For this reason provision is made for surge arrester protection.

3.1 Auxiliary Supplies

The main purpose of tertiary windings on power transformers is to facilitate the provision of substation auxiliary supplies
such as:-

a) Power for forced cooling of the transformers

b) Lighting in the substation

c) Power for charging the DC batteries used for protection

d) Power for electric fences

e) Power for plant during the erection of equipment

Auxiliary power is supplied at 380 - 400 V that means that transformation is required from the applicable tertiary voltage
to 400 V. Auxiliary supply loads for a substation, only amounts to several hundreds of kVA.

3.2 Local Loads

In remote areas, in the absence of other networks, main coupling transformer tertiaries are also used to supply local
reticulation networks. These relatively unimportant loads are subject to high fault incidence and place severe stress on
the coupling transformers. It is therefore not recommended that tertiaries be used to supply rural loads. When, however,
geographic and economic conditions make alternative supplies impractical it is recommended to follow the requirements
of Report SE 91/04 Rev. 1.

3.3 Shunt Reactors

Shunt reactors may also be connected to the tertiaries of the main coupling transformers. From past experience it
became clear that this connection could result in damage to the main transformer insulation. This occurs as a result of
part winding resonance and is difficult to detect. This practice is thus not recommended.

4. REFERENCE DOCUMENT

4.1 Report SE 91/04 rev 1. - Tertiary bay requirements when coupling transformer tertiaries are used to supply station
auxiliary loads and rural supplies (April 1992)

SLDG 34 - 3

STANDARD POWER TRANSFORMERS

1. PARAMETERS OF STANDARD TRANSFORMERS

The main parameters of the standard range of power transformers are given in Table 34-3.5. Tapping ranges are given
in paragraph 3.5 and Tables 34-3.5, 34-3.6, 34-3.7 and 34-3.8.

2. BASIS OF STANDARD

2.1 Voltages

The voltage ratios of the main windings are selected to cover only those transformers that are likely to be used in
practice. It would not, for example, be an economic proposition to couple a 765 kV system to an
11 kV network. Nor is it very probable that a 220/88 kV transformer will ever be required since the established
distribution voltages in those areas where a 220 kV system voltage is in use, are 66 and 132 kV.

The voltage rating selected for all tertiary windings is 22 kV, because this is a standard voltage. The use of tertiaries for
rural supplies is discouraged.

2.2 Connections

In the Eskom networks all system voltages down to 44 kV are in phase. Thus all transformers that couple systems of
44 kV and above must be either auto-connected or Star/Star-connected so that there is no phase shift between primary
and secondary voltages.

Where the voltage ratio (N) is 3:1 or less, economics dictate an auto-transformer connection, the frame size of such a
transformer being N-1/N times the frames size of an equivalent two - winding transformer. This is also an important
factor from the point of view of transport.

Since the specification imposes limits in the form of maximum zero-sequence impedance (not greater than twenty times
the positive sequence impedance) and a maximum 3 rd harmonic content of not more than 1 % at system maximum
voltage, transformers in the auto and large Star/Star category are invariably supplied with delta-connected tertiary
windings.

o o
Depending on the Undertaking concerned, past practice resulted in a phase relationship of either + 30 or - 30 for
systems of 33 kV and below relative to the higher voltage systems. In these cases the interconnections between HV
and LV networks were made with either YD11 or YD1 transformers.

The standard range of transformers provides for only a Star/Delta connection (vector relationship YD1) for coupling
networks of 44 kV and above to networks of 33 kV and below. The reasons for this choice are briefly the following:-

a) The use of graded insulation is possible for the HV Star winding.

b) The HV winding can be earthed, an essential requirement for single-pole auto-reclosing applications.

c) A Star HV winding is more robust than a Delta winding because of the higher current rating required.

d) LV earth fault currents can be restricted by means of an earthing compensator i.e. isolated from the HV effectively
earthed system.

When standard YD1 transformers are added at existing stations where YD11 units are in service, the connections to the
HV of the latter should be altered as indicated in Appendix ‘A’ to provide a YD1 vector relationship which will parallel
with the standard transformer. Alternatively the standard transformer may be connected as shown in Appendix ‘B’ to
give a YD11 vector relationship.

For transformers with an HV voltage of 33 kV and below, the standard connection adopted is Star/Star, these
transformers being supplied with or without delta stabilisation windings depending on whether or not the manufacturer
can meet the specified zero-sequence impedance and 3 rd harmonic conditions without such a winding.

To summarise the position, the use of standard transformers should ultimately result in following phase relationships
being achieved:

a) All systems of 44 kV and below will be in phase.

b) All systems of 33 kV and below will be in phase

o
c) Systems of 44 kV and above will have a phasing 30 in advance of the phasing of 33 kV systems and below.

2.3 MVA Ratings

The choice of MVA ratings for transformers is based on two main considerations.

Firstly, there is the maximum total installed transformer capacity which is permissible from the point of view of
switchgear short-circuit ratings. This can be determined approximately from the equation:-

MH ML .X
MT = ⋅ eq. 34-2.1
MH + ML 100

where:-

MT = Permissible maximum installed transformer capacity in mega-volt-amperes (MVA)

MH = HV rupturing capacities in mega-volt-amperes (MVA)

ML = LV rupturing capacities in mega-volt-amperes (MVA)

X = Transformer impedance in per unit (p.u.) or percentage (%)

Based on the standard circuit-breaker fault levels given in SLDG 25-2 and the transformer reactances discussed in the
next section, the values of MT for various voltage levels are as follows:-

Table 34-3.1: The Values of Permissible Maximum Installed Transformer Capacity

Transformer LV
6,6 11 22 33 44 66 88 132 220 275
Voltage (kV)
Max. installed (a) 20 40 90 160 220 340 600 900 2300 9000
transformer (b) 10 20 50 90 110 190 360 520 2300 2980
capacity (MVA)

a) Applies to the higher of the two standard short-circuit ratings (LV)

b) Applies to the lower of the two standard short-circuit ratings (LV)

Secondly, there is the most economical unit size taking into account initial load, ultimate load, the rate of load growth,
interest rates and rates of escalation. Investigation of these aspects indicates that in general the most economical
arrangements are as follows:

• For low growth rates below 4 %: 2 Transformers capable of meeting the final load.

• For intermediate growth rates between 4 and 7 %: Initially two units and ultimately 3 or 4 units.

• For normal growth rates between 7 and 10 %: Initially two units and ultimately 4 units.

The full list of standard transformers selected on the basis of these considerations is given in Tables 34-3.5 to 34-3.8
and may be summarised as follows:-

Table 34-3.2: Summary of Standard Transformers

Transformer
Secondary Voltage 3,3 6,6 11 22 33 44 66 88 132 220 275
kV
(1) 10 20 40 80 80 160 315 500
MVA
(2) 5 5 10 20 40 40 80 160 250 630 800
Ratings
(3) 2,5 2,5 5 10 20 20 40 80 125 315 400
(4) 2,5 8

Notes:

1. The higher of the two standard circuit breaker fault levels allow for two units of rating (1) or 4 units of rating
(2).

2. The lower of the two standard circuit breaker fault levels allows for two units of rating (2) or 4 units of rating
(3).

3. Units of rating (4) are for small rural loads.

SLDG 25 - 2 LV side 3-phase fault levels for various total installed transformer capacities are plotted against HV-side 3-
phase fault levels. From these curves it may be possible to access whether, in special circumstances, larger units or
more units of a given rating can be installed.

2.4 Impedances

From available data on existing transformers and discussions with manufacturers the following are considered to be
reasonable “natural” reactance values for transformers.

It is important at this stage to point out that the definition of percentage impedance as given in the table is not the same
as that applicable to the more familiar “per cent impedance voltage” which up to now has been the standard method of
expressing transformer impedance.

The essential difference between the two methods of defining impedance is that they are expressed in terms of different
base voltages, the old system to a base of rated tap voltage and the new system to a base of nominal system voltage.

Table 34-3.3: “Natural” Reactance Values for Transformers

22 33
Nominal HV System Voltage
and and 66 88 132 220 275 400
kV
below 44
2 - Winding Transformers
Minimum Ohmic Impedance (%) 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
2 - Winding Transformers
Maximum Ohmic Impedance 1.25

 MAX 
X (Min. Value)   for a tap range of 20 %
 MIN 
Auto-Transformers
(0,5 + 0,2N) (Value for 2-winding transformers) where
Minimum Ohmic Impedance
(0,5 + 0,2N) > 1,0 and N = auto-transformer voltage ratio.
( %)
Auto-Transformers
Maximum Ohmic Impedance X 1,25 for N =2,5 and greater

 MAX  1,3 for N =1,67 to 2,5

(Min. Value)   1,35 for N = less than 1,67
 MIN 
This is illustrated by the following:-

Transformer
Tapping

Figure 34-3.2: Single Phase Transformer

Vt = Vn .T eq. 34-3.2

MVA
In = eq. 34-3.3
Vn

MVA  MVA 
It =  =  eq. 34-3.4
Vt  Vn .T 
where:-

T = per unit Tap

Vn = Nominal system voltage

Vt = Rated tap voltage

In = Rated current at nominal system voltage
It = rated tap current at rated tap voltage

Viewed from the primary side with a short circuit on the secondary the measured impedance in ohms is:-

V
Z= (ohms) eq. 34-3.5
I

In the old system 100 % ohms is defined as:-

Vt
100 % Z (old) =
It
eq. 34-3.6
2
Vn 2
= .T (ohms)
MVA

Z.100
% Z (old) =
100% Z (old)
eq. 34-3.7
MVA 100
= Z. 2
. 2 (%)
Vn T

(Note: If the short circuit current I, is made equal to It then:-

V
Z= .%Z (old)
It

V 
 I 
=
 t  .100 eq. 34-3.8
 Vn 
 I 
 t 

V
= .100 (%)
Vt

Hence the term percent impedance voltage)

In the new system 100 % ohms is defined as:-

Vn
100 % Z (new) =
In
eq. 34-3.9
2
Vn
= (ohms)
MVA

The percentage impedance in this system:-

Z.100
% Z (new) =
100% Z (new)
eq. 34-3.10
MVA
= Z. 2
. 100 (%)
Vn

1
It will be observed that the two expressions for % Z differ by the term: 2
.
T

Past practice was to specify the percent impedance voltage, or % Z (old), as approximately constant over the tapping
range whereas in the latest standards an approximately constant percent Ohmic impedance % Z (new) is specified.

The latter characteristic can be achieved by suitable positioning of the tapping winding - generally between LV winding
and core instead of the more conventional position outside the HV winding.

Referring to Reference Document (a), the advantages of a constant ohmic impedance characteristic are:-

a) Less regulation under load conditions for the same LV fault level in MVA.

b) Smaller VAr losses under the same conditions.

c) Higher impedances to tertiary windings and thus less danger of these windings collapsing due to short-circuit
forces.

d) Approximately constant HV current for LV side faults regardless of tap position, an important factor in the setting of
relays.

From the expression previously derived for % Z (old) the impedance in ohms seen looking into the HV terminals.

2
% Z (old) .Vn 2
Z= .T eq. 34-3.11
100 .MVA

If % Z (old) is constant over the tapping range:-

2
Z = Constant.T eq. 34-3.12

Thus, for a normal tap range of 0,85 to 1,05 the transformer impedance in ohms as viewed from the HV side varies by a
2
1,05
factor of 2
= 1,52.
0,85

2.5 Tapping Range

In general, a tapping range of +5 % to -15 % of HV voltage has been adopted as the standard for transformers. This is
based on the following considerations:-

a) The Electricity Act states that supply voltages shall not vary by more than ± 5% from the nominal.

b) Thus sending-end busbar voltages shall not exceed 105 % while receiving end voltages shall not be less than 95
%, assuming loads connected to both busbars.

c) Allowing for a 5 % volt drop through the transformer at the receiving end assuming that the voltage of the LV
busbar associated with this transformer is required to be boosted to 105 %, an 85 % tap is required on the HV side
together with an ability to withstand for at least a limited period a 10 % overfluxing condition.

d) At light load a 5 % voltage rise in the line due to Ferranti effect with a 100 % sending voltage requires a maximum
tap of 105 % on the receiving end transformer.

16 Steps each of 1¼ % is chosen as the standard to provide reasonably fine control without excessive operations due
to minor fluctuations. Tap changing for these transformers will always be “on-load”.

For the smaller transformers (5 and 2,5 MVA) on-load tap changers cannot always be justified economically and the
standards provide for off-circuit taps having in range of 0% to -10 % in four steps of 2 ½ %.

For the 400 kV system transformers the tapping range is reduced to 0 % to -15 %, firstly because Umax for this system
is only 105 % and, secondly, because a 20 % tapping range introduces problems with the insulation of the tapping
winding.

2.6 Insulation

For economic reasons all auto-transformers and all star-connected windings of 132 kV and above have graded
insulation and must be solidly earthed.

Star-connected windings of 88 kV and below are partially graded and can be either earthed where this is required for
other reasons (e.g. single-pole auto-reclosing) or left unearthed. The insulation level of the neutral end of the winding is
able to withstand the maximum voltage resulting from a surge on one phase only (67 % of the protection level held by
the arresters normally connected in front of the transformer) but to allow for the possibility of an incoming surge on more
than one phase, surge arresters as follows should be connected between the Star point and earth:-

Table 34-3.4: Selection of Surge Arresters for Transformer Protection at Voltages of 88 kV and Below

Nominal Voltage Rating of Insulation level of neutral Neutral surge arrester

Star Winding end Rating Spark-over kV peak
kV rms. kV peak
88 250 80 % 66 kV 163
66 250 80 % 66 kV 163
44 200 100 % 33 kV 101

Table 34-3.5: Auto-Transformers With Tertiary Windings Vector Group: YNaOd1

Nominal Voltage kV MVA Rating % Impedance Taps Insulation

HV MV LV Main Tertiary HV/MV
400
765 400 +5 % to -5 % of 765 kV.
22 2000 2 12 - 15,6
275 16 steps of 0,6 % each
275
330
330
275 800 40 10 - 13,5
275 400 40
+0 % to -15 % of 400 kV
400 220 22 630 40 11 - 14,3
12 steps each of 1,25 %
220 315 40
132 500 40
132 250 40 13 - 16,25
132 125 20
330 220 630 40 9,5 - 12,8
22
220 315 40
132 500 40
132 250 40 11 - 14,3 HV / MV
275 132 1251 20
22
88 3151 40
88 1601 20 12 - 15,0
88 801 10
Fully
132 500 40
Graded
132 250 40
220 132 125 20 9 - 11,7
22
66 160 20
66 80 10 11 - 13,8 +5 % to -15 % of HV
66 40 10 16 steps each 1,25 %
88 315 40
88 160 20 8 - 10,8
88 80 10
66 160 20
132 66 22 80 10 9 - 11,7
66 40 10
44 80 10
44 40 10 10 - 12,5
44 20 5
44 80 10
88 44 22 40 10 8,0 - 10,4
44 20 5

Table 34-3.6: Large Star/Star Transformers With Tertiary Windings Vector Group: YNynOd1

Nominal MVA Rating % Taps Insulation

Voltage kV Impedance
HV MV LV Main Tertiary HV/MV
88 315 40 +0 % to -15 % of 400 HV Fully Graded
88 160 20 kV
400 66 22 160 20 13,0 - 16,2 12 steps each 1,25 %
66 80 10
66 160 20 12 - 15,0 % MV Partially
330 66 22 80 10 +5 to -15 % of HV. 16 Graded
66 40 10 steps
66 160 20 12 - 15,0 % of 1,25 % each LV Fully
275 66 22 80 10 insulated.
66 40 10

Table 34-3.7: Star / Delta Transformers - Vector Group: YNd1

Nominal voltage MVA % Taps Insulation

kV
HV LV Rating Impedance
22 40
220 22 20 11 - 13,8
11 40
11 20
33 80 HV Fully Graded
33 40
33 20 LV Fully insulated.
22 40
132 22 20 10 - 12,5
22 10
11 -
11 20
11 10
33 80
33 40
33 20 +5 % to
22 40 -15 % of HV 16 steps
22 20 each 1,25 %
88 22 10 9 - 11,2
22 5
11 20
11 10
11 5
6,6 10
6,6 5
22 40 HV Partially Graded
22 20 LV Fully Insulated.
22 10
66 22 5 8 - 10
11 20
11 10
11 5
11 2,5
11 20
11 10
11 5
44 11 2,5 7 - 8,7
6,6 10
6,6 5
6,6 2,5
Notes:

1. Transformers having an LV voltage of 3,3 kV are used occasionally. The standard MVA ratings for these
transformers are 2,5 MVA and 5 MVA and the impedances are as indicated in the table for the corresponding HV
voltage.

2. Although 5 MVA and 2,5 MVA transformers having LV voltages of 11 kV or 6,6 kV are theoretically standard units
these ratings should be avoided when the HV voltage is 132 kV. According to the manufacturers, rating of less than
10 MVA at 132 kV are completely uneconomical. For the same reason ratings of less than 5 MVA at 88 kV should
be avoided.

3. Off-circuit taps covering a range of +0 % to -10 % in 4 steps of 2,5 % are permissible for all transformers rated at 5
MVA or less. In these cases the minimum impedances will be shown in the table but the maximum values will be
increased from 1,25 to 1,4 times the minimum figures.

Table 34-3.8: Small Star / Star Transformers With Or Without Stabilising Windings vector Group YNyn0

Nominal MVA % Taps Insulation

voltage kV
Rating Impedance
HV LV
11 20
11 10
11 5
33 11 2,5 7 - 9,8
6,6 10 Generally off-circuit
6,6 5 +0 % to -10 % of HV
HV/LV
6,6 2,5 4 steps each 2,5 %
11 20 Fully Insulated
11 10
(See Note 2)
11 5
22 11 2,5 6 - 8,4
6,6 10
6,6 5
6,6 2,5

Notes:

1. Transformers having a rated LV voltage of 3,3 kV are also permissible, the standard MVA ratings being 5 MVA
and 2,5 MVA.

2. Where on-load tap-changing is required the range shall be +5 % to -15 % of HV voltage in 16 steps of 1,25 %. In
these cases the impedance range is reduced to 7 - 8,75 % and 6 - 7,75 % for 33 and 22 kV HV voltages
respectively.

3. TRANSFER WINDING VOLTAGE DISTRIBUTION DUE TO SURGES

Layer winding transformers are very sensitive to surges on the windings. These types of transformers have a voltage
winding length characteristic illustrated below.

a) Voltage Winding Length Characteristic

b) Lightning surges, typically 1,2 / 50 µs, switching surges typically 250 / 2500 µs

Figure 34-3.2: Winding Voltage Distribution Due To Lightning and Switching Surges

From the above characteristic (A), one can see that a large proportion of the voltage drop is across a small portion of
breakdown in this region and subsequent failure of the transformer.

Various methods and techniques are employed to overcome these. One is to use thicker insulation in this area, but
may become as expensive option for larger transformers. Another method is to change the construction of the winding.
The process is complex and it is sufficient to say that the end result is a more linear distribution of voltage across the
windings. Ideally, characteristic (C) should be achieved however, in reality, this may only be approximated by
characteristic (B).

4. THE ASSESSMENT OF TRANSFORMER LOSSES (LOSS CAPITALIZATION)

Modern transformer engineering permits the design of transformers to be tailored to a broad variety of possible
applications in order to find the most economical solution for a specific application, the transformer manufacturer should
be given either the data required for making a cost analysis of for assessing the losses involved on. On the basis of this
information it is possible to determine and offer the transformer with either the lowest total cost throughout its expected
service life or the with the lowest sum total determined for the capital value.

Basically this is a factor calculated for transformer design based on energy cost. If energy is cheap and the no load
loss costs are relatively small, then a cheaper transformer could be manufactured. Not much attention is then paid to
these losses if they are in the range of 2 - 5 pf per unit.

This philosophy was used for the transformer installed in a particular location. During the summer moths it is run as a
400 MVA transformer, but during the winter months when loads are 25 % higher it is run as a 50 MVA transformer. The
transformer is force cooled and the heated air is used to raise the temperature in the control building.

If however, the cost of energy is relatively high, these transformer losses become expensive. In these cases, more
attention has to be paid to these losses and the transformer has to be designed with low losses. The cost of this
technique varies indirectly to the circuit of losses ie the lower the losses required.

4.1 Determining Total Costs

In this case, the costs are normally calculated for a one-year period. This means that changes in the operating
conditions during service life will have to be taken into account. Total costs comprise capital costs (KA), costs of no-
load losses (KPO) and cost of load losses (KPk).

Maintenance costs for the transformer (1,5 % to 2 % of the initial costs) are frequently included in the calculation of total
costs. However, it is advisable to include such costs in the maintenance costs for the entire installation, so they will not
be included here.

4.1.1 Capital Costs

These are calculated with the following formula:-

A.r
KA = (Rand / year) eq. 34-3.13
100

where:-

A = Initial costs of the transformer in Rand

r = Amortization factor in % per year

The amortization factor may be calculated from the equation:-

n
p.q
r = n
eq. 34-3.14
q −1

p
q = 1+
100
where:-

p = Interest rate in percent (%)

q = Interest factor
n = Depreciation period in years
Table 34-3.9: Amortization Factors for given Interest Rates

Interest Rate Amortization Factors for Depreciation Period

% 15 20 25 30 years

5 9.63 8.02 7.09 6.50

6 10.29 8.71 7.82 7.26
7 10.97 9.43 8.58 8.05
8 11.68 10.18 9.36 8.88
9 12.40 10.95 10.18 9.73
10 13.14 11.74 11.01 10.60
11 13.90 12.56 11.87 11.50
12 1468 13.39 12.75 12.41

The amortization factor r is a function of both the interest rate and the period of depreciation. Accordingly, the capital
cost,

A.l.r
Capital Cost = eq. 34-3.15
100
is the fixed amount payable annually at the end of each year to repay a loan A at p% compound interest over a period
of n years.

4.1.2 Cost of no-load losses

5. AUTO OR DOUBLE WOUND TRANSFORMERS

Auto transformers usually have winding rations of 1 : 2

Double winding transformers usually have windings of > 1 : 2 e.g. 1 : 3.

When to build an auto transformer and when to build a double wound transformer depends on the system requirements.
One of these requirements may be as described in 4 above.

When to change over from auto transformer varies from manufacturer to manufacture.

Auto transformers Region of indecision may exist Two winding transformers

based on cost. Other criteria

VP − VS VP − VS
relatively small may be important relatively large
VP VP

Ratio VP : VS ~ 1 : 2 Ratio VP : VS > 1 : 2

Cut off points may vary form

manufacturer to manufacturer

A comparison of prices may be made as in example given.

6. Formula for Predicting Cost of Double Wound Transformers (See Also SLDG 50 – 3)

There is a relationship used by Siemens to determine the size of a double wound transformer that is comparable in
price to an auto transformer of usually larger capacity but with the same primary and secondary voltages.

Relationship for cost comparison is:-

VP − VS
MVAdouble wound = MVAauto. eq. 34 - 3.16
VP

If one can estimate the cost of an Auto transformer, it is possible to estimate the cost of a lower capacity double wound
transformer using the above relationship.

Suppose we are required to estimate the cost of a 132 / 44 kV, 160 MVA double wound transformer. To do this, one
must first calculate the capacity of auto transformer with the same primary and secondary voltages which is comparable
in price.

The equivalent auto transformer is:-

VP
MVAauto = MVAdouble wound .
VP − VS

132
= 160. eq. 34 - 3.17
132.1,1 − 44
≈ 230 MVA

10% is added to the upper voltage to get the maximum voltage difference.

That is to say, that a 132 / 44 kV, 160 MVA double wound transformer is comparable in price to a 132 / 44 kV 230 MVA
auto transformer.

This is especially useful for predicting the future costs of double wound transformers based on the calculated costs of
auto transformers.

7. REFERENCE DOCUMENTS

7.1 “Proposed parameters for standard power transformers for the Electricity Supply Commission”. B.B. Norman,
S.A.I.E.E., October 1972.

7.2 NWS 1532 rev 2, 1993.

SLDG 34-3 APPENDIX A

CONNECTIONS TO PARALLEL AN EXISTING YD11 TRANSFORMER WITH A DY1 STANDARD UNIT

DY11 TRANSFORMER

A1 a1
R R
A2 a2
B1 b1
W W
B2 b2
C1 c1
B B
C2 c2

R R
C1 A2 a2

a1
c1 b1 B
b2

C2 A1
B W c2
B1 B2
W

a) Normal Dy11 Connection

A1 a1
R R
A2 a2
B1 b1
W W
B2 b2
C1 c1
B B
C2 c2

R R
A2 C1 a2

a1
B
b2 b1 c1

A1 C2
B W c2
B2 B1
W

b) Connecting a Dy11 Transformer to Give a

Dy1 Vector Relationship

SLDG 34-3 APPENDIX B

POWER TRANSFORMER VECTOR GROUPS

Group Number
Windings and Terminals EMF Vector Diagram
Symbol
Phase ∠

Yy0

o
0

Dd0

o
0

Dz0

o
0

Group Number
Windings and Terminals EMF Vector Diagram
Symbol

Phase ∠

Yy6

o
180

Dd6

o
180

Yz6

o
180

Group Number
Windings and Terminals EMF Vector Diagram
Symbol
Phase ∠

Dy1

o
-30

Yd1

o
-30

Yz1

o
-30

Group Number Windings and Terminals EMF Vector Diagram

Symbol
Phase ∠

Dy11

o
+30

Yd1

o
-30

Yz1

o
-30

Group Number Windings and Terminals EMF Vector Diagram

Symbol
Phase ∠

Yyy

3/2-PH

SCOTT

SLDG 34 - 4

STANDARD TRANSFORMERS: IN-BUILT CURRENT TRANSFORMERS

1. DETAILS OF IN-BUILT CURRENT TRANSFORMERS

To suit standard protection schemes current transformers as detailed in Table 34-4.1 to 34-4.6 will be built into the
bushings of standard transformers.

Table 34-4.1 : Auto-transformers above of 20 MVA

Table 34-4.2 : Auto-transformers of 20 MVA
Table 34-4.3 : Large Star / Star transformers
Table 34-4.4 : Star / Delta transformers up to 20 MVA
Table 34-4.5 : Star / Delta transformers above 20 MVA
Table 34-4.6 : Small Star / Star transformers
Table 34-4.7 : Class ‘X’ Specification details

Figure 34-4.1: In-Built Current Transformers for Auto-Transformers above 20 MVA

Table 34-4.1: In-Built Current Transformers for Auto-Transformers above 20 MVA

Transformer In-built Current Transformers

Voltage MVA Cores 1, 2, 3 Core 4
400/275 800/40 2400/1 X 13 1600/1 X 11
400/40 1000/1 X8 1600/1 X 11
400/220 630/40 2400/1 X 13 1600/1 X 11
315/40 1000/1 X8 1600/1 X 11
400/132 500/40 2400/1 X 13 1600/1 X 11
250/40 1600/1 X 11 1600/1 X 11
125/20 1000/1 X8 800/1 X7
275/132 500/40 2400/1 X 13 1600/1 X 11
250/40 1600/1 X 11 1600/1 X 11
125/20 1000/1 X8 800/1 X7
275/88 315/40 2400/1 X 13 1600/1 X 11
160/20 1600/1 X 11 800/1 X7
80/10 1000/1 X8 400/1 X4
220/132 500/40 2400/1 X 13 1600/1 X 11
250/40 1600/1 X 11 1600/1 X 11
125/20 1000/1 X8 800/1 X7
220/66 160/20 2400/1 X 13 800/1 X7
80/10 1000/1 X8 400/1 X4
40/10 400/1 X4 400/1 X4
132/88 315/40 2400/1 X 13 1600/1 X 11
160/20 1600/1 X 11 800/1 X7
80/10 1000/1 X8 400/1 X4
132/66 80/10 1600/1 X 11 400/1 X4
40/10 1000/1 X8 400/1 X4
132/44 80/10 1600/1 X 11 400/1 X4
40/10 1000/1 X8 400/1 X4
88/44 80/10 1600/1 X 11 400/1 X4
40/10 1000/1 X8 400/1 X4

Note: For Class ‘X’ Specification details see Table 34-4.7.

Figure 34-4.2: In-Built Current Transformers for Auto-Transformers of 20 MVA

Table 34-4.2: In-Built Current Transformers for Auto-Transformers of 20 MVA

Transformer In-built Current Transformers

Voltage MVA Cores 1, 2, 3 Cores 4, 5
132/44 20/5 400/1 X4 200/1 X1
88/44 20/5 400/1 X4 200/1 X2

Note: For Class ‘X’ Specification details see Table 34-4.7.

Figure 34-4.3: In-Built Current Transformers for Large Star / Star Transformers

Table 34-4.3: In-Built Current Transformers for Large Star / Star Transformers

Transformer In-built Current Transformers

Voltage MVA Cores 1, 2 Core 3 Cores 4, 5
400/88 315/40 2400/1 X 13 1600/1 X 11 800/1 X7
160/20 1600/1 X 11 800/1 X7 400/1 X4
400/66 160/20 2400/1 X 13 800/1 X7 400/1 X4
80/10 1000/1 X8 400/1 X4 200/1 X2
330/66 160/20 2400/1 X 13 800/1 X7 400/1 X4
80/10 1000/1 X8 400/1 X4 200/1 X2
275/66 160/20 2400/1 X 13 800/1 X7 800/1 X7
80/10 1000/1 X8 400/1 X4 400/1 X4
40/10 400/1 X4 400/1 X4 200/1 X2

Note: For Class ‘X’ Specification details see Table 34-4.7.

Figure 34-4.4: In-Built Current Transformers for Star / Delta Transformers Up To 20 MVA

Table 34-4.4: In-Built Current Transformers for Star / Delta Transformers Up To 20 MVA

Transformer In-built Current Transformers

Voltage MVA Core 1 Cores 2, 3 Cores 4
132/33 20 100/1 X1 300/1 X3 400/1 X4
132/22 20 100/1 X1 300/1 X3 600/1 X6
10 100/1 X1 300/1 X3 300/1 X3
132/11 20 100/1 X1 300/1 X3 1200/1 X9
10 100/1 X1 300/1 X3 600/1 X6
88/33 20 100/1 X1 300/1 X3 400/1 X4
88/22 20 100/1 X1 300/1 X3 600/1 X6
10 100/1 X1 300/1 X3 300/1 X3
5 100/1 X1 300/1 X3 200/1 X2
88/11 20 100/1 X1 300/1 X3 1200/1 X9
10 100/1 X1 300/1 X3 600/1 X6
5 100/1 X1 300/1 X3 300/1 X3
88/6,6 10 100/1 X1 300/1 X3 1000.1 X8
5 100/1 X1 300/1 X3 500/1 X5
66/22 20 100/1 X1 300/1 X3 600/1 X6
10 100/1 X1 300/1 X3 300/1 X3
5 100/1 X1 300/1 X3 200/1 X2
66/11 20 100/1 X1 300/1 X3 1200/1 X9
10 100/1 X1 300/1 X3 600/1 X6
5 100/1 X1 300/1 X3 300/1 X3
2,5 100/1 X1 300/1 X3 200/1 X2
44/11 20 100/1 X1 400/1 X4 1200/1 X9
10 100/1 X1 300/1 X3 600/1 X6
5 100/1 X1 300/1 X3 300/1 X3
2,5 100/1 X1 300/1 X3 200/1 X2
44/6,6 10 100/1 X1 300/1 X3 1000/1 X8
5 100/1 X1 300/1 X3 500/1 X5
2,5 “ X1 300/1 X3 300/1 X3

NOTE: For Class ‘X’ Specification details see Table 34-4.7.

Figure 34-4.5: In-Built Current Transformers for Star / Delta Transformers above 20 MVA

Table 34-4.5: In-Built Current Transformers for Star / Delta Transformers above 20 MVA

Transformer In-built Current Transformer

Voltage MVA Cores 1, 2, 3 Core 4
132/33 80 500/1 X5 1600/1 X 11
40 300/1 X3 800/1 X7
132/22 40 300/1 X3 1200/1 X9
88/33 80 800/1 X7 1600/1 X 11
40 400/1 X4 800/1 X7
88/22 40 400/1 X4 1200/1 X9
66/22 40 500/1 X5 1200/1 X9

NOTE: For Class ‘X’ Specification details see Table 34-4.7.

Figure 34-4.6: In-Built Current Transformers for Small Star / Star Transformers
Table 34-4.6: In-Built Current Transformers for Small Star / Star Transformers

TRANSFORMER IN-BUILT CURRENT TRANSFORMER

kV MVA Core 1 Core 2 & 3 Core 4 Core 5 & 7 Core 6
33/11 20 400/1 X4 800/1 X7 1200/1 X9 1600/1 X 11 1200/1 X9
10 200/1 X2 400/1 X4 600/1 X6 800/1 X7 600/1 X6
5 100/1 X1 200/1 X2 300/1 X3 400/1 X4 300/1 X3
2,5 100/1 X1 200/1 X2 200/1 X2 200/1 X2 300/1 X3
33/6,6 10 400/1 X4 800/1 X7 1200/1 X9 1600/1 X 11 1200/1 X9
5 200/1 X2 400/1 X4 600/1 X6 800/1 X7 600/1 X6
1,5 100/1 X1 200/1 X2 300/1 X3 400/1 X4 300/1 X3
22/11 20 400/1 X4 800/1 X7 1200/1 X9 1600/1 X 11 1200/1 X9
10 200/1 X2 400/1 X4 600/1 X6 800/1 X7 600/1 X6
5 100/1 X1 200/1 X2 300/1 X3 400/1 X4 300/1 X3
1,5 100/1 X1 200/1 X2 200/1 X2 200/1 X2 300/1 X3
22/6,6 10 200/1 X2 400/1 X4 1000/1 X8 1000/1 X8 800/1 X7
5 100/1 X1 200/1 X2 500/1 X5 500/1 X5 400/1 X4
2,5 100/1 X1 200/1 X2 300/1 X3 400/1 X4 200/1 X2
33/3,3 5 100/1 X1 200/1 X2 1000/1 X8 1000/1 X8 300/1 X7
2,5 100/1 X1 200/1 X2 500/1 X5 500/1 X5 400/1 X4
22/3,3 5 100/1 X1 200/1 X2 1000/1 X8 500/1 X5 400/1 X4
2,5 100/1 X1 200/1 X2 500/1 X5 500/1 X5 400/1 X4
* 30-40 2000/1 X 12 2000/1 X 12 1000/1 X8
22/11 40-55 NOT REQUIRED 2000/1 X 12 3000/1 X 14 1600/1 X 11
55-70 2000/1 X 12 4000/1 X 14 2000/1 X 12

* Special requirements for power station generator unit transformers

Table 34-4.7: In-Built Current Transformers Class ‘X’ Specification Details

REF. RATIO CLASS ‘X’ SPECIFICATIONS

Ns / Np Im (mA) Vk (Volts) Rsec (Ohms)
(MAX) (MIN) (MAX)
X1 100/1 500 150 0,4
X2 200/1 500 200 0,8
X3 300/1 330 300 1,2
X4 400/1 250 400 1,6
X5 500/1 200 500 2
X6 600/1 170 600 2,4
X7 800/1 125 600 3,2
X8 1000/1 100 650 4
X9 1200/1 83 650 4,8
X 10 1400/1 71 650 5,6
X 11 1600/1 63 700 5,6
X 12 2000/1 50 700 8
X 13 2400/1 42 750 9,6
X 14 3000/1 35 780 12
X 15 4000/1 25 860 16

Im = CT excitation current

Vk = knee-point voltage

The knee-point of the excitation curve is the point where an increase of 10 % of the secondary emf results in a 50 %
increase of excitation current.

2. REFERENCES

SLDG 35-1

SHUNT REACTOR FUNDAMENTALS

1. INTRODUCTION

The need for large shunt reactors appeared when long power transmission lines for system voltage 220 kV and higher
were built. The characteristic parameters of a line are the series inductance (due to the magnetic field around the
conductors) and the shunt capacitance (due to the electrostatic field to earth). An equivalent diagram for a line is show in
Figure 35-1.1 below.

Figure 35-1.1: Characteristic Parameters of a Transmission Line

Both the inductance and the capacitance are distributed along the length of the line. So are the series resistance and the
admittance to earth. When the line is loaded, there is a voltage drop along the line due to the series inductance and the
series resistance. When the line is energized, but not loaded, or only loaded with a small current, there is a voltage rise
along the line (the Ferranti-effect)

In this situation, the capacitance to earth draws a current through the line, which may be capacitive. When a capacitive
current flows through the line inductance there will be a voltage rise along the line because of the charging of the
distributed capacitance.

The transmission lines are usually designed to minimise losses, so we can assume that there is no loss on the line. Surge
Impedance Loading is the power delivered by a lossless line to a load resistance equal to the surge impedance (or
characteristic impedance,) and is given by:-
2
VL
Surge Impedance Loading (SIL) = eq. 35-1.1
ZS

However, the loading is not always the surge impedance, but varies from a small fraction of surge impedance during light
conditions up to multiples of surge impedance during heavy load conditions. Therefore the voltage profile is not flat in all
conditions but varies corresponding to the loading conditions, as shown in Figure 35-1.2.

Under very light or no load, the receiving end voltage without shunt reactor compensation can exceed the rated Um voltage
and therefore lead to transient overvoltages that exceed the BIL, resulting in insulation failure and consequent flashover.
This may be the case on the sending end as well if energised from the receiving end. The addition of correctly sized shunt
reactors on both sides consume the MVArs generated by the line shunt capacitance and so reduce the end voltages to
within the rated equipment voltages.

To stabilize the line voltage, the line series inductance can be compensated for by means of series capacitors and the line
shunt capacitance to earth by shunt reactors. Series capacitors are placed at different places along the line while shunt
reactors are often installed in the stations at the ends of line. In this way, the voltage difference between the ends of the
line is reduced both in amplitude and in phase angle.

Figure 35-1.2: Line Voltage Profile of a Transmission Line under Different Loading Conditions

Shunt reactors may also be connected to the power system at junctures where several lines meet or to tertiary windings of
transformers.

Transmission cables have much higher capacitance to earth than overhead lines. Long submarine cables for system
voltages of 100 kV and more need shunt reactors. The same goes for large urban networks to prevent excessive voltage
rise when a high load suddenly falls out due to a failure.

Shunt reactors contain the same components as power transformers, like windings, core, tank, bushings and insulating oil
and are suitable for manufacturing in transformer factories. The main difference is the reactor core limbs, which have non-
magnetic gaps inserted between packets of core steel.

Figure 35-1.3 shows a design of a single-phase shunt reactor. The half to the right is a picture of the magnetic field. The
winding encloses the mid-limb with the non-magnetic gaps. A frame of core steel encloses the winding and provides the
return path for the magnetic field.

3-phase reactors can also be made. These may have 3-limbed or -5-limbed cores. In a 3-limbed core there is strong
magnetic coupling between the three phases, while in a 5-limbed core the phases are magnetically independent due to the
enclosing magnetic frame formed by the two yokes and the two unwound side-limbs.

The neutral of shunt reactor may be directly earthed, earthed through an Earthing-Reactor or unearthed.

Figure 35-1.3: Design of a Single Phase Reactor Showing the Magnetic Field on the Right Half

When the reactor neutral is directly earthed, the winding are normally designed with graded insulation in the earthed end.
The main terminal is at the middle of the limb height, & the winding consists of two parallel-connected halves, one below &
one above the main terminal. The insulation distance to the yokes can then be made relatively small. Sometimes a small
extra winding for local electricity supply is inserted between the main winding and yoke.

When energized the gaps are exposed to large pulsation compressive forced with a frequency of twice the frequency of
6 2 2
the system voltage. The peak value of these forces may easily amount to 10 N/m (100 ton /m ). For this reason the
design of the core must be very solid, & the modulus of elasticity of the non-magnetic (& non-metallic) material used in
gaps must be high (small compression) in order to avoid large vibration amplitudes with high sound level consequently.
The material in the gaps must also be stable to avoid escalating vibration amplitudes in the end.

Testing of reactors requires capacitive power in the test field equal to the nominal power of the reactor while a transformer
can be tested with a reactive power equal to 10 – 20% of the transformer power rating by feeding the transformer with
nominal current in short-circuit condition.

The loss in the various parts of the reactor (12R, iron loss & additional loss) cannot be separated by measurement. It is
thus preferable, in order to avoid corrections to reference temperature, to perform the loss measurement when the average
temperature of the winding is practically equal to the reference temperature.

When specifying shunt reactors for enquiry, the following data should be given:-

• Reactive power, Q

• Rated nominal voltage, Un

• Maximum continuous operating voltage, Um

• Insulation level: Lightning Impulse (LI), Switching Impulse (SI)

• Frequency, Hz

• AC test voltages

• Permissible temperature rise for oil and winding

• Sound level & linearity criteria, if required

• Type of cooling, fan, pump, radiators

• Peripheral features, if required

• Safety & monitoring equipment

• Loss capitalization

Shunt reactor are generally employed at the end of long transmission line. During charging of line the receiving end
voltage increases dangerously high due to the Ferranti Effect discussed above, and need to be controlled usually with
shunt reactors.

Lightly loaded long transmission lines are capacitive and the power factor falls. To compensate for the leading reactive
power of the lines, a reactor with lagging reactive power is added.

• A shunt reactor is a reactor that is connected between the phase conductor and neutral (or ground)

• Shunt reactors are used to compensate for excessive shunt capacitance on long, lightly-loaded transmission circuits.

• Shunt reactors are more commonly needed in systems where are there are a lot of underground or submarine high-
voltage transmission cables

2. APPLICATION OF SHUNT REACTORS

The calculation of optimum ratings and points of connection of shunt reactors is generally done by means of extensive load
flow studies, taking into account all possible system configurations. One approach for a single line is presented below.

Depending on system voltage, shunt reactors may be inserted directly connected to station busbars (Pos. 1), to
transmission line terminations (Pos. 2) or connected to tertiary winding of large power transformers (Pos. 3), as shown in
the Figure 35-1.4.

Line Line
Reactor Reactor
Busbar
Reactor 2 2
1 Transformer
Tertiary
Connected
Reactor
3

Figure 35-1.4: Shunt Reactor Application in Different Positions in a Power System

The majority of shunt reactors for system voltages of 72,5 kV or above are in the 30 MVAr to 300 MVAr range (three-phase
power) and they are normally connected directly to high voltage busbar or transmission line ending. For these voltage
levels, reactors are most commonly oil-filled type. Future reactors in the range 72,5 to 145 kV will tend to be air-core dry-
type coil units.

Shunt reactors rated below 72,5 kV are either oil-filled or air-core dry-type units and they are normally connected to the
tertiary winding of large power transformers. The range of reactive power varies from a few MVAr to 100 MVAr.

The winding connection of three-phase reactors or a bank of three single-phase units can be either star (most common
configuration) or delta. Typically, for system voltages of 72,5 kV or above, the reactors are star connected with the neutral
grounded directly or through a neutral reactor (also named “four reactor scheme”). For system voltages below 72,5 kV, the
reactors are star connected with the neutral unearthed.

Busbars

XR XR

XNeutral

a) Star Connection b) Delta Connection

Figure 35-1.5: Winding Connection of Shunt Reactors

3. MAIN CALCULATION OF SHUNT REACTORS

For the calculation of the positive sequence reactance and the current requirements of a shunt reactor, it is necessary to
know only the rated three-phase reactive power and the rated system voltage and frequency, as summarized in the table
below.

Rating Star Connected Delta Connected

2 2 2
2 U Un Un
Un n X R = 3. = eq. 35-1.2
Reactance XR = = eq. 35-1.1
S R3 ϕ 3.S R1ϕ S R3 ϕ S R1ϕ

S R3 ϕ S R1ϕ Un S R3 ϕ S R1ϕ Un
In = = = eq. 35-1.3 In = = = eq. 35-1.4
Rated Current Un 3.Un Un XR
3 .Un 3 .X R
3

Maximum Continuous Um Um
Im = .I n eq. 35-1.5 Im = .I n eq. 35-1.6
Current (Design Current) Un Un

where:-

XR = Rated positive sequence reactance per phase

Un = Nominal system operating voltage
Um = Maximum system operating voltage
In = Nominal current
Im = Maximum current
SR1ϕ = Rated single phase reactive power
SR3ϕ = Rated three phase reactive power

The zero sequence reactance (X0) depends on the winding connection and grounding of the shunt reactor. For air-core dry
type units, it can be calculated as follows:-

• Star connection with neutral directly earthed X0 = XR eq. 35-1.7

• Star connection with neutral earthed through a reactor X0 = XR + 3.XNER eq. 35-1.8

• Star connection with neutral unearthed X0 = ∞ eq. 35-1.9

• Delta connection X0 = ∞ eq. 35-1.10

Neutral reactors generally are used in shunt reactors installed in transmission line terminations to provide a faster
extinguishing of the secondary arc current and, therefore, to allow the automatic re-closing of the transmission line after a
fault elimination (typically, the re-closing time varies from 0.5 to 1.5 seconds).

4. OPEN-CIRCUIT OPERATION OF RADIAL TRANSMISSION LINES

The operation of a lossless radial transmission line, which is energized by a generator at the sending ending (V1) and is
open circuited at the receiving ending (V2), can be represented in the matrix form by the ABCD parameters, where I2 = 0.

 V1  =  A B   V2 
. eq. 35-1.11a)
 I1   C D  I1 
V1 = A.V2


= 1+
Z.Y  eq. 35-1.11b)
.V
2  2

Inserting shunt reactors at the receiving ending, the ABCD parameters of the line are changed, as described below:-

 0 0
 V1  =  A B
. 1   V2  (from eq. 35-1.11a)
 I 1  C D 0 . I 
 X  1
 R 
 V1  =  A' B'  V2 
.
 I1  C'   I1 
D'

So, the relation between the ending voltages of the transmission line is given by:-

V1 = A'.V2


= A +
B 
.V2 eq. 35-1.12
 X R 

 Z.Y + L .V
= 1 + 
LR  2
 2

Application Example

Consider a lossless radial transmission line, frequency 60 Hz, length ℓ = 350 km, and parameters z = j 0,32886 Ω/km and
bC = j 5,097 µS/km. To estimate the reactive power of shunt reactors to be installed in the transmission line to provide a
maximum operating voltage of 1.05 pu at the open-circuited terminal (receiving ending), when the line is energized with 1.0
pu in the sending ending.

Total impedance and admittance of the non-compensated transmission line:-

( )
Z = j z.l
= j (0,32886.35 0 ) eq. 35-1.13
= j 115,1 Ω
( )
Y = j b c .l
= j (5,097.350 ) eq. 35-1.14

= j 1783,95 Ω

Parameter A:-

Z.Y
A = 1+
2
115,1.1783,95
= 1+ (from eq. 35-1.11b)
2
= 0,8973

Operating voltage at the receiving ending of the non-compensated transmission line:-

V1 = A.V2

V1 (from eq. 35-1.11b)

= V2
A
V1
V2 =
A
1
= .V1
A
1
= .V1
0,8973
= 1,1144.V1

Calculation of the shunt reactor reactance:-

V1 = A'.V2


= A +
B 
.V
XR  2
(from eq. 35-1.11b)

 Z.Y + L .V
= 1 + 
LR  2
 2

B=Z eq. 35-1.15


V1 =  A +
B 
.V2
 X R 


1,0 =  0,8973 +
115,1 
.1,05
 XR 

1,0 115,1
= 0,8973 +
1,05 XR

1,0 115,1
− 0,8973 =
1,05 XR
115,1
XR =
 1,0 − 0,8973 
 1,05 
 
≈ 2090 Ω

Calculation of the three-phase reactive power of the shunt reactor:-

2
Un
XR = (from eq. 35-1.1)
SR3 ϕ
2
Un
SR3 ϕ =
XR
2
525
=
2090
≈ 132 MVAr

Calculation of the compensation degree of the transmission line:-

In order to make possible line energization on both sides, it is recommended to install shunt reactors with similar ratings in
their two terminations.

The line charging of the transmission line is:-

2
Q C3ϕϕ = Un .b c .l
2
= 525 .5,097.350 eq. 35-1.16

≈ 490 MVAr

So the degree of compensation is:-

SR3 ϕ
K SH = 2.
Q C3 ϕ

132
= 2. eq. 35-1.17
490
≈ 54%

5. BUSBAR VOLTAGE VARIATION AFTER SWITCHING OF SHUNT REACTORS

Typically, the voltage variation at the high voltage busbar after switching of a shunt reactor must not be higher than 2 to
3% of rated voltage. A practical circuit is used to simplify the analysis of voltage control (see Figure 35-1.6). The
determination of the shunt reactor to provide a required voltage variation in the busbar can calculated through the short-
circuit power (SR3ϕ) of system at the busbar where the reactor will be connected.

SCC V2

V1 ~

SR3ϕ

Figure 35-1.6: Practical Circuit for Voltage Control Analysis

The shunt reactor rating is given by:-

V1
V2 = eq. 35-1.18
SR3 ϕ
1−
S CC
Rearranging for SR3ϕ:-
 SR3 ϕ 

V2 . 1− = V1

 SCC 

SR3 ϕ
V2 − V2 . = V1
S CC

SR3 ϕ
V2 − V1 = V2 .
S CC

V2 − V1 SR3 ϕ
= eq. 35-1.19
V2 S CC

 V2 − V1 .S  V2 − V1 
 V  CC = SR3 ϕ or SR3 ϕ = S CC .  eq. 35-1.20
 2   V2 
Application Example

To estimate the reactive power of shunt reactors to installed in the 34.5 kV busbar in order to reduce the voltage level from
1.02 to 0.99 pu, considering a fault current of 25 kA (or short-circuit power of 1495 MVA).

Calculation of the three-phase reactive power of the shunt reactor:-

SR3 ϕ = S CC .
 V2 − V1 

 V2 
 1,02 − 0,99 
= 1485.  (from eq. 35-1.20)
 0,99 
= 45 MVAr

The function of compensating reactors in the transmission of electric power in extensive high voltage systems over great
distances are as follows:-

• To compensate the capacitive reactive power or charging power of unloaded lines (inter-phase line capacitance and
capacitance to earth)

• To improve the stability and economic efficiency of power transmission and to reduce overvoltages with unloaded
lines or sudden load shedding

Compensating reactors are connected in parallel with the supply system. It is therefore impossible for the short-circuit
condition to arise with these reactors. These reactors are often connected directly to the high voltage line and therefore be
designed for the insulation level of the HV system. They can be produced in the following versions:-

• air-core, unscreened

• air-core, magnetically screened

• iron core, air-gap

Figure 35-1.7: Compensating Reactor Connected to a Transmission Line

where:-

UL = Phase-to-phase voltage of the system

IC = Capacitive current
IL = Inductive current
C = Line (phase-to-phase) capacitance
CE = Phase-to-phase capacitance

Figure 35-1.8: Simplified Vector Diagram (Reactive Current Compensation)

In order to determine the size of compensating reactor, the following technical data must be known:-

UN = Phase-to-phase voltage of the system in kilo-volts (kV)

= √3
VL/√
fN = Rated frequency in hertz (Hz)
SN = Reactor rating in mega-var (MVAr)
Z0 = Zero sequence impedance in ohms (Ω)

Connection : Star or delta

Rated current is identical to IL = -IC

6. SHUNT REACTORS CONNECTED TO THE TERTIARY WINDING OF A POWER TRANSFORMER

As discussed in depth above, shunt reactors are commonly applied to compensate the capacitive reactive power of
transmission lines and thereby provide a means to regulate voltage levels in the network. These reactors are connected
directly at transmission level, however the cost of switchgear, maintenance of oil-cooled iron core reactors, and possible
saturation at high voltage levels favour the use of air core reactors at medium voltage levels. This section illustrates a
typical application and some practical aspects of implementing a shunt reactor connected to the tertiary winding of a
transmission power transformer to provide a means for voltage control.

Figure 35-1.9 shows a simplified application by way of an example. The transmission line is assumed to be 200 km long
and feeding a 300 MVA transmission transformer, with a 50 MVA tertiary winding. Reactors of a total rating are connected
to this winding.

Figure 35-1.9: Model of a high voltage transmission network

The high voltage transmission network is modelled as a single load that varies from 130 MVA to as low as 13 MVA. A
capacitor bank of 70 MVAr is used to provide voltage support during times of high load.

The transformer is equipped with tap changers on the primary winding, configured to control the voltage at the 330 kV
busbar. The fault level at the 330 kV terminals of the transformer is close to 1300 MVA.

When the network load drops, but particularly that on the high voltage network, the voltages on all the busbars increase as
a result of to the capacitive current flowing in the transmission line. The shunt reactor is switched in at these times to
compensate for the capacitive reactive power of the transmission line, hence reducing the transmission system voltages.

The shunt reactor partly cancels the leading current, stabilizing the system voltage.

ICap
ICap – Capacitive Current
IInd – Inductive Current

I′Res IC – Line Capacitive Current

IL – Load Current
E IR – Reactor Current
IR
I′Res – Resultant Current when Reactors are not installed
IRes IRes – Resultant Current when Reactors are installed

IInd IL

Figure 35-1.8: Current Vector diagram for Light Load Conditions

7. SWITCHING OF SHUNT REACTORS

Inductors and capacitors are used on substation busbars, medium-length and long transmission lines to increase line
loadability and to maintain voltages near rated values. A high voltage reactor is relatively frequently switched, during the
periods of the system operations with low loads it is energized and with the rise of load it is de-energized again. The
inductors absorb reactive power generated by the line shunt capacitance, and reduce over-voltages during light load
conditions, also reduce transient over-voltages due to switching and lighting surges. The shunt reactors can reduce line
loadability if they are not removed under full-load conditions. During the energization, high unsymmetrical currents can
occur. At de-energization, a transient recovery voltage occurs in the breaker contacts with considerable magnitude.

The switching over-voltage can be dangerous for the equipment if their peak value exceeds the rated switching impulse
withstand voltage of the equipment. It is very important to know the level of dielectric stress that occurs during operation in
the system in order to avoid insulation failures. Each interruption involves a complex interaction between the circuit breaker
and the source and the reactor (load side) circuits. This interaction results in over-voltages dependent on system
parameters and characteristics of the load.

Over-voltage relays may be used to disconnect the reactors under extreme high-voltage conditions. However in this case,
the associated transmission line must be de-energized at the same time, otherwise disconnection of the reactors would
only further aggravate the over-voltage condition on the system. The main objective of this paper is to report some
transient phenomena caused by the energization and de-energization of shunt reactors connected on star earthed and
unearthed in a substation busbar.

3,0

2,5
Line Load in Multiples of SIL

2,0

1,5

1,0

0,5

0
0 160 320 480 640 800 960
Line Length in Kilometres with No Series Compensation

Line Voltage Number of ACSR Size of ACSR SIL Charging MVA per 160
kV Conductors per Phase Conductors per Phase MW Kilometres
2
mm
138 1 403 50,5 10,4
138 2 282 64 13
230 1 484 132 27
345 1 717 320 65
345 2 484 390 81
500 2 1030 885 183
500 3 484 910 190
765 4 484 2210 460

SLDG 35-2

SHUNT REACTOR APPLICATIONS

1. BASIS OF STANDARD

The advent of long extra high voltage (EHV) lines means that line charging becomes the dominant component of reactive
power, especially in lightly loaded situations. Shunt reactors, therefore, become increasingly important in order to maintain a
favourable reactive power balance.

1.1 Voltage Rating and Reactance

Shunt reactors are specified such that the reactance is in the order of 1600 Ω / phase irrespective of the voltage level. This
then generates the following ratings at the appropriate voltage levels:

Table 35-2.1: Voltage Rating and Reactance

Um (kV) Rating (MVAr)

800 400
420 100
300 50
242 40

1.2 Auxiliary Windings

In cases where substations do not have power transformers, but only shunt reactors, these are specified to have auxiliary
windings. The purpose of these auxiliary windings would be to supply the substation auxiliary load. Such reactors would
then be designed with an on-load tap changer (OLTC) to regulate the voltage of the auxiliary winding, where possible this
must be prevented to ensure a more simple and reliable shunt reactor. When an auxiliary winding is required, the vector
group is YNyn0.

1.3 Insulation

The HV insulation is specified in the same manner as for power transformers, however the neutral insulation is not fully
graded to allow for the use of a neutral reactor which increases the electrical stress on the neutral insulation. For a 400 kV,
100MVAr shunt reactor the neutral insulation corresponds to that of 66kV.

2. APPLICATION

Shunt reactors are used on power systems to partially compensate the capacitive charging currents of long EHV overhead
lines or of high voltage cable systems.

The technical advantages they provide include:-

(a) Control of voltage rise at the ends of long HV lines at periods of light load or following load shedding (Ferranti effect).

(b) Reduction of over-voltages on sound phases during a line to ground fault.

(c) Reduction of switching over-voltages due to the initial charging of lines.

(d) Eliminating the possibility of an arc being maintained by capacitive coupling after the phase on which fault has
occurred, has been disconnected by circuit breakers. (Single phase ARC)

Two main applications can be identified, the reactors are either required permanently in service for stability reasons, or they
are needed for voltage control and switched in only during light load conditions (i.e. line reactors or busbar reactors).

Shunt reactors may also be connected to the LV (tertiary) windings for transformers, however from past experience this may
result in damage to the transformer insulation through part winding resonance, a phenomenon which is nearly impossible to
predict.

Shunt reactors at 400 kV and below would generally be three phase units. At 765 kV however there would be three single-
phase units due to external clearance limitations.

3. REFERENCE DOCUMENTS

(a) NWS 1541 - Eskom Specification: Oil-Immersed HV Shunt Reactors.

SLDG 35 - 3

SERIES CURRENT LIMITING REACTORS

1. BASIS OF STANDARDS

With the increasing interconnection and strengthening of the power system there is a growing problem with the increase
in magnitude of system fault current levels, both for multiphase and single line to ground faults. These increases may
be such that the original fault level design parameters of equipment are be exceeded.

Interconnection can also lead to the situation were parallel paths for power flow exist. Should the impedance of the
paths differ this would tend to overload the lower impedance path while leaving the higher impedance path under
utilised.

Both the above situations may be alleviated through the use of series current limiting reactors, which increase the series
impedance of the system in which they are placed.

Since the reactance of the reactors must not be noticeably less in the presence of short-circuit currents than in normal
rated operation, only air core reactors are suitable, since their inductance depends mainly on the winding dimensions
and is therefore practically constant. If iron cores were used, saturation of the iron, brought about by the short-circuit
currents, would cause a drop in the inductance of the coil, thus seriously reducing the protection against short-circuits.

In applying series current limiting reactors, a balance must be struck between the desired drop in fault level, the voltage
drop introduced across the reactor and possible alternative methods of fault level reduction.

2. APPLICATION

Series Current
Source Limiting Reactor

Transformer Transformer
Load

Figure 35.3.1: Series Connected Current Limiting Reactor

As their name implies, series current limiting reactors are placed in series with the transmission lines, typically on the
outgoing feeders of a substation but also, depending on economics, on the incoming side of the main coupling
transformers [See Figure 35.2.2a) & 2b)].

Feeders Transformers Feeders

HV LV
a): In Series with Transmission Lines

Feeders Reactors Transformers Feeders

HV LV
b): In Series with HV Side of the Coupling Transformers

Feeders Transformers Reactors Feeders

HV LV

c): In Series with LV Side of the Coupling Transformers

Feeders Transformers Feeders

Reactors

HV LV

d): In Series with LV Side of the Busbar

Figure 35.3.2: Positioning Series Reactors

At power stations where the short-circuit power is high, it is sometimes customary to install busbar sectionalizing
reactors with bypass circuit breakers as illustrated in Figure 35.2.3. In this way, a permanent connection is established
between busbars as with Figure 35.2.2 d). In the event of a fault, the bypass circuit breaker opens and the short-circuit
power is limited to approximately that of the individual systems.

Generators Transformers Busbar Feeders

Bypass Reactors
Circuit Breaker

~
HV Yard
Figure 35.3.3: Busbar Sectionalizer Connection

Current limiting reactors may be utilised at all voltages up to 400 kV, however the cost of large, high voltage, high
voltage, high power units reduces the scope of application at EHV levels.

Current limiting reactors may be either dry type air core or oil filled iron core units.

2.1 Dry Type Air-Core Units

These units consist typically of a resin encapsulated coil mounted on pedestal insulators:-

Advantages Disadvantages
Simple and robust construction Can be very large
Low noise Requires space for magnetic clearances
Linear performance
Low maintenance

2.2 Oil Filled Iron Cored Units

These are built similar to oil filled shunt reactors:

Advantages Disadvantages
Reactor does not produce stray flux Non linear performance
Can be placed in confined areas Maintenance levels similar to transformers

In the choice between air-core dry type units and oil filled units, cost can often be the deciding factor.

3. PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS

For moderate voltages and power ratings, the cheapest type of current limiting reactors is usually the simple, naked dry-
type reactor iron core and any enclosure, cooled by natural air circulation. Numerous reactors of this type are in
operation around in the world, most of them probably in medium high voltage power systems.

The magnitude of the inductance of these reactors is normally in the order of millinery. The inductance remains constant
when short circuit flows through the reactor. There is no decline in the inductance due to saturation in an iron core.

The conductor material in the winding may be either copper or aluminium. The insulation and the supporting materials
for the winding are now a days synthetic, frequently with a high temperature class. When short circuit current due to
failure in the power system flows through the reactor high, mechanical forces arise in the reactor, within each phase

winding as well as between phases. The reactors must be designed to withstand this force, which often determines the
dimensioning of the reactor.

The absence of an iron core makes the winding capacitance to earth quite small, which gives the advantage that the
voltage distribution within the winding deviates just moderately from linearity during transient voltage conditions.

Figure 35-2.4 shows a sketch of one phase of such a reactor. The two rectangles illustrate the outer contours of the
winding; a is the total height and r is the radial width of the winding. D is the mean winding diameter. The inductance is
proportional to the square of the number of turns, D and a factor that depends on the quotients a/D and r/D.

Figure 16.2.4: Magnetic Clearance – Rules of Thumb

The mutual inductance between the phases comes in addition, depending on the distance between the phases and
whether the phases are placed above each other or besides each other, see Figures 35-3.9 and 35-3.10.

4. INSTALLATION OF DRY TYPE SERIES AIR CORE REACTORS

The air core reactors may require relatively large space because the magnetic field spreads freely in the surroundings
and may cause excessive heating in iron reinforcements in concrete walls, floors and ceilings, wire fences and other
metal items. Appropriate distance from the reactors must then be kept.

The distance should be sufficiently large to keep the magnetic field below 80 A/m at the floor and at the ceiling. At
adjacent wall, the magnetic field should not exceed 30 A/m.

These field values are referred to continuous rated current through the reactor or to temporary currents lasting more
than a few minutes.

The diagram below illustrates the magnetic field attributed to an air-core reactor without any shield. Considerable forces
due to the field can draw loose iron items in the vicinity into the reactor and cause damage. So it is recommended to
keep the surroundings clean.

Owing to their construction, dry type air core reactors create a strong flux field around themselves (see Figures 35-3.5,
35-3.6 and 35-3.7). As a result of this field, it is important to provide sufficient magnetic clearance around the reactor.
Manufacturers usually quote two different zone clearance criteria:

• Minimum distance to magnetic materials not forming closed loops (any magnetic material falling within this area
will be excessively heated by the high magnetic flux density). This defines Zone 1.

• Minimum distance to non-magnetic metals forming closed loops (Any complete loop within this area will have a
circulating current induced into it. These currents may be of high magnitude and result in destructive heating. For
this reason, interlinked copper earth-mats, the steel reinforcing in concrete plinths and fence are either removed,
or placed outside the critical zone. This defines Zone 2.

ØD

Zone 2

1,2.D
Zone 1

0,6.D
0,6.D
1,2.D
Figure 35-3.5: Magnetic Clearance – Rules of Thumb

Zone 1 is generally smaller than Zone 2.

If one is forced to use magnetic materials, the distance between the reactor and the metal structure should be selected
so that, under rated conditions, the rms value of the magnetic field does not exceed 20 A/cm.

The field strength is calculated as follows:-

0,1.I N .n.D m
H= 2
eq. 35-3.1
a

where:-

H = Magnetic field strength in amperes per metre (A/m)

IN = Rated current in amperes (A)
n = Number of turns on the reactor
Dm = Mean diameter of the core in metres (m)
a = Distance between the centre of the core and the edge of the metallic part in metres (m)

∼1,5.D)
a (∼
≥ 500

0,6.D
0,6.D

b
a
Inter-phase

b
Insulators Reverse

a
b
0,6.D

≥ 500
Dm
D
Figure 35-3.6: Installation Guidelines for Air Core Reactors – Vertically Stacked Three Phase Reactors

4.3 Rules of Thumb (Referring to Figures 35-3.5 and 35-3.6)

2 Zone 2

1 Zone 1

4 5
3

6
8
10
7
11

Figure 35-3.7: Installation Guidelines for Air Core Reactors

1 Keep small metallic parts not forming closed loops outside Zone 1

2 Keep large metallic geometries or closed loops outside Zone 2

3 Keep spacing requirements to neighbouring reactors to avoid:1

unacceptable mutual influence on inductance

inadmissible electro-dynamic forces acting between adjacent reactors during maximum short-circuit current

4 Use adequate connectors having geometries not providing a too large frontal area to the magnetic field in to
minimise eddy heating

5 Select adequate connecting bars with respect to eddy heating and align them in a radial direction from the
reactor terminal

6 Provide connection bar supports close to the reactor to relieve the reactor terminals of undue mechanical loads

7 Insulate cross-over points of re-bar (see Figure 35-3.8)

8 Provide an even and horizontal foundation plane

9 Partition metallic fencing erected in the vicinity of the reactor, into electrically insulated sections which are to be
individually earthed

10 Shortened loops are not to be formed when earthing the fence sections

11 Shortened loops in the substation earth grid are to be avoided

Binding Wire

Insulation – PVC Tube or Hose Piping

Figure 35-3.8: Insulated Cross-over Points of Re-bar to Break Loops

5. REACTOR ARRANGEMENTS

5.1 Vertically Stacked Three Phase Reactors

0,6.D
0,6.D

Reverse
Wound

0,6.D
D

35-3.9: Air Core Reactor Arrangement - Vertically Stacked Three Phase Reactors

5.2 Side-by-Side Arrangement

0,6.D

0,6.D 0,6.D
0,6.D

1,5.D 1,5.D
D

35-3.10: Air Core Reactor Arrangement - Side-by-Side Reactors Positioned in a Straight Row

5.3 Side-by-Side Arrangement

0,6.D
0,6.D 0,6.D
0,6.D

0,75.D 0,75.D

0,6.D

1,5.D 1,5.D

0,6.D 0,6.D

1,5.D

Figure 35-3.11: Air Core Reactor Arrangement - Side-by-Side Reactors Positioned in a Delta Formation

6. PROTECTION AND INSULATION LEVELS

Current limiting reactors must be capable of transmitting the rated full load current of the system and withstanding the
maximum short circuit currents.

The insulation level of the reactor is usually the same as the system to which it is connected.

In certain EHV cases significant cost savings can be achieved by reducing the BIL rating across the coil and protecting it
by means of a surge arrestor connected in parallel (see Figure 16.2.8).

Reactor

Surge Arrester
Figure 35-3.12: Surge Arrester Protection of Current Limiting Reactor

Air cored dry type units do not usually contain any additional protection elements while oil filled units are usually
supplied with thermal protection, Buchholz protection and oil pressure release valves.

Built in current transformers are only included if required for the application.

Air core reactors can cause the frequency of the recovery voltage to assume extremely high values (150 Hz to 250 Hz).
By fitting capacitors, these frequency transients can be reduced to acceptable values for circuit breakers.

7. PROCUREMENT

Current limiting reactor rating, voltage and location are tailor-made for a given situation and no standardisation is
therefore possible.

Each application would therefore require an open enquiry.

8. TECHNICAL CALCULATIONS

The criterion for the specification of the FCL is that: “Fault levels in the Cape Peninsula Distribution network should be
below the present equipment fault level rating for future networks.
XL
51 kA → 26,5kA

400 kV 132 kV

Figure 35-3.12: Fault level Study for Acacia Substation

All indications are that over the next several years, the132 kV busbar fault level is going to increase to 51 kA. The
equipment is rated at 26,5 kA, requiring FCL reactors with appropriately rated impedances to be installed to limit the 51
kA to 26,5 kA.

The rated impedance is the impedance per phase at rated frequency, viz. 50 Hz. The resistance of the FCL reactor is
negligible and in general, amounts to only 3% of the reactance XL. The rated volt drop ∆Ur, is the voltage induced in the
reactor when operating with rated current Ir and rated reactance XL:-

∆Ur = I r .X L eq. 35-3.2

When referred to the nominal voltage of the system Un, the rated voltage drop is denoted ∆ur and usually stated in %:-

∆Ur . 3
∆ur = .100 % eq. 35-3.3
Un

3
√3 (132.10 .√3) and the rated
The throughput power (SD) of the reactor is the product of the phase-to-earth voltage Un/√
current Ir of 2860 A:-

SD = 3 .Un .I r
3
= 3 .132.10 .2860 eq. 35-3.4

= 653,88 MVAr

Selection of the FCL reactor would be based on the fault current would be in 2018 without the reactor, viz. Ik1″ = 51 kA,
and the level to which it should be limited by fitting the reactor, e.g. the equipment rupturing capacity, Ik2″ = 31,5 kA.
The required rated voltage drop is given by:-

" "
Sk1 - Sk2
∆ur = 1,1.100 %.S D . " "
eq. 35-3.5
Sk1 .Sk2

where:-

Sk1″ = the short-circuit power without the FCL reactors

Sk2″ = the short-circuit power after fitting the FCL reactors

Now:-

" "
Sk1 = 3 .Vn .I k1 and, eq. 35-3.6

" "
Sk2 = 3 .Vn .I k2 eq. 35-3.7

" " " "

Sk1 - Sk2 3 .Vn .I k1 - 3 .Vn .I k2
" "
=
" "
Sk1 .Sk2 3 .Vn .I k1 . 3 .Vn .I k2

=
( "
3 .Vn . I k1 - I k2
"
) (from eq. 35-3.5, 6 &7 )
2 " "
3.Vn .I k1 .I k2

=
(I "
k1 - I k2
"
)
" "
3 .Vn .I k1 .I k2

This leads to an expression using the before and after fault levels:-

∆ur = 1,1.100 %.S D .

(I "
k1
"
- I k2 )
" "
3 .Vn .I k1 .I k2

= 1,1.100 .218.10
6
.
(51.10 3
- 26,5.10
3
)
3 3 3
3 .132.10 .51.10 .31,5.10

= 1,1.100 .218.
(51 - 26,5 ).10 9 (from eq. 35-3.2 & 3)
9
3 .132.51.31,5.10
24,5
= 23980.
367295
= 5,58 %

∆ur . Un
∆Ur = .
100 3
3
5,58 132.10
= . (from eq. 35-3.2)
100 3
= 4,24 kV

∆Ur = I r .X L

∆Ur
XL =
Ir
3
4,24.10
=
2860
= 1,4862 Ω

X L = 2.π.f.L eq. 35-3.8

XL
L=
2.π.f
1,4862
= (from eq. 35-3.8)
2.π.f
= 14,2 mH

9. REFERENCE DOCUMENTS

9.1 NWS 1412 STANDARD SPECIFICATION FOR SERIES CURRENT LIMITING REACTORS

9.2 IEC 289 REACTORS

SLDG 35-4

EARTHING COMPENSATORS

1. BASIS OF STANDARDS

The earthing of power systems has an important effect on the performance, reliability and safety of the system. This
document provides an overview of equipment that is used specially to modify the manner in which the power system is
earthed. The main reasons for utilising this equipment can be divided into three categories:

a) Reduction of earth fault levels to levels that cause minimal equipment damage while still allowing adequate
protection discrimination for isolating the faulted system from the healthy system.

b) Provision of earthing points on systems that do not have a natural earth reference point, i.e. system sourced from
a delta connected transformer winding.

c) Compensation of inter-phase capacitive coupling on long EHV transmission lines in order to facilitate single
phase auto re-closing.

2. APPLICATIONS

2.1 Neutral Earthing Resistors (44 kV Systems and Below)

These resistors are primarily utilised for fault current reduction on non-effectively earthed systems (Typically 44 kV and
below). The size of the resistor depends on the level of fault reduction required.

Typically the single phase fault level would be limited to 300-355 A, but may be increased in isolated cases where
protection discrimination becomes a problem.

Neutral earthing resistors are typically combined with neutral electromagnetic couplers in a single unit to achieve the
dual purpose of earth fault level reduction and provision of an earth point on a Delta connected system (see Figure 35-
4.1a).

They may however also be retro-fitted as separate units where further reduction in earth fault level is required (see
Figure 35-4.1b).

Although typically connected between the neutral of an neutral earthing compensator and earth, they may be utilised
on any natural neutral point, such as on star-star transformers or the neutral of a voltage regulator, to achieve the
same effect. (Depending on system configuration) (see Figure 35-4.1c).

Typical ratings are listed in Table 35-4. 3.

a): Combination NEC / NER - YNd1 Transformer

b): Separately Connected NER - YNd1 Transformer

c): NER with a Voltage Regulator

Figure 35-4.1: Various Forms of Compensator on YNd1 Transformer

Neutral earthing resistors may be of several broad types

2.1.1 Liquid (Oil) Immersed

This is the type most often used within Eskom where the resistive elements are immersed in oil, in a free breathing
tank, for cooling purposes.

2.1.2 Dry Type Resistors

In this case the resistive elements are air cooled.

2.1.3 Liquid Earthing Resistors

These consist of large tanks of electrolytic fluid which acts as the resistive element between the two electrodes. Their
use within Eskom has been limited due to their bulk and the fact that the electrolytic fluid requires monitoring to ensure
that the resistance value remains constant.

2.2 Neutral Electromagnetic Couplers (3,3 kV - 33 kV Systems)

Neutral Electromagnetic couplers are utilised on Delta connected systems to provide an earthing point where no
natural neutral or earthing point exists.

This is important for delta connected systems as, without a reference earth point, a phase to ground fault will not be
detected until a second phase to ground fault occurs, resulting in a phase to phase fault with high fault currents.

The undetected earth fault could present a significant safety hazard.

Neutral electromagnetic couplers consist of a three-phase zigzag connected winding connected between the phases
to ground (shunt connection).

The zigzag connection of winding has the ability to present a high impedance to a balanced 3-phase system, but a low
impedance to zero sequence current.

This under healthy (balanced) system conditions the NEC appear as a high impedance but during an earth fault, earth
fault current will flow through the NEC to the point of the fault allowing the fault to be detected.

NEC

Figure 35-4.2: Typical Application: Delta Secondary Side of YNd1 Transformer.

Standard electromagnetic couplers used by Eskom take the following forms:-

a) Combined 3-phase neutral electromagnetic couplers and auxiliary transformers. These consist of a NEC in
combination with an auxiliary transformer in order to provide station auxiliary supplies

Standard ratings are listed in Table 35-4.1.

b) Combined 3-phase neutral electromagnetic couplers, neutral earthing resistor and auxiliary transformers.

These are similar to the above, with the addition of a neutral earthing resistor to provide fault current limitation.

Standard ratings are listed in Table 35-4.2.

2.3 Neutral Earthing Reactors (400 kV - 765 kV Systems)

These single-phase reactors are connected between the star point of an HV Shunt reactor and earth (see Figure 35-
4.3 below). Their purpose is to reduce the capacitive coupling between the two healthy phases and the faulted phase
during a line to ground fault, thus enabling quick single phase auto re-closing. Neutral earthing reactors are not
required on all HV shunt reactors. Line connected shunt reactors on 400 kV lines of 200 km or more are usually
individually evaluated in order to determine whether neutral earthing reactors are required or not.

Table 35-4.1: Parameters for Standard Three-Phase Neutral Electromagnetic Couplers / Auxiliary Transformers

Main Trfr NEC Characteristics NEC Neutral CTs

Eskom
Rating NEC Rated Neutral/ Neutral/ Ref & Diff IDMT EF 380/220V Auxiliary
Standard
Voltage Phase Current Phase Current Zero-Sequence Impedance 15VA/10P/15 Supply
Number
Rating Amp Rating Class X kVA Rating
R.M.S (Thermal) Ohms Per Phase Multi-Ratio
MVA
kV (For 10 Sec) A rms (Dynamic) Minimum Maximum CT (See Note 3) Ratio
A3 80 2500/833 3150/1050 17 20,4 1/1600 1600/1 100
A2 40 33 1250/417 1600/533 34 40,8 1/1600 800/1 100
A1 20 630/210 800/27 68 81.6 1/1600 400/1 100
B3 40 2500/833 3150/1050 11,5 13.8 1/1600 1200/1 100
B2 20 22 1250/417 1600/533 23 27.6 1/1600 600/1 100
B1 10 & 5 630/210 800/267 46 55.2 1/1600 400/1 100
C3 20 2500/833 3150/1050 5,75 6.9 1/1600 1200/1 100
C2 10 11 1250/417 1600/533 11,5 13.8 1/1600 600/1 100
C1 5 &2,5 630/210 800/267 23 27.6 1/1600 400/1 50
D3 10 2500/833 3150/1050 3,5 4.2 1/1600 1000/1 100
D2 5 6,6 1250/417 1600/533 7 8.4 1/1600 600/1 50
D1 2,5 630/210 800/267 14 16.8 1/1600 400/1 50
E2 5 3,3 2500/833 3150/1050 1,75 2.1 1/1600 1000/1 50
E1 2,5 1250/417 1600/533 3,5 4.2 1/1600 600/1 50

Note 1: CONNECTIONS OF NEC WINDING - INTERSTAR

CONNECTION OF AUXILIARY SUPPLY TRANSFORMER Dyn11

Note 2: SYSTEM IMPEDANCES:

The neutral / phase current ratings given above result from the summation of the particular system
impedances assumed and the zero-sequence impedance specified for the NEC’s

Table 35-4.2: Parameters for Standard Three-Phase Neutral Electromagnetic Couplers, Neutral Earthing Resistor and Auxiliary Transformers

Eskom System Continuous N.E.C. (Zig-Zag Connection) and N.E.R. Characteristics CT’s fitted to the N.E.C. Neutral (as Nominal Power of
Standard Nominal Nominal per Figure 1) Auxiliary Power
Number Voltage Un Current Transformer
Short time current for Zero sequence reactance (Xo) and Turns ratio of Turns Ratio of (Having LV =
10 seconds in the resistance (Ro) class X Multi- Single Ratio 400/230 V,
N.E.C. neutral and ratio CT for REF Class X CT for Vectorial Group
(kV) (A rms) resistor Xo=Xc+3Xr Ro=Rc+3Rr and Diff. IDMTEF Dyn11)
(see note 3) (see note 3) Protection (see
(A rms) clause 8) (see clause 8) (kVA)

Min. Max. Min. Max. Min. (See Max. (See (N2/N1) (N2/N1)
Note 1) Note 2)

N3 3.3 10 300 396 7 8.4 14 16.8 1600/1 300/1 50

N6 6.6 10 300 396 14 16.5 28 33 1600/1 300/1 100

N 11 11 10 300 396 23 27.5 47 55 1600/1 300/1 100

N 22 22 10 300 396 45.8 55 93.3 110 1600/1 300/1 100

N 33 33 10 300 396 70 84 140 168 1600/1 300/1 100

o o o
Notes: 1) The minimum value of Ro refers to the value of Rc and Tr at 100 C (40 C ambient + 60 C rise of metallic resistor due to continuous nominal current of 10 A) (see
clause 7.8 (b))

o
2) The maximum value of Ro results from the increase of Rc and Rr due to manufacturing tolerances and the temperature rise (above 100 C, see clause 8.8 (b)) after a
10 second fault at the maximum fault current of 396 A.

3) Xc and Rc refer to one phase of N.E.C winding; Xr and Rr refer to the metallic resistor. The condition Ro/Xo ≥ 2 must be met, preferably Ro/Xo = 2.

200 km +
Busbar Busbar

Line Line
Breakers Breakers
Main Line
Reactors

Neutral
Earthing
Reactors

Figure 35-4.3: Application of Neutral Earthing Reactors on Long Lines

Both oil immersed and dry type reactors may be utilised for these applications.

3. PROCUREMENT

With the exception of the neutral earthing reactors and resistors the procurement of the above equipment is done on
an Eskom National Contract.

Neutral earthing reactors and resistors are not bulk order items and are thus ordered on an individual basis depending
on specific requirements.

4. PROTECTION AND INSULATION LEVELS

4.1 Neutral Earthing Resistors

4.1.1 Insulation levels (see Table 35-4.3).

Table 35-4.3: Typical Neutral Earthing Resistor.

System nominal Voltage (Un) kV 33 22 11 6,6 3,3

Equipment nominal voltage   Un  kV

 19.1 12.7 6.53 3.81 1.9
 3 
o
Ω)
Nominal resistance at 100 C (Ω 60 40 20 12 6
Nominal short time current (A) 300
Nominal short time (s) 10

4.1.2 Built-in current transformers

Neutral

IDMTEF and Diff Protection (200/1) with Taps at 200, 800 and 1200)

REF and Diff Protection (1/1600) with Taps at 200, 800 and 1200)

Earth

Figure 35-4.4: Built In Current Transformer

4.1.3 Other protection

4.1.3.1 Oil filled units

• Top oil thermometers with alarm and trip contacts

• Pressure relief device with alarm and trip contacts

• Direct reading liquid level gauge.

4.1.3.2 Dry type units

These units have no additional protective devices.

4.2 Neutral Electromagnetic Couplers

4.2.1 Insulation levels (see Table 35-4.1 and 35-4.2).

4.2.2 Built-in current transformers

A B C

IDMTEF 300/1

REF and 1/1600 with Taps at

Diff Protection 200, 800 and 1200)

Figure 35-4.5: Neutral Resistor Built In Current Transformers in Combination with an NEC

4.2.3 Other protection

• Oil conservator with direct reading oil level indicator

• Gas in oil actuated relay (Buchholz).

• Dial type top oil thermometer with alarm and trip contacts.

4.3 Neutral Earthing Reactors

4.3.1 Insulation levels

According to installation and rating of the reactor, insulation levels are based on the actual short time ratings of these
units, but in any case not less than the neutral insulation level of the main reactor to which they are connected.

4.3.2 Built-in current transformers

Based on requirements

4.3.3 Other protection

4.3.3.1 Oil filled units

• Oil gauge with alarm

• Top oil temperature indicator with alarm and trip

• Gas in oil actuated relay (Buchholz)

• Pressure relief device with alarm and trip

4.3.3.2 Dry type reactors

• No additional protection

5. REFERENCE DOCUMENTS

5.1 NWS 1586 - Standard specification for metallic neutral earthing resistors (N.E.R’s) outdoor
type, liquid Immersed. (Rev 1, 1984)

5.2 NWS 1590 - Standard specification for three phase Neutral Electromagnetic Couplers
(N.E.C’s) combined with Neutral Earthing Resistors (N.E.R’s) and Auxiliary
Power Transformers (Rev 0, 1978)

5.3 NWS 1520 - Standard specification for combined three-phase Neutral Electromagnetic
Couplers (N.E.C’s) and Auxiliary Power Transformers (without neutral
connected resistors). (Rev 2, 1978)

5.4 NWS 1412 - Standard specification for Neutral Earthing Reactors (N.E.R’s). (Rev 1, 1989)

5.5 Pretorius RE, Rosen PR - “Neutral earthing in high voltage industrial power systems - current South
African practice and recommended standards”. transactions SAIEE, July 1983.

5.6 Report SE91/04 Rev. 1 - Tertiary bay requirements when coupling transformer tertiaries are used to
supply station auxiliary loads and / or rural supplies. April 1992.

SLDG 36-1

SHUNT CAPACITOR BANKS

1. ESKOM STANDARD SHUNT CAPACITOR BANKS

Table 36-1.1 sets out the ratings of the standard shunt capacitor banks and associated equipment used in the Eskom
system.

Table 36-1.1: Standard Capacitor Banks and Associated Equipment Ratings

Rated System Capacitor Bank Current limiting Damping Resistor Current Transformer
Voltage (Un) Ratings Reactor Ratio
kV MVAr at Rated Rated Micro Ohms kW Sec. External Internal
Voltage (Un) Amps Henrys Fusing Fusing
11 6 3 400 200 1,5 25 40/1 12/1
22 12 6 400 200 1,5 25 40/1 6/1
33 18 9 400 300 3,0 50 25/1 4/1
44 24 12 400 300 3,0 50 20/1 3/1
66 36 18 400 500 6,0 100 10/1 2/1
88 48 24 400 500 10,0 200 10/1 1/1
132 72 36 400 600 10,0 200 5/1 1/1
220 120 60 400 600 20,0 400 3/1 1/1
275 150 75 400 800 20,0 400 3/1 1/1

Notes:-

a) It will be seen from Table 36-1.1 that only two standard ratings are proposed for each voltage level, the smaller bank
being rated at 50 % of the larger bank.

The practice of having shunt capacitor banks of standard MVAr rating for each system voltage has been abandoned
by Eskom, because of bank operational difficulties at different load patterns in several shunt-compensated networks.

b) Capacitor banks are specified to be capable of operating continuously without harm at a voltage of Um = 1,1 Un for
system voltage up to 400 kV. The corresponding MVAr at Um voltage will be 1,35 times the rated MVAr at Un,
including capacitor tolerances and harmonics.

c) Short-circuits in the vicinity of substations can cause shunt capacitors to discharge very high currents (both in
magnitude and frequency) through substation circuit breakers which are not necessarily designed to cope with such
capacitive currents. In order to limit the total discharge current in a substation to a level with which the circuit
breakers can reasonably cope, it is recommended that not more than 4 capacitor banks be installed at any one
substation, and reactors of adequate inductance be connected in series to each capacitor bank phase.

2. GENERAL BACKGROUND INFORMATION ON CAPACITORS

2.1 General

Shunt capacitors are installed on systems to act as sources of MVAr generation for voltage regulation and power factor
correction. Physically they are comparatively simple devices but technically they become rather complex and it is
desirable that some background information be provided for inclusion in this document.

2.2 Capacitor Elements

A capacitor consists essentially of two electrodes (or aluminium foil) A and B connected to terminals and of a suitable
dielectric between the foils as indicated in the following Figure 36-1.1(a).

Aluminium foils are of some micron (4-5 µm) thickness while the insulation is usually built up of either layers of paper,
combinations of plastic film and paper, and 2 or more layers of polypropylene film in modern capacitors. The whole
packet is impregnated with an insulating fluid to eliminate air bubbles and voids.

Typically a pack of this type is referred to as a "Capacitor Element" and has a rating in the region of 1500 / 2200 volts
and 3 kVAr to 6 kVAr.

2.3 Capacitor Units

To achieve a greater output at a higher voltage a number of capacitor elements or packs are assembled into containers
or cans known as "Capacitor Units". [Figures 36-1.1(b) and 1(c)].

Capacitor unit ratings vary considerably and extend over ranges of 50KVAr to 1 MVAr and 2kV to 21kV.

Aluminium
Foil A Foils Foil B

Terminal A

Terminal B

Dielectric
(Paper, Plastic Film and
Dielectric Fluid)

(a)

Terminal 1 Terminal 1 Terminal 2

Terminal 2

Parallel
Series
Elements
Groups

Casing Casing

(b) Single Bushing Unit (c) Double Bushing Unit

Figure 36-1.1: Capacitor Can Construction

2.4 Capacitor Banks

To provide capacitors of still larger outputs for higher system voltages the capacitor units can be assembled into series
and parallel groups to create a "Capacitor Bank" (See Figure 36-1.2).

Phase Terminal

Series Groups
of Units

Parallel
Units
Neutral Terminal

Figure 36-1.2: Shunt Capacitor Bank Configuration

2.4.1 Capacitor Bank Configurations

(a) Double-Star Unearthed.

A double star connection is often adopted to facilitate the application of sensitive out-of-balance protection (see Figure
36-1.3.

R W B

Out-of-Balance CT

Figure 36-1.3: Double-Star Unearthed

(b) Double-Star Neutral Earthed via Low Voltage Capacitor.

The two-star points can be connected to earth at high voltage applications to decrease stresses on the circuit breaker
poles (see Figure 36-1.4).

R W B

Out-of-Balance
CT

Low Voltage
Capacitors

Figure 36-1.4: Double-Star Earthed Via Low Voltage Capacitors

(c) Single-Star Earthed.

Relatively recently introduced into the Eskom system. Voltage differential method of protection is required for this
configuration (see Figure 36-1.5).

R W B

VT VT VT

Low Voltage
Capacitors

Figure 36-1.5: Single-Star Earthed Via Low Voltage Capacitors

Discharge Resistor

Elemen Fuse
t
a) Internally Fused

Fuse

Discharge
Resistor

Element
b) Externally Fused

Discharge
Resistor

Element

c) Fuseless

Figure 36-1.6: Schematic Circuits of Fused and Fuseless Capacitor Cans

2.5 Neutral Earthing

Earthing of the capacitor banks neutral is advantageous for capacitor banks applied to transmission voltage level
systems (solidly earthed). In no solidly-earthed systems (distribution) it is not advisable to earth the neutral of applied

shunt capacitors, as over-voltages which result from a system phase fault, may severely stress and damage the
capacitor units connected to the undisturbed phases. For more detailed information on neutral earthing, refer to
Appendix E.

2.6 Inrush Currents and Remedies

When a capacitor bank is switched into service, an inrush current occurs which can be of considerable magnitude and
frequency.

If the bank is the only one in the station the inrush current will be comparatively small, the current inrush being limited by
the system source impedance. If, however, there are one or more capacitor banks already in service when an additional
bank is switched in, the inrush current will be very high and for this reason reactors are installed to limit the current
magnitude. In addition resistors are connected in parallel with the current limiting reactors to damp the inrush currents
as quickly as possible. Synchronous closing (recently introduced in some Eskom capacitor banks) can be very effective
in controlling over-voltages and inrush currents associated with capacitor bank energization, provided that the timing
relay which controls the circuit-breaker closing mechanisms, allows closing within ± 2 milliseconds at voltage zeros.

2.7 Fused and Fuseless Capacitors

Typically, a single capacitor unit contains a large amount of insulating material and despite the most stringent quality
control measures it is almost impossible to eliminate all weak spots. Multiple layers improve the integrity of the
insulation but weak spots of the capacitor dielectric nevertheless still occur on a statistical basis and failures follow,
particularly in view of the high working voltage stresses that are adopted for capacitors.

A puncture of the polypropylene film insulation invariably results in a short-circuit condition and some form of protection
is necessary to isolate the fault and safeguard the bank. For this reason fuses are mounted within the unit container, or
with one large fuse per capacitor unit is mounted externally to the container. These two methods are commonly referred
to as "Internal fusing" and "External fusing" respectively (see Figure 36-1.6a and 6b).

Fuseless capacitors are used in a new capacitor bank configuration in which fuses are not used. Fuseless capacitor
unit internal configuration is fundamentally the same as that with external fuses (see Figure 36-1.6c). In the shunt
fuseless capacitor banks, the units are connected in series with each other to form strings of units. One or more strings
are connected in parallel to achieve the required MVAr output of each bank phase (see Figure 36-1.7).

The advantages and disadvantages of these three types of technology are briefly summarized in Table 36-1.2.

Figure 36-1.7: Fuseless Capacitor Bank Configuration (Parallel Strings per Phase)

Table 36-1.2: Advantages and Disadvantages of Various Configurations of Shunt Capacitor Banks

INTERNALLY FUSED CAPACITORS

ADVANTAGE DISADVANTAGE
1. Loss of element does not mean loss of unit, therefore tripping unnecessary in 1. Insufficient unbalance current in large banks
smaller banks and greater reliability
2. Gradual loss of capacity in service - difficult to evaluate may effect unbalance
2. Simple bank construction requires less space protection

3. Difficult to test bank and unit in field

4. No visible indication of failure

5. Limited voltage rating

EXTERNALLY FUSED CAPACITORS

1. Higher unbalance currents, therefore less sensitive unbalance protection. 1. Loss of element means loss of bank in smaller size banks, therefore, less reliable

2. Provides visible indication of failure 2. Fuse assemblies corrode in hostile environments

3. Available in higher voltage units (up to 25 kV) which simplifies construction of 3. Banks occupy more space because of fuse clearance distance.
higher voltage banks

4. Provides protection for bushing flashover or failure of case insulation.

5. Easy field checking

6. False fuse operation does not require capacitor unit to be discharged

FUSELESS CAPACITORS
Except for visible indication of capacitor failures, all advantages of both fused No cost effectiveness at voltage lower than 44 kV
capacitor technology

3. NOMENCLATURE AND BASIC EQUATIONS

where:-

Une = Rated voltage between terminals of a capacitor element

Qe = KVAr rating of a capacitor element
p = Number of elements in parallel per row in a capacitor unit
r = Number of rows of elements in series per capacitor unit
Unu = Rated voltage between terminals of a capacitor unit = r . Une eq. 36-1.1
Qu = KVAr rating of capacitor unit = p . Qe . r eq. 36-1.2
c = Number of capacitor units in parallel on left-hand split phase (equal to right-hand split phase if the split-
star groups are equal and balanced)
1
c = Number of capacitor units in parallel on right hand split phase if this is different from the left-hand split
phase
s = Number of groups of units in series per phase
Un = Nominal line-to-line voltage in kV of capacitor bank = 3 . s . Unu eq. 36-1.3
Um = Maximum line-to-line voltage of capacitor bank = 1,1 Un eq. 36-1.4
MC = Three-phase MVAr rating of bank at Un
-3
= c . Qu . s . 3 (phases) . 2 (split stars) . 10 (double-star) eq. 36-1.5
-3
= or c . Qu . s . 3 . 10 (single-star) MVAr eq. 36-1.6
= 4
C MC .10
Capacitance = 2
Farads (See Appendix C) eq. 36-1.7
ω.Un
Fv = System voltage change when capacitor bank is switched
= MC
. 100 % ¨(See Appendix C) eq. 36-1.8
MF
MF = 3-phase short-circuit level on busbars in MVA
Î = Peak inrush current when energising in a capacitor bank against parallel energised capacitor banks.
(See Appendix A and Appendix C)
Ce = Equivalent values of capacitance in µF applicable to parallel banks. (See appendix C)
= C, ½.C, 2/3.C, and ¾.C for 1 to 4 banks respectively
L = Inductance in µH of current limiting reactor
Le = Equivalent values of inductance in µH applicable to parallel banks (See appendix C).
= 3 4
L, 2.L, .L and .L for 1 to 4 banks respectively eq. 36-1.9
2 3
fi = Frequency of inrush current (Hz) (See Appendix A and Appendix C)
= 2
10
eq. 36-1.10
2.π. L e .C e
= 160000
Hz for all bank combinations eq. 36-1.11
L.C
R = Resistance in ohms of damping resistor
Re = Equivalent values of resistance in ohms applicable to parallel banks (See Appendix C)
= 3 4
R, 2.R, .R and .R for 1 to 4 banks respectively eq. 36-1.12
2 3

Er = Energy dissipation requirements of discharge resistor

= 2
R . Re -3
0,77. Un .Ce . 2
. 10 kilowatt-seconds (See Appendix A) eq. 36-1.13
Re
t = Damping time in microseconds
= 4,62.C.R (See Appendix A) eq. 36-1.14
S = Number of parallel strings in each phase of a fuseless shunt capacitor bank

Discharge currents: See Appendix B.

Protection equations: See Appendix D, D1 and D2.

Im = Minimum size fuse link.

4. BASIS OF RATINGS

4.1 Bank Ratings

The bank ratings are based on the following factors:-

a) Circuit breaker capabilities (See 36-1.1 Appendix C). Circuit breakers can switch capacitive currents of up to 400
amps without excessive trouble and capacitor banks of this rating are considered to be reasonable from the point of
view of breaker capabilities over the whole of the voltage range.

The advent of the SF6 breaker in certain voltage ranges might make possible higher capabilities but double-banking of
capacitors can be adopted if breaker capabilities are exceeded.

b) Voltage step on switching (See 36-1.1 Appendix C). The voltage change on the system when a capacitor is switched
should not be excessive. The banks shall cause voltage changes in the order of ± 3 %.

c) Number of banks installed at any one substation (See 36-1.1 Appendix B and 36-1.1 Appendix C).

Based on the analysis in 36-1.1 Appendixes B and C it is concluded that to limit the discharge currents through
capacitors under system short circuit conditions to values within the capabilities of the substation breakers (line,
transformer, breakers etc.), not more than 4 banks of standard rating should be installed at any one substation.

d) Small output rating. The main problem with banks of small rating is one of protection and, indirectly, one of
economics.

Where internal fusing is employed the out-of-balance current is not affected unduly by the number of parallel units (c)
1
in a split phase and banks down to . 100 % rating can be protected.
c
However, with external fusing it is generally necessary for protection to ensure at least 10 units in parallel in each split-
phase. This tends to reduce the unit KVAr rating, thereby increasing the relative costs if the overall bank rating is
reduced. To a certain extend the unit voltage rating can be increased to compensate for reduced KVAr rating but this
cannot always be achieved with small banks.

In attempting to establish some basis for small banks it is suggested that:

(i) Banks smaller than 50 % of the full rating be connected, if possible, to a lower voltage bus or, if the system voltage
exceeds 44 kV, the banks of small rating be built with the use of fuseless technology, which in this case is
economically and technically advantageous.

(ii) Where (i) is not possible, internally fused or fuseless capacitor must be adopted, preferably in single-star connection
and protected by a suitable protection scheme.

4.2 Current-limiting Reactor Ratings

36-1.1 Appendix C gives details of the standard current-limit reactor ratings together with the basis of these ratings.

4.3 Damping Resistor Ratings

36-1.1 Appendix C gives details of the standard damping resistor ratings together with the basis of these ratings.

4.4 Neutral Current Transformer Ratings

36-1.1 Appendix C gives details of the standard neutral current transformer ratings together with the basis of these
ratings.

4.5 Neutral Voltage Transformer Ratings

36-1.1 Appendix C

4.6 Bank Insulation Levels

36-1.1 Appendix C.

5. PROTECTION

5.1 Single and Double-star Banks

5.1.1. General

In the past shunt capacitor banks were connected only in double-star to facilitate the application of sensitive out-of-
balance protection and the neutral was left unearthed to avoid zero-sequence resonance problems.

Shunt banks connected in single-star configuration with neutral earthed were recently introduced in the Eskom system.
The internal protection of single-star neutral-earthed configured banks is performed by voltage differential based relays of
numerical type (phase III protection).

This section briefly outlines the protection to be applied to both types of bank, a detailed description being given in
Protection report E2/44-56 and Technology reference for power capacitor applications and protection, (document
TRMAGAAC4).

5.1.2 Out-of-balance protection

By splitting each phase into two approximately equal groups of capacitors the loss of one unit (or a section of one unit)
can be detected by protective relays responding to the out-of-balance current which flows in the neutral connection
between the two star groups.

Under faulty capacitor conditions one or more protective fuses will operate and in addition to causing an out-of-balance
current to flow in the neutral, overvoltages will be produced across the healthy capacitors of the effected series group. It
must be noted that in a double-star bank capacitor failures in both split legs of a capacitor bank phase may compensate
each other. This produces undetected over-voltages and likely more severe faults. The magnitudes of the out-of-balance
currents and voltages are given in the equations that follow.

5.1.2.1 Internally-fused capacitors

a) Neutral current calculations:-

Table 36-1.3: Internally-Fused Capacitor Neutral Current Calculations

Equal and Balanced split phases See

Appendix D
3 .Mc n.103 eq. 36-1D.22
INI = . amps
2.Un 6.s.c.A − n.(6s − 5)

or
3.Qu .c n
= . amps
Unu 6.s.c.A − n.(6s − 5) eq. 36-1D.22a

Unequal split phases (Fault on L.H.S limb) See SLDG 36-1 Appendix D

3.Mc n.103 c.c1 eq. 36-1D.7

INI = . . amps
Un 3.s.c.A(c + c1) − n.[3.s.(c + c1) − (2.c + 3.c1)] c + c1

or
3. Qu n
.c . c1. amps
Unu 3.s.c.A.(c + c1) − n.[3.s.(c + c1) − (2.c + 3.c1)] eq. 36-1D.7a

Unequal split phases (Fault on R.H.S. limb)

Similar to Equations 36-1D.7 and 36-1D.7a See eqs. 36-1D.8 and 36-1D.8(a)

where:-

INI = R.M.S current in the neutral (ignoring transient conditions)

n = Number of internal fuses blown in the same row
A = p + (r-1) . (p-n) (see Appendix D)

1
Mc, Un, Qu, Unu, s, c, c , p, r ⇒ See Clause: Basic Equations.

It is generally not possible to detect the neutral current resulting from the loss of a single fuse because the variation of the
current is so small as to be comparable with current variation due to the normal tolerance between units.

b) Over-voltage calculations

If the number of blown fuses increases the out-of-balance current will increase but at the same time the voltage appearing
across the remaining healthy capacitor elements and units will increase to the following values.

Per-unit over-voltages following blown fuses:-

Table 36-1.4: Internally-Fused Capacitor Over-voltage Calculations

Equal and balanced split phases See Appendix D

6.p.r.c.s eq. 36-1D.23

Vei = pu Element overvoltages
6.s.c.A − n.(6.s − 5)

6 .s.c.A
V = pu Unit overvoltages
6.s.c.A − n.(6.s − 5)
eq. 36-1D.24

Unequal split phases (Fault on L.H.S. limb) See SLDG 36-1 Appendix D

Element Over-voltages
3. p.r.c.s. (c + c1)
Vei = pu eq. 36-1D.14
3.s.c.A.(c + c1) − n.3.s.(c + c1) − (2.c + 3.c1)

Unit Over-voltages

3. c.s.(c + c1).A
Vui = pu eq. 36-1D.16
3.s.c.A.(c + c ) − 3.n.s.(c + c1) − (2.c + 3.c1)
1

Unequal split phases (Fault on R.H.S. limb)

Similar to equation 36-1D.14 and 36-1D.16 See eqns. 36-1D.15 and 36-1D.17

where:-

Vei = per unit over-voltage across healthy elements in a row of faulty elements (after fuses have
operated)
Vui = Per unit over-voltages across healthy units in parallel with a unit containing faulty elements

The following sketch of Figure 36-1.6 illustrates the fuse protection for one phase:-

Phase Current (I*p)

Arm Current (I*a)

US
S P-1 P

US-1 U (1)
S-1

Faulty Fuse
Elements
u1
Blown u1
U*1
1 Fuses u1
u1

Faulty Units

Neutral Current
Figure 36-1.6: Distribution of Voltages in the Capacitor Split-Arm Consequent on “n” Element Failures in a Group
of Units Internal Elements.

As an example of the voltages and currents that will appear under fault conditions as a function of the number of blown
fuses in the same row consider the case of a 72 MVAr, 132 kV unearthed double-star bank made up of 6,35 kV 167 kVAr
units. Each split leg consists of 12 groups of 6 units in parallel.

Each unit is internally made up of 4 series groups of 15 parallel elements and one internal fuse series-connected to each
element (i.e. 15 x 4 = 60 capacitor elements and fuses in each unit).

Table 36-1.5: Internally-Fused Capacitor Voltages and Currents as a Function of the Number of Blown Fuses in a
72MVAr, 132kV Unearthed Double - Star Bank

No. of Fuses Neutral Current (A) P.U. Over-Voltage on Element Row P.U. Over-voltage on unit row
Blown (Vei) (Vui)
1 0.0193 1.0555 1.0027
2 0.0408 1.1175 1.0058
3 0.0651 1.1873 1.0092
4 0.0925 1.2664 1.0131
5 0.1259 1.3567 1.0175
6 0.1601 1.4609 1.0227
7 0.2023 1.5825 1.0286
8 0.2522 1.7263 1.0357
9 0.3121 1.8985 1.0442

Table 36-1.5: Internally-Fused Capacitor Voltages and Currents as a Function of the Number of Blown Fuses in a
72MVAr, 132kV Unearthed Double - Star Bank (Continued)
No. of Fuses Neutral current (A) P.U. Over-voltage on element row P.U. Over-voltage on unit row
Blown (Vei) (Vui)
10 0.3852 2.1090 1.0545
11 0.4765 2.3921 1.0674
12 0.5941 2.7102 1.0841
13 0.7504 3.1606 1.1062
14 0.9692 3.7906 1.1372
15 1.2969 4.7342 1.1836

The operating voltage of the bank is assumed to be Un = 132 kV. In practice it is difficult to detect less than about 4 blown
fuses at which stage the voltage across the healthy elements will rise to about 129 %, a voltage which the manufacturers
claim the element can withstand for ± some months. It should be noted that the voltage across parallel units under these
conditions will only be a matter of 101 %.

For completeness the magnitude of the current through an internal fuse following the short-circuiting of an element are
recorded in Appendix D.

To provide the required sensitivity, the ratio of the unbalance current transformer must be low. Table 36-1D.1 in Appendix
D sets out the current transformers recommended for use with standard banks of internally fused capacitors.

5.1.2.2 Externally-fused capacitors

a) Neutral current calculations

Table 36-1.6: Externally-Fused Capacitor Neutral Current Calculations

Equal and balanced split phases See Appendix D

3 MC n.103
INE = . . amps eq. 36-1D.27
2 Un 6.s.c − n.(6.s − 5)

Qu .c n eq. 36-1.27a
= 3. .
Unu 6.s.c − n.(6.s − 5)

Unequal split phases See SLDG 36-1 Appendix D1

b) Over-voltage calculations

The per-unit over-voltages following blown fuses:-

Table 36-1.7: Externally-Fused Capacitor Over-voltage Calculations

Equal and balanced split phases See Appendix D

6.c.s eq. 36-1D.28

Vue = pu unit over-voltages
6.c.s − n.(6.s − 5)

Unequal split phases not calculated

where:-

INE = R.M.S. current in the neutral (ignoring transients)

Vue = Per-unit over-voltage across the healthy units connected in parallel with one or more faulty units (after
fuse has blown)
n = Number of blown external fuses (normally only one blown fuse will be required to trigger the
protection)

Taking as an example a 72 MVAr, 132 kV unearthed split-star bank made up of 200 kVAr units each rated at 12,7 kV, with
6 units in series, 10 units in parallel in each split-phase group, and one external fuse per capacitor unit.

Table 36-1.8: Externally-Fused Capacitor Voltages and Currents as a Function of Number of Blown Fuses in a 72
MVAr, 132 kV Unearthed Split-Star Bank

No of external Neutral current P.U. Over-voltage on unit row

fuses blown INE amps (Vue)
1 1.436 1.0942
2 3.1707 1.2081
3 5.3083 1.3483
4 8.0075 1.5254
5 11.5229 1.7561
6 16.2911 2.0649
7 23.1265 2.5175
8 33.7458 3.2143
9 52.4934 4.4444
10 94.4882 7.2000

Normally the bank will be designed such that the loss of one fused unit will not cause the voltage across the remaining
healthy units in the row to exceed 110 %.

The neutral current in this case is considerably higher than in the case of internally-fused capacitor banks because of the
higher capacitance that is lost when one fuse blows. The ratings of the current transformers recommended for use with
standard banks and externally-fused capacitors are detailed in Table 36-1D.1 Appendix D.

More practical formulae for the calculations of the unbalance currents and over-voltages as a result of capacitor
failures are derived in 36-1 Appendix D1 and D2.

5.1.2.3 Fuse rating and operations

The fuse for power capacitor is chosen such that its continuous current capability is equal to or greater than 135 % of
rated capacitor current. This overrating is required for over-voltage conditions, capacitance tolerance and harmonics.
The minimum size fuse link is calculated as follows:

Im = 1,35 . (unit rated current) eq. 36-1.15

This calculation is based on the link being 100 % rated, as in the case for full range current limiting fuses and NEMA type
T & K silver expulsion links. In the case of tin expulsion links, which are 150 % rated, this value must be divided by 1,50
to obtain the fuse link size. In Appendix F the minimum melting characteristics of the NEMA Type T-TIN are given.

It should be noted that the short-circuiting of a single capacitor element (which means that the whole row is shorted) is
most unlikely to cause operation of the external fuse. Two or more rows of capacitors may have to fail before positive
blowing of the fuse occurs.

Table 36-1.8: The Per Unit Current through an External Fuse When One or More Capacitor Elements are Short-
Circuited

Equal and balanced split phases See Appendix D

Ia1.F 6.c.r.s eq. 36-1D.29

= pu
Ia 1 F.(6.s − 5) + 5.c.(r − m)

where:-
1
Ia = Normal current through external fuse
1
Ia F = Current through fuse under fault condition
F = r + (r-m).(c-1)
m = Number of series rows of elements that are short-circuited

5.1.2.4 Out-of-Balance Calculation When Fuses Have Not Operated.

The current through the neutral when a number of m capacitor elements are short-circuited without causing the fuse to
blow is given by:-

Table 36-1.9: Neutral Current When “M” Capacitor Elements Are Short-Circuited Without Causing the Fuse to
Blow

Equal and balanced split phases See Appendix D

3 MC m.103 eq. 36-1D.35

INE = . . + 5.c.(r − m) amps
2 Un F.(6.s − 5)

or
Qu c.m
= 3. . + 5.c.(r − m) amps
Unu F.(6.s − 5) eq. 36-1D.35a

For completeness the neutral displacement voltage and the various voltages that occur under capacitor short-circuit
conditions that do not blow fuses are recorded in 36-1 Appendix D.

5.2 Fuseless Capacitor Banks

5.2.1 Formulae for the Calculation of the Unbalance Voltages and Currents in Earthed Capacitor Banks

Table 36-1.10: Calculation of Unbalanced Voltages and Currents in Earthed Capacitor Banks

Scheme Bank Configuration Signal Change for Signal Change for Shorting Capacitors
Shorting of n Capacitor in one string to Give 110 % Voltage on
Units in a String of N Units the Remaining Capacitors in that String.

(1) n 0,1
Vc = Vc (0,1) =
S.(N − n) S
a)

(2) VC

(1) n 0,1
IN = IN (0,1) =
S.(N − n) S
b)

(3) IN

(1) n 0 .1
VC1 = VC1 (0.1) =
S.(N − n) S
c)

(2) VC1 VC2

(1) n 0. 1
VCA = VCA (0.1) =
S.(N − n) S
d)
(2) VCA VCB VCC

1. Each capacitor represents S parallel strings of N units each. The unbalance formulas are based on n units short
circuited in one string of N units.

2. Capacitor earthing. For additional information, refer to 36-1 Appendix E.

3. Current Transformer. For selection and protection guidelines, refer to Eskom Shunt Capacitor Specification and
document TRMAGAAC4.

Table 36-1.11: Calculation Of Per Unit Voltage on Remaining Units in Earthed Capacitor Banks

Per Unit Voltage on Remaining Units in a Comments

String of N units When Shorting n Units

N
a) Vn = Add unbalance compensation to avoid operation from system
N−n
unbalance.

N
b) Vn = Difficult to compensate for system unbalance.
N−n
N
c) Vn = Not sensitive to system unbalance. Inherent bank unbalance can
N−n
be zeroed out with unbalance compensation

N
d) Vn = Compare tap voltage (VCA, VCB, VCC) with bus voltage. This scheme
N−n
frequently used for very high voltage banks.

The above comments refer to the configuration schemes shown on the Table 36-1.10.
5.2.2 Formulae for the Calculation of the Unbalanced Voltages and Currents in Unearthed Capacitor Banks
Table 36-1.12: Calculation of Unbalanced Voltages and Currents in Earthed Capacitor Banks

Signal Change for Signal Change for Shorting Capacitors

Shorting of n Capacitor in one String to Give 110 % Voltage on
Scheme Bank Units in a string the Remaining Capacitors in that String.
Configuration of N Units

n 0 .1
(1) VN = VN (0.1) =
3.N.S − n.(3.S − 1) 3.S − 1
a)

(2)
VN

3  n  3  0 .1 
IN = .  In (0.1) = . 
(1) 2  6.S.(N − n) + n  2  6.S − 1 
b)

(2)
IN

n 0 .1
VN = VN (0.1) =
3.S.N − n.(3.S − 1) 3.S − 1
c) (1)
VN
(2)

1. Each capacitor represents S parallel strings of N units each. The unbalance formulas are based on n units short
circuited in one string of N units

2. Voltage and current transformers, capable of system line to earth voltage.

3. Current transformer. For selection and protection guidelines, refer to Eskom Shunt Capacitor Specification and
document TRMAGAAC4.

Table 36-1.13: Calculation Of Per Unit Voltage on Remaining Units in Unearthed Capacitor Banks

Per Unit Voltage on Remaining units in

a String of N units When Shorting n Comments
Units

3.S.N Add unbalance compensation of avoid operation from system

a) Vn = unbalances.
3.S.N − n.(3.S − 1)

6.S.N Not sensitive to system unbalance.

b) Vn =
6.S.N − n.(6.S − 1)

3.S.N Not sensitive to system unbalance.

c) Vn =
3.S.N − n.(3.S − 1)
Inherent bank unbalance can be zeroed out with unbalance
compensation.

The above comments refer to the configuration schemes shown on the Table 36-1.13.

6. SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS

6.1 Discharge Resistors

When the circuit breaker that is switching the capacitor opens the circuit interruption may occur at a current zero which
corresponds to a voltage maximum in the capacitive circuit. Thus, after disconnection, the capacitor remains in a charged
state. To limit the danger to personnel, capacitors are normally fitted with internal capable of discharging the capacitor
unit down to 50 volts in 5 minutes.

It must, however, be stressed that certain series capacitors were supplied without discharge resistors (I.E.C. permits this if
an external discharge device is fitted and provided that this device cannot be automatically disconnected from the
capacitors - for example through an external fuse) and to be on the safe side all disconnected capacitors should be
considered as being charged and potentially dangerous unless earthed through a visible earth.

Even under these circumstances i.e. external earth applied, dangerous conditions can arise with internally-fused
capacitors if the whole of one element row is disconnected by fuse operation.

Discharge
Resistor

All Fuses Blown in this Row

Short-circuited Elements

Healthy Fuses and

Capacitor Elements

These Elements Left are

Charged after the last Fuse
In the Row Above Blows
(at current Zero but
Voltage Maximum)
Figure 36-1.7: Old Design of Internally Fused Capacitor Elements

If the last fuse in the faulty row operates at a current zero, the remaining healthy elements will be left fully charged. The
discharge resistor is connected across the terminals of the unit so that in these circumstances it cannot discharge the
healthy elements that are able to sustain this charge for many days, or even months. It should be noted that the physical
construction of old internally-fused capacitor units such that the discharge resistor could not be split into sections to be
connected across each element row. Care must therefore be exercised at all times to earth or discharge capacitors
particularly if a unit has been opened and even if an external earth has previously been applied. New design internally
fused capacitors are manufactured with discharge resistors connected across each element row.

6.2 Askarel Fluids

Askarel fluids, or polychlorinated biphenyl’s (PCB's) as they are known, are impregnating fluids that have been used for
many years in capacitor applications with great success.

Unfortunately concern is being expressed on an increasing scale to the use of PBC's because of the possible
contaminating effects on the environment. The main problem is that these fluids are not biodegradable and tend to
accumulate in plants and animals from where they can pass to higher animals through food chain process.

Since alternative and safer fluids have now become available on the market, Eskom has decided to ban the use of all
PCB's capacitors in future. For existing installations the disposal of faulty or damaged capacitor unit containing PCB fluid
should be carried out in accordance with the regulations laid down in the Eskom document ESKASAAC2, Management of
polychlorinated biphenyl’s (PCB).

SLDG 36-1 APPENDIX A

INRUSH CURRENT CALCULATIONS

The problem: To determine the magnitude and frequency of the inrush current i when switch S is closed in the shunt
capacitor circuit of the above sketch.

i1 i2
L R

i
C

Figure 36-1A.1: In-rush Current in the Shunt Capacitor Circuit

Since i = i1 + i2 eq. 36 - 1A.1

L di
and i2 = eq. 36 - 1A.2
R dt
L d i1
therefore i = i1 +
R dt
di1 1
V =L + ∫ i dt
dt C
di1 1  L d i1 
=L + ∫  i1 + dt
dt C  R dt 
di1 1 L
=L + ∫ i1dt + .i1
dt C CR

Using Heaviside p notation:-

1 L
V = Lp.i 1 + .i 1 + .i 1
Cp C.R

 1 L 
= i 1  Lp + + 
 Cp C.R 
1 V.C.Rp
i1 = V ⋅ = 2
1 L C.R.Lp + R + Lp
Lp + +
Cp C.R
C.R p
= V⋅ .
C.L.R 2 1 1
P + +
C.Rp L.C
V p
i = . eq. 36 - 1A.3
L 2 1 1
p + .p +
C.R L.C

2 1 1
p + .p + is a quadratic with roots as follows:-
C.R L.C

1 
2 2
1  1  4  1  4
p= − ±   −  Real if   >
2  C.R
  C.R  L.C 
  C.R  L.C

1 
2 2
1 4  1  4  1 
p= − ±j −   Complex if > 
2  C.R

L.C  C.R   L.C  C.R 

Considering a bank of 100 MVAr at 132 kV with a 300 µH reactor and 15 ohm damping resistor:-

I ph = 435 amps phase current

132000
XC = = 175 ohm
3 .435
1
XC = capacitor phase impedance
2 π.f.C
6
10
C= 18µF phase capacitance
2 π.50.175
2 2
 1   1  1
  =  =
 C.R   15.18  72000
4 4 1
= =
LC 300 . 18 1350

2
4  1 
Clearly is some 50 times greater than   and the roots of the quadratic are thus complex:-
L.C  C.R 

2
1  1 
1
p=− ±j − 
2C.R L.C  2C.R 

= − α ± jω

1
where α = and
2C.R

2
1  1 
ω= − 
L.C  C.R 

The quadratic may thus be factorised:-

2
p +
1
.p +
1
[ (
= p − − α + jω ) ][p − (− α − jω ) ]
CR LC
= [(p + α ) − jω ][(p + α ) + jω ]
2 2
= (p + α ) +ω

V p
Thu s i 1 = . 2 2
L (p + α ) + ω
p  1 −αt 
Now 2 2
is a standard from having the solution  .e .Sin ω t 
(p + α ) + ω  ω 
V −αt
∴ i1 = .e sin ω t eq. 36 - 1A.4
ω .L
L di 1 L V d −αt
From (2) i 2 = . = . . (e sin ω t)
R dt R ω .L dt

i2 =
ω .R
V
[
. e
−αt
. ω cos ω t − (sin ω t). α).
−αt
]
i2 =
V
.e
−αt
[
. ω .cos ω t − a.sin ω t ] eq. 36 - 1A.5
ω .R
From (1) i = i 1 + i 2

−αt  1 α 1 
= V.e .sin ω t − .sin ω t + .cos ω t
 ω .L ω .R R 

−αt 1  1 α  
= V.e R .cos ω t +  −  sin ωt eq. 36 - 1A.6
  ω .L ω .R  
Equation 36-1A.6 may be written:-

− αt
i = V.e [Cos ωt + B Sin ωt]
− αt 2 2
= V.e A + B Sin(ωt ± θ)

A B
Where Sin θ = and Cos θ = where :
2 2 2 2
A +B A +B
1 1 1 α
A= and B = .− 
R ω L R
2
1 1  1 
α= and ω = − 
2.C.R L.C  2.C.R 

2
2 2 1 1 α1
A +B =
2
+ 2 − 
R ω L R

2
2 2 1 α
ω +R  − 
L R
2 2
= ω .R

2 2
 1 
1 2 1 1 
−  +R . − 2 
= L.C  2.C.R   L 2.C.R 
2 2
ω .R

1 1 2 1 2 1 
− 2 2
+ R . 2
− 2
+ 2 4 
= L.C 4.C .R L 2.L.C.R 4.C .R 
2 2
ω .R

2
1 1 R 1 1
− 2 2
+ 2
− + 2 2
= L.C 4.C .R L L.C 4.C .R
2 2
ω .R

2
R 1
= =
2 2 2 2 2
ω .L .R ω .L

1
A 2 + B2 =
ω.L

V − αt
∴ i = .e .sin ( ωt + θ ) eq. 36-1A.7
ω.L

where:-
2
1 1 
ω= − 
L.C  2.C.R 

1
α=
2.C.R

θ = arc sin
 ω.L 

 R 

2
 1  1
In practice   is small in relation to
 2.C.R  L.C

1
Thus ω=
L.C
L
ω.L =
C
The inrush current may thus be written:-

i = V.
C
.e
− αt
.sin ωt + θ( ) eq. 36-1A.8
L

The peak value of this current is approximately:-

C
Î = V. eq. 36-1A.9
L

e α ≈ 1 for t small and

- t
since

ωt +θ
sin (ω θ) = 1,0 max.

Referring to equation 36-1A.6 it can be seen that at t = 0

V V
i = which compares with the peak value Î =
R L
C
which occurs 90 degrees later. Provide that:-

L
R ≥ , equation A.8 is valid.
C

The frequency of the inrush current is given by:

ω 1 1
fi = =
2π 2π L.C

6
10
fi = Hz L in µH and C in µF eq. 36-1A.10
2 π LC

Damping of the oscillating inrush current is determined by the factor e α :-

- t

eα =
- t
 1 
− .t
 2CR 
e

To damp the current to 10 % of its peak value:-

1
eα = = 0,1
- t
αt
e

eα =
t
10

t
αt = 2,31 =
2.C.R

t = 4,62.C.R µs L in µH and C in µF eq. 36-1A.11

The voltage appearing across R, and hence L, under inrush conditions

VR = i 2 .R = VL (From eq. 36 - 1A.5 )

V − αt
VR = i2 .R = .R.e [ ω.cos ωt − α.sin ωt]
ω.R
− αt α
= V.e [cos ωt − sin ωt]
ω
2
− αt α
= V.e . 1+   .cos( ωt − β )
ω
1
where cosβ = 2
α
1+  
ω

Now:-

2
α 1
1+   = 1+
ω  1  1 2 
(2.C.R ) 2
. −  
 L.C  2.C.R  
2
1 (2.C.R) − L.C + L.C
= 1+ 2
= 2
(2.C.R) (2.C.R) − L.C
−1
L.C
2
(2.C.R) 1
= 2
=
(2.C.R) − L.C L.C
1− 2
(2.C.R)
2
α 1
1+   =
ω 1−
L.C
2
(2.C.R)

Thus:-

− αt
V.e
vR = Cos ( ω − β ) eq. 36-1A.12
L.C
1− 2
(2.C.R)

L.C L.C
2
tends to be small so that 1− 2
→1
(2.C.R) (2.C.R)

L.C
Assuming that the decrement e α offsets by value of
- t
1− 2
less than 1,0 then:-
(2.C.R)

vR (max) = vL (max) = V eq. 36-1A.13

Under lightning conditions a surge current Îl flows basically from a current source and since the frequency is high,
virtually all the current passes through the resistor thereby producing a voltage:-

vR = Îl . R

Except for a direct stroke lightning, currents will normally be less than 5 kA

 Flashover voltage of line insulator string 

  and certainly less the 10 kA which is the discharge level specified for the
 Surge Impedance 
used surge arresters.

Thus VR < 10.R kV eq. 36-1A.14

The continuous current rating of the reactor must obviously match the current rating of the capacitor bank:-

3
1,1.Mc.10
i.e. IL > amps (rms) at 50 Hz eq. 36-1A.15
3 .VL

where:-

R = Continuous current rating of the resistor in ohms

Mc = in MVA

VL = line-to-line kV

The continuous current rating of the resistor is small:-

iR R
C
iC
iL
L

Figure 36-1A.2: Continuous Current Rating of Resistor

The watt rating of the resistor is:-

2
 MC 
 L + V 
0,04. 
2
WR = I R.R = watt eq. 36-1A.17
 L 

The short-time current rating of the reactor is determined either by equation 36-1A.9, or by the switchgear short-circuit
level:-

ÎF = 1,8. 2 .I F

= 2,55.IF eq. 36-1A.18

The latter represents a fault between the reactor and the capacitor and will normally be the determining condition.

For the resistor the maximum inrush current from equation 36-1.A.5 is:-

V
îR = assuming an infinite source
R

In practice, the other banks in parallel with the one being switched in, have a finite source impedance, and it is
necessary to take account of the effective values Le, Ce and Re. (See also 36-1 Appendix C)

V 2 .VL 820.VL
i.e. îR = = = amps (peak) (VL in kV, R in ohms) eq. 36-1A.19
Re 3 .R e Re

Assuming for simplicity that the current wave is triangular over the damping period:-
t = 4,62.Ce.Re µS

îR

½îR

Figure 36-1A.3: Continuous Current Rating of Resistor vs. Time

The energy dissipated in the resistor:-

2
ER = (Average Current) .R.t

1 2
= .î R. R.t.
4

2
1 2 VL
= . . 2
.R.(4,62.Ce.Re)
4 3 Re

2 R.R e
ER = 0,77.VL .Ce. 2
watt-seconds eq. 36-1A.20
Re

SLDG 36-1 APPENDIX B

SHUNT CAPACITOR DISCHARGE CURRENTS (OUT-RUSH)

When a charged capacitor is short-circuited a heavy discharge current will flow. This could cause problems when, as
shown in the following sketch, the line breaker is closed or re-closed onto a fault, allowing the 4 parallel capacitors to
discharge a large high-frequency current through the breaker. By the time the line protection operates and the breaker
opens this current will have disappeared and the breaker will merely be faced with its normal short-circuit duty.

Line Fault

Line Breaker

Assuming
4 x Capacitor Banks

Figure 36-1B.1: Discharge of a Charged Capacitor into a Fault

However, as the breaker contacts approach one another during the closing, pre-arcing occurs and the resulting high
frequency capacitor discharge current can destroy the breaker.

It should be noted that the breakers controlling the capacitors are specified to switch the banks - both close and open -
but the line/transformer/bus-coupler breakers at a substation may have little or no ability to handle capacitive currents.

The problem then is to determine some basis for specifying shunt capacitors such that the "normal" substation breakers
will not be destroyed by capacitor discharge currents.

Damping and Circuit-breaker Capability

When closing onto a fault, pre-arching occurs for a period of 1 to 2 milliseconds before the contacts close. Assuming a
constant arc voltage then the arc energy that has to be dissipated during this period is proportional to the area bounded
by the current curve.

Circuit breakers are tested to confirm their ability to make a peak current (Ipeak) of:-

I peak = 1,8. 2 .I F (A) eq. 36-1B.1

where:-

IF = Rated r.m.s. short-circuit current

If we allow for a pre-arcing period of 1200 µs (1,2 ms) then the energy which the breaker can dissipate is the area of the
shaded "triangle" = (½ . 1200 . 0,976), that is:-

A = 585 p.u. A.µs eq. 36-1B.2

ÎR p.u. of rms
0,976 A
1200

3000
1000

5000

6000
2000

4000
Time (µs)

Figure 36-1B.2: Energy Dissipation of a Circuit Breaker

Î = 2,55.sinθ
θ (A)

o
At 5000 µs (¼ cycle) θ = 90 , thus:-

Î = 2,55 Amps

o
At 1200 µs θ = 22,5 , thus:-

Î = 2,55.0,383

= 0,976 Amps

The problem now is to determine the maximum value of the inrush current which results in a pre-arching energy level
which is equal to or less than the above value, due allowance being made for the damping effect of the resistor.

Referring to equation 36-1.A.7 of Appendix A, the inrush current when closing onto a discharged capacitor is:-

i =
V
.e
- αt
(
.sin ωt + θ ) (from eq. 36-1A.7)
ω.L

The wave shape is as follows:-

i
eα
- t

ωt+θ
Sin(ω θ)

t1 t2 t3 t4 t5 t6 t7 t

ωt + θ) = π, 2π
Current zeros occur when (ω π, 3π
π, . . . , nπ
π or

π−θ π−θ π−θ

When t1 = , t2 = , ……………. tn = ,
ω ω ω

The total area bounded by the current curve is:-

t1 t2 t3 t4
∫ idt + ∫ idt + ∫ idt + ∫ idt ......
t0 t1 t2 t3

Note that the negative half cycles must effectively be added since we are basically interested in energy. Normally this is
2
proportional to I which makes all half-cycles positive.

In this case we are assuming a constant voltage and the energy E.I.t. must include all half-cycles.

Now:-

V − αt
∫ idt = ∫e .sin( ωt + θ )
ω.L

− αt
V e
= . .sin (ωt + θ − φ) eq. 36-1B.3
2 2
ω.L α .ω

where:-

α α
sin φ = 2 2
and cos φ = 2 2
α +ω α +ω

[ ]t1
t1
− αt
∫ idt = Q. e .sin(ωt + θ − φ)
t0

= Q. e[ − αt1 o
.sin( π − φ ) − e sin(θ − φ ) ]
= Q. e[ − αt1
.sin( φ ) − sin( θ − φ ) ] sin( π − φ ) = sin(φ )
t2
∫ idt = Q. e
t1
[ − αt 2
.sin(2 π − φ ) − e
− αt1
.sin( π − φ) ]
= Q. e[ − αt 2
.sin(φ ) − e
− αt1
.sinφ ]
t3
∫ idt = Q. e
t2
[ − αt 3
.sin(3 π − φ ) − e
− αt 2
.sin(2 π − φ) ]
= Q. e[ − αt 3
.sin( φ ) − e
− αt 2
.sinφ ] since sin(3 π − φ) = sin( φ) and Q =
V
ω.L

The total area under the curve is thus:-

[
Area = Q. − sin( θ − φ ) + e
− αt 1
.sin( φ) + e
− αt 1
.sin( φ ) + e
− αt 2
.sin(φ ) + e
− αt 2
.sin( φ) + ................ ]
[
= Q. − sin( θ − φ ) + sin(φ )(e
− αt 1
+e
− αt 2
..... + e
− αt n
) ]
θ - φ), allows for the fact that i ≈ 0 when t = 0. If we ignore this (pessimistic) then:-
The term, - sin(θ

Area =
V
ω.L
.
α +ω
2
2
2
.sin( φ ) . e [ − αt 1
+e
− αt 2
........ + e
− αt n
]
=
V
ω.L
.
α +ω
2
2
2
.
2
α +ω
ω
2
[
.e
− αt 1
+e
− αt 2
........ + e
− αt n
]
=
V
.
ω.L α + ω
2.ω
2 2
[
.e
− αt 1
+e
− αt 2
........ + e
− αt n
]
Now:-
2
1  1  1
ω= −  ≈
L.C  2.C.R  L.C
2 2
2 2  1  1 1  1
α +ω =  + −  =
 2.C.R  L.C  2.C.R  L.C

ω 1
∴ 2 2
= .L.C = L.C
α +ω L.C
1 L
Also ω.L = =
L.C C

Thus Area =
V
L
. 2. L.C e [ − αt 1
.......... + e
− αt n
]
C

= Î.2. L.C e [ − αt 1
.......... + e
− αt n
] eq. 26 - 1B.4

where:-

V
Î=
L
C

= theoretical peak discharge current ignoring damping.

To arrive at the permissible value of Î assume that we damp to 10 % of the peak value in 1200 µs which is a reasonable
pre-arcing period:-

i.e. e − αt n = 0,1

α.tn = 2,31

tn = 1200 µs

If we now consider a particular frequency for the inrush current then we can determine the number of cycles that will
occur in 1200 µs and from this the number of current zeros. tn will thus be 1200 µs, tn-1 will be 1200 - time for ½ cycle,
−αt n −αt n
tn-2 will be 1200 - time for 1 full cycle etc. The value of [ e
+ . . . . . +e ] can then be calculated.

Consider 3 frequencies 1250, 2500 and 5000 Hz all damped to 10 % after 1200 µs.

Table 36-1B.1: Inrush Current Frequency, Current Zeros and Number of Cycles
Frequency Hz 1250 2500 5000
µs per cycle 800 400 200

Number of cycles m 1200 µs 1,5 3 6

Number of current zeros 3 6 12
Time t12 1200
t11 1100
t10 1000
t9 900
t8 800
t7 700
µs
t6 1200 600
t5 1000 500
t4 800 400
t3 1200 600 300
t2 800 400 200
t1 400 200 100
αt12 2,31
αt11 2,118
αt10 1,925
αt9 1,732
αt8 1,54
αt7 1,348
αt6 2,31 1,155
αt5 1,925 0,963
αt4 1,54 0,77
αt3 2,31 1,155 0,578
αt2 1,54 0,77 0,385
αt1 0,77 0,385 0,193
− αtn
∑e 0,777 1,918 4,24

− αtn
Area under curve or arc energy = Î .2. L.C .∑ e eq. 36-1B.5

The maximum permissible value of energy is 585 A.µs from eq. 36-1B.2.
6
10
Also, the frequency f =
2 π. L.C
eq. 36-1B.6
6
10
∴ L.C =
2 π. f
We can now write:-

Table 36-1B.2: Results from eq. 36-B.6 for Various Frequencies

Frequency 1250 2500 5000

L.C 127 63,6 31,8
− αtn
∑e 0,77 1,918 4,24
Î 2,96 2,40 2,16

where:-
585
Î= − αt n
(Max. Î in pu of Isc rating of breaker) It should be noted that Î does not represent
2 L.C .∑ e
C
the actual discharge current but only the peak value V. .
L

The effect of damping (e ω ) is ignored but as this is significant the actual discharge current will be
- t

appreciably less than Î. If we assume ¼ cycle to the first peak then:-

Table 36-1B.3: Max value of Îd = Î.e ω for Various Time Durations (t)
- t

t in µs 200 100 50

ωt 0,385 0,193 0,097

-ωt
e 0,68 0,82 0,91

Max value of Îd = Î.e ω

- t
2,0 1,97 1,97

If we allow for a maximum of 4 capacitor banks in parallel discharging through one breaker then the peak value of the

normal discharge current V. C

L
( ) per bank should be limited to
Î
4
. That is, Î = V.
C
L
should be limited to 0.74, 0.6

and 0.54 pu.

As the leads between the capacitor and the fault add a significant L (about 1 µH per metre) it would seem to be
reasonable to assume a general value of Î = 0,75.IF.

(IF = rms short circuit current rating of breaker).

If we reduce the damping time to 600 µs:-

Table 3-1B.4: Theoretical Permissible Discharge Current Îd = Î e α for Various Frequencies
- t

Frequency 1670 2500 5000

µs per cycle 600 400 200
No. of cycles in 600 µs 1 1,5 3
No. of current zeros 2 3 6
Time t6 600
t5 500
t4 400
t3 600 300
t2 600 400 200
t1 300 200 100
αt6 2,31
αt5 1,925
αt4 1,54
αt3 2,31 1,155
αt2 2,31 1,54 0,77
αt1 1,155 0,77 0,385
− αt 6 0,1
e
− αt 5 0,146
e
− αt 4 0,214
e
− αt 3 0,1 0,315
e
− αt 2 0,1 0,214 0,463
e
− αt 1 0,315 0,463 0,680
e
− αtn 0,415 0,777 1,918
∑e
95,3 63,6 31,8
L.C
Permissible Î 7,41 5,92 4,8
αt to first peak 0,77 0,385 0,192
eα
- t
0,463 0,68 0,82
Permissible Îd = Î e α
- t
3,43 4,02 3,94
Î
For 4 parallel banks 1,85 1,48 1,2
4

A general value of Î = 1,5 will be used.

From equation 36-1A.9 of 36-1 Appendix A, the discharge current from a capacitor C changed to a voltage V has a peak
value of:-

C − αt
Î = V. (ignoring the decrement e )
L
VL 3 C
= .10 . 2 . VL in kV
3 L
2
VL 3 10 MC MC 4
= .10 . 2 . MC = Cap MVAr C= 2
.10 µF
3 VL L.π π.VL

5 2 MC
= 10 . .
3 L.π

If we wish to limit Î to, K times the short-circuit rms current rating of the breaker IF, then:-

3
MF .10
Î = K.I F = K. MF = MVA Fault level
3 .VL

Equating:-

3
5 2 MC MF .10
10 . = K. we deduce
3 L.π 3 .VL
2 4 2
2.VL .10 .MC 6370 MC VL
L= 2
= 2
. .
2
K .MF .π K MF MF

6370
L= 2
.FV .X S eq. 36 - 1B.7
K

where:-

MC
FV = = % Voltage change due to switching a capacitor at MC MVArs on a busbar having a fault level of
MF
MF MVA

2
VL
XS = Source impedance behind a busbar having a fault level of MF MVA
MF

From pages above, the damping is an important factor and a reduction in the damping time from 1200 to 600 µs allows
the permissible discharge current from each bank to be doubled.

With 1200 µs damping : K = 0,75 for 4 banks

= 1,00 for 3 banks
= 1,50 for 2 banks
With 600 µs damping : K = 1,50 for 4 banks
= 2,00 for 3 banks
We can now summarise:-

Table 3-1B.5: Damping Time vs. Inductance

6370 No. Of Banks in Parallel µs)

Damping time (t) (µ
L= 2
.FV.XS
K
11300.FV.XS 4 1200
6350.FV.XS 3 1200
2800.FV.XS 2 1200
2800.FV.XS 4 600
1500.FV.XS 3 600
As far as damping is concerned, from eq. 36-1A.11, 36-1 Appendix A

t = 4,62.C.R µs for damping to 10 %.

If this is to occur in 1200 µs:-

2
1200 1200.π..VL MC 4
R = = 4
where C= 2
.10 µF
4,62.C 4,62.MC .10 π.VL
2
1200 π VL MF
= 4
. .
4,62.10 MF MC

XS
= 0,0816. Ω
FV

Table 36-1B.6: Damping Time vs. Damping Resistance

R µs)
Damping Time (t) (µ
XS
0,0816. 1200
FV
XS
0,0408. 600
FV

On the basis of this work, Table 36-1B-7 has been drawn up to show the following:-

a) System Voltage

b) Breaker fault ratings in kA (standard values)

c) The corresponding source impedance and fault level in MVA

d) The voltage step on switching the capacitor assuming a fault level of MF. Two steps - 1½ % and 2½ % - have
been selected for each rating.

e) The value of MC to give the required FV

f) The capacitance in µF

g) The value of R in Ω to give 1200 µs or 600 µs damping

h) The value of L required if there are 4,3 or 2 banks in parallel and a damping tome of 1200 µs

i) The value of L required if there are 4 or 3 banks in parallel and a damping time of 600 µs.

j) The frequency of the discharge current

L
k) The value of
C

Table 36-1.7:
Breaker XS MF MC C R in Ω L (1200 µs Damp) L(600 µs Damp) Frequency
L C
kV kA Ω MVA FV MVAr µF 1200 600 4 3 2 4 3 Max Min Max Min
Banks Banks Banks Banks Banks
12,5 0,508 238 0,015 3,57 94 2,8 1,4 86 48 22 22 12 4750 1770 0,96 0,36
0,025 5,95 156 1,6 0,8 143 80 36 36 20 2850 1070
11 20 0,318 380 0,015 5,7 150 1,7 0,9 54 30 14 14 8 4750 1770 0,6 0,23
0,025 9,5 250 1,0 0,5 90 50 23 23 12,5 2850 1070
12,5 1,016 476 0,015 7,14 47 5,6 2,8 172 96 43 43 24 4750 1770 1,9 0,71
0,025 11,9 78 3,3 1,7 286 160 72 72 40 2850 1070
22 20 0,636 760 0,015 11,4 75 3,5 1,7 108 60 27 27 16 4750 1770 1,2 0,46
0,025 19,0 125 2,1 1,1 180 100 45 45 25 2850 1070
12,5 1,525 714 0,015 10,7 31,3 8,4 4,2 258 145 60 60 36 4750 1770 2,8 1,1
0,025 17,9 52 5,0 2,5 430 240 107 107 60 2850 1070
33 20 0,954 1140 0,015 17,1 50 5,2 2,6 162 91 40 40 24 4750 1770 1,8 0,7
0,025 28,5 83,3 3,1 1,6 270 150 68 68 37 2850 1070
12,5 3,05 1428 0,015 21,4 15,6 16,8 8,4 516 290 120 120 72 4750 1770 5,7 2,1
0,025 35,7 26 9,9 4,9 860 480 215 215 120 2850 1070
66 20 1,908 2280 0,015 34,2 25 10,4 5,2 324 180 81 81 48 4750 1770 3,6 1,4
0,025 57,0 42 6,2 3,1 540 304 135 135 75 2850 1070
16 3,17 2440 0,015 36,6 15 17,2 8,6 537 300 135 135 76 4750 1770 6 2,3
0,025 61 25 10,3 5,2 895 500 224 224 126 2850 1070
88 25 2,03 3810 0,015 57,1 23 11,0 5,5 344 193 86 86 48 4750 1770 3,9 1,4
0,025 95,1 38 6,6 3,3 573 322 143 143 80 2850 1070
16 4,76 3650 0,015 54,9 10 25,8 12,4 805 450 201 201 114 4750 1770 9 3,4
0,025 91,5 16,7 15,5 7,8 1340 750 335 335 189 2850 1070
132 25 3,04 5715 0,015 85,7 15,6 16,5 8,3 516 290 129 129 72 4750 1770 5,8 2,2
0,025 142,8 25,6 9,9 5,0 860 480 215 215 120 2850 1070
20 7,94 9520 0,015 142 6 43 21,5 1345 750 334 334 188 4750 1770 14,9 5,6
275 0,025 238 10 25,9 13 2846 1260 562 562 316 2850 1070
31,5 5,04 15000 0,015 225 9,5 27,4 13,7 854 480 214 214 120 4750 1770 9,5 3,5
0,025 375 15,8 16,4 8,2 1426 810 356 256 200 2850 1070

SLDG 36-1 APPENDIX C

1. PARALLEL BANKS EFFECTIVE VALUES OF L, R AND C

th
Assuming 3 energized capacitor banks at a substation with a 4 unit being switched in:-

R L R L R L R L

C C C C

a) Four Parallel Capacitor Banks

C
R

L
R R
C C
L

R L
V C
L

b) Thevenin equivalent circuit

R R
C C

L L

c) Thevenin equivalent circuit

R/3
C

L/3

d) Thevenin equivalent circuit

Figure 36-1C.1: Parallel Banks Effective Values of L, R and C

4
Le = .L
3

4
Re = .R
3

3
Ce = .C
4

1 1 1
= +
Ce 3.C C

where:-

Le = Equivalent inductance
Re = Equivalent resistance
Ce = Equivalent capacitance

With 1, 2 or 3 banks only at a substation, similar considerations apply and the equivalent values are as follows:

Table 36-1C.1: Equivalent Values

Element 1 Bank 2 Banks 3 Banks 4 Banks

3 4
Le L 2.L .L .L
2 3
3 4
Re R 2.R .R .R
2 3
1 2 3
Ce C .C .C .C
2 3 4

2. VALUE OF C

For a capacitor bank rating of MC MVArs:-

3
M C .10
IC = amps VL = Line − to − line volts in kV
3 .VL
3 2
VL .10 VL
XC = = ohms
3 .IC MC
6 6
10 10 .M C
C= = 2
µF
2 π.50.X C 100.π. VL

MC 4
C= 2
.10 µF eq. 36 - 1C.1
π.VL

3. SIZE OF BANKS

3.1 Controlling Circuit-breaker Considerations

The breaker controlling a capacitor bank is faced with severe switching duties on both closing and an opening.

On closing, pre-arcing results in a high-magnitude, high-frequency current which can destroy the breaker. On opening, a
voltage (recovery voltage) appears across the parting contacts and, if this voltage builds up at a faster rate than the
insulation between the parting contacts, re-strikes may occur and again large high-frequency currents flow through the
breaker.

In an oil circuit-breaker, a steep fronted pressure wave is generated which may burst the one-control chamber.

In addition to technical problems, capacitor breakers are in many cases switched daily which is a relatively severe duty.

Modern oil circuit-breakers which are specified for capacitor switching duties can handle current in the region of 400A
continuous. With the advent of SF6 gas-insulated breakers, it would seem that capacitive currents of the order of 600 A
would not be excessive. In addition to this, controlled switching relays are now employed to time switching at the zero
o
voltage crossing for capacitors, displaced 120 or 6,67ms apart.

On the basis of the above comments, selection of circuit-breakers with particular attention to pre-arcing high frequency
currents on closing and to re-strike performance on opening will avoid most of the problems associated with capacitor
switching.

3.2 Voltage Step on Switching

The voltage rise or fall when switching a capacitor bank is determined as follows:-

+jXL Bus iC

E E' -jXC

Figure 36-1C.2: Switching of a Shunt Capacitor Bank

With the capacitor in service the bus voltage:-

1
1 E
E = E − jI C X S IC =
− jX C
1
jX S E
=E−
− jX C

 XS  1
=E+
 .E
 XC 

With the capacitor out of service the bus voltage = E

Therefore the voltage change:-

 XS  1
1
E −E =  .E
 XC 
2
VL
Now XS = where M F = 3 φ short − circuit level on busbar in MVA
MF
2
VL
XC = where M C = MVAr rating of the bank
MC

1 MC 1
∴E − E = .E
MF

MC
FV = Step voltage = . 100 %
MF

where:-

FV = Flicker voltage

A voltage change of 10 % would certainly be about the limit and a maximum of about 5 % would be preferable. Step
voltages not exceeding 3 % on capacitor switching is recommended.

The actual fault level at a substation is generally less than the rupturing capacity of the installed switchgear. It is not
possible to generalise on this question but if it is assumed that the minimum 3φ fault level at a substation busbar will not
normally be less than, say, 25 % of the switchgear rating (MF), then the bank rating should not exceed 1¼ to 2½ % of
MF.

Table 36-1C.1 lists the standard circuit-breaker ratings together with the proposed standard (maximum) capacitor bank
ratings and the corresponding step voltages (FV) on switching.

3.3 Shunt Capacitor Banks of Standard MVAr Ratings

Two standard capacitor banks were adopted by Eskom for each system voltage. This resulted in several operational
problems through the Eskom system. Therefore the standardization of the shunt capacitor bank MVAr output is no
longer strictly observed by Eskom in the construction of new installations. The proposed standard capacitor bank
ratings are as follows:-

Table 36-1C.2: MVAr Ratings for Various System Voltages

kV MVAr Rating
Large Bank Small Bank
11 6 3
22 12 6
33 18 9
44 24 12
66 36 18
88 48 24
132 72 36
220 120 60
275 150 75

4. IN-RUSH CURRENT

4.1 Peak value

From equation 36-1A.9 of Appendix A the peak inrush current when energising a capacitor bank is:-

VL Ce 3
Î= . 2 . 1,1 . .10
3 Le

Ce
= 900.VL VL in kV (line - to - line)
Le
1,1 is for max voltage

On the basis of the equivalent values of Ce and Le given in Table 36-1C.1:-

3
.C
4 9 C 3 C
Î = 900.VL . = 900.VL . . = . 900 .VL .
4 16 L 4 L
.L
3

C
Î = 675.VL . for 4 banks in parallel eq. 36 - 1C.2
L
C
Î = 600.VL . for 3 banks in parallel eq. 36 - 1C.3
L
C
Î = 450.VL . for 2 banks in parallel eq. 36 - 1C.4
L

-ωt
The above are in amps-peak and ignore the decrement factor e due to the damping resistor (see eq. 36-1A.8 of
Appendix A).

For a single bank the inrush current is limited by the source inductance (15 150 µH for a 16 kA, 132 kV system) which
overrides the inductance of the capacitor circuit.

Referring to Table 36-1C.3 it will be seen that with the new values of inductance that have been selected the peak in-
rush currents do not exceed the 50 Hz current peaks for which the breakers have been tested (lower breaker fault
rating).

4.2 Frequency

From 36-1A.10 of Appendix A:-

6
10
fi =
2 π. L e .C e

Using Le and Ce values previously determined:-

160000
fi = Hz eq. 36 - 1C.5
L.C

for all bank configurations: L in µH and C in µF

Table 36-1C.3: Large Shunt Capacitor Banks

SYSTEM BREAKER CAPACITOR Current IN-RUSH CURRENT FOR 4 BANKS

kA MF XS MC FV C Limiting Reactor C Peak in-rush current Î Frequency
kV L.C
MVAr Ohms MVAr % µF L - µH L C 16000
675 VL kA
L L.C
Hz
11 12,5 238 0,508 6 2,52 158 100 1,257 126 9,33 1270
20 380 0,318 1,58 200* 0,888 111,7 6,6 900
22 12,5 476 1,016 12 2,52 79 100 0,889 89 13,2 1800
20 760 0,636 1,58 200* 0,628 125,7 9,3 1270
33 12,5 714 1,525 18 2,52 52,6 100 0,725 72,5 16,1 2200
20 1140 0,954 1,58 300* 0,418 125,6 9,3 1270
44 12,5 952 2,032 24 2,52 39,5 100 0,628 63 18,6 2500
20 1420 1,272 1,58 300* 0,314 125,7 9,3 1270
66 12,5 1428 3,05 36 2,52 26,3 200 0,363 72,5 16,1 2200
20 2280 1,908 1,58 500* 0,230 114,6 10,2 1330
88 16 2440 3,17 48 1,97 19,7 200 0,313 63 18,6 2550
25 3810 2,03 1,26 500* 0,198 99,2 11,7 1610
132 16 3650 4,76 72 1,97 13,2 200 0,257 51 22,9 3110
25 5715 3,04 1,26 600* 0,148 88,9 13,2 1800
220 20 7620 6,35 120 1,57 7,9 300 0,162 49 24,1 3290
31,5 12000 4,03 1,0 800* 0,099 79,4 14,7 2015
275 20 9520 7,94 150 1,57 6,3 300 0,145 43,5 26,9 3670
31,5 15000 5,04 1,0 800* 0,088 71,0 16,3 2253
* New Values

Table 36-1C.4: Small Shunt Capacitor Banks

SYSTEM BREAKER CAPACITOR Current INRUSH CURRENT FOR 4 BANKS
kV Rupt. MF XS MC FV C Limiting Reactor C Peak Inrush Current Frequency
L.C
L
Cap. (MVAr) (Ohms) (MVAr) (%) µF)
(µ µH)
L (µ C 16000
Î = 675 VL kA
(kA) L L.C
Hz
11 12,5 238 0,508 3 1,26 79 100 0,889 88,9 6,6 1800
20 380 0,318 0,789 200* 0,682 125,6 4,6 1274
22 12,5 476 1,016 6 1,26 39,5 100 0,629 62,9 9,33 2545
20 760 0,636 0,789 200* 0,444 88,8 6,6 1800
33 12,5 714 1,525 9 1,26 26,3 200 0,513 51,3 11,4 3111
20 1140 0,954 0,789 300* 0,296 88,8 6,6 1800
44 12,5 952 2,032 12 1,26 19,8 200 0,445 44,5 13,2 3592
20 1420 1,272 0,789 300* 0,222 88,9 6,6 1800
66 12,5 1428 3,05 18 1,26 13,2 300 0,256 51,3 11,4 3111
20 2280 1,908 0,789 500* 0,162 81,2 7,2 1970
88 16 2440 3,17 24 0,98 9,9 300 0,221 44,5 13,2 3600
25 3810 2,03 0,63 500* 0,140 70,3 8,3 2275
132 16 3650 4,76 36 0,98 6,6 300 0,181 36,1 16,2 4400
25 5715 3,04 0,63 600* 0,104 63 9,2 2539
220 20 7620 6,35 60 0,79 4,0 400 0,114 34,6 17,0 4653
31,5 12000 4,03 0,50 800* 0,070 56,5 10,86 2631
275 20 9520 7,94 75 0,79 400 0,103 30,8 19,0 5190
31,5 15000 5,04 0,50 800* 0,063 50,6 11,7 3162

* New Values

4.3 Damping

From eq. 36-1A.11 of Appendix A:-

t = 4,26.Ce.Re µs

Using Ce and Re as previously determined:-

t = 4,26.C.R µs eq. 36-1C.6

for all bank combinations C in µF and R in Ω

5. DISCHARGE CURRENT

The discharge currents from multiple banks in parallel can harm the circuit-breakers associated with the lines and
transformers which are connected to the same busbar.

Tables 36-1B.3 to 36-1B.4 of 36-1 Appendix B give the theoretical permissible discharge currents (Îd) which a normal
low-oil breaker can handle have been determined for various damping speeds and frequencies respectively.

In Table 36-1C.4 the actual values of the discharge currents have been determined for:-

i) the standard bank sizes

ii) the standard damping resistors. In general a damping time of about 600 µS has been the basis for selection

iii) a single value of inductance for the current limiting reactor

iv) 1,3 and 4 banks discharging simultaneously

To make conditions more in line with the practical situation an allowance has been made for the inductance of the leads
between the capacitor and the fault.

From Table 36-1C.4 the following can be seen that with new higher values of damping reactor inductance.

i) With 4 banks the total discharge current 4.Îd is generally well below the theoretical h.f. capability of both the low kA
and the high kA breakers.

ii) 4.Îd is also below the peak 50 Hz rating of the high kA breakers by a fairly substantial margin in most cases.

iii) For 66 kV banks and upwards 4.Îd is greater than the 50 Hz peak rating of the low kA breakers by margins of 21 %
(66 kV), 27 % (88 kV), 37 % (132 kV), 39 % (220 kV) and 49 % (275 kV).

iv) With only 3 banks in parallel 3.Îd is less than or marginally greater than the 50 Hz peak rating of the low kA
breakers.

It is concluded that the higher of the two reactor inductance values should be used and that the installation of up to 4
banks in parallel should be satisfactory for all breaker ratings. A limit of 3 banks at 66 kV and upwards where the
breakers have a low kA rating is preferable and would provide a greater margin of safety but this is probably not
essential. In this regard it should be noted that the pre-arcing energy concept has not been validated experimentally

and factors such as the peak value of the current and the rate-of-rise may well be the determining factors in the
performance of a breaker. It would be safer therefore to keep the discharge current low.

Although current-limiting resistors with a higher inductance will cost more the percentage increase on the bank cost as a
whole will be small. Technically a higher reactor inductance value has several advantages:

a) Inrush and discharge currents are lower and the duty on the circuit-breakers is consequently less.

b) The frequency of those currents is lower which, again is an advantage from the point of view of breaker
performance. In addition the interference induced into protection and control circuitry will be less. High-speed
damping should also be beneficial in this respect.

6. ARRANGEMENT OF BANKS

6.1 Neutral Earthing

Neutral earthing of shunt capacitor banks is advisable for applications at transmission voltage systems (solidly earthed
systems) to reduce voltage stresses to the breaker and eliminate dangerous voltage fluctuations on the capacitor
neutral.

Earthing of the bank through low voltage capacitors is a practice recently introduced in Eskom with satisfactory results.
Existing unearthed double-star capacitor banks can be easily earthed by using this method.

6.2 Connections

Mainly for protection reasons a split-star connection as illustrated in Figure 36-1C.3 was normally adopted for shunt
capacitor banks.

R W B

Out-of-
Balance
CT

Figure 36-1C.3: Split (Or Double) - Star Configuration

Under healthy conditions IR1 + IW1 + IB1 = 0, IR2 + IW2 + IB2 = 0 and the current in the neutral connection between the two
split star is zero. If sufficient fuses in one of the split star blow the neutral current will operate the unbalance protection.
The unbalance protection is discussed in detail in 36-1 Appendix D. Earthed shunt capacitor banks in single-star

configuration as those illustrated in Figure 36-1C.4 have each phase protected independently from the other phases and
because of this they are more easily maintained.

R W B

MICROP.
RELAY

Figure 36-1C.4: Single - Star Configuration

7. RATING OF COMPONENTS

7.1 Damping Reactor

a) The continuous current rating is the rating of the bank

b) The 1-second rating is ideally the RMS short-circuit fault on the capacitor side of the resistor.

c) The corresponding dynamic rating is the peak short-circuit rating = 2,55 . IF (1 second).

C
d) The peak inrush current is determined by 4 banks in parallel i.e. Î = 675.VL.
L

e) The lightning impulse voltage across the reactor is given by:-

Lightning Impulse Voltage across Reactor = 10.R.Safety factor (peak kV)

Safety factor = 2,5. Where 10 (kA) is the maximum lighting current and R is the damping resistor in ohms.

U max
f) The instantaneous maximum 50 Hz voltage across the reactor i.e. maximum phase-to-earth voltage.
3

g) The withstand voltages to earth are the standard values for the system voltage concerned.

Table 36-1C.5: All The Above Parameters Are Summarized For Each System Voltage.

Withstand Voltages
System Inductance Current Rating across Reactor
Voltage Un L Continuous 1 Sec. kA Peak 50 Hz Inrush kA- 1/50 Instant.
(kV) (µH) A (rms) (rms) kA (peak) Peak Impulse 50 Hz kV
(kV)
11/22 200 400 20 51 6,6 45 14
(1800 Hz)
33/44 300 400 20 51 6,6 95 28
(1800 Hz)
66/88/ 500 500 25 64 9,2 250 84
132 600 600 (2500 Hz)
200/275 800 400 31,5 80 11,7 500 174
(3100 Hz)

7.2 Damping Resistors

L MC
a) Continuous current rating = 0,2 . . Amps (rms)
R VL

2 π.f.L −6
b) 1-second current rating = I F . .10 Amps (rms) i.e. the system short-circuit current flowing through the
R
resistor.

c) Dynamic current rating = 2,55 . IF (1 second)

VL
d) Peak inrush current = 820. Amps
Re

2
VL R.Re
e) Watt second rating = 0,77 . . 2
Ce Re

based on the maximum inrush current. Alternative is to base the watt-second rating on the 1-second rating (b) but this
would give such a high rating and make the resistor uneconomical.

(f) Voltage ratings as for the Reactor.

Table 36-1C4 summarises the resistor ratings for each system voltage

Table 36-1C.4: Resistor Ratings for Various System Voltages

System Resistance Current Rating Kilowatt-Second Rating

Voltage Continuous 1-Second A Peak Based on Based on 50 Hz
A (r.m.s.) (r.m.s.) Inrush Inrush 1-Sec Fault
Un (kV) Ohms
(kA) Current
11/22 1,5 8 420 9,0 16,5 265
33/44 3,0 8 420 9,0 33,0 525
66 6,0 6 315 7,0 49,0 590
88/132 10,0 4 240 8,5 125 560
220/275 20,0 3 200 8,5 325 785

7.3 Neutral Current Transformers

a) Ratio : Based on neutral current for internal or external fuses - See Appendix D

b) Rated output : 10 VA

c) Accuracy class : 5P

d) Accuracy limit factor : 10

e) Rated current : Equal to primary in amps

f) 1-second current : Based on short-circuit from phase to neutral - Equation 37, Appendix D

g) Dynamic current : 2,55.IF (1 second)

h) Insulation levels : as for line-to-earth.

i) Continuous voltage rating : 100 % bank rating Appendix C

ii) Power frequency withstand, creepage : Bank on equivalent values as for (i)

distance and impulse withstand to earth

iii) Voltage withstand across primary : 1.1 . line-to-line voltage

Table 36-1C.7: Standard Neutral Current Transformer Ratings

System Rated Voltage Ratio Common to all Current

Voltage Un of CT kV - Line- Internally Externally Transformers
(kV) to-Line Fused Bank Fused Bank
11 6,6 12/1 40/1 Rated output : 100 VA
22 11 6/1 40/1 Accuracy class : 5 P
33 22 4/1 25/1 Accuracy limit fact. : 10
44 22 3/1 20/1 Rated current : Not less than primary
66 33 2/1 10/1 1-second current : 600A
88 44 1/1 10/1 Dynamic rating : 1500A peak
132 55 1/1 5/1 Insulation levels
220 132 1/1 3/1 To earth : See (h) (i) and (ii)
275 132 1/1 3/1 CT : See (h) (iii)

7.4 Protection Voltage Transformer (Single-star Configuration)

a) Voltage ratio : 3.2:1

b) Primary voltage : 800 V

c) BIL High-to-earth : 95 kV

d) BIL Low-to-earth : 10 kV

e) BIL across high : 5 kV

f) Energy capability of primary winding : 5 kJ

g) VA rating : 200 VA

h) Accuracy : 1.2 %

8. SHUNT CAPACITOR INSULATION LEVEL CO-ORDINATION

Figure 36-1C.6(a) shows a typical bank layout utilising single-bushing capacitors. Figure 36-1C.6(b) illustrates the
insulation requirements schematically while Table 6 sets out the basis of the insulation requirements.

Eskom’s general rules for shunt capacitor insulations are as follows:-

a) Insulators shall have a continuous 50 Hz voltage rating that meets the voltage to which the insulator will normally
be subjected as a consequence of the layout adopted. Referring to Table 6, post insulator P1 will be rated at Um
(System line-to-line voltage), P2 will be rated at 3 Unu (where Unu is the voltage between terminals of each
capacitor unit), P3 will be rated at 2. 3 Unu and P5 will be rated at the specified level of 100 % of Um.

b) One minute 50 Hz withstand voltages and creepage distances shall comply with the values specified by Eskom for
the rated voltages laid down in (a). (See Eskom specification TRMSCAAC4)

c) Similarly the lightning impulse withstand voltages (and switching impulses where applicable) shall comply with the
levels associated with the rated voltages laid down in (a). (See Eskom specification TRMSCAAC4)

d) The neutral shall be insulated to a level of 100 % of Um.

An impulse entering the red phase, say will divide according to the surge impedance as follows:-

Neutral
W
Z
R
Z
B
Z

⅔ Voltage ⅓ Voltage

Total BIL Voltage

Figure 36-1C.5: Capacitor Insulation Level Co-ordination

1
The voltage from the neutral to earth will be of the total BIL voltage but to provide a factor of safety a value of Um has
3
been adopted as standard.

Under these circumstances the BIL levels for post insulators P4 and P5 in Table 36-1C.8 have the same value.

P1 to P5 = Post insulator b = capacitor bushings

(a): Layout with Single Bushing Capacitors

A
P2 b
B
P2 b
P3 C
P2 b

D
P1 P2 b

P3 E
P2 b

F
P2 b
P5
G
P4
H

(b): Schematic Arrangements

Figure 36-1C.6: Typical Shunt Capacitor Bank Layout

Table 36-1C.8: Voltage Distribution and Insulation Levels

Reference UAH UAB and BC UBD and UDF UGH UFH

Points to FG

Post Insulators P1 P2 P3 P4 P5

Capacitor - b - - -
bushings

50 Hz φ-N Um Unu 2.Unu 1 Um 1 Um

. . + Unu
Voltages 3 2 3 2 3

Equivalent φ-φ
φ Um* 3 .Unu 2. 3 .Unu 1 1
.Um .Um + 3 .Unu
Voltages 2 2

1 Minute 50 Hz Um * 3.Unu 2. 3 .Unu Um * Um *

Volt.

BIL Um * Impulse withstand divided Um * Um *

by
S ½.S

S = Series capacitor group

Um = Highest line-to-line voltage

* = See equipment insulation levels and creepage distances on Eskom’s Shunt Capacitor Specification
(TRMCAAC4)

SLDG 36-1 APPENDIX D

STEADY STATE ANALYSIS OF INTERNALLY

FUSED CAPACITOR BANKS

1. UNBALANCED LIMBS ON ONE PHASE OF AN INTERNALLY FUSED CAPACITOR BANK

1.1 Out Of Balance Current

V1 V2 V3
~ ~ ~

Z1 Z Z Z' Z' Z'

VOC
Vg1 I Vg2

Figure 36-1D.1: Split Double Star Out of Balance Current

where:-

Z1 = 1
Impedance of faulted phase on L.H.S limb =
Y1

Z = 1
Impedance of healthy phase on L.H.S limb =
Y
1
Z = 1
Impedance of healthy phase on R.H.S limb =
Y1

From parallel generator theorem:-

V1 V2 V3
+ +
Z1 Z Z V1Y1 + V2 Y + V3 Y
Vg 1 = = eq. 36-1D.1
1 1 1 Y1 + 2.Y
+ +
Z1 Z Z

Now:-

2
V2 = a .V1 and V3 = a.V1

Let VN = phase to neutral voltage = V1

Then:-

Vg =
[
VN Y1 + Y(a + a )
2
] = V [Y N 1 −Y ] eq. 36-1D.2a
1 Y1 + 2.Y Y1 + 2.Y

From Thevenin’s theorem (see Figures 36-1D1.1a and 36-1D1.1b in Appendix 36-1.D1)

Voc
IN =
Z sc

Z 1 1
Z1. 1
.
2 Z Y1 2.Y 1
Z sc = + = + 1
Z 3 1 1 3.Y
Z1 + +
2 Y1 2Y

VN .(Y1 − Y)
Voc = Vg − Vg = as Vg =0
1 2 Y1 + 2.Y 2

1
VN .(Y1 − Y).3.Y
∴ IN = 1
eq. 36 - 1D.2b
Y1 + 2.Y + 3.Y

It is necessary now to consider the make-up of each phase of a shunt capacitor bank.

Each capacitor unit may be represented as:-

Figure 36-1D.2: Split Double Star Out of Balance Current

Let:-

x = Reactance of each capacitor element

p = Number of fused elements in parallel per row
r = Number of series rows in each capacitor unit.

Each limb of a capacitor bank may be represented as:-

c or c'

Figure 36-1D.3: Schematic Split Double Star Out of Balance Current

where:-

c = Number of units in parallel on L.H.S limb

1
c = Number of units in parallel on R.H.S limb
s = Number of unit groups in series on each limb
n Number of blown fuses in one row of one unit

Healthy phase admittance of R.H.S limb

−1 1
1  x r.s  p.c
Y = =
 p . c1  eq. 36-1D.3
  x.r.s

Healthy phase admittance of L.H.S limb

p.c
Y= eq. 36-1D.4
x.r.s
Faulty phase admittance on L.H.S limb

−1
  x   x.(r − 1)   x.r  
  (p − n )  +  p   p.(c − 1)  
Y1 = 
     + x.r.(s - 1) 
 x x.(r − 1) x.r p.c 
+ +
 p−n p p(c − 1) 
 
−1
 [p.x + x.(r − 1)(. p − n)].x.r 
 2
x.r.(s − 1)

p (p − n).(c − 1)
∴ Y1 =  + 
 x.p .(c − 1) + x.(r − 1)(
. p − n )(
. c − 1).p + x.r.(p − n ).p
2
p.c 
 p .(p − n)( . c − 1) 
2

x .r.[p + (r − 1)(. p − n)]

−1

=
2
+
(
x.r. s − 1 )

 x.p.(c − 1).[p + (r − 1)(
. p − n)] + x.r.p.(p − n ) p.c 

Let:-

(
A =p + r −1. p−n )( )
−1

Y1 = 
x.r.A
+
(
x.r. s − 1 )

 p.(c − 1).A + r.p.(p − n) p.c 
−1
 x.r  A.c + (s − 1).[A.(c − 1) + r.(p − n )] 
= . 
 p.c  (c − 1).A + r.(p − n) 

Let:-

( ) (
B = A. c − 1 + r. p − n )
Then:-

p.c B
Y1 = . eq. 36-1D.5
x.r A.c + s − 1 .B ( )
From eq. 2:-

IN =
(
VN . Y1 − Y .3.Y ) 1

1
Y1 + 2.Y + 3.Y

Substituting from eqs 36-1D.3, 36-1D.4 and 36-1D.5:-

 B 1  p.c
−
 A.c + (s − 1).B .
1  s  x.r
I N = VN .3.Y .
 B 2 3.c
1
 p.c
 + + .
 A.c + (s − 1).B s s.c  x.r

1 s.B − A.c − (s − 1).B

= 3.VN .Y .c.
[ 1
s.B.c + 2.c. A.c + (s − 1).B + 3.C A.c + (s − 1).B ] [ ]

1 B − A.c
[ ] [ ]
= 3.VN .Y .c.
1 2 1
B. S.c + 2.c.(s − 1) + 3.c .(s − 1) + 2.c + 3c.c .A

1 A.(c − 1) + r.(p − n) − A.c

[ ]
= 3.VN .Y .c 1 1 1
B. 3.S.(c + c ) − (2.c + 3.c ) + A.c.(2.c + 3.c )

r.(p − n) − p − (r − 1).(p − n)

][ ]
1
= 3.VN .Y .c.
[ 1 1 1
A.(c − 1) + r.(p − n) 3.s.(c + c ) − (2.c + 3.c ) + A.c.(2.c + 3.c )

1 −p+p−n
= 3.VN .Y .c.
1 1 1 1
3.s.A.(c − 1).(c + c ) + 3.s.r.(p − n).(c + c ).A.(c − 1) − (2.c + 3.c ) + (p − n) + A.c.(2.c + 3.c )

1
Now:- − 3.VN .Y .c.n
= .
1 1 1 1
2.s.A.(c − 1).(c + c ) + 3.s.r.(p − n).(c + c ) + A.(2.c + 3.c ) − r.(p − n).(2.c + 3.c )

1
− 3.VN .Y .c.n
= 1 1
[
3.s.c.A.(c + c ) + 3.s.(c + c ) − A + r.(p − n) + (2.c + 3.c ) A − r.(p − n) ] 1
[ ]
( )
− A + r. p − n = −p − r − 1 . p − n + r. p − n ( )( ) ( )
= −p +p −n
= −n

1
3.VN .Y .c.n
∴ IN =
[ ( )]
eq. 36-1D.6
( )
3.s.c.A. c + c1 − n. 3.s. c + c 1 − 2.c + 3.c 1 ) (
Let:-

M = MVAr rating of a complete bank

-3
= 3 .VL .I L .10

VL = Phase to phase volts in kV

Also:-

1
VN .p.(c + c )
IL =
x.r.s

3 .VL .VN.p.(c + c 1 ).10 −3

∴M=
x.r.s

From eq 36-1D.3

1
1 P.c
Y =
x.r.s
1 1 −3
3 .VL .VN .Y .(c + c ).10
M= 1
c

1
3 .M.c −3
VN = 1 1
.10
3.VL .Y .(c + c )

Substituting into eq. 36-1D.6:-

1 3
− 3 .M.c.c n.10
IN =
VL .(c + c )
1
. 1
[
3.s.c.A.(c + c ) − n. 3.s.(c + c ) − (2.c + 3.c
1 1
] eq. 36-1D.7

Should the faulty phase be on the R.H.S. limb then this equation can be written:-

1 3
− 3 .M.c.c n.10
IN =
VL .(c + c )
1
. 1
[
3.s.c.A.(c + c ) − n. 3.s.(c + c ) − (2.c + 3.c
1 1
] eq. 36-1D.8

These equations can also be written in terms of the kVAr rating of the individual capacitor units.

Let:-

Q = KVAr rating of each capacitor unit or can

VL = Rated voltage of each capacitor unit in kV

Then:-
1 -3
M = 3.Q.s.(c+c ).10 MVAr
VL =
3 .V.S

And:-

M = 3 Q 1 -3
. .(c+c ).10
VL 3 V

Substituting into eqs 36-1D.7 and 36-1D.8 gives:-

1
− 3.Q.c.c n
IN =
[ ( )]
. eq. 36 - 1D.7a
V ( )
3.s.c.A. c + c1 − n. 3.s. c + c1 − 2.c + 3.c1 ) (
or
1
− 3.Q.c.c n
IN =
) − n.[3.s.(c + c1) − (2.c1 + 3.c )]
. eq. 36 - 1D.8a
V
1
3.s.c .A. c + c ( 1

where:-

(
A =p + r −1. p−n )( )
1.2 Over-Voltages

1.2.1 Over-Voltage on Parallel Elements in Faulted Row

V1 V2 V3

~ ~ ~
IA

Ia
1 1 1
Z1 Z Z Z Z Z

Figure 36-1D.4: Over-Voltage on Parallel Elements in Faulted Row

From parallel generator theorem:-

( )
V1 . Y1 + Y1 + V2 . Y + Y1 + V3 . Y + Y1( ) ( )
Vg = 1
Y1 + 2.Y + 3.Y

( )
VN . Y1 + Y1 .VN . Y + Y1 . a 2 + a ( )( )
= 1
Y1 + 2.Y + 3.Y

(
VN . Y1 − Y )
∴ Vg = 1
eq. 36 - 1D.9
Y1 + 2.Y + 3.Y

Let:-

IA = Total phase current of a phase containing a faulty capacitor unit

Ia = Current in limb containing a faulty capacitor unit
1
Ia = Current through the faulty capacitor unit

(
I A = V1 − Vg . Y1 + Y1 )( )
 (Y1 − Y ) 
.(Y1 + Y )
1
= VN .1 − 1
 Y1 + 2.Y + 3.Y 
 Y1 + 2.Y + 3.Y 1 − Y1 + Y 
.(Y1 + Y )
1
= VN . 1
 Y 1 + 2.Y + 3.Y 
(
3.VN . Y + Y1 . Y1 + Y1 )( )
IA = 1
eq. 36 - 1D.10
Y1 + 2.Y + 3.Y

I A .Y1
Ia =
(Y1 + Y1)
1
Y1 .(Y1 + Y )
= 3.VN . 1
eq. 36 - 1D.11
Y1 + 2.Y + 3.Y

Current through faulty unit:-

1 Xc Ia
Ia = .
(c − 1) Xc +
1 Xc
(c − 1)
Xc
= 1
.I a eq. 36 - 1D.12
X c (c − 1) + X c

where:-

XC = Reactance of healthy units on L.H.S

1
XC = Reactance of faulty unit

xc
Impedance of faulty row =
(p − n)
xc 1
and voltage across faulty row = Ia of capacitor elements
(p − n)

Substituting from eqs 36-1D.10, 36-1.11, and 36-1.12

1
x Xc 3.VN .Y1 .(Y + Y )
Over-voltage = . 1
. 1
eq. 36 - 1D.13
(p − n) X c .(c − 1) + X c Y1 + 2.Y + 3.Y

x.r
XC =
p
and

XC =
1 x.(r − 1)
+
x
=
[
x. p + (p − 1).(r − 1) ]
p (p − n) p.(p − n)
1 x
∴ XC = .A
(p − n)
x.r
XC p r.(p − n) r.(p − n)
1
= = =
X C .(c − 1) + X C x.A.(c − 1) x.r A.(c − 1) + r.(p − n) B
+
p.(p − n) p

Eq. 36-1D.13 can therefore be written:-

1
x r.(p − n) 3.VN .y1.(y + y )
Over-voltage = . . 1
(p − n) B y1 + 2.y + 3.y

VN
Normal voltage across healthy row =
r.s

2 1
x.r .s 3.Y1.(Y + Y )
∴per unit over-voltage = . 1
eq. 36-1D.13
B Y1 + 2.Y + 3.Y

From eqs 36-1D.3, 36-1D.4 and 36-1D.5:

1
1 p.c p.c p.c B
Y = Y= and Y1 = .
x.r.s x.r.s x.r A.c + (s − 1).B

p.c 3.B p 1
2 . (c + c ) .
x.r .s x.r A.c + (s − 1).B x.r.s
∴ pu over-voltage = .
B  B 2 3.C  p.c
1
+ +
 A.c + (s − 1).B s s.c . x.r
 

1
3.p.r.(c + c ).c.s
[ ] [ ]
= 1
2.B.c + 2.c. A.c + (s − 1).B + 3.c . A.c + (s − 1).B

From page 4 the denominator is equal to:-

1 1 1
3.s.c.A.(c+c ) –n.[3.s.(c+c )-(2.c+3.c )]

∴ per unit over-voltage on elements in same row

=
1
3.p.r.c.s.(c + c )
1 1 1
eq. 36 - 1D.14
3.s.c.A.(c + c ) − n.[3.s.(c + c ) − (2.c + 3.c )]

Should the faulty unit be in the R.H.S limb this equation becomes:-

1 1
3.p.r.c .s.(c + c )
per unit over-voltage = 1 1 1 1
eq. 36-1D.15
3.s.c .A.(c + c ) − n.[3.s.(c + c ) − (2.c + 3.c)]

where:-

(
A =p + r −1. p−n )( )
1.2.2 Over-Voltage on Faulted Unit

Voltage across the faulty unit on L.H.S limb

1 1
= I a .X C

1 x A From Page 7
= Ia . .
(p − n) p

VN
Voltage across healthy unit =
s

1
Ia x A
∴pu over-voltage across the whole faulty unit = . . .s
p (p − n) VN

substituting from eqs 36-1D.11 and 36-1.12:-

1
x A s XC 3.VN .Y1.(Y + Y )
per unit overvoltage = . . . 1
. 1
(p − n) VN P X c (c − 1) + X C Y1 + 2.Y + 3.Y

1
x.A.s r.(p − n) 3.Y1.(Y + Y )
= . . 1
(p − n) B.p Y1 + 2.Y + 3.Y

Comparing this with eq D.13a on page 8 one can write per unit over-voltage =

1
3.c.s.(c + c ).A
1 1 1
eq. 36-1D.16
3.s.c.A.(c + c ) − n.[3.s.(c + c ) − (2.c + 3.c )]

For the case of the faulty unit being on the L.H.S limb p.u. over-voltage =

1
(
3.c .s. c + c 1 .A )
) − n.[3.s.(c + c1 ) − (2.c1 + 3.c )]
eq. 36-1D.17
1
(
3.s.c .A. c + c 1

where:-

(
A =p + r −1. p−n )( )

1.3 Current Through Capacitor Element Fuses During Fault Conditions

IaF
XC XC XC 1
Ia F

Figure 36-1D.5: Current Through Capacitor Element Fuses During Fault Conditions

Considering L.H.S limb of phase A

1.3.1 Under Healthy Conditions

11
Current through single fuse element = Ia

where:-

1
11 Ia Ia VN .Y
Ia = = =
p p.c p.c

1.3.2 Under Fault Conditions With One Element Short-Circuited and Before the Fuse Blows

From eq. 36-1.11 one can write:-

Ia F =
(
3.VN .Y1. Y + Y
1
) (Note Y1 has a different value to the cases previously considered, because one row is shorted
1
Y1 + 2.Y + 3.Y
out)

1 XC
Ia F = 1
.IaF (From eq 36-1D.12)
X C .(c − 1) + X C

Now:-

1 x.(r − 1)
XC = (Since one row is shorted out)
p

and

x.r
XC =
p

x.r
XC p r r
∴ 1
= = =
X .(c − 1) + X C x.(r − 1).(c − 1) x.r r + (r − 1).(C − 1) E
+
p p
where : -
E = r + r −1. c−1 ( )( )
1 r
∴ Ia F = . Ia F
E
1
r 3.VN .Y1 .(Y + Y )
= . 1
E Y1 + 2.Y + 3.Y

In this case:-
x.r (
x. r − 1 )
( )
.
1
=
(
p. c − 1 ) p
+
x.r. s − 1
Y
1 x.r
+
(
x. r − 1 ) p.c
( )
p. c − 1 p
x.r.(r − 1) x.r.(s − 1)
= +
p.[r + (r − 1)(
. c − 1)] p.c
x.r.(r − 1) x.r.(s − 1)
.[c.(r − 1) + E.(s − 1)]
x.r
= + =
p.E p.c p.c.E
1
p.c.E p.c 1 p.c
∴ Y1 = ,Y = and Y =
[ ( )
x.r. c. r − 1 + E. s − 1 ( )] x.r.s x.r.s

The per unit increase in current through the fuse element under short circuit conditions is:-
Ia
1
F r 3.VN .Y1 . Y + Y1 p.c ( )
11
= . 1
.
IA E Y1 + 2.Y + 3.Y VN .Y

3.r.p.c (
Y1 . Y + Y1 )
= .
E (
Y. Y1 + 2.Y + 3.Y1 )
p.c.E
.
x
(c + c1 )
=
3.r.p.c
.
( )
x.r.[c. r − 1 + E. s − 1 ] x.r.s ( )
E p.c p.c  E 2 3.c 
1
. + +
 c.(r − 1) + E.(s − 1) s s.c 
x.r.s x.r  
1
(c + c ).s.c
= 3.r.p. 1
s.c.E + (2.c + 3.c ).[c.(r − 1) + E.(s − 1)]

Ia
1
F
=
( )
3.p.r.s.c. c + c1
E.[s.c + (s − 1).(2.c + 3.c )] + c.(r − 1).(2.c + 3.c1 )
11 1
Ia
1 1
Ia F 3p.r.s.c(c + c )
∴ =
[ ( ) ( )]
eq. 36 - 1D.18
Ia
11
E. 3.s. c + c1 − 2.c + 3.c1 + c. r − 1 . 2.c + 3.c1 ( )( )
where:-

E =r + r −1. c−1 ( )( )
If the fault occurs on the R.H.S limb then this equation becomes:-

Ia
1
F
=
1
(
3.p.r.s.c . c + c1 )
[ ( ) ( + 3.c )] + c .(r − 1).(2c1 + 3c )
11 1 1
eq. 36 - 1D.19
1 1
Ia E . 3.s. c + c − 2.c

where:-

1
(
E = r + r − 1 . c1 − 1 )( )
1.4 Displacement of Voltage Neutral

From eq. 17-1.40 the neutral of the capacitor bank is shifted by Vg:-

VN .(Y1 − Y)
∴ Vg = 1
Y1 + 2.Y + 3.Y

and the per unit displacement of the neutral:-

Y1 − Y
VD = 1
Y1 + 2.Y + 3.Y

by comparison with the formula from IN on page 4 one can write:-

n.c
VD = −
) − n.[3.s.c.A.(c + c1 ) − (2.c + 3.c1 )]
eq. 36 - 1D.20
3.s.c.A. c + c ( 1

and if the faulty unit is on the R.H.S limb:-

1
n.c
VD = −
[ )]
eq. 36 - 1D.21
1
( )
3.s.c A. c + c1 − n. 3.s.c.A. c + c1 − 2.c1 + 3.c ( ) (
where:-

(
A =p + r −1. p−n )( )
2. SPECIAL CASE WHERE BOTH LIMBS ARE EQUAL

1
i.e. c = c

2.1 Out Of Balance Current in Neutral

Equations 36-1D.7 and 36-1D 8 reduce to:

3
3 M n.10
IN = − . . eq. 36-1D.22
2 VL 6.s.c.A - n. 6.s - 5 ( )
Equations D7a and 8a reduce to:-

3.Q.c n
IN = − . eq. 36-1D.22a
V 6.s.c.A - n. 6.s - 5 ( )

2.2 Over-Voltages

2.2.1 Over-Voltage on Parallel Elements in Faulted Row

Equations 36-1D D.14 and 36-1D 15 reduce to:-

p.u. over-voltage on elements in same row 6.p.r.c.s

= eq. 36-1D.23
(
6.s.c.A − n. 6.s − 5 )
2.2.2 Over-Voltage on Faulty Capacitor Unit

Equations 36-1D D.16 and 36-1D 17 reduce to:-

p.u. Over-voltage on faulty unit 6.s.c.A

= eq. 36-1D.24
(
6.s.c.A − n. 6.s − 5 )
2.3 Current through Capacitor Element Fuses during Fault Conditions

Equations 36-1D D.18 and 36-1D 19 reduce to:-

1
Ia F 6.p.r.s.c
= eq. 36-1D.25
Ia
11
( )
E. 6.s − 5 + 5.c. r − 1 ( )
2.4 Displacement of Voltage Neutral

Equations 36-1D D.20 and 36-1D 21 reduce to:-

n
VD = − (pu) eq. 36-1D.26
6.s.c.A − n.(6.s − 5)

where:-

A =p + r −1. p−n ( )( )
and

(
E =r + r −1. c−1 )( )
3. EXTERNALLY FUSED CAPACITOR BANKS

A full analysis as described in the previous pages can be done for externally fused capacitors, however, as far as the
neutral current and over-voltage cases are concerned these formulae can be obtained by letting:

p=r=1

and substituting into equations 36-1D.22 - 36-1D.24.

3.1 Out Of Balance Current

( )(
A = p + r − 1 . p − n as p = r = 1 ) A=1

Equation 36-1D D.22 can be written:-

3
3 M n.10
IN = − . . eq. 36-1D.27
2 VL 6.s.c - n.(6.s - 5)

and Equation 36-1D D.22 a becomes:-

3.Qc n
IN = − . eq. 36-1D D.27a
V (
6.s.c - n. 6.s - 5 )
3.2 Over-voltage on Remaining Units in the Same Row

Equations 36-1D D.23 and 36-1D 24 reduce to:-

6.c.s
p.u. over-voltage = eq. 36-1D D.28
(
6.s.c − n. 6.s − 5 )
Note: Eqs 36-1D D.27, 36-1D 27a and 36-1D 28 are only valid after an external fuse has blown.

2.3 Current through an External Fuse When a Capacitor Element Fails

When a capacitor element fails it becomes a short circuit and as consequence a whole parallel row of elements is short
circuited.

Let:-

m = Number of series rows in one capacitor unit that have short circuited

Under healthy conditions

1
The current through each external fuse = Ia

where:-

1 IA VN .Y
Ia = =
c c

Under fault conditions with one element short circuited and before the fuse blows.

Referring to Figure 36-1D.5

1
3.VN .Y1.(Y + Y )
Ia F = 1
Y1 + 2.Y + 3.Y

The normal arrangement with external fuses is to have balanced limbs on each phase:-

1
∴Y=Y

and:

6.VN .Y1 .Y
Ia F =
Y1 + 5.Y

1 XC
Ia F = 1
= Ia F from eq. 36 - 1D.12
X C .(c − 1) + X C

1 x
X C = .(r − m) where m rows are shorted
p
and

x.r
XC =
p
x.r
XC p r r
∴ = = =
1
(
XC . c − 1 + XC ) x
( )(
. r −m . c −1 + ) x.r (r − m)(. c − 1) + r F
p p
where : −
(
F = r + r −m . c −1 )( )
1 r
∴ Ia F = .Ia F
F

Now:-

x.r (
x. r − m )
( )
.
1
=
(
p. c − 1 ) p
+
x.r. s − 1
Y
1
x.r
+
x. r − m( ) p.c
(
p. c − 1 ) p

=
x.r (r − m)
. +
x.r.(x − 1)
p r + (r − m )(
. c − 1) p.c
x.r (r − m ) x.r (s − 1)
.[c.(r − m ) + F.(s − 1)]
x.r
= . + . =
p F p c p.c.F
p.c.F p.c
Y1 = Y=
[ ( )]
and
x.r. c. r − m + F. s − 1 ) ( x.r.s

The per unit increase in current through the fuse when m rows in one unit are short circuited is:-

1
Ia F r 6.VN .Y1 .Y c
1
= . .
I A F Y1 + 5.Y Y.VN

6.c.r Y1
=
F Y1 + 5.Y

p.c.F 1
.
=
6.c.r
.
x.r [c.(r − m) + F.(s − 1)]
F p.c  F 5
. + 
x.r  c.(r − m ) + F.(s − 1) s

s
= 6c.r
(
s.F + s.c. r − m + S.F. s − 1 ) ( )
1
Ia F 6.c.r.s
∴ = eq. 36 - 1D.29
I
1
A ( )
F. 6.s − 5 + 5.c. r − m ( )
where:-

F =r + r −m . c−1( )( )
3.4 Displacement of Voltage Neutral

From eq D.9 on page 6 the neutral of the capacitor bank is shifted by Vg

where:-

VN .(Y1 − Y)
Vg = 1
Y1 + 2.Y + 3.Y
1
taking Y = Y

then the per unit displacement of the neutral:-

Y1 − Y
VD =
Y1 + 5.Y

From above:-

p.c.F
Y1 =
[ (
r.x. c. r − m + F. s − 1) ( )]
and
p.c
Y=
x.r.s

p.c.F p.c
−
VD =
[ (
x.r. c. r − m + F. s − 1 ) ( )] x.r.s
p.c.F 5.p.c
+
[ (
x.r. c. r − m + F. s − 1 ) ( )] x.r.s

VD =
( ) ( )
s.F − c. r − m − F. s − 1
s.F + 5.c.(r − m ) + 5.F.(s − 1)
F − c.(r − m )
=
F.(6.s − 5 ) + 5.c.(r − m )
r + (r − m )(
. c − 1) − c.(r − m )
=
F.(6.s − 5 ) + 5.c.(r − m )
m
∴ VD = eq. 36 - 1D.30
( )
F. 6.s − 5 + 5.c. r − m ( )

Under conditions where successive series rows short without the external fuse blowing

For the condition of the fuse blowing equation 36-1D.26 may be reduced by making p = r = 1.

1 n
∴ VD = eq. 36-1D.31
(
6.s.c − n. 6.s − 5 )
3.5 Conditions Existing With Fuse Not Blown With One Or More Series Rows Of Element Shorted.

Two of the formulae taking account of this condition have been derived on pages 14-17 namely:-

p.u. increase in current through a fuse =

1
Ia F 6.c.r.s
= eq. 36-1D.29
1
I a ( )
F. 6.s − 5 − 5.c. r − m ( )
m
p.u. shift of voltage neutral = eq. 36-1D.30
( ) (
F. 6.s − 5 + 5.c. r − m )
where:-

m = Number of rows shorted in one unit

(
F =r + r −m . c−1 )( )
What about over-voltages and the neutral current under the condition of one or more series elements shorted and the
fuse has not blown?

Consider first the question of over-voltages.

1 1
The voltage drop across a faulted unit = Ia F.XC

VDfaileduni t = I
1
aF .
x
(
. r −m )
p

From eq. 36-1D.29:-

1 6.c.r.s 1
= = Ia
( ) ( )
Ia F
F. 6.s − 5 + 5.c. r − m

1 VN .Y
Ia =
c

VN
The normal voltage across a healthy unit =
s

∴The per unit over-voltage across the faulty unit and the units in parallel with it:-

= .
6.c.r.s
.
VN .Y
.
s
.
x
(
. r −m )
( ) (
F. 6.s − 5 + 5.c. r − m ) 6 VN p

p.c
y=
x.r.s

pu over - voltage on unit =

6.r.s
.
p.c
.s.
x
(
. r −m )
( ( )
F. 6.s − 5 + 5.c. r − m ) x.r.s p
6.s.c.(r − m )
= eq. 36 - 1D.32
F.(6.s − 5 ) + 5.c.(r − m )

The p.u. over-voltage across each remaining row of elements in faulty unit:-

=
)
6.s.c. r − m
+
( r
eq. 36-1D.33
F.(6.S − 5 ) + 5.c.(r − m ) (r - m )

Another over-voltage figure is of interest. This is the over-voltage imposed on the remaining healthy series / parallel
groups in the phase containing the faulty unit.

Ia F
Current through each unit =
c

Ia F x.r
Volt drop across each unit = .X C = Ia F .
c p.c

x.r s
∴ pu over - voltage = Ia F . .
p.c VN

6.VN .Y1 .Y 1 1
= . .
Y1 + 5.Y Y VN

  p.c.F
6.  
=
 x.r.[c.(r − m ) + F.(s − 1)]
p.c  F 5
 + 
x.r  c (r − m ) + F(s − 1) s 

6.s.F
=
s.F + 5.c. r − m + 5.F. s − 1( ) ( )
6.s.F
= eq. 36 - 1D.34
(
F. 6.s − 5 + 5.c. r − m ) ( )

To clarify the situation with regards to over-voltages given in eqs 36-1D.32, 36-1D.33 and 36-1D.34 refer to sketch
below:-

Phase A L.H.S. Limb

IaF 1
Ia F

1
Ia F

V32
r

V33
p
IaF/c

V34

C Neutral of
Phase B & C
on L.H.S. Limb
Figure 36-1D.6: Over-Voltages on Faulted Limb

With regard to the neutral current:-

IN =
(
3.VN . Y1 − Y .Y ) from eq 36-1D.2 and with Y=Y1
Y1 + 5.Y

From page 17, one can now write:-

IN = 3.VN.Y.VD

From page 5:-

M = 2. 3 . VL.VN.Y.10-3

3
M.10
VN =
2. 3 .VL .Y

3
3 M m.10
∴ IN = . . eq. 36-1D.35
( ) (
2 VL F. 6.s − 5 + 5.c. r − m )

M 6 Q
and substituting = . .c into the above eq. gives the alternative form:-
VL 3 V

3.Q c.m
IN = . eq. 36-1D.35a
V ( )
F. 6.s − 5 + 5.c. r − m ( )
where:-

(
F =r + r −m . c−1 )( )
3.6 Number of Units in Parallel per Group

One of the requirements with externally fused capacitors is that the blowing of one fuse will not produce an over-voltage
greater than 10 % on the remaining units in that row. For equation 17-1.59

6.c.s
p.u. over-voltage = = 1,1 for n = 1
6.s.c − 6.s − 5 ( )
Rearranging:

[
∴ 1,1. 6.s.c − 1. 6.s − 5( )] = 6.c.s
or
0,6.c.s = 6,6.s − 5,5

6,6.s - 5,5
∴c =
0,6.s

From this equation the minimum number of parallel units can be determined for a given number of series rows as
follows:-

Table 36-1D.1

No of Series Rows Min No of Parallel Groups Over-voltage for 1 Fuse Blown

1 2 1,09
2 7 1,09
3 8 1,099
4 9 1,096
5 10 1,091
6 10 1,094
7 10 1,097
8 10 1,098
9 10 1,099
10 11 1,091
11 11 1,092
12 11 1,092
13 11 1,093

4. REQUIREMENTS FOR NEUTRAL CURRENT TRANSFORMERS

The maximum current in the neutral depends upon one of two conditions namely a phase going open circuit or a phase
being completely short-circuited.

Considering the Figure 36-1D.1:-

If one phase leg goes open circuit then VOC = 0,5.VN

VOC = 0,5.V1 = 0,5.VN

if V1 goes open circuit
V3 V2
C
Figure 36-1D.7: Phase V1 Open-Circuited

The equivalent Thevenin impedance:-

Figure 36-1D.8: Equivalent Thevenin Impedance Phase V1 Open-Circuited

Xc Xc X
Z= + = 5. c
2 3 6

0,5.VN 2.VN
∴Current in Neutral = .6 = 0,3.
5.X C XC

∴ I N = 0,3.I L eq. 36-1D.36a

where:-

IL = Normal phase current

Taking the case of one phase leg going short circuit:-

Figure 36-1D.9: Equivalent Thevenin Impedance Phase V1 Short-Circuited

VOC = VN

XC
and Thevenin impedance =
3

3.VN
∴ IN = or I N = 1,5.I L eq. 36-1D.36b
XC

4.1 Ratio of Current Transformer

The requirements for the CT ratio for internally fused and externally fused capacitor banks are different. For the
externally fused capacitors it is necessary to detect the current when one fuse has blown and this current is substantially
greater than when on a more internal fuses blow.

4.1.1 Internal Fuse Case

On the basis that the relay selected to detect the out of balance neutral current has an alarm setting of 10 % and trips at
twice the alarm setting the following principles apply :

a) Alarm when over-voltage on row ± 20 %

b) Trip when over-voltage on row ± 40 %

c) The ratio should be suitable for either standard size bank for a given voltage rating

e) Select highest ratio compatible with above requirements

A computer run was made of the selected standard banks using the characteristics of two different types of internally
fused capacitors used on the Eskom system. The information given in Table 36-1D.2 was derived from the printout. A
higher over-voltage than 40 % has been accepted for the smaller size banks.

4.1.2 External Fuse Case

The following principles apply:

a) Alarm when one external fuse blows

b) Trip when a second fuse blows in the same row

c) The ratio should be suitable for either standard size bank for a given voltage rating

d) Select highest ratio compatible with above requirements.

In the selecting the parameters for the various sizes of standard banks economic considerations of using a large kVAr
rating per unit were most important. The out of balance current for the 11 kV, 22 kV and 33 kV banks vary considerable
depending upon whether one or more series groups are used.

The Table 36-1D.3 lists values derived from a computer run on the selected standard banks.

4.1.3 Fuseless Case

The following principles apply:

a) Alarm when half capacitor unit is shorted (44 to 88 kV)

Trip when one capacitor unit is shorted (44 to 88 kV)

b) Alarm when one capacitor unit is shorted (132 kV)

Trip when 1 and half unit is shorted (132 kV)

c) Alarm when 1 unit is shorted (220 kV upwards)

Trip when 2 units are shorted (220 kV upwards)

d) Select highest ratio compatible with above requirements

5. INTERNALLY FUSED CAPACITORS - TRIP / ALARM CONDITIONS

Table 36-1D.2:
Voltage Rating Alarm Setting Trip Setting Current Relay
of Bank of Bank Neutral Over- Neutral Over- Transformer Alarm
Current voltage Current A voltage Ratio Setting
on row on row
kV MVArs A % %
1,3160 25 2,2605 44
6
1,7563 34 2,6393 51
11 12/1 10
1,4123 34 2,8418 69
3
1,4103 34 3,0480 74
0,6626 26 1,4435 57
12
0,8864 35 1,3384 53
22 6/1 10
0,7158 36 1,4649 74
6
0,7158 36 1,5748 80
0,4428 26 0,9673 58
18
0,5928 35 0,8965 54
33 4/1 10
0,4796 37 0,9868 76
9
0,4796 37 1,0617 82
0,3325 26 0,7273 58
24
0,4453 36 0,6740 54
44 3/1 10
0,3606 37 0,7440 77
12
0,3606 37 0,8007 83
0,2219 27 0,4861 59
36
0,2973 36 0,4504 55
66 2/1 10
0,2410 37 0,4986 78
18
0,2410 38 0,5369 84
0,1665 27 0,3651 59
48
0,2232 36 0,3382 55
88 1/1 15
0,1810 37 0,3750 78
24
0,1810 38 0,4038 84
0,1111 27 0,2437 59
72
0,1489 36 0,2259 55
132 1/1 10
0,1208 38 0,2506 79
36
0,1208 38 0,2700 85
0,1157 47
120
0,1356 55
220 1/1 10
0,1200 63
60
0,1109 59
0,1171 59
150
0,1085 55
275 1/1 10
0,1206 79
75
0,1300 85

Note: These figures refer to specific internally fused capacitor banks used in the Eskom system and therefore
are only indicative of alarm and trip settings.

6. EXTERNALLY FUSED CAPACITORS - TRIP / ALARM CONDITIONS

Table 36-1D.3:
Voltage Rating Alarm Setting Trip Setting Current Relay
of Bank of Bank Neutral Over-voltage Neutral Over-voltage Transformer Alarm
Current A on row Current on row Ratio Setting
kV MVArs % A %
16,2911 3 33,7458 7 40
6
8,0075 2 16,2411 3 20
11 40/1
13,4983 7 29,0733 15 30
3
8,1455 3 16,8729 7 20
12 8,0075 2 16,2911 3 20
22 8,1455 3 16,8729 7 40/1 20
6
4,0037 2 18,1455 4 10
5,6180 8 12,1951 17 20
18
33 2,8290 7 6,1356 17 25/1 20
9 2,0990 7 6,0976 17 10
24 4,1809 6 8,9140 13 20
44 20/1
12 2,0904 6 4,4570 13 10
36 2,8290 7 6,1356 17 25
66 10/1
18 1,4145 7 3,0678 17 10
48 2,1337 8 4,6776 18 20
88 10/1
24 1,0689 9 2,3388 18 10
72 1,4360 9 3,1707 21 20
132 5/1
36 0,7180 9 1,5854 20 10
120 0,8669 10 1,9283 22 20
220 3/1
60 0,4334 10 0,9642 22 10
150 0,6682 10 1,4903 23 20
275 3/1
75 0,3341 10 0,7452 28 10

Note: These figures refer to specific externally fused capacitor banks used in the Eskom system and
therefore are only indicative of alarm and trip settings.

SLDG 36-1 APPENDIX D1

SIMPLIFIED CALCULATIONS OF THE OUT-OF-BALANCE CURRENT IN UNEARTHED NEUTRALS OF EQUAL

SPLIT ARM EXTERNAL OR INTERNALLY FUSED CAPACITOR BANKS

DEFINITIONS

IS = Split arm current

Ip = Phase current
Z = 1
Impedance of healthy phase arm =
Y
Z1 = 1
Impedance of faulty phase arm =
Y1
V1 , V2 , V3 = Phase to neutral voltages
VG1, VG2 = Neutrals to earth voltages
Y = Admittance of a healthy phase split arm
Y1 = Admittance of a phase split arm with faulty units
C = Capacitance of the split arms
C1 = Capacitance of a split arm with faulty units
c = Capacitance of a unit (element)

SUMMARY

To simplify the calculation, the out-of-balance current for faults occurring on capacitor units or unit elements of a single
split phase arm will be determined. Calculations of the out-of-balance current due to more than one unbalanced phase
can be achieved by applying the principle of super-position effect.

Formulae to calculate out-of-balance currents in unequal split arm capacitor banks are given in Clause 2 of this
Appendix.

1. GENERAL CASE OF UNBALANCED EQUAL SIZED ARMS OF ONE BANK PHASE

From the parallel generator theorem applied to the circuit of Figure 36-1D1.1:-

V1 V2 V3
+ +
Z1 Z Z Y1.Y1 + V2 .Y + V3 .Y
VG1 = = and
1 1 1 Y1 + 2.Y
+ +
Z1 Z Z

V1 V2 V3
+ + 1 1 1
Z = V1 .Y + V2 .Y + V3 .Y
1 1 1
VG1 = Z Z
1
1 1 1 3.Y
1
+ 1
+ 1
Z Z Z

2 1
Since V2 = a .V1, V3 = a.V1, and Z = Z we can also write:-

V1.(Y1 − Y)
VG1 = , VG2 = 0
Y1 + 2.Y

Furthermore reducing the circuit of Figure 36-1D11 to that of Figure 36-1D12 (Thevenin’s Theorem), the voltage seen
between A and B is given by:-

VG1,2 = VG1 - VG2

V1.(Y1 − Y)
=
(Y1 + 2.Y )
as VG2 = 0 because of 3-phase voltage balance.

The equivalent impedance (Thevenin) of the circuit of Figure 36-1D12 is:-

Z 1 1
Z 1. .
Z eq = 2 + Z = Y1 2.Y + 1
Z 3 1 1 (3.Y)
Z1 + +
2 Y1 2.Y

Therefore the current on the neutral or the out-of-balance current will be:-

Vg1,2 V1 .(Y1 − Y).3.Y

IN = =
Z eq Y1 + 2.Y + 3.Y

3.Y.d.V1 3.d.I S
IN = = eq. 36 - 1D1.1
Y1 + 2.Y + 3.Y d + 6.Y

because IS (split arm current = V1.Y and d is assumed equal to Y1 – Y).

V1 V2 V3
~ ~ ~

Z1 Z Z Z' Z' Z'

VOC
IN
Vg1 Vg2

Figure 36-1D1.1: Capacitor Bank Equivalent Circuit for Applying the Parallel Generator Theorem

Z1 Z'

Z Z'

VOC

Figure 36-1D12: Capacitor Bank Equivalent Circuit for the Application of Thevenin’s Theorem

Given in pu of the split arm current Is, the out-of-balance current IN from the above expression becomes:-

IN 3.d
= eq. 36-1D1.2
IS (d + 6.Y)

or in pu of the phase current Ip

IN 3.d
=
IS (
2. d + 6.Y )
If d is divided for the admittance Y of the split arm, the quantity:-

d
∆=
Y
represents the variation in PU of the arm capacitance on the occurrence of capacitor element (internally fused
capacitors) or capacitor unit (externally fused capacitors) failures.

Substituting ∆ into equations 36-1D1D1.1 and 36-1D1D1.2 we obtain respectively:-

IN −∆
≈ eq. 36 - 1D1.2.1
IS 2

and
IN −∆
≈ eq. 36 - 1D1.3.1
IP 4

which are simplified expressions of IN in pu of Ip and Is respectively by considering that ∆<< 6

ωC1 and jω
Furthermore since the admittance Y1 and Y are equal respectively to jω ωC, ∆ becomes:-

(C − C 1 ) C1
∆ = = 1−
C C

and consequently the equation D1.2.1 and D1.3.1 can also be written in the following forms:-

IN C1 1
= - eq. 36 - 1D1.2.2
IS 2.C 2

IN C1 1
= - eq. 36 - 1D1.3.2
IP 4.C 4

where C1 and C represents the capacitance’s of the faulty and healthy phase arm respectively.

Equations 36-1D1.2.1 and 36-1D1.3.1 can be applied to internally fused and externally fused capacitor banks.

1.1 Externally Fused Capacitors

Considering for example an externally fused capacitor bank whose split arms are formed by S series groups of P
paralleled units, a fault involving F capacitor units of a group would determine a new capacitance value of the arm
(capacitance shift from the nominal value is clearly dependent upon the number F of the faulty units), that is:-

c
C1 = eq. 36-1D1.4
1 (S − 1)
+
(P − F) P

where:-

c = Unit capacitance value (element)

Since the entire value of the healthy split arm capacitance is given by:-

P.c
C= eq. 36-1D1.5
S

a new expression of ∆ as a function of structural parameters of the bank can be derived.

S
∆ = 1− eq. 36-1D1.6
 P 
 (P − N) + (S − 1) 
 

When N=P, the ∆ → 1 and the out-of-balance current will consequently be:-

− IS
IN = eq. 36 - 1D1.7.1
2
or

− IP
IN = eq. 36 - 1D1.7.2
4

1.2 Internally Fused Capacitors

In the internally fused capacitors, the out-of-balance current to be determined is that which arises when a certain
number of parallel elements within a unit fails. The number of parallel elements permitted to fail within and internal unit
group is determined by the maximum voltages across the remaining elements of the group, at which value partial
discharges within the unit insulating liquid are avoided and safety against cascading element failure is guaranteed.

The conservative rule is that the isolation of one capacitor element in a group of parallel elements within the unit should
cause an increase not exceeding 110 % of the rated voltage on the remaining elements of the group. The value of the
capacitance of the split arms having a unit with faulty elements in parallel is given by:-

P.p 1
C1 = .
s  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
(
 S−1 +

) 1 

  
  1 
 1 − 1

  P + s/P[(s − 1) +  
( )
eq. 36-1D1.8
  1 − f/p 


where:-

c = Element capacitance
s = Number of series groups of elements within the unit
p = Number of parallel elements forming a series group within the unit
S = Number of capacitor unit groups in series to from a capacitor bank arm
P = Number of units in parallel forming a split arm

consequently:-

 
 1 
∆ = 1 − s/   eq. 36-1D1.9
S − 1+ 1 
 1 − 1/P + S/p[(s − 1) + 1/1 − f/p)] 


2. UNBALANCE IN UNEQUAL ARMS OF ONE BANK PHASE

1
If the split capacitor arms of each phase are of different size (that is Y ≠ Y ), the equation of the out-of-balance current
can be derived in the same way as discussed in Clause 1.3.

In this case the out-of-balance current depends not only on the number of fuses blown but also on which star section of
the bank the capacitor units or element failures take place.

With reference to Figure 36-1D1.1, the out-of-balance current can be expressed by:-

3.(Y1 − Y).I S
IN = eq. 36-1D1.10
(Y1 − Y) + 3.(Y + Y)

Assuming d = Y1 - Y and d’ = Y1 - Y’, the two equations can also be expressed as:-

IN 3.d
= 1
eq. 36 - 1D1.11.1
IS d + 3.(Y + Y )
1
IN 3.d
= 1 1
eq. 36 - 1D1.11.2
IS d + 3.(Y + Y )

1
Considering that 3(Y + Y ) >>d and d”, we will obtain respectively:-

IN d
= 1
= −∆ eq. 36 - 1D1.12.1
IS Y+Y

and
1 1
I N d
1
= 1
= −∆ eq. 36 - 1D1.12.2
I S Y+Y
where : -

d
∆ =− 1
Y+Y
1
1 d
∆ =− 1
Y+Y

The two quantities ∆ and ∆‘ are not equal. They represent the variation in pu of the arm capacitance on the occurrence
of capacitor element (internally fused capacitors) or capacitor unit (externally fused capacitor) failures in one or the other
star section of the capacitor bank, respectively.

The out-of balance currents in pu of the phase currents can be expressed by:-

IN IS
= − ∆. eq. 36 - 1D1.13.1
IP IP
1 1
I N 1 I S
= −∆ . 1
eq. 36 - 1D1.13.2
IP I P

where the ratios Is/Ip and I’s/I’p are easily determined when the split arm capacitances are known.

3. INHERENT NEUTRAL CURRENTS

Inherent neutral unbalance currents, which flow on all capacitor banks, result from system voltage unbalances and
capacitor manufacturing tolerance unbalances.

The neutral-unearthed double-star configuration compensates inherently for system voltage unbalances; therefore the
protection schemes used in the configuration to detect unbalances are unaffected by system voltage unbalances. The
effects of manufacturers’ capacitor tolerances may influence unbalance relay operations, if the capacitor tolerance
unbalances exceed maximum allowable neutral unbalance value. This is defined as the bank inherent unbalance that
prevents or causes protective relay operation incorrectly.

The determination of the neutral inherent unbalance current is very important before any unbalance relay setting is
done. The inherent unbalance must be measured after any capacitor bank balancing work. Reading and recording of
the inherent unbalance must be done on a regular basis. The capacitor bank manufacturers furnish the inherent
unbalance value after the capacitor bank commissioning period. These values should be recorded as a reference for
evaluating future unbalance conditions and the degree of the unbalances. It can be proved that by decreasing he
number of series groups (which is the same as decreasing the system voltage), the allowable inherent unbalance
increases. Therefore for the higher voltage rated capacitor banks (132 kV or 275 kV) the balancing of the capacitor split
arms must be performed more accurately to achieve good performance of the unbalance protection scheme.

Practical formulae to determine the maximum allowable inherent unbalance currant as a percentage of the nominal
phase current are:

300
In % = (externally fused capacitors ) eq. 36 - 1D1.14
(
2. 6.P.S − 6.S + 5 )
300 1
In % = . (internally fused capacitors ) eq. 36 - 1D1.15
(
2. 6.P.S − 6.S + 5 ) P

In Eskom capacitor banks the protective relays are provided with a compensation circuit to counteract the effect of the
inherent unbalance. The maximum allowable inherent unbalance is then determined by the compensation capability of
the protective relay. The unbalance relay type MCV1 compensates for the inherent unbalance up to 1,5 times the alarm
relay current setting.

The balancing of the bank is considered satisfactorily performed if the inherent unbalance current is not more than 75 %
of the minimum alarm setting.

SLDG 36-1 APPENDIX D2

SIMPLIFIED METHOD OF CALCULATING OVER-VOLTAGES CAUSED BY FUSE OPERATIONS IN EXTERNALLY

AND INTERNALLY FUSED CAPACITORS

1. EXTERNALLY FUSED CAPACITORS

1.1 *Calculation of over-voltage across the healthy units of a group of paralleled units when fuses protecting the group
units blow

Definitions

System voltage
U = voltage across a capacitor bank arm =
3
P = number of units in parallel forming a split arm group
S = number of capacitor units groups in series from a capacitor bank arm
F = number of faulty units in a group
U1...s = nominal voltage across a group of parallel units
U1* .s = voltage across the healthy units of the group with F faulty units
la* = current in the capacitor bank arm with F faulty units in a group
la = current in the capacitor bank arm in healthy condition
c = current in the capacitor bank arm in healthy condition
Y1 * = admittance of a faulty split arm
Y1 = admittance of a healthy split arm

* The following derived formulae permit the over-voltage calculation for the shunt banks having equal and different
dimensioned split phase arms.

Assuming that F capacitor units of Group 1 (see Figures 36-1D2.1 and 36-1D2.2) in the S capacitor groups in series
(forming a split arm of the capacitor bank) fail (F blown fuses), an over-voltage arises in the remaining healthy units in
the group which is equal to:-

* 1
*
Ia . * *
U1 C1 I a .C
= = *
U1 1 I a .C1
Ia .
C1

Since the healthy and the faulty group capacitances are expressed respectively by:-

*
C = c.P and C1 = c.(P-F) (see Figure 36-1D2.1)

the above expression of over-voltage across the remaining healthy units of the group will also be:-

* * *
U1 Ia c.P Ia 1
= . = . eq. 36-1D2.1
U1 Ia c.(P − F) Ia F
1−
p

Furthermore because:-

* P.c P.c
I a = U.Y1 = U. and Ia = U.Y = U.
1 S
S − 1+
1 − F/P

which can be obtained from reference to Figures 36-1D2.1 and 36-1D2.2, the above over-voltage formula D2.1 can be
re-written as follows:-

U1 * S
= eq. 36-1D2.2
U1  F
(S − 1). 1 −  + 1
 P

The parameters affecting the over-voltage across the remaining healthy units in a group are in the foregoing formula.
The over-voltage increases with the increasing of the number F of faulty units in a group, and it has a higher growth if
the number S of groups in series, forming a bank split arm, increases.

The over-voltage on the other hand is restrained by increasing the number P of units grouped in parallel.

The number P of units in parallel should be chosen so that the voltage on the remaining units in a group does not become
excessive (it must not increase more than 10%) with the operation of one fuse in a group. For example, in a capacitor
bank formed by S = 4 series groups in each split arm, the number of remaining units in a group following the operation of
one fuse, can be calculated by using expression (2):-

4
= 1,10
 1
3. 1 −  + 1
 P

from which P = 9

It must be emphasised that the choice of P is also related to the rating of the capacitor bank and the size of the fuses. (It
has been established that the current through the fuse, when a unit becomes shorted, should never be less than 10 times
the nominal capacitor current through the fuse. Therefore the number P should be sufficiently large to ensure that the fuse
on a single unit blows when the unit becomes short circuited).

2. INTERNALLY FUSED CAPACITORS

2.1 Calculation of over-voltage arising across the healthy elements of a group of parallel elements when f fuses
protecting the group elements blow.

Definitions

Definitions as in D1.1 apply, with the following additions:-

f = Number of faulty elements in a group internal to the unit

*
U1 = Voltage across the healthy units of the group with a unit having f faulty elements

*
la = Current in capacitor bank arm with f faulty elements in a unit group

c = Capacitance of the capacitor elements within the unit

*
U1 = Voltage across the healthy elements of a unit internal group with f faulty elements

U1 = Voltage across the parallel elements of the groups within the units

*
Y1 = Admittance of an arm group affected by one or more faulty units

Y1 = Admittance of an arm group of healthy units

On the occurrence of failures of f elements (f fuses blown) within a capacitor unit, the remaining healthy elements of the
unit and the units in parallel to it, forming a series capacitor group, will be affected by voltage stresses, as a result of
voltage redistribution after fault occurrence.

To calculate the over-voltage across the healthy capacitor elements in parallel forming a group within the unit, we are
now considering c as the element capacitance and p as the number of elements in parallel forming s element groups in
series within the unit (see Figure 36-1D2.3).

The over-voltage on the remaining healthy units of the group due to the failure of f elements of the affected unit is similar
to expression 36-1D2.1 of Clause 1.1 as follows:-

* * *
U1 la C la Y1
= . = . eq. 36-1D2.3
U1 la * la Y *
C1 1

 
 
 
P.p.c * P.p.c  1 
Since Y1 = andY1 = / + (S − 1)
s.S s  1 s 
1 − + 
 P P (S − 1) + 1  
   
 1 − f/p 

*
and Ia* = U.Y1 , Ia=U.Y

By substituting the above relationship into 36-1D2.3, we will eventually obtain:-

U1 * S
= =K eq. 36-1D2.4
U1  
 s  (S − 1)
1 + P − 1 + .
 s − 1+
1  P
 
1 − f/p 

If p = f, the internally fused unit affected by capacitor element failure is open circuit and the over-voltage given by
expression 36-1D2.4 coincides with formula 36-1D2.2 of Clause 1.1 for F=1.

The over-voltage across the group of healthy elements in parallel p-f (f faulty elements of f fuses blown) can be
obtained in a simple manner by determining the portion of voltage across the affected group when the voltage across
the unit is equal to K.U1 (K is the over-voltage factor given by equation 36-1D2.4 and U1 is the unit nominal voltage).

Therefore we have:-

U1 * s.K
= eq. 36-1D2.5
U1 1 + (s − 1).(1 − f/p)

For example, considering a 275 kV capacitor bank that has split arms consisting of 27 capacitor unit groups in series,
each group formed by 5 units in parallel. Each unit consists of 4 groups in series of 15 elements in parallel. The failure
of 5 elements in parallel will cause an over-voltage of 2,2% (K = 1,022) across the affected group of units in compliance
with relationship (4).

Placing this value into formula 36-1D2.5, we obtain a voltage of 136% across the healthy parallel elements of the unit
internal group.

*
Phase Current I p *
I a Arm Current

*
Arm Current I a

Unit Current
S P-1 P
1 *
Ia
P

S-1 C C C

Healthy Groups
C2…..S = c.P
Fuse

1 Healthy F Faulty Units

Unit
*
Current
Ia
P-F
Faulty Groups
*
Blown Fuses C 1 = c.(P-F)

Neutral

Figure 36-1D2.1: Externally Fused Capacitors. Calculation Of The Split Arm Capacitance In The Healthy
Condition And After ‘F’ Fuses Of A Unit Group (Number 1 In This Case) Have Blown.

c.P * c.P
Healthy C a = Faulty C a =
S  P 
S − 1+  
P −F

*
Phase Current (I p) *
Arm Current (I a)

*
Arm Current (I a)

S 1 P-1 P
(1)

US
P-1

S-1
(1)

US-1 U
Fuse

1 Faulty
Elements

U*1

Blown
Fuses

Faulty Units

Neutral Current

Figure 36-1D2.2: Externally Fused Capacitors: Distribution of Voltages in the Capacitor Split Arm as a Result
of ‘F’ Unit Failures in a Group of ‘P’ Units.

(1) These voltages are different from the nominal ones because of the voltage increase across the faulty
group.

*
Phase Current (I p) *
Arm Current (I a)

*
Arm Current (I a)

US
S 1 P-1 P

US-1 U (1)
S-1

Faulty Fuse
Elements
u1
Blown u1
U*1
1 Fuses u1
u1

Faulty Units

Neutral Current

Figure 36-1D2.3: Internally Fused Capacitors: Distribution of Voltages in the Capacitor Split Arm Consequent
on ‘F’ Element Failure in a Group of Unit Internal Elements.

(1) These voltages are different from the nominal ones because of the voltage increase across the faulty
element groups.

SLDG 36-1 APPENDIX E

NEUTRAL EARTHING OF SHUNT CAPACITOR BANKS

1. ADVANTAGES

The main advantages associated with capacitor bank neutral earthing are:

a) Less stresses on the circuit breaker as recovery voltages across the first breaker pole to open are reduced. (The
recovery voltage across the first pole to open consists of the difference in voltage between the trapped changes
on the capacitor and the variation in the 50 Hz system voltage. The recovery voltage is approximately 2 times
the normal peak line-to-earth voltage and 3 times the peak system line-to-earth voltage when the bank neutral is
earthed and unearthed respectively).

b) Negligible voltage in the neutral on the normally switching transients and bank internal and external faults.

c) Independence of each capacitor bank phase from faults affecting the other phases.

e) Cost effectiveness due to the reduction of insulation level of the rack-to-ground supporting insulators.

2. CASES IN WHICH NEUTRAL-EARTHING MUST BE AVOIDED

The capacitor neutral-earthing must be avoided when:

a) The system to be compensated is not effectively earthed.

An earthed capacitor bank neutral in an unearthed system allows phase-to-phase voltage to develop across two
phases of the bank, in the event of a phase-to-earth fault in the remaining phase.

b) The shunt capacitor bank must be connected to a line supplied by ∆ tertiaries of power transformers. Earthing
the capacitor bank neutral would make this side of transformer capacitive earthed.

c) A preliminary study of the system harmonic contents indicate a zero sequence current flow (that is very rare in
transmission system) or capacitor bank harmonic resonances which the system or part of it. The presence of
harmonic currents may cause communication facility disturbances and undesirable earth relay operation.

d) Inrush currents affect protective relay performance when flowing into the power system via the substation earth-
mat.

Methods of capacitor neutral-earthing are given on the document NWG 7009 “Guideline for Shunt Capacitor Neutral
Earthing”.

3. UNBALANCE PROTECTION IN NEUTRAL-EARTHED SHUNT CAPACITOR BANKS

Figure 36-1E.1 shows a neutral-earthing method successfully applied in some Eskom neutral-earthed shunt capacitor
banks. The bank neutral is connected to earth through two low voltage capacitor groups. The unbalance currents are
detected by a 11 kV CT. The CT primary terminal is connected to the two star points as in the neutral-earthed
capacitor banks (see Figure 36-1E.1). This method allows the use of the unbalance protection scheme as that already
used in the unearthed capacitor banks. Furthermore Eskom’s existing unearthed capacitor banks can be earthed
simply and without excessive cost by using the low voltage capacitor earthing method.

The low voltage capacitor groups used in this application are rated for a full current of 400 A (100 A per unit) at the
maximum voltage of 800 V when a capacitor phase fails to open.

B W R

L=800 µH

R=20

1
Fuseless
Capacitors

Unbalance 25
CT

1:1
C1 C2 Low Voltage
Capacitor
N1 N2
To Current Unbalance Relay

Figure 36-1E.1: Schematic Diagram of a 275kV, 150MVAr Fuse-less Shunt Capacitor Bank with Earthed
Neutral.

SLDG 36-1 APPENDIX F - 1

Figure 36-1F: Type T-Tin Fuse Minimum Melting Characteristics

SLDG 37 - 1

SERIES CAPACITOR APPLICATION AND PROTECTION

1. BACKGROUND INFORMATION ON SERIES CAPACITORS

1.1 General

Series capacitors are applied to compensate for the inductive reactance of transmission lines.

Considering a simple radial system, the series capacitors are connected to each phase of the line as shown in Figure
37-1.1.

Series capacitors may be installed remote from the load, as for example at intermediate points on long transmission
lines.

ES ER
RL L C

Figure 37-1.1: Series Compensated Radial Line

The line-to-line voltage drop in a radial system as that of Figure 36-1.1 is given by the approximate equation:-

Voltage drop (line-to-line) = [ ]

3 .I . R L .cosφ + (X L - X C ). sin φ .10
-3
kV eq. 37-1.1

From equation 37-1.1 it can be seen that:-

a) In systems with high power factor loads and low ratio X/R, the effect of series capacitors in reducing voltage drop
is small.

b) In systems where the power factor is low and the ratio X/R is high, the series capacitors will be particularly effective
in reducing the total voltage drop.

c) Series capacitors are self-regulating, the I.XL component of the voltage drop being automatically cancelled, or
partly compensated, by the I.XC component.

In addition to reduce voltage drop, the benefits gained by applying series capacitors include:-

a) Improved systems steady-state stability

b) Improved system transient stability

c) Reduced transmission losses

d) Better control of load sharing between parallel feeders

e) Reduction of rapid voltage fluctuations.

1.2 Capacitor Units and Fuses

As for the shunt capacitor banks, series capacitor banks consist of individual capacitor units assembled in series and
parallel connected groups to obtain the desired bank voltage and reactive power ratings. Capacitor units designed for
series applications are more conservatively rated than shunt units, but basically there is no construction difference.
(See Figure 36-1.1 in SLDG 36 - 1)

Either internally or externally fused capacitors have been used for the construction of series banks. It is possible that in
the near future also fuseless capacitors will be used for series applications, due to their construction simplicity and lower
cost.

External fuses to be used for series applications are of external current-limiting type. These fuses must be sized to
withstand all transient overload and discharge duties and capable of clearing at voltages up to the maximum gap spark-
over level.

1.3 Amount of Series Compensation Permissible

The amount of compensation by introducing series capacitors in very high voltage lines (275 kV and above) is about 25
% to 75 % of the line reactance only.

No general recommendation can be given to what extent the line inductive reactance is to be compensated. Any
scheme involving series compensation should be backed by comprehensive engineering study to determine the
minimum capacitive reactance necessary to achieve any of the objects mentioned on clause 1.1 of this document.

Over-compensating the line inductive reactance means to compensate for a portion of the line resistive drop. This level
of compensation must be approached with caution, as unpredictable negative effects on the system transmission
efficiency may result.

1.4 Location of Series Capacitors

It is usual to install the capacitor either at the mid-point of the line or at the receiving end.

The mid-point is preferable, since location at the receiving end involves special consideration of possible resonance
phenomenon and over-voltage conditions on receiving end transformer primary windings.

When loads are distributed along the line it is desirable to locate the capacitor so that the voltage distribution along the
line is almost nearly uniform.

2. APPLICATION OF SERIES CAPACITORS

In transmission lines, series capacitors are used to raise the permissible power transfer or, alternatively, to improve
stability margins for a given power transfer.

The amount of power which can be transmitted between two points in a transmission system (see Figure 37-1.1) is
given by the approximate equation:-

E S .E R
P= .sinδ eq. 37-1.2
XL

where:-

P = Maximum power transmitted

ES = Sending - end voltage
ER = Receiving - end voltage
δ = Phase angle between ES and ER (or transmission angle)
XL = Reactance

Assuming that ES and ER are constant, the amount of power that can be transmitted depends on the reactance of the
system between ES and ER, and the transmission angle δ.

The transmission angle δ also determines the steady state and transient stability of the system.

When a series capacitor is introduced to compensate the system reactance, equation 37-1.2 becomes:-

E S .E R
P= .sinδ eq. 37-1.3
(X L − X C )

Therefore, if δ is fixed, installation of series capacitors will raise the power limit. Alternatively, if the power is constant,
stability will be improved as a result of the smaller value of δ.

In addition, series capacitors provide automatic voltage regulation.

2.1 Application Problems

2.1.1 Sub-harmonic resonance

A capacitor in series with the inductance of the transmission line forms a series - resonant circuit with a natural
frequency given by:-

1 XC
fc = = f. eq. 37-1.4
2. . L.C XL

where:-

f = Power frequency (50 Hz)

XL = Total reactance of the line including reactance of generators and loads
XC = Reactance of capacitors

Since XC/XL usually is in the range 25 - 75 %, fc is usually less than power frequency, so that the transmission system
compensated by series capacitors is characterized by a sub-harmonic resonance or “mode” among other natural
“modes” with resonant frequencies above the power frequency.

In general, any disturbance to the system including switching transients will excite all the natural resonances or modes
of the system in different degree. Usually the resulting transient currents are damped by the system resistance, again in
different degree. A sub-harmonic frequency can affect adversely the performance of poly-phase ac rotating machines if
difference in frequency between the lower frequency and the sub-harmonic frequency coincides with one of the natural
torsional resonance of the machines shaft system. For this condition, torsional oscillations can be excited with
dangerous mechanical stresses to the machine’s shaft.

The combination of electrical / mechanical resonance between a series compensated system and a rotating ac machine
connected to it is known as sub-synchronous resonance (SSR).

Remedies against SSR disturbances are:-

a) Bypassing of series capacitors for small levels of sub-harmonics (see sub-harmonic protection clause).

b) Installation of special sub-harmonic filters in series with series compensated lines.

c) Damping circuits in parallel with series capacitors.

2.2 Ferro-resonance With Transformers

A series capacitor installed between a transformer and the supply source can cause a ferro-resonance phenomenon
between the transformer magnetizing reactance and the capacitor reactance during transformer energization or any
rapid load fluctuation. High voltages can then appear across the capacitors, followed by spark gap operation and by-
pass of capacitors.

The resistance inherent in the circuit is in many cases sufficient to damp out the resonance effects due to a ferro-
resonance phenomenon.

2.3 Effect on Distance Impedance Protective Relays.

Series capacitors installed on very high voltage lines can eventually affect the performance of distance - impedance
protection relays. Incorrect operation of these relays can occur for faults on the load side of the series capacitor
because of the effect of the capacitor on the distance-impedance relationship.

This can be avoided by careful selection of the degree of compensation, combined with correct capacitor location, and
by modifying the relay circuitry so as to take account the presence of capacitors. Where the degree of compensation
does not exceed 50 % of the line reactance, such a kind of problem should not arise.

3. BANK CONFIGURATION AND UNBALANCE PROTECTION

Figure 37-1.2 shows the schematic diagram of a typical series capacitor bank consisting of only a single segment.

One Group
of Units

Overload
CT
Differential CTs

Fault
Detection
CT

Damping Platform
Circuit Potential

Gap Gap CT

Bypass Bypass
Switch CT

Figure 37-1.2: Schematic Diagram of a Typical Series Capacitor Bank and Associated Protective Equipment

The capacitor groups are arranged in two parallel strings. A sensing circuit compares the currents in the two strings and
detect faulty capacitor units, if current differences exceed a certain limit.

Normally two levels of protection are used in a current differential circuit. One to give an alarm when only a modest
unbalance occurs, and one to close the bypass breaker when the over-voltage on the remaining units exceed 10 %. An
alternative unbalance protective scheme consists of potential transformers comparing voltages on the capacitors
arranged in two series groups.

4. OVERVOLTAGE PROTECTION

4.1 Spark-gaps

The voltage across a series capacitor is given by:-

VC = I.XC eq. 37-1.5

From equation 17-2.5, the voltage across the series capacitor depends on the amount and frequency of the current
flowing in the line and on the reactance of the capacitor.

Over-voltages shown in Table 37-1.1 are permissible for about 300 applications during the life of a capacitor.

Table 37-1.1: Multiplying Factor ‘x’ Rated RMS Voltage vs. Permissible Duration

Permissible Duration Multiplying Factor ‘x’ Rated RMS Voltage

1 cycle 4,2
6 cycles 3,05
15 cycles 2,6
1 second 2,2
15 seconds 1,8
1 minute 1,7
5 minutes 1,5
50 minutes 1,35

In normal service condition overloads in excess of 150 % of rated current must be avoided. If the permissible overloads
are exceeded, premature failures of capacitor may result.

Under fault conditions the voltage across a series capacitor will generally rise above the permissible limit, unless the
capacitors are by-passed before the over-voltage becomes excessive. The most general practice is to short out the
capacitors by spark-gaps designed to spark-over before the capacitor over-voltage limit is reached.

If the clearing time of the system protective switchgear at the sending end is longer than a few cycles the spark gaps
must be provided with by-passing circuit breakers as shown in Figure 37-1.2.

Spark-gaps generally consist of two electrodes (rods, discs, spheres or segment spheres), separated by some type of
dielectric, the most commonly used dielectric being air.

When a non-self-extinguishing spark gap is used, a signal is send to automatically close the by-pass circuit-breaker on
spark-gap conduction. In this manner fault current is diverted from the gap to the breaker until the current returns to
normal and the breaker re-opens automatically, reinserting the capacitor into the line.

In case of self-extinguishing spark-gaps, the spark-gap protective circuit is provided with a CT to monitor the line
current after a spark-over. Compressed air will be released automatically to extinguish the gap when the line fault is
cleared or when the spark-over occurs.

4.2 Varistors

A new development in series capacitor protective equipment utilises a zinc-oxide varistor, a form of non-linear resistor to
limit the voltage across the capacitors.

During fault conditions, the varistor and capacitor both conduct. When the fault is cleared, the varistor ceases
conduction and the total line current shifts back to the capacitor. The capacitor reinsertion is automatic and
instantaneous, enhancing system stability.

A schematic diagram of a series capacitor protected by varistors is shown in Figure 37-1.3. The triggered air-gap
shown in the diagram is used to short circuit the varistors and to protect them when the current magnitude and duration
throughout the varistors is excessive.

5. OVERLOAD PROTECTION

Overload protection is usually provided to protect the capacitor for a sustained overload below the gap spark-over
setting. Industry standards specify overload capabilities for series capacitors, but it must be kept in mind that each
application has unique requirements.

A thermal analogue device to simulate capacitor unit temperature is sometimes used to protect the capacitor for over-
current less than 150 %.

6. SUB-SYNCHRONOUS RESONANCE PROTECTION

If the series-compensated line is affected by sub-harmonic disturbances (see Clause 2.1.1) the series capacitor
protection system must include a sub-harmonic sensing relay which will operate when a current of 10 - 30 Hz frequency
and a magnitude of approximately 0,1 times the line rated current is flowing through the capacitor.

Series Capacitor

Varistor

Discharge
Reactor
Triggered
Air Gap

Bypass
Switch

Figure 37-1.3: Series Capacitor Protection Using Varistor.

7. REINSERTION TIME DELAY

Reinsertion time delay of capacitors after fault clearing is an important factor to consider for a proper system operation.
A more rapid reinsertion of the capacitor increases the line loading capability and therefore raises the transient stability
limit.

The reinsertion time delay depends on the control relay speed, bypass switch operating time, and the protective gap
voltage recovery characteristics.

Non-self-extinguishing gaps need a longer time for de-ionisation and to recover their dielectric strength than other types
of gaps. For this reason self-extinguishing gaps can be used for slow-speed reinsertion of capacitors in transmission
systems with large loading capability or high transient stability limit. Reinsertion times are usually 1 second or more
when non-self-extinguishing gaps are used.

Higher speed reinsertion of capacitors can be achieved with high-speed switches and self-extinguishing gaps. The self-
extinguishing gaps rapidly recover their insulation strength by pressured-air flow to the gaps when spark-over occurs, so
that it is possible to reinsert the capacitor within a few cycles, after fault clearing.

The use of varistors permits practically instantaneous reinsertion while eliminating the need for high-speed switches and
gaps extinguished by pressured-air flow.

8. DISCHARGE DAMPING DEVICE

High amplitude and frequency discharge current from the capacitors will flow through the capacitor / spark gap / by-
pass-breaker circuit after a gap flashover or by-pass breaker closing.

This discharge current is usually limited by a discharge damping device located in the path of the discharge current as
shown in Figure 37-1.2, to reduce stresses on the capacitor dielectric, capacitor fuses, spark-gap electrodes, and
breaker extinguishing chambers.

The damping device consists of a reactor of specific ratings sometime in parallel with a resistor. In series with the
resistor is connected a spark gap which connects the resistor to the circuit only during discharge periods, for reducing
losses. The damping reactor / resistor device is normally designed to reduce the first discharge current peak to 100
times the capacitor rated current for non-self-extinguishing gaps and to 50 times the rated current for self-extinguishing
gaps.

9. ESKOMS SERIES CAPACITOR SCHEMATICS

Series compensation in the Eskom system has been applied to long 400 kV transmission lines supplying power to the
Cape Region. The capacitors and the protection schemes are arranged as shown in Figures 37-1.4 and 37-1.5, which
refer to the ABB (ASEA) and Westingcorp series bank respectively.

Line Bypass
Isolator

Series
Isolator

Unbalance
Protection

Damping
Reactor Spark Gap
Spark Gap
Protection

Damping Bypass Flashover

Resistor Breaker to Platform
Protection

Platform

Figure 37-14: ABB (Asea) One-Module Series Bank Schematic (Nestor, Luckhoff, Victoria, Komsberg).

Line
Bypass
Isolator

Series
Isolator

Bypass
Breaker Line Current
Measuremen
Damping
Reactor

Spark
Gap

Unbalance Flashover
Protection to Platform
Protection

Platform

Figure 37-1.5: Westinghouse Two-Module Series Bank Schematic (Juno, Helios, Aries*, Kronos*)

(*Aries and Kronos upgraded consist of 4 series modules)

S.L.D.G. 38 - 1

STATIC VAR COMPENSATORS

1. INTRODUCTION TO THE FUNCTIONS OF SVCS

1.1 Scope

In this section the basic functions of static compensators in ac power systems are presented.

Industrial applications are presented only in terms of supporting transmission systems supplying large industrial loads.
Problems such as flicker control, voltage regulation resulting from motor starting and other industrial applications are not
within the scope of this section.

1.2 Objectives

In general, static compensators can be used where continuous and fast control of reactive power is required to meet
any or all of the following objectives:

a) improved voltage regulation,

b) enhancement of steady state and dynamic stability,

c) reduction of over-voltages,

d) reduction of voltage flicker,

e) damping of sub-synchronous oscillations,

f) reduction of voltage or current unbalances.

Before the introduction of static compensators, objectives (a) to (c) were met by synchronous compensators or
combinations of switched shunt capacitors and / or reactors. Shunt reactors and capacitors provided improvement but
not continuous and fast control. The replacement of these devices by static compensators is governed by the required
system performance, the cost of the installation, maintenance and reliability requirements.

1.3 Operating Characteristics

The basic function of a static compensator is to control voltage at its point of connection to a power transmission
system. To this end, the ideal static compensator would generate or absorb reactive power at its terminals so as to
result in a constant voltage-current characteristic.

Practicable static compensators comprise a combination of capacitors, reactors, transformers, as well as switching and
control devices as described in detail in section 3.

As a first step toward the realisation of the ideal characteristic, consider the basic compensator of Figure 38-1.1a. The
capacitive reactive power is provided by switched shunt capacitors with a U-I characteristic as shown in Figure 38-1.1b.
The inductive reactive power is provided by a variable inductor which, either through its inherent characteristic (e.g. a

saturable-reactor) or through active feedback control, can be adjusted to maintain a constant voltage at the point of
connection as shown by the U-I characteristic of Figure 38-1.1c.

The combined U-I characteristic of these two elements now resembles, over a given working range, the ideal
characteristic of a static compensator shown in Figure 38-1.1d.

1.4 Typical Applications

This section is intended to present some of the functions of a static compensator by a review of typical transmission
system applications.

1.4.1 Voltage regulation

Towards the understanding of the operating principles of the ideal static compensator, consider its response to
relatively slow system disturbances.

The power system at the point of connection of a static compensator can be represented by a Thevenin equivalent
voltage US behind a source reactance XS. Assume the static compensator has an operating range of iC < IC and iL < IL.
The static compensator will then have a corresponding reactive power rating of QC p.u. (per unit) capacitive and QL p.u.
inductive, where:

isc
iC iL

U U

iC iL

b) Capacitor Current c) Inductor Current

isc
IC IL

d) Combined Capacitor and Inductor Current

Figure 38-1.1: Basic Components and U-I Characteristic of a Static Compensator

Q C = ULL .I C eq. 38-1.1

Q L = ULL .I L eq. 38-1.2

where:-

QC = Capacitive reactive power rating in p.u.

QL = Inductive reactive power rating in p.u.
ULL = System line to line voltage in p.u.
IC = SVC maximum capacitive current in p.u.
IL = SVC maximum Inductive current in p.u.

For this rating, the static compensator can maintain a constant voltage USys at the point of connection to the system,
provided that the equivalent system voltage USys does not change by more than ∆UC or ∆UL, so that:-

X S .Q C
∆UC = X S .I C = eq. 38-1.3
UL

X S .Q L
∆UL = X S .I L = eq. 38-1.4
ULL

where:-

XS = Source reactance in p.u.

For example, consider a +50 MVAr, -20 MVAr static compensator connected to a system at a bus where the system
short circuit level is 1000 MVA. On a 100 MVA base,

XS = 0.1 p.u.

Let: UL = 1 p.u. then:-

Q CMVA 50
QC = = = 0,5 pu
MVAbase 100

X S .Q C
∆UC = X S .I C =
UL

0,1.0,5
=
1
= 0,05 pu

Q LMVA 20
QL = = = 0,2 pu
MVAbase 100

X S .Q L
∆UL = X S .I L =
UL

0,1.0,2
=
1
= 0,02 pu

Thus for this rating of static compensator, the system voltage can decrease by 0.05 p.u. or increase by 0.02 p.u. and the
voltage at the point of connection of the static compensator will remain constant.

U
Uref

isc
IC IL
(QC) (QL)

a) Characteristic of a Static Compensator with a Non-Flat U-I Characteristic

XS I XComp
US ~
~ Uref

System Compensator

b) Connection of a Practical Static Compensator to a Transmission System

Figure 38-1.2: Static VAR Compensator

A static compensator with a flat voltage-current characteristic as described above is generally not practicable. The U-I
characteristic of a practicable static compensator has a slope as shown in Figure 38-1.2a). The slope, which is in most
applications rising in the direction of inductive current, is a compromise between the compensator rating and the voltage
stabilising requirement. In addition, the slope improves current sharing between compensators operating in parallel.
The slope has traditionally been adjustable within a range of zero to 10 % in terms of the continuous rating of the
device. The most common adjustment is in the range of two to five percent.

The voltage at which the static compensator neither absorbs nor generates reactive power is the reference voltage Uref
in Figure 38-1.2a). In practice, this reference voltage can be adjusted within the range of ± 10 %.

The slope of the characteristic represents a change in voltage with compensator current and, therefore, can be
considered as a slope reactance XComp. The equivalent circuit for the compensator is shown in Figure 38-1.2b).

The change in system voltage is now given by:

QC
∆UC = .(X S + X Comp ) eq. 38-1.5
ULL

and

QL
∆UL = .(X S + X Comp ) eq. 38-1.6
ULL

where:

XComp = Compensator reactance in p.u.

Referring to the previous example, if the compensator has a slope characteristic of 5 % on 50 MVA, the rating required
to compensate for a drop in system voltage of 5 % would be:

∆US
QC = eq. 38-1.7
X S + X Comp

where:-

100
X Comp = 0,05 . = 0,1 p.u.
50

and

0,05
QC = = 0,25 p.u. = 25 MVAr
0,1 + 0,1

Similarly, the rating required to compensate for a rise in system voltage of 2 % would be:-

0,02
QL = = 0,1 p.u. = 10 MVAr
0,1 + 0,1

The voltage change at the compensator location is given by:

 X Comp 
∆US .  eq. 38-1.8
 X Comp + X Sys 


and would be 2,5 % in the first case and 1 % in the second case.

Thus, by accepting a voltage regulation of up to 2.5 %, a compensator of half the rating of what would be required for no
voltage regulation can be used.

It is important to note that the above response is only available within the normal output and control range of the static
compensator and it takes place with a time constant that is appropriate to the type of compensator used (one to several
cycles). The response is not instantaneous.

Figure 38-1.3: Response of Synchronous Compensator and Static Compensator to a Sudden Reactive Load
Change.

Static compensators, unlike synchronous compensators, do not significantly change the short circuit level of the bus to
which they are connected. With large capacitor banks there could even be a small decrease in fault level. The
instantaneous voltage response due to reactive change is therefore still governed by the system fault level. This is an
important difference when comparing static compensators with synchronous compensators. On the other hand, a static
compensator will respond much faster to voltage changes than a synchronous compensator in terms of changing its
output within the control range. Figure 38-1.3 shows the comparison in a qualitative manner between the response of a
synchronous compensator and a static compensator to a change in reactive load.

1.4.2 Stability improvement

Both steady state and dynamic stability are a function of the power transmitted between groups of generation. The
transmitted power between two buses of controlled voltages UA and UB is expressed by:-

U A .UB
P= .sinθ eq. 38-1.9
X1

where:-

X1 = Series reactance between buses A and B

θ = angular displacement between the voltages UA and UB

Equation 18-1.9 suggests that the transmitted power between buses A and B can be increased by either reducing the
value of X1 directly, such as by series capacitors, or indirectly by providing voltage support between the two buses.

Figure 38-1.4: Increasing Stability Limit by Static Compensation at Midpoint of Line.

Figure 38-1.4 illustrates intermediate voltage support by a static compensator located at the middle of the line and
having a slope of XC. It can be shown that the expression of transmitted power between A and B after a star-delta
transformation becomes:

2 2
U .sinθ U .sin½θ
P= + eq. 38-1.10

X 1. 1 +
X1  2.X C + ½.X1

 (4.X C ) 

where:-

U = Bus voltage at A, B and behind the reactance XC of the compensator

If U = 1 p.u., eq. 18-1.10 can be re-written as:-

  XC  
  ( 1 .X ) .sinθ 
1  4 1  2.sin½θ
P= . +  eq. 38-1.11
X1 
  1 +  X C    1 +  X C   
   ( 14 .X 1 )     ( 14 .X 1 )   

where:-

¼X1 = Short-circuit reactance of the system as seen from the compensator bus (without the compensator)
2
If the maximum power transfer without the compensator, U /X1, or 1/X1 is designated by PO and if XC/(¼.X1) is
designated by k, then the power transfer in per unit of PO is given by:-

P
=
1
(
. k . sinθ + 2.sin½θ ) eq. 38-1.12
PO 1+ k

This relationship is shown by the solid lines on Figure 5, where P/PO is plotted with k as parameter.

θ thus giving:-
The voltage at the compensator location can be deduced from the fact that P/PO = 2.Um.sin ½θ

1 + k.cos½θ
Um = eq. 38-1.13
1+ k

from which the reactive output of the compensator corresponding to a given P/PO and angle θ is given by:-

QC (1 − Um ).Um 4.(1 − cos½θos½θ + k .cos½θc

= = eq. 38-1.14
2
PO  XC  (1 + k)
X 
 1

Of interest also is the permissible power transfer corresponding to a given static compensator rating. This is shown by
the dashed lines on Figure 5 where P/PO is plotted with QC/PO (or q) as parameter.

Equation 18-1.12 for P/PO as a function of the angle θ for a given q can be derived from the relations:-

4
q= .(1 − Um ).Um
k
eq. 38-1.15
1 − Um
k=
Um − cos½θ

from which:-

Figure 38-1.5: Power Transfer as a Function of Static Compensator Slope and Rating

Solid lines θ,k) where k = XC/(¼ . X1)

: P/PO = F(θ

Dashed lines θ,q) where q = QC/PO

: P/PO = F(θ

2
and : PO = U /X1 where U = 1 p.u.

[
Um = ½ cos½θ + (cos ½θ + q)
2
] eq. 38-1.16

and

P/PO = 2.Um.sin½θ [
θ. cos½θ + (cos ½θ + q)
θ = sin½θ
2
] eq. 38-1.17

The dashed lines show, in effect, the power transfer limits based on compensator rating.

From eq. 38-1.17 it is possible to calculate the increase in power transfer capability for a given value of q or
compensator rating. To determine the value of k which, for a given q would give the maximum increase in power
transfer capability, the differentiation of eq. 38-1.17 for P/PO gives the following simple relation:

1
θ=
cos½θ eq. 38-1.18
2+q

By substituting this angle into eq. 18-1.14 relating P, Q and k, the optimum value of k and the compensator slope XC
can be determined from:

2.sin½θ - 
P

k=
 4.X1  =  PO 
 eq. 38-1.19
 X C   P  − sinθ
P 
 O

It must be emphasized that the above relations are based on the steady-state and not dynamic stability criteria.

A special type of instability, referred to as voltage instability, occurs in EHV systems due to tripping of a line where the
loss of the line charging results in a substantial reactive power deficiency in the system and a possible collapse of
voltage. The system can be stabilised by fast injection of reactive power at critical points. Static compensators are an
obvious solution for this function.

If the compensator is floating before the disturbance, the action of the compensator (following the disturbance) will move
the operating point to a higher curve, thus providing more power transfer for the same angle or more angular margin for
the same power transfer, but in either case improving transient stability.

1.4.3 Control of over-voltages

Static compensators can be used to control temporary over-voltages occurring on load rejection, line energization or
transformer energization. Slow front switching surges are only affected by static compensators through the
characteristics of the static components involved (e.g., capacitor banks, transformer and reactor characteristics), but
cannot be reduced through control action. The principle of reducing temporary over-voltages with static compensators
is very simple although the actual applications requires careful study of the transient performance of the compensator.

The ability and effectiveness of a static compensator to reduce temporary over-voltages depends on its design and the
system characteristics. The stiffer the system, the slower is the response. For weak systems the response is higher but
limited by the stability of the control and quasi-resonance areas in the frequency characteristic of the system. The
response time is in the order of 20 to 100 ms for typical EHV systems.

1.4.4 Control of voltage unbalance

Static compensators have the capability to control voltage unbalances such as caused by railway loads, furnace loads,
etc. This requires single-phase control of the thyristor-controlled reactors.

Analytical studies have indicated that static compensators could be used to reduce secondary arc current and arc
recovery voltage for single-pole re-closing in EHV or UHV lines to improve the performance of the neutral reactor
particularly in un-transposed lines.

1.4.5 HVDC terminals

Static compensators could be used to provide the required reactive power for converters and to improve the dynamic
regulation of the ac transmission at the converter terminals.

2. BASIC CONFIGURATIONS

2.1 Scope

The basic reactive components of a static compensator are shunt reactors and shunt capacitors. The reactors are
varied by means of thyristor and magnetic switching. The capacitor banks are either a fixed amount or are varied in
steps by thyristor switching. Based on these principles various static compensators have been developed but only
those applied in present engineering practice are discussed in this chapter.

These are characterized by fast response, reliability, low operating costs and flexibility.

2.2 Introduction

2.2.1 Controlled reactors and fixed capacitors

One type of static compensator consists of controlled reactors and fixed capacitors whose operation depends on the
location of the system voltage with respect to the operating range of the compensator. When the system voltage is
equal to or less than the minimum level of the compensator range, the reactive power generated by the capacitors is fed
into the system and none is absorbed by the reactors. Above the minimum level some of the capacitor output is
absorbed by the reactors until, at the rated voltage, all the output of the capacitors is absorbed by the reactors and the
compensator is said to be floating. Above the rated voltage the reactors continue to absorb reactive power until their
rating is attained, which determines the maximum level of the compensator. Above this maximum level reactive power
absorption depends on the overload characteristics of the compensator. Static compensators of this kind employ either
saturated-reactors or thyristor-controlled reactors and their resulting operation is characterized by a smooth U-I
relationship.

2.2.2 Thyristor-controlled reactors and thyristor switched capacitors

Another type of static compensator that produces a smooth U-I characteristic consists of thyristor-controlled reactors
and thyristor-switched capacitors. In this design the capacitor bank is divided into several steps and each step is

switched on as required, the reactor acting as a vernier to maintain smooth control. Thus the reactor size can be limited
to the size of one capacitor step if desired.

Such an arrangement minimizes the circulating current between capacitor bank and reactor and consequently the
losses.

2.2.3 Thyristor switched capacitors

Finally, there are applications where only thyristor-switched capacitors are required for voltage support. Such an
arrangement will result in a graduated U-I characteristic rather than a smooth one, the size of the steps being
determined from the system requirements.

The following types of static compensator can be identified:

a) saturated-reactor

b) thyristor-controlled reactor (TCR)

c) thyristor-controlled reactor-transformer

d) thyristor-switched capacitors (TSC)

e) combined TCR and TSC

These configurations are discussed in the sections that follow.

2.3 Saturated-Reactor Compensator

The saturated-reactor compensator was the first type to be developed and applied successfully in power systems. It
consists basically of a saturated-reactor and a fixed capacitor bank.

2.3.1 Saturated-reactor

This is a multi-core reactor with the phase windings so arranged as to cancel the principal harmonics. There are two
types of such reactors, a twin-tripler and treble-tripler. The twin-tripler has six cores and cancels its current harmonics of
order 3, 5, 7, 9; 15, 17, 19, 21 etc. Odd harmonics which remain un-cancelled are the characteristic harmonics and they
are of order 11, 13, 23, 25 etc. (i.e., 12k ± 1, k = 1, 2, 3, ...). The treble tripler has nine cores and cancels its current
harmonics of order 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 15; 21, 23, 25, 27, 29, 31, 33 etc. Odd harmonics which remain un-cancelled are
the characteristic harmonics and they are of order 17, 19; 35, 37 etc. (i.e., 18k ± 1, k = 1, 2, 3, ...).

Because of its additional harmonic cancelling capability, which results in an overall harmonic generation of less than two
percent, the treble-tripler is the type of saturated-reactor most often used for static compensation.

Figure 38-1.6: Winding Connection of Treble-Tripler Saturated-Reactor

The winding diagram of a treble-tripler reactor is given in Figure 6 showing the arrangement of the phase windings on
o o
the nine cores. The ampere turns of the nine cores are displaced by 20 over the 180 range. Each core is kept in
saturation during most of the entire cycle. When the core magnetizing changes its direction (magnetic switching),
voltage pulses are induced in the core windings constituting in each phase an electromotive force of constant amplitude
in phase with the applied voltage. The reactance of the remaining saturated cores appears as the internal reactance of
the saturated-reactor.

Therefore, the saturated-reactor could be considered as a constant voltage reactive source behind its internal reactance
when the applied voltage exceeds its saturation level or rated voltage.

Since the magnetic switching is relatively fast, the induced emf pulses are pronounced and hence the non-compensated
harmonics are rather high. To suppress their amplitudes, a mesh winding is applied. However, the effectiveness of the
mesh winding is not the same for the entire range of the treble-tripler operation and to complement its smoothing effect
mesh loading reactors are applied.

Harmonic compensation as described is valid only when the cores are identical with respect to geometry, materials and
windings and when the voltage conditions are balanced. If this is not the case, the saturated reactor will generate a
certain amount of harmonics that would otherwise have been compensated. To eliminate a need for an extra limb for
the flux return, the limbs C2, C4, C6 and C8 are connected to the yokes in a direction opposite to the one shown in the
figure.

Saturated-reactors use conventional transformer type core steel windings and oil-filled tank construction. They are
designed for voltages of up to 70 kV. Their U-I characteristic has a slope of 8 % to 15 % on rating.

2.3.2 Static compensator arrangement

A saturated-reactor compensator is an assembly of a saturated-reactor and shunt capacitor bank. A typical

configuration is shown in Figure 38-1.7.

Figure 38-1.7: Saturated-Reactor Compensator Configuration

The inherent slope of the saturated-reactor is generally corrected by means of a series capacitor to which damping
circuits must be applied to avoid risk of sub-synchronous resonance. This series capacitor is also used to cancel out
the reactance of the coupling transformer so as to give an overall slope of up to five percent to the U-I characteristic of
the compensator as shown in Figure 38-1.8.

Figure 38-1.8: U-I Characteristic of Saturated-Reactor Compensator

The reference voltage of the static compensator is defined by the saturation voltage of the saturated-reactor but can be
changed within the operating range of the on load tap changer of the coupling transformer.

Because of the relatively high number of saturated cores involved this static compensator has a fast response time,
although this may be reduced to some extend by the damping circuits. The overall response will depend on the system
parameters as seen by the compensator.

The saturated-reactor has an inherent overloading capability with respect to its reactive power absorption (up to 3 to 4
p.u. or more if required), which makes this static compensator a very suitable device for controlling temporary over-
voltage. However, this absorption overload capability is limited by the slope-correction capacitors that are usually
protected by spark gaps or non linear resistors.

This static compensator has limited flexibility with regard to modifications of its characteristics and is thus less adaptable
to changing system conditions than the more flexible thyristor-controlled type. However, as far as maintenance is
concerned, this static compensator does not require any particular care.

Furthermore, its reliability is determined by the power transformer, reactors and capacitors which are all standard items
although the spark gap protection and on-load tap-changer are weaker components.

Finally, saturated-reactors have more losses than the reactors used in thyristor-controlled static compensators and this
can be a major concern where the cost of losses is appreciable.

2.4 Thyristor-Controlled Reactor Compensator

A thyristor-controlled-reactor (TCR) compensator consists of a combination of six-pulse or twelve-pulse thyristor-

controlled reactors with a fixed shunt capacitor bank. These reactors are composed of single-phase units and to
illustrate the principle of harmonic cancellation that occurs when they are combined in three-phase banks, a discussion
of the operation of a single-phase unit is first introduced.

2.4.1 Single-phase reactor

In order to analyse the operation of a thyristor-controlled reactor as a single-phase unit, assume that it operates on an
infinite source whose voltage has a sinusoidal waveform of constant amplitude and frequency. The reactor is switched
on and off in a synchronized way by means of a thyristor valve consisting of two thyristors of opposite polarity connected
in parallel. Synchronized switching of a reactor can only be performed if the thyristor valve is triggered into conduction
in every positive and negative half cycle at instants following the voltage peaks but before the voltage zero crossings.
Within each half cycle the reactor remains switched on until the current through the reactor drops to below the thyristor
holding current level, at which time the thyristor valve opens. The voltage and current waveforms are given in Figure 9.

The triggering instant of the thyristor valve is usually described by the firing angle α measured from the voltage zero
crossing. The conduction angle of the thyristor valve, σ, as well as the magnitude of the reactor currents depends on
o
this firing angle and when it assumes 180 , the reactor is not being switched on at all.

In general, the current through the reactor has a waveform which is not sinusoidal but can be separated into a
fundamental frequency component and higher order harmonics.

The expressions for computation of these components can be derived by means of a Fourier analysis. From such an
analysis it can be concluded that the fundamental component is a non-linear function of the firing angle and so are the
harmonic currents which are of add order.

Figure 38-1.9: Characteristic Waveform of Thyristor-Controlled Reactor

2.4.2 Six-Pulse Reactor

A six pulse thyristor-controlled reactor is formed of three delta-connected single-phase units as shown in Figure 38-1.10.
Six pulses are necessary to control the firing of the thyristors. The operating voltage of the thyristors is 2 to 4 kV and
they are arranged in series to make up a valve whose peak voltage would be in the range of 5 to 40 kV.

Figure 38-1.10: Six-Pulse Thyristor Controlled Reactor

In the order to analyze the operation of a three-phase reactor, assume that the three reactor units are identical, the
applied voltages are balanced, the switching is symmetrical with respect to the positive and negative half cycles and that
the firing angles are equal. The currents through the reactors contain all characteristic harmonics in addition to their
fundamental components. The components of order (6n + 1) (1st, 7th, 13th, etc.) form positive sequence currents, the
components of order (6n + 3) (3rd, 9th, 15th, etc.) form zero sequence currents while the components of order (6n + 5)
(5th, 11th, etc.) form negative sequence currents. The zero sequence currents are trapped in the delta-connected
reactors while the positive sequence and negative sequence currents are injected into the network.

The characteristic harmonics for this configuration are of order (6n ± 1) where n = 1, 2, 3, ... . In real systems the
reactor units are not identical and the phase-to-phase voltages are not perfectly balanced and this will affect the
magnitude of current components to some extent. In addition to the current components described above, negative
sequence currents at fundamental frequency will be produced as well as positive sequence and negative sequence
currents of order (6n + 3). However, this harmonic generation is rather small under normal circumstances.

When reactor switching is unbalanced with respect to the positive and negative half cycles, the reactor current contains
a full spectrum of harmonics including a dc component that could drive the coupling transformer into saturation and lead
to further harmonic generation.

2.4.3 Twelve-pulse reactor

The twelve-pulse thyristor-controlled reactor consists of two six pulse thyristor-controlled reactors supplied from the wye
connected and delta connected secondary windings of the coupling transformer as shown in Figure 38-1.11.

Each three-phase reactor unit is delta connected in order to trap the 3rd, 9th, 15th etc. harmonic currents. Both reactors
are controlled by a single controller as the firing angle is the same for both units. Since the supply voltages have a
o
phase difference of 30 , due to the wye and delta connections of the two transformer secondaries, the 5th, 7th, 17th,
19th etc. harmonic current (in general the harmonics of order 6(2n - 1) ± 1 for n = 1, 2, 3, ...) generated by the two
reactor units produce opposite magneto-motive forces which cancel in the transformer. This cancellation of harmonics
is significant as it reduces the total harmonic injection into the connected system to the level where further filtering is not
necessary.

The characteristic harmonics for this configuration are 12n ± 1 where n = 1, 2, 3, ... . Two separate sets of
synchronization circuits are required in order to provide the firing pulses for each six-pulse thyristor controlled reactor
unit.

Figure 38-1.11: Twelve-Pulse Thyristor-Controlled Reactor

2.4.4 Static compensator arrangements

The six-pulse TCR compensator consists of a three phase thyristor-controlled reactor, a fixed three-phase capacitor
bank, and a coupling transformer. In order to reduce the amount of harmonic currents injected into the network,
additional filters tuned to the 5th and 7th harmonics are sometimes applied to satisfy network requirements. A typical
configuration of such a static compensator is given in Figure 38-1.12, showing the Rimouski TCR compensator.

The twelve-pulse TCR compensator employs two six-pulse thyristor-controlled reactors each operating in parallel with
an associated fixed shunt capacitor bank. The two reactor / capacitor systems are of equal rating and are connected to
the wye-secondary and delta-secondary windings of the coupling transformer. In order to preserve the harmonic
cancellation effect to the full extent, the secondary windings are very well coupled thus reducing any detuning effects of

the capacitor banks. A typical configuration of the twelve pulse TCR compensator is given in Figure 13, showing
Nemiskau TCR compensator. The capacitor banks act as filters for higher-order harmonics so there is no need for any
additional filtering.

Figure 38-1.12: Rimouski Thyristor-Controlled Reactor Compensator

In order to achieve the required voltage-current characteristics the thyristor firing is controlled automatically. The control
system is basically the same for six-pulse and twelve-pulse TCR compensators and consists of voltage (and current)
measuring devices, a controller for error-signal conditioning, a linearizing circuit and one or more synchronizing circuits.

TCR compensators are very flexible with respect to changes in their characteristics: internal (slope) reactance,
reference voltage and dynamic response parameters (gain, time constants), as these are defined by the controller
setting. Thus the control system can be optimized so as to achieve fast response of the compensator to sudden
variations in system voltage. In addition to variations in the network impedance, the proximity of other compensators
has to be taken into account in order to avoid possible hunting.

The twelve-pulse TCR compensator has a greater capability than the six-pulse with respect to overload reactive power
absorption. Since the generation of harmonics is reduced internally, the reactors may be designed to satisfy normal
o
absorption rating at a thyristor conduction angle smaller than 180 . When necessary, this angle can be exceeded to
o
reach 180 or full conduction.

Figure 38-1.13: Nemiskau Thyristor-Controlled Reactor Compensator

In the addition, transformer saturation provides extra reactive power absorption as in the case of six-pulse TCR
compensators.

Twelve-pulse TCR compensators have also been applied to control voltages of high voltage ac power transmission
cable. In such applications, only reactive power absorption is required. Therefore, such compensators consist of a
coupling transformer and a twelve-pulse thyristor-controlled reactor only.

2.5 Thyristor-Controlled Reactor - Transformer Compensator

The thyristor-controlled reactor-transformer compensator consists of a reactor-transformer in combination with a fixed

shunt capacitor bank.

2.5.1 Reactor-transformer

The thyristor-controlled reactor-transformer is a special kind of six-pulse thyristor-controlled reactor which was
developed to reduce the cost of the transformer / reactor complex. It is a transformer whose leakage reactance is equal
to 1 p.u. and is usually designed to saturate at a rather high voltage level.

For applications in HV networks the reactor-transformer could be either star-delta or delta-star connected while in EHV
networks only grounded star-delta connected schemes are used.

The equivalent reactance of the reactor-transformer is varied by applying a thyristor-controlled short-circuit across its
secondary windings. The thyristor valves used for this purpose are connected in star or delta, as are the secondary
windings.

Figure 38-1.14: Characteristic Waveforms of Reactor-Transformer Compensator

The schematic diagram of a grounded star-delta reactor-transformer is given in Figure 38-1.14. The primary windings
are wye-connected and grounded, while the secondary windings are delta-connected as are the thyristor valves. The
firing of these thyristor valves is synchronized with the corresponding phase voltages at the primary bus, while the firing
angle is kept the same for all three units.

o o
When the firing angle is between 150 and 180 , only one valve is conducting at a time and it carries the current flow for
the phase across which it is connected to as well as the current that flows at that time through the other two phase
windings.

The first current is limited by single leakage reactance, while the second one is limited by two leakage reactances, and
hence will be half as big. Thus the current through a particular phase winding will be composed of three pulses in each
half cycle, the biggest one during the conduction of the associated thyristor valve and two smaller ones during the
conduction periods of the thyristor valves across the other two phase windings. The voltage and current wave forms are
given in Figure 38-1.14.

o o
When the firing angle is between 120 and 150 , the conducting interval of each valve partially overlaps the conducting
intervals of other valves. When two valves conduct simultaneously they cause a short circuit in each winding whereas
when one valve conducts, it causes a direct short circuit only in the associated winding. In each half cycle the current
therefore composed of five segments; two segments around the zero crossings equal to the current waveform
corresponding to the full sinusoidal value, one segment in the middle which is also part of the same waveform but
shifted down (truncated) to meet the initial current conditions and two inside segments corresponding to the full current
waveforms of the other two phases but reduced to half magnitude and shifted down to meet the initial current conditions.
The voltage and current waveforms are given in Figure 38-1.14.

o
When the firing angle actually attains 120 the current waveform is a full sinusoidal form. Thus the reactor-transformer
o o
reactance can be varied over its full operating range by varying the firing angle from 120 to 180 .

In all cases the current will consist of a fundamental component and odd harmonics. However, due to the particular
connection of the thyristor valves, the third harmonic currents as well as their odd multiples will not be generated given
identical reactances, balanced voltage conditions and symmetrical firing.

2.5.2 Compensator arrangement

Various static compensator configurations employing the thyristor-controlled reactor-transformer have been applied but
the type most often used is given in Figure 38-1.15 showing the Laurentides reactor-transformer. It consists of a
thyristor-controlled reactor-transformer and a double-tuned filter bank.

This filtering technique is the most efficient and economical for this application. At system frequency the filter acts as a
capacitor, generating the base reactive power. In addition, being double tuned to the fifth and seventh harmonic
frequencies, the filter provides a low-impedance path for the fifth and seventh harmonic currents generated by the
phase-controlled reactor-transformer. At the sixth harmonic frequency, the filter has very high impedance. At higher
frequencies, the filter acts as a shunt reactor so that while it is effective for fifth and seventh harmonics, it is not so
effective for higher-order harmonics.

In applications where this might be a concern, other filtering arrangements are applied which are more appropriate.
Nevertheless, the position of the filter on the high-voltage bus remains a weak point of this type of compensator.

Figure 38-1.15: Laurentides Reactor-Transformer Compensator

2.6 Thyristor-Switched Capacitor Compensator

The thyristor-switched capacitor compensator consists only of a thyristor-switched capacitor bank that is split into a
number of units of equal rating to achieve a step-wise control. As such they are applied as a discretely variable reactive
power source where this type of voltage support is deemed adequate.

In the basic configuration of this type of compensator a reactor is applied to reduce the rate of change of the inrush
current through the shunt capacitor. The thyristor valve is normally placed between this reactor and the capacitor bank
so that the current through the valve is limited should one component be short circuited. In order to analyze the
switching transients, consider such a capacitor bank connected to an infinite source as shown in Figure 38-1.16. If firing
pulses are not applied to the thyristor gates, the capacitor remains switched off.

Figure 38-1.16: Characteristic Waveforms of the Thyristor-Switched Capacitor.

When a firing pulse triggers a thyristor into conduction, the capacitor is switched on. Each time the current changes
direction, the other thyristor of the valve is triggered so that the valve is maintained continuously in conduction. Usually
this is done by means of a train of firing pulses. When the train of pulses is stopped, the thyristor valve conducts until
the current drops to below the thyristor-holding current. At that instant the valve is switched off, leaving the capacitor
charged.

When the valve is put back into service, if the supply voltage happens to be different from the residual voltage on the
capacitors at the moment of switching, transient currents will flow to equalize the voltage. This phenomenon is followed
by higher frequency oscillations which are damped gradually.

The damping is determined by the losses in the capacitor and other lossy elements of the system.

In Figure 38-1.16 switching phenomena and waveforms for three situations are shown corresponding to the case where
the instantaneous system voltage is:-

a) equal to

b) less than, and

c) higher than

the residual voltage on the capacitor

This type of compensator consists of the thyristor-switched capacitors with coupling transformer and associated control
system.

2.7 Combined TCR And TSC Compensator

Combined TCR / TSC compensators employ two kinds of variable reactive components, thyristor-controlled reactors and
thyristor-switched capacitors. Usually two to four thyristor-switched capacitor units are used with a thyristor-controlled
reactor of equivalent rating to provide a smoothing effect to the step-wise variation of the capacitor bank. In this way the
generation of the reactive power is controlled continuously from its rated value down to zero when all the capacitor units
are switched off. On the other hand, the smoothing reactor alone absorbs reactive power up to its own rating. If
additional reactive power absorption is required, thyristor-switched reactors can be provided.

The smoothing reactor is only one that is phase controlled. However, its harmonic generation is rather low since the
reactor rating is small. Nevertheless, the switched capacitor banks are usually tuned in order to reduce critical
harmonics.

A typical configuration and layout of the TCR / TSC compensator is given in Figures 38-1.17 and 38-1.18 showing the
Beaver Creek installation of American Electric Power. It consists of a coupling transformer, two thyristor-switched
capacitor banks, a thyristor-controlled reactor and a thyristor-switched reactor. The controller incorporates a dispatching
unit for switching capacitors in addition to phase controlling the reactor. This unit breaks down the reactive power
demand into digital form orders for on / off switching of capacitor banks and analogue-form order for the thyristor-
controlled reactor to absorb the balance of the reactive power. In all other respects, the controller has the same
characteristics as those applied on the TCR static compensators.

Figure 38-1.19 shows the schematic layout of a 12-pulse TCR with TSC static compensator.

Figure 38-1.17: Beaver Creek Combined TCR / TSC Compensator

The response of the TCR / TSC compensator to sudden voltage variations is as fast as all other types of static
compensators. However, the controller parameters have to match the network, taking into account the network
impedance, the proximity of other compensators and other relevant system conditions.

In respect to overload reactive power absorption, this type of static compensator has the advantage that during over-
voltage conditions, the controller could switch off all the capacitor banks and switch on all the available reactors. In
addition, the saturation of the transformer is always available as a means of extra reactive power absorption. If an
overload reactor is also provided for the control of temporary over-voltages, it could be used to extend the operating
region of the compensator.

TCR / TSC compensators have low operating losses as the rating of the smoothing reactor is smaller than the rating of
reactors applied in other TCR static compensators. This is an advantage for TCR / TSC systems in applications where
losses are a significant cost factor.

Figure 38-1.18: The Thyristor Controlled Compensator at Beaver Creek, Kentucky, which has a Total Dynamic
Range of 250 MVAr. Each TSC and TCR, Shown in the Layout, is Controlled by a Three Phase
Thyristor Valve.

Figure 38-1.19: Schematic Layout of a 12-Pulse 20 kV SVC System by Westinghouse.

2.8 Conclusions

This section has presented the basic configurations of those static compensators most often used in EHV transmission
systems. These are usually made up of saturated-reactors or thyristor-controlled reactors. In addition, thyristor-
switched capacitors are also used, either in combination with thyristor-controlled reactors or alone.

The saturated-reactor compensator has the advantage of being almost maintenance free but is not very flexible with
respect to modifications of its operating characteristics. It has, however, inherent overload capacity with regard to
reactive power absorption and is thus particularly suited for the control of temporary over-voltages.

Thyristor-controlled reactor compensators are generally twelve-pulse but if combined with thyristor-switched capacitors
they can be six-pulse. This latter combination, in fact, offers great flexibility with regard to under-voltage and over-
voltage control strategies and has low losses. All thyristor-controlled compensators have great flexibility with respect to
modification of their operating characteristics.

The particular type of thyristor-controlled compensator that uses a reactor-transformer has the disadvantage that the
fixed capacitors must be on the high-voltage side of the compensator. It also has losses that are comparable to
thyristor-controlled reactors using fixed capacitors.

The use of thyristor-switched capacitors alone will find application where only voltage support is required and where a
smooth U-I characteristic is not essential. Losses are small for this particular compensator.

Finally, the technology in this field is moving very quickly and it is expected that present static compensators will evolve
into far more sophisticated devices for effective voltage control in power systems.

3. SYSTEM STUDIES

3.1 Scope

The specification of technical characteristics of a static compensator may required elaborate studies depending on the
purposes for which the compensator is intended and the performance required of it. After the tender analysis stage,
performance evaluation, selection of control settings and trouble-shooting might be partly done by a TNA study. In this
section these studies are only mentioned and the reader should consult the reference mentioned above for detailed
understanding.

The function of the compensator must be clearly defined since they largely determine its characteristics. System
characteristics must also be known since they affect the compensator performance. The following studies are
undertaken where needed for determining compensator and system characteristics and required compensator dynamic
performances :-

• definition of the operating environment;

• load-flow studies;

• stability studies;

• harmonic and related studies;

• dynamic behaviour studies;

• transient over-voltage studies;

• evaluation of stresses on system and static compensator components.

Some of these studies are carried out on digital computers to give a global picture of what is required of the
compensator.

Some other studies are carried out on the transient network analyser (TNA) to verify the compensator behaviour and
to determine system characteristics affecting its performance. Most of these studies are usual system studies but the
presence of a compensator affect their results. Dynamic behaviour and harmonic studies are more specific to the use of
static compensators but can be compared to similar studies made for dc installations.

3.2 Definition of the Operating Environment

The operating environment of the compensator can be defined partly by past operating experience and dynamic
performance exhibited by the control and protection systems. Also evaluated is the effect of the following constraints :-

• duration of faults;

• variation of frequency and angular accelerations during disturbances;

• variations in voltage during steady-state and transient conditions;

• voltage unbalances;

• level of harmonic voltage;

• already existing problems

Fault durations, variations of frequency and angular acceleration can be determined from past events or from transient
stability studies. This data is used to define the environment in which the synchronizing circuits of the thyristor valves
and the static compensator auxiliaries have to perform.

Operating practices affect variations in the steady-state voltage and these should be clearly spelled out if the
compensator is intended to control this voltage. Temporary over-voltages, even of small amplitudes, should also be
known since they result in overload on the compensator.

System voltage unbalances increase the production of harmonics by the compensator and must be specified. The
presence of harmonics in the system can affect the compensator performance and design. Problems already
encountered with equipment which produce harmonics or are overloaded by them must also be studied in order not to
worsen any particular situation.

All of this experience serves to define the boundaries of the operating environment of the compensator, the main thrust
of the specification and on which points the principal studies should be concentrated.

For detailed investigation, consult the reference mentioned at the beginning of this document.

4. TYPICAL PERFORMANCE SPECIFICATION

4.1 Scope

This chapter deals principally with the performance specification, giving the main characteristics of the equipment and
performance to be expected. All major equipment and components are covered.

The fact that several types of static compensators are actually available complicates the preparation of a specification
since one can either specify a type or several types of compensator, or write a specification that would apply to all types.

This chapter is restricted to the elements which are common to most types of static compensator. However, when there
exists a difference between types, each is considered separately. Also, for the equipment of particularly critical design
in each type, the points to be specially taken care of in the specification are emphasized.

4.2 Purpose Of The Static Compensator

On a power transmission system, a compensator can have one or several of the functions described in section 1. The
purpose of the compensator should, therefore, be stated: that is to say, the specific problem (or problems), which the
compensator is intended to solve, should be described. This will help the manufacturer to offer the most suitable
design. If the purchaser has any special preference as to the type of compensator, this should be so stated.

4.3 Operating Environment

The specification should show the location of the compensator on a network diagram as well as the single-line diagram
of the substation and the compensator proposed connection. The following network characteristics as seen by the static
compensator, should be indicated:-

4.3.1 Voltage and frequency

a) Nominal voltage;

b) Voltage variations during steady-state operation;

c) Voltage unbalance and distortions:

• existing voltage unbalance and distortion at the point of connection of the compensator that can affect generated
harmonics and thyristor control timing;

d) Nominal frequency;

e) Maximum frequency variations:

• during nominal steady-state operation;

• following small disturbances;

• following major disturbances;

• maximum rate of change of frequency.

4.3.2 Over-voltages

a) Temporary (give voltage profile).

b) Slow front surge (2 % value).

Where frequency variations and over-voltages occur simultaneously, such conditions should be indicated.

4.3.3 Short-circuit levels and types of faults

Give the expected maximum and minimum three phase and phase-to-ground short-circuit current values at the
compensator location. The variation of the short-circuit levels with time and system development should also be
indicated. The minimum expected MVA during system restoration is also important.

The types of faults to which the system may be subjected at the static compensator location should be listed. This
should indicate the method of fault clearing and whether re-closing is used.

4.3.4 Network impedance’s

Positive sequence impedance of network as seen from the compensator, under maximum and minimum short-circuit
th
levels, should be given up to at least the 19 order harmonic so as to allow bidders to evaluate the need for filters to
meet the harmonic disturbance criteria described in Section 4.4.7. This information can be given in the form of a table,
or as separate curves giving R and X as a function of the frequency, or as the loci of network impedance.

If such information is not available, at least the boundary of the loci in the complex impedance plane should be given.

If this information is likely to change with the system configuration over the years, this should also be indicated.

Indications should be given regarding present and future credible network configurations such as addition of large
capacitor banks, HVDC installations or other compensators close to the compensator that can change the dominant
natural frequency of the network. The natural frequency closest to the nominal frequency is the most important as it
may affect the operation of the static compensator.

4.3.5 Physical environment

The following should be specified:

• ambient temperature;

• humidity conditions;

• altitude;

• icing conditions;

• snow conditions;

• solar radiation;

• pollution;

• availability and temperature of cooling water;

• wind;

• seismic conditions

• audible noise level (background).

Minimum safety factors for mechanical loading under specified conditions should be given for structural as well as
porcelain elements.

4.4 Characteristics of the Static Compensator

4.4.1 Nominal voltage

This is the system voltage to which operating and performance characteristics of the compensator are referred. If the
compensator is connected through a transformer, the nominal voltage is the voltage on the high-voltage side of the
coupling transformer (regulated bus).

4.4.2 Reference voltage

This is the voltage to be maintained at the regulated bus and at which the compensator neither absorbs nor produces
reactive power. The range should be specified for which typical values would be between 0.95 and 1.05 per unit.

4.4.3 Slope of the U-I characteristic

The slope is the ratio of voltage change to current change over the controlled range of the compensator. It is usually
expressed in percent on the base of the nominal voltage and the larger of the two reactive ratings. Usual values are
between 3 % and 10 % for thyristor-controlled compensators.

4.4.4 Nominal reactive power ratings

The steady-state operating region in the U-I plant, should be specified.

The nominal capacitive rating is the maximum reactive power that the compensator can generate continuously at the
regulated bus, at nominal voltage.

The nominal inductive rating is the maximum reactive power that the compensator can absorb continuously, at normal
voltage.

4.4.5 Overload

Required capabilities under specified temporary over-voltage conditions should be given. The specification should say
whether capacitor switching is permitted or not during overload conditions.

4.4.6 Response time

Response and settling times within prescribed percentages should be specified (for instance 90 % for response time, ±
5 % for settling time). The signal applied to the input should be specified. It could be the minimum value required to

cause the compensator to pass from full VAR absorption to full VAR production (or vice-versa). Typical values could be
50 ms and 100 ms respectively.

The response time will change with operating conditions, and will also depend on network characteristics (short-circuit
impedance, for instance). Therefore, minimum and maximum values of short-circuit level should be specified, for which
dynamic performance can be achieved without any modification to the control system.

4.4.7 Harmonics

The following factors are used to measure the effects of harmonic currents along with indications on permissible limits:

Dh voltage distortion factor due to the harmonic voltage of order h;

Dt total harmonic voltage distortion factor;

Dmax maximum voltage deviation;

TIF telephone influence factor;

IT telephone influence current.

Owing to the difference in the equipment likely to be disturbed and the complexity of the problem of harmonics, the
criteria and limits vary considerably from country to country. Typical values are given in Table 38-1.1.

Generally, these values can be met without recourse to special filtering circuits. However, the specification should
require the supplier to demonstrate that the acceptable factors given in Table 38-1.1 can be met. In any case, space
should be provided for filtering circuits, should they be required.

4.4.8 Single line diagram and layout

A single line diagram of the compensator would probably not be included in the specification, unless the purchaser
wants for some reason, to impose a specific design. However, some specific points might be indicated in the
specification, such as:-

• whether 6-pulse or 12-pulse connection is required;

• possibility to disconnect some components (capacitors or reactors);

• integration of the compensator bus and transformer differential protection with the rest of the substation protection;

• earthing (or not), and type of earthing.

Information should be given concerning the space available for the compensator and the connection to the existing bus.
Whenever restrictions exist with regard to transportation and access of heavy or bulky equipment such as transformer,
they should be indicated in the specifications.

Table 38-1.1: Typical Values of Harmonic Factors

Country Dh Dt Dmax TIF IT

Australia 1% - 3% 20 -
U.K. 1% - 2.5 % - -
Sweden 0.7 % 1% - - -
Finland 1% 1.5 % - - -
USSR - 5% - - -
France 1 % (odd) 1.6 % - - -
(Edf) 0.6 % (even)
Brazil 1 % (odd) -
(Chesf) 0.6 % (even) 1.5 % - 25 10 000
Canada
New Brunswick 1% - 4% 20 25 000
Hydro-Quebec 1% - 4% 20 25 000
Manitoba-Hydro - - 2% 25 50 000
BC Hydro - - 2% 50
USA
APE 1% - 4% - -
BPA - - 2% 15 to 20 5000 to
50000

4.4.9 Audible noise levels

Acceptable levels have to be specified for different locations in and around the compensator area such as control room,
thyristor valve hall, transformer, etc.

Outdoor installations should conform to relevant apparatus standards.

4.5 Main Components of Static Compensators

4.5.1 Coupling transformer

The coupling transformer is the most expensive component of a static compensator and has a predominant effect on the
overall reliability of the system. In addition to the normal transformer specifications, the following points should be
noted:-

• Rating and secondary voltage should be left unspecified, unless the purchaser wants to impose these for
standardization purposes.

• Special secondary connection could be required, such as for 6 pulse or 12-pulse operation or for local load.

4.5.2 Capacitor banks

They are composed of standard high voltage, low loss, outdoor type capacitor units, connected in series-parallel to
produce the required MVAr and voltage ratings. The specification would be similar to any capacitor installation but
consideration should be given to overload capability due to filtering requirements.

4.5.3 Reactors

They can be dry type or oil type reactors, outdoor type, and would be connected to the low voltage side of the
compensator transformer. Dry type units would be self cooled, whereas oil type reactors could ONAN or ONAF.

The sizing of the reactors could depend on their overload requirements, if any, and their voltage rating would correspond
to available thyristor valve ratings. They would normally be determined by the supplier for optimal design of the
compensator.

4.5.4 Thyristor valves

The availability of the thyristor valve assembly should be specified and guaranteed over a certain period of operating
time. The following points should be considered and may be specified, if deemed necessary, so that the compensator
remains in function over the range of system conditions for which it is being applied.

a) Thyristor cooling

b) Redundancy of thyristors

c) Redundancy of other elements

d) Type of construction

e) Monitoring (detection of failed thyristors)

f) Protection

g) Maximum over-voltage on individual thyristor as percentage of rated values

h) Testing

4.5.5 Control system

A specification of the control system should define the operations that are required and the simulator test that will
demonstrate the adequacy of the control system in meeting these requirements.

4.6 Loss Evaluation

Specific operating conditions, or range of conditions - such as compensator loading, ambient temperature - under which
the losses are to be evaluated, should be specified. The following should be indicated:

• losses to be considered;

• method of loss measurement;

• the loss evaluation.

In addition, losses in individual components may be asked for, such as:

• coupling transformer;

• capacitors (including filters);

• reactors (including filters);

• thyristors;

• auxiliary equipment (pumps, fans).

4.7 Additional Points

The following points should be kept in mind when preparing a specification:

4.7.1 System conditions

a) Parallel operation of compensators connected in the same substation to optimize static compensator operation.

b) Availability immediately following system recovery from a substantial voltage drop (short-circuit, for instance).

c) Bus voltage variation upon switching the compensator on or off. To minimize this variation, the control circuit
should be operative before closing the compensator breaker.

4.7.2 Protection requirements

Protection systems for static compensator components should be composed of standard elements. The specification
should state that protection levels be such that the compensator remains in service over the range of system conditions
for which it is being applied.

Components for which protection systems should be specified are:

a) coupling transformer

b) capacitor banks

c) reactors

d) thyristor valves

e) main bus

4.7.3 Contract requirements

The following points should also be included in the tender documents:

a) Drawings to be supplied by the manufacturer

b) Requirements for quality control

c) Guarantee

d) Personnel training

e) Spare parts

f) Limitation regarding transportation

g) “Validation” system simulation studies

h) Technical data to be supplied by tenderers

i) Guaranteed performance

4.7.4 Supervisory requirements

a) Remote control

b) Metering

c) Annunciation and alarms

d) Event recorders

4.7.5 Auxiliary services requirements

a) ac supply

b) dc supply

c) Cooling water

d) Heating and air-conditioning

e) Lighting

f) Compressed air

g) Building

4.8 Relevant Standards

There does not exist, for the time being, any national or international standards dealing specifically with static
compensators. However, a static compensator is composed of basically standard components, and each component
should be designed according to recognized standards.

5. REFERENCE DOCUMENT

5.1 STATIC COMPENSATORS FOR REACTIVE POWER CONTROL, The Committee On Static Compensation -
Engineering and Operating Division, Canadian Electrical Association (CEA), Montreal, Quebec, Canada,
CANTEXT PUBLICATIONS, WINNIPEG.

SLDG 38-1 APPENDIX ‘A’

GLOSSARY OF TERMS

1. DEFINITIONS

The terms that are used frequently and generally in the literature on static compensators are defined here. Reference is
made to those terms that are used interchangeably. Finally a list of standard acronyms is given.

1.1 Angle

The intervals within the period of a sine wave are usually described in terms of the corresponding angle. The most
commonly used “angles” are shown in Figure 38-1A.1 and defined as follows:

Figure 38-1A.1: Definition of Commonly Used Angles

1.1.1 Conduction angle, σ

The period (usually in electrical degrees) for which the thyristor conducts. This is normally the difference between the
extinction angle, γ, and the firing angle, α.

1.1.2 Delay angle, σ

Another term for Firing Angle.

1.1.3 Extinction angle, γ

The interval (usually in electrical degrees) after which a thyristor ceases to conduct. The beginning of the interval, or
reference point, is that used for the delay or firing angle.

1.1.4 Firing angle, α

The interval (usually in electrical degrees) between the instant at which a thyristor becomes forward biased and that at
which it starts to conduct.

1.1.5 Ignition angle, α

Another term for firing angle.

1.2 Anti-parallel Connection

Connection of thyristors as shown in Figure 38-1A.2.

Gat
Cathode

Anode

Figure 38-1A.2: Anti-Parallel Connection of Thyristors

1.3 Apparent Reactance

Another term for slope

1.4 Blocking

The state of a thyristor when it is forward biased but there has been no pulse applied to its gate to start conduction. It is
essentially an open circuit.

1.5 Controller

The component in an automatic control system in which a variable being controlled is compared with its reference value
and any difference (error) is used to move the operating point to its desired value.

1.6 Current Interference Factor (KIT)

A current-based factor that relates current flow to telephone interference

1.7 Deviation

Any departure from a desired or expected value or pattern

The term is used when considering distortion.

1.8 Distortion Factor, Individual (Dn)

The ratio of the value of the harmonic voltage or current of order n to the value of the fundamental component

1.9 Distortion Factor, Total (Dt)

The ratio of the total harmonic content of the voltage or current to the rms value of the fundamental component

1.10 Gate

The terminal of a thyristor to which the control pulses are applied

1.11 Harmonic Content, Total

The square root of the sum of the squares of the rms values of all the harmonics.

1.12 Harmonic Factor

Another term for distortion factor, total (Dt)

1.13 Harmonics, Characteristic

In a thyristor system, the order of characteristic harmonics is given by (p.n ± 1) where p is the pulse number and n is an
integer 1, 2, 3, etc.

1.14 Harmonics, Non-characteristic

Harmonics which are not of (p.n ± 1) order

1.15 Misfiring

A valve firing at the wrong instant for whatever reason

1.16 Rated Voltage

The voltage to which operating and performance characteristics of apparatus and equipment are referred

1.17 Reactive Power

Q = U.I.sin θ where U and I are rms values of the fundamental components of voltage and current, and θ is the phase
angle between the voltage, U, and the current, I, when the voltage is used as the reference.

1.18 Recovery Voltage

The voltage that appears across a device immediately after conduction has ceased.

1.19 Reference Voltage

The voltage at which the compensator will neither generate nor absorb reactive power

1.20 Response Time

The time required for the output to make the change from an initial value to a specified percentage of the change from
initial value to the final steady-state value before overshoot.

1.21 Rise Time

The time required for a response to rise from 10 % to 90 % of the change from the initial to final value if the system is
over-damped, or from 0 to 100 % if the system is under-damped.

1.22 Saturable Reactor

A magnetic core reactor whose reactance is controlled by changing the saturation of the core through variation of a
superimposed unidirectional flux

Not to be confused with saturated reactor.

1.23 Saturated Reactor

A magnetic core reactor whose core self-saturates below normal operating voltage and is designed to operate in this
region.

1.24 Settling Time

The time required, following the initiation of a specified stimulus to a linear system, for the output to enter and remain
within a specified narrow band centred on its steady-state value.

1.25 Slope

The slope of the voltage-current characteristic in the normal operating range of the compensator

It is usually expressed as a percentage. It is also known as the apparent reactance.

1.26 Slope Compensation

The process of adjusting the slope to a particular value

1.27 Static Compensator

A static device that controls the flow of reactive power in a system by generating or absorbing reactive power

1.28 Static VAr Compensator (SVC); Also Static VAr Generator (SVG)

Another term for static compensator

1.29 Static VAr System (SVS)

Another term for static compensator

1.30 Telephone Influence Current (IT Product)

The square root of the sum of the squares of the weighted rms values of all the harmonic components (including
fundamentals) of the current.

1.31 Telephone Influence Factor (TIF)

The ratio of the square root of the sum of the squares of the weighted rms values of all the sine-wave components
(including both fundamentals and harmonics) to the rms unweighted value of the entire wave.

1.32 Telephone Interference Voltage (UT Product)

The square root of the sum of the squares of the weighted rms values of all the harmonic components (including
fundamentals) of the voltage.

1.33 Thyristor

A bistable semiconductor device comprising three or more junctions that can be switched from the off state to the on
state or vice-versa, such switching occurring within at least on quadrant of the principal voltage-current characteristic
(IEEE definition)

1.34 Thyristor-controlled Reactor (TCR)

A reactor whose effective value of reactance is changed by using thyristors to control the value of the current flowing
through it

1.35 Thyristor Switch

A thyristor circuit which either blocks or permits the flow of current

The flow may be bi-directional, but the magnitude is not controlled.

1.36 Valve

An assembly of thyristors that controls the flow of current

1.37 Voltage-current Characteristic (U-I)

The relationship between steady-state fundamental, positive-sequence, terminal voltage and reactive current flowing
through the compensator

The current is shown as positive when the compensator is absorbing reactive power.

1.38 Voltage (Current) Deviation (Darith)

The ratio of the arithmetic sum of the rms values of all the harmonics to the rms value of the fundamental.

1.39 Voltage (Current) Distortion, Individual

Another term for distortion factor, individual, (Dn).

1.40 Voltage (Current) Distortion, Total

Another term for distortion factor, total (Dt).

2. ACRONYMS

BOD Break-over Diode

CCITT International Consultative Commission of Telephone and Telegraph Systems
D Distortion Factor
FC Fixed Capacitor
HVDC High Voltage Direct Current
IT Product Telephone Influence Current
KIT Current Interference Factor
PSS Power System Stabilizer

SR Saturated Reactor
SRC Saturated Reactor Compensator
SSR Sub-synchronous Resonance
SVC Static VAR Compensator
SVG Static VAR Generator
SVS Static VAR System
TCR Thyristor-Controlled Reactor
TSC Thyristor-Switched Capacitor
TIF Telephone influence Factor
TNA Transient Network Analyzer
UT Product Telephone Influence Voltage`
TBO Voltage Break-over

SLDG 38-2

STATIC SYNCHRONOUS COMPENSATORS: STATCOM

What is a STATCOM? How does it work ? What can it do for our power system? There is really little mystery surrounding
these revolutionary power electronics controllers. Understanding a STATCOM from its valve switching to its control
performance is best accomplished with visualization of its circuit, controls and operation, now possible through the use of
a graphical simulator such as PSCAD/EMTDC.

STATCOMs are based on Voltage Sourced Converter (VSC) topology and utilize either Gate-Turn-off Thyristors (GTO)
or Isolated Gate Bipolar Transistors (IGBT) devices. The STATCOM shown in Figure 38-2.1 is a very fast acting,
electronic equivalent of a synchronous condenser.

Figure 38-2.1: 6-Pulse STATCOM

If the STATCOM voltage, VS, (which is proportional to the dc bus voltage VC) is larger than bus voltage, ES, then leading
or capacitive VARS are produced. If VS is smaller, then ES then lagging or inductive VARS are produced. A STATCOM
equivalent circuit is shown in Figure 38-2.2.

Figure 38-2.2: STATCOM Equivalent Circuit

The three phase STATCOM makes use of the fact that on a three phase, fundamental frequency, steady state basis, the
instantaneous power entering a purely reactive device must be zero. The reactive power in each phase is supplied by
circulating the instantaneous real power between the phases. This is achieved by firing the GTO/diode switches in a
manner that maintains the phase difference between the ac bus voltage ES and the STATCOM generated voltage VS.

Ideally it is possible to construct a device based on circulating instantaneous power which has no energy storage device
(ie no dc capacitor). A practical STATCOM requires some amount of energy storage to accommodate harmonic power
and ac system unbalances, when the instantaneous real power is non-zero. The maximum energy storage required for
the STATCOM is much less than for a TCR/TSC type of SVC compensator of comparable rating.

Several different control techniques can be used for the firing control of the STATCOM. Fundamental switching of the
GTO/diode once per cycle can be used. This approach will minimize switching losses, but will generally utilize more

complex transformer topologies. As an alternative, Pulse Width Modulated (PWM) techniques, which turn on and off the
GTO or IGBT switch more than once per cycle, can be used. This approach allows for simpler transformer topologies at
the expense of higher switching losses.

The 6 Pulse STATCOM using fundamental switching will of course produce the 6 N±1 harmonics. There are a variety of
methods to decrease the harmonics. These methods include the basic 12 pulse configuration with parallel star / delta
transformer connections, a complete elimination of 5th and 7th harmonic current using series connection of star/star and
star/delta transformers and a quasi 12 pulse method with a single star-star transformer, and two secondary windings,
using control of firing angle number of levels. This staircase voltage can be controlled to eliminate harmonics.

This new technology is expanding rapidly at both transmission and distribution levels (Custom Power) with a variety of
applications possible, including reactive voltage support, back to back voltage sourced converters, similar to back to back
HVDC links but with self contained reactive VAr support, distribution STATCOMs, dynamic voltage restorers, and active
filters.

The above description may not have answered all of your critical questions about STATCOMs. You can take advantage
of learning using simulation, with PSCAD/EMTDC and access to the Internet. STATCOM simulator models in full
graphics are freely available through the PSCAD Users Group. See their web site at
http://www.ee.umanitoba.ca/~hvdc.

Please refer to the following notice. to produce a 30° phase shift between the two 6 pulse bridges. This method can be
extended to produce a 24 pulse and a 48 pulse STATCOM, thus eliminating harmonics even further. Another possible
approach for harmonic cancellation is a multi-level configuration which allows for more than one switching element per
level and therefore more than one switching in each bridge arm. The ac voltage derived has a staircase effect,
dependent on the

SLDG 40-1

SUBSTATION STRING INSULATORS

1. Cap and Pin-Type Outdoor Apparatus Insulators

Cap and pin-type insulators are the original insulator type used in substation construction. While Cap and pin-type insulators are
still in use, post type insulators are becoming more commonly used in substation design and are recommended for any new
construction or rebuilding of existing HV, EHV and UHV facilities.

2. String Insulators

1.1 Types

String insulators are used as insulation and support for strain busbars in substations. Strain and suspension insulators are
available in several forms to suit individual requirements. Dead-end-type strain insulators are used at distribution and
transmission voltages for substation strain buses. Dead-end strain and suspension insulators normally have clevis-type
connections. They can be furnished with either clevis or ball and socket connections. The conventional suspension insulators
most commonly used are 254 mm in diameter and 146 mm in length.

The disc insulators are manufactured out of porcelain, polymer, and glass. See Figure 40-1.1.

Figure 40-1.1: Suspension Insulator

3. Electrical Characteristics of Suspension Insulators

To achieve the necessary electrical characteristics, a number of suspension insulators are strung together in series. It is
important to coordinate the insulation characteristics of suspension insulator strings with the insulation systems of other
substation equipment and the characteristics of various insulation protective devices.

The quantity of suspension insulators chosen for a particular application should be large enough to prevent unnecessary
flashovers. Over-insulation, however, can result in flashovers occurring from phase to phase rather than from phase to ground.
Consequently, the quantity of insulators should be small enough that all flashovers occur to ground. Table 40-1.1 lists the

recommended minimum quantities of standard 146 x 254 mm suspension insulators for particular nominal system voltages and
BILs. Additional insulators should be considered under the following conditions:

3.1 Above 1000 meters, the correction factors listed in Table 4-3 should be applied to the BILs and the insulator quantities
correspondingly increased.

3.2 In areas of high contamination, it may be necessary to increase the insulator quantities or consider the use of specially
designed equipment.

3.3 When dead-ending on steel structures, an additional insulator is typically added.

3.4 When installed at an angle other than vertical, one or two insulators should be added when the angle from vertical
approaches 45 degrees and 90 degrees, respectively.

Table 40-1.1: Minimum Quantity of Suspension Insulators

Nominal System Voltage BIL Minimum Number of Insulators*

(kV) (kV)
6,6 95 1
11 110 2
22 150 2
36 200 3
44 250 4
66 350 5
110 550 8
132 650 9
170 750 10
220 900 12
220 1050 14
330 1300 20

* For a standard 146 mm x 254mm cap-and-pin insulator disc

4. Mechanical Strength of Suspension Insulators

Suspension insulators are tested and categorized with simultaneous mechanical-electrical strength ratings. These strength
ratings are not the actual loads the insulators are designed to operate under, but represent ultimate strengths. The insulators
also have proof test ratings specified in ANSI Std. C29.2 as one half the mechanical–electrical ratings. These ratings are the
actual loads that the insulators have withstood during testing. The maximum suspension insulator loading should not exceed 40
percent of the mechanical–electrical strength ratings listed.

Table 40-1.1: Typical Characteristics of Cap-and-Pin Type Insulators (Ref. Std. ANSI C29.8-1985, Table 1)

BIL (Impulse Upright Under-hung Bolt Circle (mm) Height (mm) Leakage Distance
Withstand) (kV) Cantilever Cantilever (mm)
Strength (N) Strength (N)
95 8896 4448 76,2 19,1 19,1
95 17792 13344 76,2 20,3 20,3
110 8896 4448 76,2 25,4 30,5
110 17792 13344 127 25,4 35,6
150 8896 4448 76,2 30,5 50,8
150 17792 13344 127 30,5 45,7
190 13344 8896 76,2 36,8 66,0
200 8896 4448 76,2 38,1 71,1
200 17792 13344 127 38,1 71,1
210 31136 17792 127 36,8 83,8
210 44480 26688 127 36,8 83,8
210 44480 26688 178 36,8 83,8
210 88960 53276 178 36,8 83,8
210 17792 15568 76,2 36,8 83,8
250 8896 4448 76,2 45,7 91,4
250 13344 8896 76,2 45,7 91,4
350 6672 4448 76,2 73,7 132,0
350 13344 10453 127 73,7 168,0
350 8896 8896 76,2 73,7 168,0
550 7562 6539 127 111,0 252,0
550 4488 4448 76,2 111,0 252,0
650 4488 4448 76,2 137,2 274,3
750 4488 4448 76,2 147,3 335,3
750 5338 4759 127 147,3 335,0
750 8896 7784 127 147,3 335,0
900 4048 3736 127 184,0 419,0
900 6450 6005 127 184,0 419,0
1050 3336 3114 127 221,0 503,0
1050 5204 4893 127 221,0 503,0
1050 10230 10230 178 221,0 503,0
1300 4448 4226 178 257,9 586,7
1300 8896 8896 178 257,8 586,7
Notes:-
1) Characteristics listed are typical. Refer to manufacturers’ data for actual ratings and additional characteristics

VOLTAGE DISTRIBUTION ACROSS A SUSPENSION INSULATOR STRING

If a voltage is impressed across a string of suspension insulators, then one would expect ideally that the voltage divides equally
between the various units. This ensures that all the insulating units are working at the same electric stress. On the other hand, a

non-uniform voltage distribution will mean a few units are stressed more while other units are lightly stressed. This will either
reduce the flashover voltage of the string or necessitate the use of more number of disc units to insulate a given phase voltage.
So, analysis of the voltage distribution across the disc units assumes importance. For that purpose, the insulator string needs to
be represented by an electrical circuit. Each disc is to be represented by a capacitance (formed between the cap and the pin
separated by the solid insulation) only ignoring inductance and resistance. Apart from a set of these self-capacitances, each unit
will have a capacitance to earth (formed between the metal part of the unit and gantry separated by gaseous insulation air).
From an I-string, the electrical equivalent circuit will be as illustrated in Figure 40-1.1. Obviously, Cs>Cg.

Gantry Beam

Cg CS

Gantry
Column CS
Cg

Cg CS

Conductor

Figure 40-1.1: Capacitance Diagram for an I-String

When a dc voltage is applied across the string, the capacitance network will be charged to a steady value and the voltage
across each Cs will be equal ensuring uniform voltage distribution.

For an ac voltage, the situation will be different. The currents through the lowest capacitor will be largest and there will be
progressive reduction in current as one proceeds up towards the beam due to shunt currents flowing through Cg. This will result
in different voltages across the units, the voltage across the unit adjacent to the conductor being the largest and the same
across the top most unit being the lowest. The following mathematical treatment applies to suspension insulator string subjected
to an ac voltage. Assuming n number of discs used for insulating a conductor voltage V with respect to earth, and having an
angular frequency ω. The lowest disc, or the disc adjacent to the conductor is numbered n, and the top most unit is numbered 1.
Figure 40-1.2 shows the current and voltage distribution in any intermediate unit.

Gantry Beam

Cg CS

Cg Vk+1

Cg CS vk
Gantry ik
Column
Ik
CS vk+1
ik+1

Conductor

Figure 40-1.2: Current and Voltage Distribution

Applying Kirchhoffs current law at node 0,

i k + 1 = ik + I k
eq. 40-1.1

jω.C S .v k + 1 = jω.C S .v k + jω.C g .Vk

eq. 40-1.2

v k + 1 = vk + m.Vk
eq. 40-1.3

where:-

Cg
m= and generally has values ranging between 0,1 and 0,2
CS

However,

Vk = v 1 + v 2 + .......... ... + v k
k eq 40-1.4
= ∑ vi
i =1

Combining eqns. 40-1.3 and 40-1.4:-

(
v k + 1 = m. v 1 + v 2 + .......... ... + vk + v k )
k eq. 40-1.5
= m. ∑ vi + vk
i =1

Dividing both sides of eq. 40-1.5 by v1, the voltage across the top-most unit adjacent to the beam, results in:-

vk +1 k vj vk
= m. ∑ + eq. 40-1.6
v1 j = 1 v1 v1

vk +1
The is the ratio of the voltage across (k+1)th unit and that across the top-most unit and is denoted ak+1, eq 40-1.6 can be
v1
written as:-
k
ak + 1 = m. ∑ aj + ak eq. 40-1.7
j =1

Obviously, a1 = 1.

A physical meaning may be attributed to the variable a. If a current of 1A flows through the capacitance, CS, of the unit adjacent
to the gantry beam, then ai amperes of current flows through the capacitance, CS, of the ith unit. Naturally:-
ai+1 > ai for all i’s.

V = v1 + v 2 + .......... ... + vn

= v 1 .
 v1 + v 2 vn 
+ .......... ... + 
 v1 v1 v1 

(
= v 1 . 1 + a 2 + .......... ... + a n )
V
vi = n
eq. 40-1.8
∑ ai
i =1

String Efficiency

When the voltage across the suspension string is gradually increased, the voltage across each disc also increases, the
maximum increase taking place across the disc adjacent to the line conductor. At a certain critical string voltage, the voltage
across the unit will exceed the flashover voltage causing a flashover of the lowest disc. This will trigger off successive flashovers
of the discs resulting in the flashover of the whole string. The critical string voltage is known as the string flashover voltage (vf).
Needless to mention that Vf would have been n times the disc flashover voltage, vf, had the voltage distribution been uniform. A
quantitative index of non-uniformity of voltage distribution, called string efficiency is defined as:-

Vf
String Efficiency = eq. 40-1.9
n.v f

The small this value is, the more is the non-uniformity. For dc voltage application, this index is 1.

In the case that there is no corona on any unit, under flashover conditions, string efficiency can be defined as:-

working voltage across the string

String Efficiency =
n.voltage across the unit adjacent to the conductor
eq. 40-1.10

There will, however, always be a chance of corona formation under flashover conditions, the effect of which is to equalise the
voltage distribution. Moreover, the effect of surface leakage current has been ignored. Hence the definition given by eq. 40-1.10
is not strictly correct.

Number of Disc Units in a String

The number of disc units used in a string depends upon (i) working voltage, (ii) disc voltage rating, and (iii) level of atmospheric
pollution. Had the voltage distribution along the string been uniform and the atmosphere been clean, the number of units will be
the phase voltage divided by the disc rating. For example, a 132kV system should require under ideal conditions, a sting of
seven 11 kV discs. However, the actual number has to be increased to take care of the non-uniform voltage distribution and
pollution. The number of discs used in various systems is:-

Voltage (kV) 66 132 220 400 765

No. of Discs 4-5 9-11 15-17 22-24 49-42

The number of discs can be reduced if one can adopt methods to improve the voltage distribution. Even saving one disc in a
string will be a great saving considered over the entire network. It will be useful at this stage to take up a few examples before
describing such methods.

Example: A conductor is suspended from a beam by a string of 4 disc insulators. Need to calculate the voltage with respect to
the beam is the voltages across the second and third units from the beam are 13,2 kV and 18 kV respectively. Calculate the
efficiency if the leakage current is ignored.

Cg capacitance of pin to earth

m= = eq. 40-1.11
CS capacitance of each disc unit

v2 = 13,2 kV; v3 = 18 V

vi k
ai + 1 = = m. ∑ a j + ai
v1 j =1

a1 = 1; a2 = a1.(1+m) = 1 + m

a3 = m.(a1 + a2) + a2

= m + m.(1+m) + 1 + m
2
= m + 3.m + 1

But:-

v v
2 3
a2 = a3 =
v1 v1
;

a2
Taking the ratio :-
a3

a2 v v
2 1
= .
a3 v1 v3

v
2
=
v3

13,2 1+ m
= 2
18 m + 3.m + 1
2
13,2m + 39,6.m + 13,2 = 18 + 18.m
2
13,2m + 21,6.m + 4,8 = 0
m = 0,198

a2 = 1 + m

= 1 + 0,198

= 1,198

a3 = m.(a1 + a2) + a2

= 0,198.(1 + 1,198) + 1,198

= 1,633

a4 = m.(a1 + a2 + a3) + a3

= 0,198.(1 + 1,198 + 1,633) + 1,633

= 2,391

We have:-

v
2
a2 =
v1

v
2
v1 =
a2

13,2
=
1,198
= 11kV
∴

v
4
a4 =
v1

a 4 .v 1 = v 4

v 4 = a 4 .v 1

= 2,391.11
= 26,345 kV

∴V = v1 + v2 + v3 + v4

= 11 + 13,2 + 18 + 26,345

= 68,54 kV

working voltage across the string

String Efficiency =
n.voltage across the unit adjacent to the conductor
68,54
= .100%
4.26,345
= 65%
(from eq. 40-1.10)

METHODS OF IMPROVING VOLTAGE DISTRIBUTION ACROSS INSULATOR STRINGS

A minimum number of discs are chosen for insulating a conductor, that will ensure a power frequency voltage across the bottom
most unit within a limit during normal operation of the conductor. That limit is set by the power frequency flashover voltage of a
disc divided by a safety factor. There is therefore a strong point in trying to improve the voltage distribution which allows the use
of lesser number of discs. The main reason for non-uniform distribution is the shunt current flowing through the earth
capacitances. One way for improving the distribution, therefore, would be to reduce the shunt current supplied by the string. To
that end, the ground capacitance Cg, may be reduced (i.e. reduction of m). This can be done by increasing to beam length so
that the string is further removed from the column. There is however a limit to this from the point of view of beam mechanical
strength. A value of m less than 0,1 is generally not feasible. Another way may be the employment of a guard ring which usually
takes the form of a large metal ring surrounding the bottom unit and connected to the line. The ring introduces additional
capacitances between the conductor and metal caps of the units. These capacitances carry currents into the cap and in turn
reduce the share of the self-capacitances for meeting the shunt current. As a result, the currents through the self capacitances
tend to be equalised and hence the voltage variation is reduced. The following example will illustrate the principles of static
shielding.

Gantry Beam

CS
0,18.Cg 0,08.CS v1

CS
0,18.Cg v2
Gantry 0,3.CS
Column
CS

Conductor

Figure 40-1.3: String with Grading Ring

SLDG 40 - 2

STANDARD NUMBERS OF INSULATOR DISCS

1. NUMBERS OF INSULATOR DISCS

The number of disc insulators to be used for the various system voltages was in the past determined by the
classification of normal, special or exceptional conditions of pollution as indicated in Table 40-2.2. Current classification
is in terms of light, medium, heavy and very-heavy pollution. The new numbers of insulator discs is given in SLDG 4-3
under Table 4-3.3.

2 BASIS OF CALCULATION

2.1 General

The recommended number of insulator discs is based on four criteria, viz.:-

a) Adequate Creepage Distance

Creepage Distance from SLDG 4 - 3

No. of discs = eq. 40-2.1
Creepage Distance of 1 Standard Disc *

(*292 mm was the creepage distance of 1 standard disc, however, this figure needs to be checked with that which is
currently being supplied).

b) Adequate Phase-to-Phase:

Phase - to - Earth Clearance from SLDG 4 - 1

No. of discs = eq. 40-2.2
146

(146 mm is the minimum phase-to-earth clearance per disc)

c) Adequate strength to withstand switching surges up to 2,5 times maximum line-to-ground voltage for
voltages up to 400 kV

0,6
Switching surge strength = 575.(L) eq. 40-2.3

where:-

L = Length of string in metres (m)

= 0,146.N
N = No. of discs

1 Um
Insulation strength required = 2,5 . . 1,1 . 2 .
0,79 3

= 2,84 . Um eq. 40-2.4

where:-

2,5 = Switching surge factor

1 = Altitude correction f actor

0,79
1,1 = Factor of safety for withstand
2 = Peak
Um Max. system line-to-line voltage

Thus:-

0,6
575 . (0,146 . N) = 2,84 . Um eq. 40-2.5

1,67
1  2,84 . Um 
N= .  eq. 40-2.6
0,146  575 

Above 400 kV this formula gives an excessive number of discs from the point of view of economy and switching surge
factors will have to be reduced to lower values.

d) Adequate strength to give reasonable lightning performance. Experience shows that a level of 1,39 x Equipment
B.I.L (1,1 x 1,1 x 1,15 x B.I.L.) has given satisfactory lightning performance. The number of discs can thus be
determined from curves relating impulse strength to string length. (Note: The 1,39 factor is historical and was made
up of 1,1 external Internal, 1,1 Busbar External, and 1,15 for altitude).

Table 40-2.3 indicates the application of these four criteria in determining the number of insulator discs for single
insulator strings under normal pollution conditions.

2.2 'V' Strings

'V' Strain strings being under tension present no particular problems other than a straightforward calculation to ensure
adequate earth clearance.

'V' Suspension strings on the other hand do not hang completely straight because of inadequate weight spans and the
suspension point effectively rises due to the catenary shape of the insulators thereby reducing the phase-to-earth
clearance.

The problem of calculating the amount by which the conductor rises can be solved by using the formula presented in
J.T. Hattingh's book "A Universal Stress Sag Chart"

Referring to Figure 40-2.1:-

8.M + 4.Mo
G= .d eq. 40-2.7
Mo

2
8.d
S =C+ eq. 40-2.8
3.C

2 2 2
C =G +x eq. 40-2.9

where:-

M = Concentrated load at midpoint

Mo = Total weight of catenary

From these formulae, the following may be derived:-

 1 + 8 .k 2 .C 2 8 2 2
 3  − S.C − .k .x =0 eq. 40-2.10
  3

where:-

Mo
k= eq. 40-2.11
8.M + M o

An example of the calculations is given in Figure 40-2.1 which also schedules the clearances for various 'V" strings.

G d d S

½ M0 ½ M0

Figure 40-2.1: V-Suspension Strings

M = Weight of hardware + weight of span

= 9,81 (20 + span length in metres x conductor mass in kg / metre)
P = No of insulators each having a mass of 3,7 kg.
Mo = Weight of insulators
= 2 . 3,7 . P . 9,81
= 72,5 . P Newtons

Hardware assembly comprises 2 x Ball Clevis, 2 x Socket Clevis, 2 x Suspension Clamp, 1 x Suspension Plate and 2 x
Extension Strap for which the mass is :-

Mass = 2 . 0,5 + 2 . 1 + 1 + 2 . 4 + 3,5 + 2 . 3

Mass = 20 kg

Example:

System voltage : 275 kV

No. Of discs P : 21

2
Conductor : 2 x 800 mm (mass 2,34 kg / metre)

Minimum span : 15,24 m

Mo = 72,5 . 21 = 1520 N

M = 9,81 [20 + 15,24 (2 . 2,34)] = 900 N

1520
k = = 0,114
13280

x = 2286 mm for 275 kV suspension beam

S = Extension strap + Ball clevis + 21 Discs + Socket clevis

= 450 + 82 + 3066 + 60

= 3658 mm

From eq. 4-2.10:-

 1 + 8 .k 2 .C 2 8 2 2
 3  − S.C − .k .x =0
  3

 1 + 8 .0,1142 .C 2 8 2 2
 3  − 3,658.C − .0,114 .2,286 =0
  3
2
1,035.C − 3,658.C − .0,181 = 0

Solving the quadratic:-

3,66 ± 3,76
C=
2,07

= 3,584 m

From eq. 4-2.9:-

2 2 2
C =G +x

2 2
C= G −x

2 2
C= 3,584 − 2,286

= 2,761 m.

Minimum permissible clearance for 275 kV = 2,35 m.

Table 40-2.1: Clearances for Various ‘V’ Strings

System Conductors No. of Discs Dimension ‘x’ Minimum Clearance to earth
Voltage Span Actual Required
(kV) (Nos) (mm) (m) (mm) (mm)
2
220 2 x 400 mm 17 2286 15,24 1960 1850
2
2 x 800 mm 17 2286 15,24 2000 1850
2
275 2 x 400 mm 21 2286 15,24 2700 2350
2
2 x 800 mm 21 2286 15,24 2760 2350
2
330 2 x 800 mm 25 3048 23,78 2870 2900
2
400 2 x 800 mm 29 3048 23,78 3620 3200

Table 40-2.2: Number of Insulator Discs

System Single String ‘V’ Suspension String ‘V’ Strain String

Voltage N S E N S E N S E
(kV)
6,6 1 1 1 - - - - - -
11 1 1 2 - - - - - -
22 2 2 2 - - - - - -
33 3 3 4 - - - - - -
44 4 4 5 - - - - - -
66 5 5 7 - - - - - -
88 7 7 9 - - - - - -
132 10 10 13 - - - - - -
220 13 17 21 17 17 13 17
275 16 21 26 21 21 * 16 21 *
330 20 25 31 25 25 20 25
400 23 29 36 29 29 29 29

N = Normal creepage

S = Special creepage

E = Exceptional creepage

∗ 'V' Strings for exceptional creepage will require special consideration because of the overall length of the strings.

Table 40-2.3: Determination of Isolator Discs for Single Strings (Normal Creepage)

System Minimum Number Of Discs (250 x 145 mm) Standard

Nominal Criteria
Voltage Creepage Clearance Lightning Switching
(kV) Surge
6,6 1 1 1 1 1
11 1 1 1 1 1
22 2 2 2 1 2
33 3 3 3 1 3
44 4 4 3 1 4
66 5 5 5 2 5

Table 40-2.3: Determination of Isolator Discs for Single Strings (Normal Creepage) (Continued)

System Minimum Number Of Discs (250 x 145 mm) Standard

Nominal Criteria
Voltage Creepage Clearance Lightning Switching
(kV) Surge
88 7 7 7 3 7
132 10 10 10 4 10
220 13 13 13 9 13
275 16 16 16 13 16
330 19 20 21 18 20
400 22 22 23 23 23

3. BRIDGING OF ISOLATOR CAPS

This is particularly important since a phase shift across a gap on the same phase can occur (see Figure 4-2.2).

B Insulation Gap B

W W

R R
~
W B

Fault

Figure 40-2.2: Voltage Across an Insulation Gap

If a single phase-to-earth fault occurs on say the red (R) phase, the neutral will shift to the phase that is faulting i.e. red
phase. The potential on either side of the insulating gap is therefore different and a flashover can occur. Proper
insulation co-ordination optimisation needs to be done.

Bridging of equipment used for isolating purposes by additional insulators is allowed only if leakage currents between
the connection at both sided are positively prevented by a reliable earthing connection (see Figure 40-2.3).

(a) Not Recommended (b) Recommended

Figure 40-2.3: Bridging of Isolating Equipment by Means of Insulators

4. REFERENCES

4.1 Old Electrical Engineering Department Directive EED 14/1/5-1

SLDG 41-1

METHODOLOGY FOR THE DIMENSIONING OF STRANDED CONDUCTORS FOR MECHANICAL SHORT-CIRCUIT

STRENGTH

1. ELECTRODYNAMIC FORCE

The additional electro-dynamic force density per unit length F’ that a conductor is subjected to with a short circuit is:-

" 2
µ 0 Ik2 l C
F' = . . eq. 41-1.1a)
2.π a l

where:-

F’ = Electro-dynamic force density per unit length in newton per metre (N/m)
µ0 N
= 0,2. eq. 41-1.1b)
2.π (kA )2
ℓ = Length of the span in metres (m)
ℓC = Current carrying length of the conductor, i.e. with stranded conductors (between portals) the length of the
conductor without the length of the string insulators in metres (m). In the case of slack conductors (inter-
equipment connections), ℓ = ℓC is the length of the conductor between the equipment terminals
" = Rms value of the initial symmetrical short-circuit current in a two phase short circuit
I k2
" = Rms value of the initial symmetrical short-circuit current in a three phase short circuit
I k3
a = Centre-line phase-to-phase conductor separation in metres (m)
In three-phase systems, the following must be used:-

" 2 " 2
I k2 = 0,75.I k3 eq. 41-1.2

Based on this electro-dynamic force, the conductors and supports are stressed by the dynamic forces, i.e. by the short-
circuit tensile force Ft, the drop force Ff, and if applicable by the bundle contraction force (pinch force) Fpi. The horizontal
span displacement as discussed in the next section must also be considered.

2. SHORT-CIRCUIT TENSILE FORCE

The resulting short-circuit tensile force Ft during the swing out is:-

1.1 With Single Conductors

(
Ft = Fst . 1 + ϕ.ψ ) eq. 41-1.3

where:-

Fst = Horizontal component of the static conductor pull; must be taken into account for these calculations,
o
both for the local minimum winter temperature (in South Africa -5 C) and for the maximum practical
o
operating temperature (usually +60 C)

1.2 With Bundle Conductors

(
Ft = 1,1.Fst . 1 + ϕ.ψ ) eq. 41-1.4

After the short-circuit is interrupted, the conductor will oscillate or fall back to its initial state. The maximum value of the
conductor pull occurring at the end of the fall, referred to as the drop force Ff, does not need to be considered when the
o
force ratio r ≤ 0,6 or the maximum swing-out angle is δm < 70 .

In all other cases the following applies for the drop force:-

δm
Ff = 1,2.Fst . 1 + 8.ζ . eq. 41-1.5
180 o

In the case of bundle conductors, if the sub-conductors contract under the influence of the short-circuit current; the
tensile force of the bundle conductor will be the bundle contraction force Fpi. If the sub-conductors contact one another,
i.e. if the parameter j ≥ 1, Fpi is calculated from:-


Fpi = Fst . 1 +
νe
.ξ 
 eq. 41-1.6
 ε st 
where:-

Fpi = Bundle contraction force

εst = Strain factor
ξ = ???

If the sub-conductors do not come into contact during contraction (j < 1), Fpi is:-


Fpi = Fst . 1 +
νe
.η2 
 eq. 41-1.7
 ε st 
where:-

η = ???

The resulting values of both tensile forces and displacement are to be taken into account for the dimensioning. The
calculation of the sag from the conductor pull is demonstrated in SLDG 41-3. The dependence of the static conductor pull
or the conductor tension (σ) on the temperature (ϑ) is derived from:

 E.l .ρ 0 
2 2 2
3
(
σ + E.ε. ϑ − ϑ0 − σ 0 . ) 2
2
 .σ −
E.l 2
.ρ = 0 eq. 41-1.8
 24.σ 0  24

where:-

Fst
σ =
A
E = Practical modulus of elasticity (Young’s Modulus)
A = Conductor cross-sectional area
ε = Thermal coefficient of linear expansion of the conductor (see SLDG 2-2 Table 2-2.23)
ϑ0 = Reference temperature
3
ρ = Specific weight at the temperature ϑ in kg/m
3
ρ0 = Specific weight at the reference temperature ϑ0 in kg/m
2
Conductor tension at the reference temperature ϑ0 in N/m
σ0 =

3. CALCULATING LOAD FACTOR

The load parameter ϕ is derived from:-

( )
Tres
2 for Tk11 ≥
ϕ= 3. 1 + r −1 4
(
3. r.sinδ k + cosδ k − 1 ) for Tk11 <
Tres eq. 41-1.9
4

where:-

Tk11 = Relevant short-circuit duration

= Tk1 up to a maximum value of 0,4.T
Tk1 = Duration of the first current flow
r = Force ratio

F'
r= eq. 41-1.10
gnm'

where:-

F' = Electro-dynamic force density in Newtons per metre (N/m)

m' = Mass of a main conductor per unit length
2
gn = Gravity constant (=9,80665 m/s or 9,80665 N/kg)

4. SWING OUT ANGLE

3.1 Swing-out Angle at the end of the short-circuit current flow:-

Tk11
  T  for 0 ≤ ≤ 0,5
δ 1 . 1 − cos 360ο. k11  Tres
δk =   Tres   eq. 41-1.11
Tk11
2.δ 1 for > 0,5
Tres

3.2 Direction of the Resultant Force on the Conductor (Expressed in degrees)

δ 1 = arctan(r) eq. 41-1.12

3.3 Resultant Period of the Oscillation (Tres)

T
Tres = eq. 41-1.13
4 2
 π 2  δ 1 2 
1 + r .1 − . o  
 64  90  
3.4 Period of the Conductor Oscillation (T)

bc
T = 2.π. 0,8. eq. 41-1.14
gn

3.5 Equivalent Static Conductor Sag

2
m'.gn .l
bc = eq. 41-1.15
8.Fst

5. ζ)
STRESS FACTOR (ζ

ζ=
(gn .m'.l )2 eq. 41-1.16
3
24.Fst .N

where:-

N = Stiffness form

1 1
N= + eq. 41-1.17
S.l E S .n.A

where:-

ES = Effective modulus of elasticity

A = Conductor cross-sectional area (actual value or nominal cross-sectional area as per Tables 13-24)
n = Number of Conductors per phase bundle
S = Spring constant of the span resulting from elasticity of the supports in the event of a short-circuit
= 100 N/mm for equipment connections if not otherwise known
500 N/mm is a common value. In the case of strained conductors between portals, the spring constant
=
must be determined separately

Fst
  Fst .90 o   for ≤ σ fin
E. 0,3 + 0,7.sin  n.A
ΕS =   n.A.σ fin  Fst eq. 41-1.18
E for > σ fin
n.A

where:-

σfin 50 N/mm (above σfin the modulus of elasticity is constant)

2
=
E = Modulus of elasticity (Young’s Modulus) for the conductor

When calculating Ft, Ff and bn the mass-per-unit length of the main conductor including the distributed single loads must
be used.

6. ψ)
SPAN REACTION FACTOR (ψ

The span reaction factor (ψ) is a function of the stress factor (ζ) of a main conductor and of the load parameter (ϕ),
calculated above, as in Figure 41-1.1. It is:-

ψ) can either be obtained by solving the cubic function below for a given values of ϕ and ζ,
The Span Reaction Factor (ψ
or by reading of the value of the set of curves as shown in Figure 41-1.1 already generated for use:-
2 3 2
ϕ .ψ + ϕ.(2 + ζ ).ψ + (1 + 2.ζ ).ψ − ζ .(2 + ϕ ) = 0 eq. 41-1.19

ψ), Factor Depending on Stress Factor (ζ

Figure 41-1.1: Span Reaction Factor (ψ ζ) and the Load Parameter (ϕ
ϕ)

7. THE DROP FORCE

The drop force is particularly dependent on the angle δm (see Figure 41-1.2) to which the conductor swings out during
the short-circuit current flow. Here, for the relevant short-circuit duration Tk11 must be used, as the duration of the short-
circuit current Tk1 (in case of auto-reclosing this is the duration of the first current flow), where the value 0,4.T must be
chosen as the maximum value for Tk1 (Fst and ζ are given above)

δm) as a Function of the Relevant Short-circuit Duration (Tk11) Based

Figure 41-1.2: Maximum Swing Out Angle (δ
on the Period of the Conductor Oscillation (T)

7.1 Bundle Contraction Force

The contraction force must be calculated if the sub-conductors do not clash effectively as shown in Figure 41-1.3a) (see
Figures 41-1.7 to 41-1.9 below regarding the parameter j). The following conditions need to be checked:-

x ≤ 2,0 and y ≥ 50 eq. 41-1.20

as
x= eq. 41-1.21
ds

ls
y= eq. 41-1.22
as

If both conditions x ≤ 2,0 and y ≥ 50 are not met, then it is necessary to calculate the contraction force.

The fact as to whether or not the sub-conductors come into contact with one another during the contraction is decided at
the parameter j as follows:-

• The relevant short-circuit current is the three-phase short-circuit current

• The relevant weight of the bundle is only the weight of the bundled conductors (m′)

a) Non Clashing of Bundle Conductors

b) Ineffective Clashing of Bundle Conductors

Electromagnetic
Forces (Fm) Sub-Conductor
d
Sub-Conductor Rigid Bundle
Spacing Spacer

Linear Profile of
Sub-Conductors
Sub-Span Length (ℓs)

Distance to Point
of Contact of Sub-
Conductors (L)

c) Effective Clashing of Bundle Conductors

Figure 41-1.3: Position of Sub-conductors of One Sub-span during Bundle Pinch

100

Initial Tension = 9,35 kN

Peak Conductor Tension (Fpi) (kN per Phase)

30
34,9 kA
20 25,8 kA
13,8 kA
10

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 6
Sub-Span Length (ℓs)

Figure 41-1.4: Typical Variation of Peak Bundle Pinch Tension for Range of Sub-span Lengths

6.1.1 Parameter for Determining the Position of the Bundle Conductor

εpi
j= eq. 41-1.23
1 + ε st

6.1.2 Strain Factors with Bundle Conductors

2
  180 o  
Fst .l 2s .N
ε st = 1,5. . sin  eq. 41-1.24
(a s − ds )2   n  
where:-

ℓs = Average distance between two adjacent spacers in a span (sub-span spacing)

as = Centre-line distance between two adjacent sub-conductors
ds = Conductor diameter
n = Number of sub-conductors of a bundle conductor

3
 180 o  
. sin 
Fν .l 3s .N
3  
ε pi = 0,375.n. eq. 41-1.25
(a s − ds )   n  
where:-

εpi = Strain factor with bundle conductors

Fν = Short-circuit force between sub-conductors

6.1.3 Short-circuit Force Between the Sub-conductors

2
 I"
µ0
 l ν
Fν = (n − 1). . k  . s. 2 eq. 41-1.26
2.π  n  as ν3
 
where:-

Ik″ = Current in the bundle conductor: Maximum value from Ik1″, Ik2″ or Ik3″
Ik1″ = Rms value of the initial symmetrical short-circuit current with single phase short-circuit
ν2 = See Figure 41-2.5 as a function of ν1 and the kappa factor κ
ν3 = See Figure 41-2.6 as a function of n, as and ds

ν 1 = f.
1
.
(a s − ds ).m's eq. 41-1.27
 180o  µ 0  Ik 
"
2
n−1
sin
 n  .  .
  2.π n
 as

where:-

m s' = Current in the bundle conductor: Maximum value from Ik1″, Ik2″ or Ik3″
f = Current circuit frequency

Since:-

µ0 N
= 0,2.
2.π (kA )2

ν 1 = f.
1
.
(a s − ds ).m's eq. 41-1.28
 180o   I" 
2
n−1
 n 
sin 0,2. k  .
  n
  as

6.1.4 Kappa Factor

Ip
κ= eq. 41-1.29
"
2 .I k3

Figure 41-1.5: Factor ν2 as a Function of ν1 and κ

Figure 41-1.6: Factor ν3 as a Function of Sub-conductors n and the Bundle Dimensions as and ds

6.1.4 Bundle Contraction Force with Sub-conductors in Contact (Clashing Sub-conductors j ≥ 1)

4
  180 o 
4  sin 
 l s    n  ( ν ) − 1
2
µ 0  Ik 
"

.n.(n − 1).
1 9 arctan
νe = + .  .N.ν 2 .  .
1 −
4
2 8 2.π    a s − ds  . ξ
3
ν4
 4
eq. 41-1.30
n    

where:-

as − ds
ν4 = eq. 41-1.31
ds

Figure 41-1.7: Factor ξ as a Function of j and εst

6.1.5 Bundle Contraction Force with Sub-conductors not in Contact (Clashing Sub-conductors j < 1)

4
  180 o 
4  sin 
 l s    n   arctan ( ν ) − 1
2
µ 0  Ik 
"
.n.(n − 1).
1 9
νe = + .  .N.ν 2 .  .
1 −
4
2 8 2.π    a s − ds  . η
4
ν4
 4
eq. 41-1.32
 
n    
where:-

ν 4 = η.
 a s − ds 
 a s (
− η. a s − ds ) eq. 41-1.33

as
Figure 41-1.8: Factor η as a Function of j and εst (for 2,5 < ≤ 5,0)
ds

as
Figure 41-1.9: Factor η as a Function of j and εst (for 5,0 < ≤ 10,0)
ds

as
Figure 41-1.10: Factor η as a Function of j and εst (for 10,0 < = 15,0)
ds

8. PERMISSIBLE LOADS

For post insulators, the maximum value from Ff, Ft and Fpi must not exceed the 100% value of the breaking force (Fr).
The static loading on the post insulator (Fst) must not exceed 40% of this breaking force, i.e. Fst ≤ 0,4.Fr.

For devices, the maximum value from Ff, Ft and Fpi must not exceed the static + dynamic rated mechanical terminal load.
Fst may not exceed the (static) rated mechanical terminal load. The conductor clamps must be rated for the maximum
value of 1,5.Ft, 1,0.Ff and 1,0.Fpi.

For strained conductors, the connectors and supports/portals must be based on the maximum value from Ff, Ft and Fpi
as a quasi-static exceptional load. Since the loads do not occur at the same time in three-phase configurations, the
dynamic force must be assumed as effective in 2 conductors and the static force as effective in the third conductor.

8.1 Example
2
A 2 x Al 1000 mm conductor bundle per phase (see Tables in Appendices 41-2A, 41-2B and 41-2C) is strained between
portals in a 420 kV three phase switchgear yard, with current jumpers at the ends and a down-dropper in the middle.

Additional load of the feeder jumpers and of the down droppers is distributed over the length of the span to the sub-
conductors : mL′ =1,431 kg/m

Centre-line distance of sub-conductors : as = 200 mm

Average distance between spacers : ℓs = 6,5 m

Span length : ℓ = 42,5 m

Length of bundle conductor between the current jumpers : ℓc = 32,5 m

Centre-line distance of main conductors :a=5m

Spring constant of the span with static load : Ss = 320 N/mm

Spring constant of the span with load caused by short-circuit : Sd = 480 N/mm
o
Horizontal static main conductor pull at -20 C : Fst-20 = 12126,4 N

o
Horizontal static main conductor pull at 60 C : Fst+60 = 11370,4 N

Relevant short-circuit current : I″k3 = 50 kA

Peak short-circuit current : Ip = 125 kA

System frequency : f = 50 Hz

Short-circuit duration : Tk1 = 1 s

o o
a) Calculate the short-circuit tensile force Ft and drop force Ff at -20 C and +60 C

" 2 " 2
Electro-dynamic Force Density I k2 = 0,75.I k3 (from eq. 41-1.2)

" 2
Ik2 l C
F' = 0,2. .
a l
" 2
0,75.Ik3 l C
= 0,2. . (from eq. 41-1.1 and 41-1.2)
a l
2
0,75.50 32,5
= 0,2. .
5 42,5
= 57,35 N/m

Relevant mass of conductor per length including additional loads:-

1 1
m' = n.(mc + mL )

= 2.(2,767 + 1,431) (from Tables)

= 8,396 kg/m

Force Ratio:-

F'
r=
gnm'

57,35
= (from eq. 41-1.10)
9,80665.8,396
= 0,697

Direction of resultant force on the conductor:-

δ 1 = arctan(r)

= arctan(0,697) (from eq. 41-1.12)

o
= 34,9

o o
Calculated Parameter -20 C +60 C
Equivalent static conductor sag (bc) 2 2
m'.gn .l m'.gn .l
(from eq. 41-1.15) b c - 20 = b c + 60 =
8.Fst - 20 8.Fst + 60

8,396.9,80665.48,5 8,396.9,80665.48,5
= =
8.12126,4 8.11370,4
= 1,53 = 1,63

Period of conductor oscillation (T)

bc bc
(from eq. 41-1.14) T- 20 = 2.π. 0,8. T+ 60 = 2.π. 0,8.
gn gn

0,8.1,53 0,8.1,63
= 2.π. = 2.π.
9,80665 9,80665
= 2,22 = 2,29

Resultant period of oscillation (Tres)

T T
(from eq. 41-1.13) Tres - 20 = Tres + 60 =
4
 π 2  δ 1 2  4
 π 2  δ 1 2 
1 + r 2 .1 − . o   1 + r 2 .1 − . o  
 64  90    64  90  
2,22 2,29
= =
2
 π2  34,9o 2  2
 π2  34,9 o 2 
4
1 + 0,697 .1 − . o  
4
1 + 0,697 .1 − . o  
 64  90    64  90  
= 2,06 = 2,13

Relevant short-circuit duration (Tk11)

Tk11 = 0,4.T Tk11 = 0,4.T
Tk11 must be used, as the duration of
= 0,4.2,22 = 0,4.2,29
the short-circuit current Tk1 (in case of
auto-reclosing this is the duration of the = 0,89 = 0,92

first current flow), where the value

0,4.T must be chosen as the maximum
value for Tk1

o o
Calculated Parameter -20 C +60 C
Swing-out angle δk (with Tk11 ≤ 0,5.Tres)
Tk11 0,89 Tk11 0,92
(from eq. 41-1.11) = =
Tres 2,06 Tres 2,13
= 0,432 = 0,432
0 ≤ 0,432 ≤ 0,5 0 ≤ 0,432 ≤ 0,5

Tk11 Tk11
  T  for 0 ≤ ≤ 0,5   T  for 0 ≤ ≤ 0,5
δ . 1 − cos 360 ο. k11  Tres δ . 1 − cos 360 ο. k11  Tres
δk = 1 
  Tres   δk = 1 
  Tres  
Tk11 Tk11
2.δ 1 for > 0,5 2.δ 1 for > 0,5
Tres Tres

  T    T 
δ k = δ 1. 1 − cos 360 ο. k11  δ k = δ 1. 1 − cos 360 ο. k11 
  Tres     Tres  
o
[ (
= 34,9 . 1 − cos 360 ο.0, 432 )] o
[ (
= 34,9 . 1 − cos 360 ο.0, 432 )]
o o
= 66,5 = 66,5

Load parameter ϕ (with Tk11 ≥ 0,25.Tres) Tk11 ≥ 0,25.Tres Tk11 ≥ 0,25.Tres

(from eq. 41-1.19) Tk11 = 0,89 Tk11 = 0,92
≥ 0,25.2,06 = 0,515 = 0,25. Tres ≥ 0,25.2,13 = 0,533 = 0,25. Tres

(
ϕ = 3. 1 + r − 1
2
) for Tk11 ≥
Tres
(
ϕ = 3. 1 + r − 1
2
) for Tk11 ≥
Tres

( ) ( )
4 4
2 2
= 3. 1 + 0,697 − 1 Tres = 3. 1 + 0,697 − 1 Tres
for Tk11 < for Tk11 <
4 4
= 0,657 = 0,657

o o
Calculated Parameter -20 C +60 C
Effective modulus of elasticity Es (with
Fst - 20 12126,4 2 2 Fst + 60 11370,4 2 2
Fst = = 6,632 N/mm ≤ 50 N/mm = σ fin = = 5,685 N/mm ≤ 50 N/mm = σ fin
≤ σ fin ) n.A 2.1000 n.A 2.1000
A
(from eq. 41-1.18)
  Fst  Fst   Fst  Fst
E. 0,3 + 0,7.sin o  for ≤ σ fin E. 0,3 + 0,7.sin o  for ≤ σ fin
ΕS =   n.A.σ fin .90   A ΕS =   A.σ fin .90   A
   Fst    Fst
for > σ fin for > σ fin
E A E A

  Fst - 20 .90o     Fst + 60 .90o  

E s = E. 0,3 + 0,7.sin  E s = E. 0,3 + 0,7.sin 
  n.A.σ fin    n.A.σ fin 
4 
= 5,5.10 . 0,3 + 0,7.sin
 12126,4 .90 o   4   11370,4 .90 o  
 = 5,5.10 . 0,3 + 0,7.sin 
  2.1000.50    2.1000.50 
2 2
= 23791N/mm = 23341N/mm

Stiffness form (N)

1 1 1 1
(from eq. 41-1.17) N= + N= +
S.l E S .n.A S.l E S .A

1 1 1 1
= 3
+ = 3
+
480,5.42,5 .10 30817.2.1000 480,5.42,5.10 29964.1000
-9 -9
= 70.10 /N = 70.10 /N

ζ)
Stress factor(ζ
(from eq. 41-1.16) ζ=
(gn .m'.l )2 ζ =
(gn .m'.l )2
3 3
24.Fst - 20 .N 24.Fst-20 .N

=
(9,80665.8,396.42,5 ) 2
=
(9,80665.8,396.42,5 )2
3 -9 3 -9
24.(12126,4) .70.10 24.(113706,4) .70.10
= 4.1 = 4.9

o o
Calculated -20 C +60 C
Parameter

0,845 0,865
ψ ) (as in Figure 4-8)
Span reaction factor (ψ

2 3 2 2 3 2
ϕ .ψ + ϕ.(2 + ζ ).ψ + (1 + 2.ζ ).ψ − ζ .(2 + ϕ ) = 0 ϕ .ψ + ϕ.(2 + ζ ).ψ + (1 + 2.ζ ).ψ − ζ .(2 + ϕ ) = 0
(from eq. 41-1.19)

2 3 2 2 3 2
0,657 .ψ + 0,657.(2 + 4,4).ψ + (1 + 2.4,4).ψ − 4,4.(2 + 0,657) = 0 0,657 .ψ + 0,657.(2 + 5,3).ψ + (1 + 2.5,3).ψ − 5,3.(2 + 0,657) = 0
3 2 3 2
0,432.ψ + 4,205.ψ + 9,8.ψ − 11,691 = 0 0,432.ψ + 4,796.ψ + 11,6.ψ − 14,082 = 0

Solving using Newton-Raphson Solving using Newton-Raphson

ψ = 0,845 ψ = 0,865

( ) ( )
Short-circuit tensile force (Ft) [with

Ft = 1,1.Fst . 1 + ϕ.ψ Ft = 1,1.Fst . 1 + ϕ.ψ

(
= 1,1.12126,4. 1 + 0, 656.0,845 ) (
= 1,1.11370,4. 1 + 0, 656.0,865 )
= 20734 N = 19605 N
bundle conductors]
(from eq. 41-1.4)

o o
Calculated -20 C +60 C
Parameter
δ m) (as in Figure 41-1.2)
Maximum swing-out angle (δ

Tk11 = 0,89 s, T =2,22 T K11 = 0,92 s, T =2,29

Tk11 0,89 Tk11 0,92

= =
T 2,22 T 2,29
= 0,401 = 0,402

δm = 79
o
δm = 79
o

o o
Calculated Parameter -20 C +60 C
Drop force (Ff) (because r>0,6 and δm
δm δm
o
≥ 70 ) Ff = 1,2.Fst-20 . 1 + 8.ζ . Ff = 1,2.Fst-20 . 1 + 8.ζ .
180 o 180 o
(from eq. 41-1.5)
79 o 79 o
= 1,2.12126,4. 1 + 8.4,1. o
= 1,2.11370,4. 1 + 8.4,9.
180 180 o
= 57021 N = 58424 N

From inspection, the maximum value of the short-circuit tensile force is derived at the lower temperature and is:
Ft = 20733 N

The maximum value of the drop force is derived at the higher temperature and is:

Ff = 54652 N
o o
Calculation of the bundle contraction force Fpi at -20 C and +60 C

The contraction force must be calculated since the sub-conductors do not clash effectively (see below regarding the
parameter j). The following conditions need to be checked:

x ≤ 2,0 and y ≥ 50 (from eq. 41-1.20)

as
x=
ds
200
= (from eq. 41-1.21)
41,1
= 4,87

ls
y=
as
6,5
= (from eq. 41-1.22)
0,2
= 32,5

Both conditions x ≤ 2,0 and y ≥ 50 are not met.

The fact as to whether or not the sub-conductors come into contact with one another during the contraction is decided at
the parameter j as follows:

The relevant short-circuit current is the three-phase short-circuit current = 50 kA

The relevant weight of the bundle is only the weight of the two conductors (m′) = 2.2,767

= 5,534 kg/m

The system frequency (f) = 50 Hz

ν 1 = f.
1
.
(a s − ds ).m's
 180 o  " 
 Ik3
2
n−1
sin
 n  0,2.  .
   n 
  as

= 50.
1
.
(0,2 − 0,0411).5,534 (from eq. 41-1.28)
 180 o
  50 
2
2 −1
sin
 2  0,2.  .
   2 0,2

= 1,875

Kappa factor:

Ip
κ= "
2 .I k3

125
= (from eq. 41-1.29)
2 .50
= 1,77

ν2 = 1,64
as 200
=
ds 41.1 (from eq. 41-1.21)

= 4,87

ν3 = 0,37
Short-circuit Force between the Sub-conductors
2
 I"  l ν
Fν

= (n − 1).0,2. k
 . s. 2
n  as ν3
 
2
 50  6,5 1,64
= (2 − 1).0,2.
 2  . 0,2 . 0,37 (from eq. 41-1.26)
 
= 28986 N

Calculating the Bundle Contraction Force

Strain Factors with Bundle Conductors

o o
Calculated Parameter -20 C +60 C
Strain Factors with Bundle
2 2
 180 o    180 o  
. sin  . sin 
Conductors (εεst) Fst - 20 .l 2s .N Fst + 60 .l 2s .N
ε st = 1,5.  ε st = 1,5. 
(from eq. 41-1.24) (a s − ds ) 2
  n   (a s − ds ) 2
  n  
2 2
 180 o    180 o  
= 1,5.
12126,4.6,5 2.70.10 - 9
. sin  = 1,5.
11370,4.6,5 2.70.10 - 9
. sin 
(0,2 − 0,0411) 2
  2   (0,2 − 0,0411) 2
  2  
= 2,13 = 2,01

o
ℓs-20 = 6,5 m (at -20 C) ℓs+60 = ℓs-20.[1+εεt.(ϑ
ϑ+60-ϑ
ϑ-20)]
-6
= 6,5.[1+ 23.10 .(60-(-20))]
= 6,512
o
6,512 m (at +60 C)

Strain Factors (εεpi) 3

3
 180 o    180 o  
. sin  . sin 
(from eq. 41-1.25) Fν .l 3s .N Fν .l3s .N
ε pi = 0,375.n.  ε pi = 0,375.n. 
(a s − ds ) 3
  n   (a s − ds ) 3
  n  

3 3
 180    180 o  
. sin . sin
o
28986.6,5 3.70.10 - 9 28986.6,51 23.70.10-9
= 0,375.2.  = 0,375.2. 
(0,2 − 0,0411)3   2   (0,2 − 0,0411)3   2  
= 104,14 = 104,61

Parameter for Determining the

εpi εpi
Position of the Bundle j= j=
Conductor 1 + ε st 1 + ε st

(from eq. 41-1.23) 104,14 104,61

= =
1 + 2,13 1 + 2,34
= 5,77 = 2,01

o o
Calculated Parameter -20 C +60 C

ξ = 3,3 ξ = 3,4

(from eq. 41-1.30)

as − ds a s '−d s
ν4 = ν4 =
ds ds

0,2 − 0,0411 0,204 − 0,0411

= =
0,0411 0,0411
= 3,87 = 3,88

o o
Calculated -20 C +60 C
Parameter
Bundle Contraction Force with Sub-
conductors in Contact (Clashing Sub-
conductors j ≥ 1) (from eq. 41-1.29)

4 4
  180 o    180o 
sin  sin 
   n   arctan
2 4
 l s    n   arctan
4
µ 0  Ik
" 
2
 1 µ I
"   ls' ν4 
νe =
1
+
9
(
.n. n − 1 .) .  .N.ν 2 .  .
1 −
ν4
 − νe =
1
+
9
( )
.n. n − 1 . 0 . k  .N.ν 2 .  . .
1 −  −
1
   a s − ds  . 2.π    a s '−ds  3
2 8 2.π  n ξ
3
ν4
2 8
 n    ξ  ν4  4
     4
4
  180 o 
4
  180o 
sin  4 

sin 
4   2
 50 
2
  .   2  . 1 − arctan 3,87  − 1 1 9  
.2.(2 − 1).0,2.
50  6,5  .   2  . 1 − arctan 3,88  − 1
.2.(2 − 1).0,2.
-9
=
1
+
9 -9
 .70.10 .2,64.
6,5

= +  .70.10 .2,64. 
 2  0,2 − 0,0411  3 2 8 2  0,204 − 0,0411  3,3
3
 3,88  4
2 8 3,3  3,87  4
= 1,29
= 1,32

(from eq.
 νe   νe 
41-1.6) Fpi = Fst-20 . 1 + .ξ  Fpi = Fst + 60 . 1 + .ξ 
 ε st
  ε st

   
 1,32   1,31 
= 12126,4. 1 + .4,1 = 11370,4. 1 + .4,14 
 2,13   2,01 
= 42938 N = 42552 N

The maximum value of the contraction force occurs at the lower temperature and is Fpi = 42938 N

9. HORIZONTAL SPAN DISPLACEMENT

The electro-dynamic force occurring with short circuits causes the conductors to move outwards. Depending on the
interplay of conductor weight, duration and magnitude of the short-circuit current, a conductor can oscillate completely
upwards, then to the other side and again to the bottom of the oscillation; in other words, travelling in a complete circle.
Furthermore, the conductor is stretched (factor CD) and the conductor curve is deformed (facto GF) with the result that a
conductor can swing further outwards than would be predicted from its static sag.

The maximum horizontal span displacement (bh), outwards or inwards, in the middle of the span is calculated with slack
conductors (ℓc = ℓ)

For ℓc = ℓ
o
CF .CD .b c for δ m ≥ 90
bh = eq. 41-1.34a
CF .CD .b cE.sinδ m for δ m < 90
o

For ℓc = ℓ - 2. ℓi

bh = CF .CD .b c .sinδ 1 for δ m ≥ δ 1

eq. 41-1.34b
CF .CD .b c .sinδ m for δ m < δ 1

Here, δ1, bc and δm have the same values as has been calculated above. In three-phase systems the three-phase short
circuit current as above must also be used. In addition, the following applies:-

With the Force ratio r as in Sec. 4.2.2

1,05 for r ≤ 0,8

CF = 0,97 + 0,1.r for 0,8 < r < 1,8 eq. 41-1.35
1,15 for r ≥ 0,8

2
 l 
CD =
3
1 + .
  (
. ε ela + ε th ) eq. 41-1.36
8  bc 

Elastic Expansion

(
ε ela = N. Ft − Fst ) eq. 41-1.37

Thermal Conductor Expansion

2
 I"  T Tres
c th . k  . res for Tk11 ≥
 n.A  4
ε th =
  4
eq. 41-1.38
2
 Ik 
"
Tres
c th .  for Tk11 <
 n.A  .Tk1
  4

Calculating the Value of Cth

Ik″ = Ik3″ in three-phase systems

Ik″ = Ik2″ in two-phase systems

9.1 Permissible Displacement

In the most unsuitable case, two adjacent conductors approach each other by the horizontal span displacement bh. This
leaves a minimum distance (amin) between them of:-

a min = a - 2.bh eq. 41-1.39

The minimum distance is reached only briefly during the conductor oscillations. If a subsequent flashover, e.g. at the
busbar, is not to occur in the case of a short-circuit at some other place, e.g. at a feeder of the switchgear installation,
then amin of the busbar, must not be less than 50% of the otherwise required minimum distance of conductor (see SLDG
4-1, Tables 4-1.10 to 4-1.12 on clearances)

9.2 Example Continued:

The strained portal and elements are as given in the previous example. To determine the elastic conductor expansion,
o
the short-circuit tensile force also at the upper temperature (60 C) must be known.

1,05 for r ≤ 0,8

CF = 0,97 + 0,1.r for 0,8 < r < 1,8 (from eq. 41-1.35)
1,15 for r ≥ 0,8

r = 0,697 ≤ 0,8

CF = 1,05

4
− 18 m
0,27.10 2
with conductor of Al, AlMgSi, Al/St with cross − section ratio < 6 (see Table 13 - 26)
A .s
4
- 18 m
c th = 0,17.10 2
with conductor of Al/St with cross − section ratio ≥ 6
A .s
4
- 18 m
0,088.10 2
with conductors of Cu
A .s
-18
AlMgSi cth =0,27.10
o o
Calculated -20 C +60 C
Parameter
(from eq. 41- Tk11 ≥ 0,25.Tres Tk11 ≥ 0,25.Tres
1.38) Tk11 = 0,89 Tk11 = 0,92
≥ 0,25.2,06 = 0,515 = 0,25. Tres ≥ 0,25.2,13 = 0,533 = 0,25. Tres

(from eq. 41-

(
ε ela = N. Ft-20 − Fst -20 ) (
ε ela = N. Ft-20 − Fst-20 )
1.37)
-9
(
= 70.10 . 20734 − 12126,4 ) -9
(
= 70.10 . 19605 − 11370,4 )
= 0,00060 = 0,00058

o o
Calculated -20 C +60 C
Parameter
(from eq. 41- 2 2
 I"  T Tres  I"  T Tres
1.38) c th . k  . res for Tk11 ≥ c th . k  . res for Tk11 ≥
 n.A  4  n.A  4
ε th =
  4
ε th =
  4
2 2
 Ik 
"
Tres  Ik 
"
Tres
c th .  for Tk11 < c th .  for Tk11 <
 n.A  .Tk1  n.A  .Tk1
  4   4

2 2
 Ik"  Tres Tres  Ik"  Tres Tres
ε th = c th .  . for Tk11 ≥ ε th = c th .  . for Tk11 ≥
 n.A   n.A 
  4 4   4 4
2 2
 50.10 3  2,06  50.10 3  2,06
.
 2.1000.10 - 3  .
 2.1000.10 -3 
-18 -18
= 0,27.10 . = 0,27.10 .
  4   4
-18 -18
= 0,000087.10 = 0,000090.1 0

(from eq. 41- 2 2

 l   l 
1.36)
CD =
3
1 + .
  (
. ε ela + ε th ) CD =
3
1 + .
  (
. ε ela + ε th )
8  bc  8  bc 
2 2

=
3  42,5 
1 + .  (
. 0,00060 + 0,000087.1 0
-18
) =
3  42,5 
1 + .  (
. 0,00058 + 0,000090.1 0
-18
)
8  1,53  8  1,63 

= 1,083 = 1,071

Maximum o o
CF .CD .b c for δ m ≥ 90 CF .CD .b c for δ m ≥ 90
Horizontal bh = bh =
CF .CD .b c .sinδ m for δ m < 90
o
CF .CD .b c .sinδ m for δ m < 90
o
Conductor
Span bh = CF .CD .b c .sinδ m bh = CF .CD .b c .sinδ m
Displacement o o
= 1,05.1,083.1,53.sin79 = 1,05.1,071.1,63.sin79
(bh)
= 0,997 = 1,051
(from eq. 41-
1.34 a) & b))

The maximum value of the horizontal displacement is found at the upper temperature and is ≈1,06 m. A centre-line
distance of main conductors of a = 5 m means that the main conductors can approach to within a minimum of (5 –
2.1,06) = 2,88 m in the most unfavourable case. As in SLDG 4-1 Table 4-1.12, the required minimum conductor-
conductor distance for the static case in a 420 kV system is 3,1 m. The permissible minimum distance in the event of a
short-circuit is 50% of this, i.e. 1,55 m. Therefore the strained conductors are short-circuit proof with reference to the
horizontal span displacement since 2,88 m ≥ 1,55 m.

It can then be stated that the permissible horizontal span displacement is calculated at:-

bhperm =
(a − 0,5.Cpp )
2

=
(5 − 0,5.3,1) (from eq. 41-1.39)
2
= 1,725 m

Since 1,725 m > 1,06 m, the conductors will not come too close in the event of a short-circuit.

SLDG 41 - 2

SUBSTATION FLEXIBLE CONDUCTORS

1. GENERAL

Conductors are one of the major components of a high voltage station. They allow the connection with equipment and
therefore the setting-up of the substation network.

Conductors and connectors should conform to the same electrical and mechanical strains and stresses as those of
equipment.

The reliability of the station will only be ensured if all components (equipment, conductors and connectors) reply to the
same requirements.

The selection of conductors should be made according to basic requirements i.e. service voltage, nominal current, short
circuit current, environmental conditions and layout of conductors.

The past few years have seen a general trend towards the standardisation of equipment current ratings with the result
that all bulk orders now specify one of the following ratings:-

400, 800, 1250, 1600, 2500 or 3150 amperes.

To cater for this limited number of current ratings, it is unnecessary to make use of the full range of conductor sizes
which are commercially available in terms of various National and International Standards, and it is therefore proposed
to standardise on only a few conductors for use in substations.

Table 1 of SLDG 41-2A indicates the proposed standard conductors which are based on the relevant BS standard. The
original issue of the appropriate SLDG document was based on SABS standards, but this has now been dropped in
favour of the BS standard for the following reasons:-

a) Despite the availability of SABS specifications for All-aluminium and SCA conductors, all conductors purchased to
date have in fact been specified to comply with BS 215,

b) Existing tools for transmission line compression fittings are based on BS 215 dimensions and as these differ from
the SABS 182 dimensions by up to 2 mm (plus tolerances) in certain cases, there is a danger of the wrong tools
being used,

c) Some of the SABS conductors have significantly lower current ratings than the equivalent BS conductors with
consequent economic implications, particularly for the 400 kV lines.

The full ranges available for the various types of conductor are given in SLDG 41-2A to 41-2C. The all-aluminium and
SCA conductors laid down by SABS are included for information, but should not be specified.

2. BASIS OF STANDARD

2.1 Service Voltage

The service voltage taken into account for conductor selection is to enable one to calculate the voltage gradient on the
surface of a particular conductor.

The maximum line-to-line voltage (Umax) is used, but the calculation uses the maximum phase-to-earth voltage which is
calculated as follows:-

Umax
Up −e max = eq. 41-2.1
3

2.2 Weather Conditions

Necessary data:-

Ambient Temperature
Air humidity → to calculate the voltage gradient
Pressure and altitude
Maximum temperature → to calculate the overheating
Speed and strength of wind
→ to calculate the mechanical strains
Weight of frost

2.3 Nominal Current

It is the current that the installation is rated for. This current will determine the maximum cross-sectional area of the
conductor to be installed, based on the conductor material composition and the thermal current limits of that particular
material.

2.3.1 Thermal limit currents

Calculations of thermal limit currents are based on the heat balance equation:

2 −4
I .R = 13,8.10 . V.d ( )0,448 .(T − t ) − a.S.d + E.K.(T 4 − t 4 ).d eq. 41-2.2

where:-

I = Current in amps
R = Conductor resistance in ohms/cm at the operating temperature
V = Wind velocity, cm/sec
d = Conductor overall diameter in cm
o
T = Maximum conductor temperature in K
o
t = Ambient air temperature in K
a = Conductor solar absorption coefficient
2
S = Intensity of solar radiation in watts/cm
E = Conductor emissivity coefficient
-12 2 o 4
K = Stefan’s constant = 5,7 . 10 watts/cm / k
For South African conditions with aged conductors, the following values are assumed:-

V = 44,7 cm/sec (1 mph)

o o o o
T = 348 K (75 C) or 363 K (90 C)
o o
t = 313 K (40 C)
a = 1
2
S = 0,112 watts/cm
E = 1
o o
With these constants, the heat-balance equations for 75 C and 90 C conductor temperatures become:-

2 0,448
75 C: I .R = 0,2655.d
o
− 0,0212.d eq. 41-2.3

2 0,448
90 C: I .R = 0,379.d
o
− 0,0273.d eq. 41-2.4

The resistance R in ohms/cm is obtained from the standard D.C. resistance corrected to operating temperature and
corrected for skin effect.

The resistance of overhead shield wires, the following approximation for resistance can be made:

185
R=
(d .N)
2
eq. 41-2.5

where:-

R = Resistance in ohms (Ω)

d = Sub-conductor diameter in mm

N = Number of sub-conductors

For hand calculations with an error of less than 5 %, I may be determined from the following simplified equations:-

Table 41-2.1: Formulae for Determining the Thermal Limit Current

Material Thermal limit current (Amps)

o o
75 C 90 C

0,612 0,612
SCA or All-aluminium 16,3.A (eq. 41-2.6) 21,3.A (eq. 41-2.7)

0,612 0,612
Copper 20,5.A (eq. 41-2.8) 26,5.A (eq. 41-2.9)

where:-
2
A = Actual conducting area of aluminium or copper in mm

2.3.2 Permissible conductor temperatures for busbars, stringers and connections

Above a critical temperature, conductors start to anneal and lose mechanical strength. For aluminium, very little loss of
o o
strength occurs at temperatures up to 80 C, while at 90 C the loss of strength is small enough to ignore (± 15 % if the
o
conductor is operated continuously at 100 C for a period of 1 year).

For substation applications, the tensions used are well below the ultimate strengths of the conductors, and a small loss
of strength is therefore not a significant factor in the design. Furthermore, the constants assumed in 2.1 for the heat
balance equation are somewhat pessimistic in that:

o
a) ambient temperatures rarely exceed 25-35 C, especially in winter when the loads are high

2
b) a solar radiation of 0,112 watts/cm is exceptional, and,

c) a wind velocity of 1,6 kph (1 mph) is low.

Finally, circuits are frequently duplicated and consequently tend to operate at only 50 % rating or less for most of the
o
time. On this basis it is concluded that an ultimate temperature of 90 C for aluminium conductors in substation

applications is acceptable, and standard conductors can now be selected to match standard equipment current ratings
as follows:-

Table 41-2.2: Conductor Selection to Meet Thermal Limit Current

2 o
400 amperes : 1 x 150 mm "Hornet" - 470A at 90 C

2 o
800 amperes : 1 x 400 mm "Centipede" - 860A at 90 C

2 o
1250 amperes : 1 x 800 mm "Bull" - 1353A at 90 C

2 o
1600 amperes : 2 x 400 mm "Centipede" - 1720A at 90 C

2 o
2500 amperes : 2 x 800 mm "Bull" - 2706A at 90 C

2 o
3150 amperes : 3 x 800 mm "Bull" - 4059A at 90 C

2.4 Thermal Loading Capacity under Short Circuit Conditions

The cross-sectional areas and surface of conductors must be such that there is no impermissible temperature rise,
either in normal operation or under certain specified fault conditions, so as to reduce the material strength. The type of
fault to be assumed is governed by the system configuration. The fault current may be determined from the system
short circuit capacity as indicated in Table 41-2.3. (Refer also to Figure 41-2A.1 of SLDG 41-2A).

Table 41-2.3: Formulae for Determining Fault Current for Various Faults

Fault Type Formula for Fault Current (kA) Relationship with 3 φ Symmetrical Fault
(kA)

I "k(3) Sk " I "k(3) • 1 (eq. 41-2.11)

(eq. 41-2.10)
3 .Un

I "k(2) Sk " I "k(3) • 0,866 (eq. 41-2.13)

(eq. 41-2.12)
2.Un

I "k(1) Sk " I "k(3) • 0,578 (eq. 41-2.15)

(eq. 41-2.14)
3.Un

The thermal stress depends on the duration and magnitude of the short circuit current, which decays from the maximum
value - the peak asymmetrical short-circuit current - to the steady-state value. The differences in short-circuits occurring
close to the generator are particularly marked. If the fault occurs at some long distance away, in which case the
generator reactance becomes insignificant in comparison with that of the rest of the system, the short-circuit current is
virtually constant; the only exception is the transient at the beginning of the short-circuit caused by the d.c. component.
The general formula for the calculation of the required conductor cross-sectional area is as follows:-

If . tf
A= eq. 41-2.16
c.ρ d
4,18 . [ (
. ln 1 + α. θ f − θi )]
ρ r .α

where:-
2
A = required cross-sectional area in mm
If = the assumed fault current in amps
tf = the duration of the fault current which is a characteristic of the protection scheme,
in seconds
c = specific heat capacity
-1 o -1
for Cu = 0,0925 cal g C
-1 o -1
for A1 = 0,217 cal g C
ρd = density
-3
for Cu = 8,9g cm
-3
for A1 = 2,7g cm
2 -1
ρr = resistivity in Ω mm m at temperature θi
= ρ20[1+α(θi-20)]
o
ρ20 = resistivity at 20 C
2 -1
for Cu = 0,0178 Ω mm m
2 -1
for A1 = 0,0286 Ω mm m
α = temperature coefficient of resistance
o -1
for Cu = 0,00353 C
o -1
for A1 = 0,00403 C
o
θi = initial temperature in C
o
θf = final maximum temperature in C

The necessary cross-sectional area of the conductor to be used is dependent upon the allowable current density in the
material, the duration of the fault, and the allowable temperature rise of the material. Eq. 41-2.16 may be generalized
as follows:-

It . tt 2
A = (mm ) eq. 41-2.17
k

where:

k = Coefficient of the material used. (See eq. 41-2.16)

c.ρ d
= 4,18 . [ (
. ln 1 + α. θ f − θi )]
ρr .α

The material coefficient k for the materials can also be calculated from the following relationship:

 θf + θk 
k = M . ln
  eq. 41-2.18
 θi + θk 

where:

M = material constant (from Table 3)

o
θf selected permissible final temperature in C (from Table 41-2.4)
o o o
θi initial temperature in C (20 C - 45 C depending on ambient conditions)
o
θk material constant in C (from Table 41-2.4)

Table 41-2.4: Material Constants

θk θt k
Material Constant M o o o
( C) ( C) (at 30 C ambient)
Copper 226 235 300 190
Copper (tinned or in lead 226 235 150 143
sheet)
Aluminium 148 228 300 126
Steel 78 (89) 202 300 68 (78)

If required, the allowable short circuit current density J can be calculated from the above as:-

If  k 2
J = =  (A/mm ) eq. 41-2.19
A  t

Example: Assume a 3φ symmetrical fault on a 400 kV system where the conductors are aluminium. The system short

circuit capacity S k
"
( )
is 20 MVA, and the protection is able to operate within 0,6 s.

From eq. 41-2.10:-

"
Sk
I "k(3) =
3 .Un

20000
=
3 .400
= 28,9 kA
126
J =
0,6
2
= 162,7 A/mm
28900
A =
162,7
2
≈ 178 mm

2
The aluminium conductor should therefore have a cross-sectional area of 178 mm or larger to prevent the temperature
from exceeding the allowable maximum temperature rise. It is usual to select a standard conductor size greater or
equal to the value calculated.

2.5 Corona Limits

The corona loss and H.F. interference from the corona depend on the maximum conductor surface gradient. For the
greatest possible freedom from interference, as is demanded for densely populated areas, the maximum surface
gradient must not exceed 13 - 16 kV / cm. The corona loss at these values is of no economic significance.

2.5.1 Calculation of the voltage gradient

2.5.1.1 The gradient at the surface for a single conductor system is given by:

Up - e max
E= (kV/cm) eq. 41-2.20
 2 .h 
rc . ln
 r 
 c 
where:-

Vp-e max = = Phase-to-ground voltage in kV

Un
=
3
h = Phase-to-ground height in cm
rc = radius of the conductor in cm

2.5.1.2 The gradient at the surface of a conductor for a three phase system is given by:

Un β
E= . eq. 41-2.21
3 a 2.h 
rc .ln . 
r 2 2
 e 4.h + a 

As stated above, gradient values of 13 - 16 kV / cm in a substation are usually acceptable values, i.e.

21,2 kV /cm = critical voltage gradient in air

19 kV / cm = maximum voltage gradient on line conductors
16 kV /cm = maximum gradient accepted in substations

The voltage gradient range may be obtained by:

a) conductors with a larger diameter

b) conductors arranged in bundles:-

− 2 conductors for 400 kV

− 3 or 4 conductors for 500 kV

− 4 conductors for 800 kV and so on.

Corona limit voltages for the proposed standard conductors at an altitude of 1800 m are as follows:-

Table 41-2.5: Corona Limit Voltages for Standard Conductors

2
1 x 150 mm : 132 kV
2
1 x 400 mm : 220 kV
2
1 x 800 mm : 330 kV
2
2 x 400 mm : 330 kV
2
2 x 800 mm : 400 kV

These limits fit in well with the system voltage currently in use.

Example:-

2
A 380 kV (Umax = 420 kV) yard has 4 x 560 / 50 mm SCA conductor strung at a height of 9,5 metres above the ground.
The conductor radius rc is 1,61 cm with the four conductors arranged at the four corners of a square with sides 10 cm. The
phase spacing is 5 metres. To calculate the conductor surface voltage gradient.

The conductor bundle arrangement:

5cm
10cm

5cm

10cm

Figure 41-2.1: Quad Conductor in a Square Configuration

aT
(i) r = (cm) eq. 41-2.22
T
2.sin
π 
 n 

where:-

rT = radius of the circle formed by the four conductors in cm

aT = the lengths of one side of the square formed by the four conductors in cm
n = number of conductors

10
r =
T π
2.sin
 4 
= 7,07
 cm→

r
c
1 + (n - 1).
r
T
(ii) β = eq. 41-2.23
n

where:-

β = a ratio

1,61
1 + (4 − 1).
7,07
β=
4
0,42
= →

(n - 1)
(iii) re = n n . rc . rT eq. 41-2.24

where:-

re = bundle equivalent radius in cm

4 (4 −1)
re = 4 . 1,61. 7,07

= 6,91
 cm
→

U β
(iv) E = . eq. 41-2.25
3 a 2.h 
rc .ln
r . 
2 2
 e 4.h + a 
where:-

a = phase spacing in cm

380 0,42
E= .
3  500 2.950 
1,61.ln . 
2 2
 6,91 4.950 + 500 
= 13,5 kV/cm

The calculated value lies within the acceptable range of 13 - 16 kV/cm, and is therefore a practical arrangement.

2.6 Conductor Materials

While copper conductors were used extensively in the past for substation busbars etc., cost, weight and availability
considerations have virtually eliminated copper in favour of aluminium.

2.7 Layout of Conductors

The layout of conductors vary from station to station and is dependent upon a large number of factors, however,
conductor phase spacing is relatively standardized. The conductor layout determines the distances between phases or
ground to phase which are necessary to be able to calculate the voltage gradient and the electrostatic dynamic
stresses.

3. EARTH-WIRES

For inland stations, galvanised steel earth-wires are very commonly used and are quite acceptable. It has, however,
been decided to standardise on an SCA conductor (Hare) for this purpose since:-

a) it has a lower resistance than a steel earthwire,

b) it is more flexible and easier to handle, and,

c) it is freely available since the proposed conductor is a size in common use on rural systems.

For coastal conditions, corrosion of the earthwire presents a problem and for these applications the proposed standard
is an aluminium-alloy conductor (Oak) having a high resistance to corrosion. The choice of “Oak” as the standard size
is based on two factors:-

a) It has very nearly the same diameter as "Hare" and hence the same size of clamp can be used.

b) "Oak" conductor has been purchased in relatively large quantities for transmission lines near the coast and is
thus relatively freely available. This is an important factor since aluminium-alloy conductors are not
manufactured in South Africa and have to be imported.

2
As an alternative to "Oak", a 100 mm copper conductor may be used for the earthwire on coastal substations, but as
the quantities involved are small it might be difficult to obtain.

5. CALCULATION OF SHORT CIRCUIT FORCES ON EQUIPMENT AND POST INSULATORS

5.1 Introduction

A number of programs have been developed for calculating the forces exerted on equipment by flexible and rigid
conductors carrying short circuit currents.

These programs are based on IEC Standard Publication 865 and reside with Transmission Substation Technology.

5.1.1 Short-circuit performance of flexible conductors between adjacent items of equipment.

Figure 41-2.2 illustrates a typical application of the “SEIL” program which calculates amongst other quantities, the short
circuit forces in flexible bus systems. It only considers the conductor between two attachment points and disregards any
counter balancing forces on the opposite sides of these attachment points. The program does not account for the
weight of any spacers or droppers down to the equipment, and is only valid for single and twin conductors. The program
also gives sag calculations for eight different temperatures.

T T

Insulators

Figure 41-2.2: Elevation of a Conductor Spanned Between Items of Equipment

Figure 41.2.3 shows the arrangement in plan. If we consider two spans of conductor, one can also estimate the
cantilever forces on the supporting post insulators as illustrated below.

yk
ℓ

α
Ft
½ℓ Ft
yk
ℓ
Fk
(yk)

Figure 41-2.3: Plan View

The worst case scenario is when equal forces, in the same direction, are exerted on both sides of the post insulator and
when the conductor is fixed to the insulator and not allowed to move. For small angles, one can approximate the angle
α) by eq. 41-2.26.
of conductor deviation (α

 2 . yk 
α = arctan  eq. 41-2.26
 l 
The horizontal cantilever force can then be calculated from eq. 41-2.26.

Fk = Ft . sin α eq. 41-2.27

Fk is the contribution to the total horizontal cantilever force from one side only. If the span length on both sides is equal,
than the total horizontal cantilever force is twice Fk. The insulators must be rated for dynamic forces, the insulator
strength usually taken as 1,2 times this calculated total cantilever force value.

5.1.1.1 Data input

The “SEIL” program is a Pascal menu driven program whose flow diagram is illustrated in Appendix ‘A’ of this document
and which requires the following information:-

a) Short Circuit : : Yes means that the short circuit forces in the conductor is required. No means
Yes or No that the sag values for a variety of temperatures are required.
2
b) Cond. Cross area : The effective cross-sectional area of the conductor in mm
(mm^2)
c) Cond Weight : The weight of the conductor in kg / cm
(kg / cm)
d) Cond. Diameter : The effective diameter of the conductor in mm
(mm)
2
e) Youngs Modules : Young’s modulus for the conductor material in N/mm
2
(N/mm )
f) Coincidence Temp : The confidence temperature is that temperature where the largest number of
o
( C) environmental forces, e.g. wind, may be exerted on the conductor at the time
o
of a fault. It is usually taken as 12 C.
g) Minimum Temp : The minimum temperature is that minimum ambient value expected in the
area under investigation and is also the temperature at which the maximum

allowable tension in the conductor takes place.

h) Ice : Yes : The weight of ice on the conductors needs to be taken into account.
Yes or No No : No ice formation on the conductors, therefore no additional weight
needs to be taken into account.
i) N-fact for ice load : A factor dependent upon environmental and site conditions where
1≤NF≤10. It’s value is almost always unity i.e. NF=1.
2
j) Wind pressure : The prevailing wind pressure in kPa or kN/m , for normal conditions this value
2
(kN/m ) is taken as unity.
k) Drag coefficient : For smooth tubular surfaces this value is normally taken as unity.
l) Static cable tension : This is the static tension in the conductor under normal operating conditions in
(N) Newtons.
m) Cable length : The span length between the two attachment points under consideration in
(cm) centimetres (cm).
n) No cond. / bundle : This can be either a single conductor, in which case the additional tension
caused due to bundle collapse does not have to be taken into account, or two
conductors which means that bundle collapse effect does have to be taken
into account.
o) Phase fault : The type of fault has to be specified i.e. single phase to earth (the value 1 is
entered), phase-to-phase fault (the value 2 is entered) or three phase
symmetrical fault (the value 3 entered). It is usual to use the value 3 for worst
case conditions.
p) Short circuit cur : The value of the three phase symmetrical fault.
(kA)
q) Phase Separation : The distance between the adjacent three phases in centimetres.
(cm)
r) Spring constant : If the value of the spring constant is not known, then it is usual to use the
value 100.
s) Term expan : A factor for thermal expansion Cu = 0,18 and Al & Al/St = 0,55. Al/St = 0,34 if
(mm4/ka2/s) ratio Al/ST areas < 6.
t) Do run : When selected, will run the program with the values entered as above.

5.1.1.2 Report on the results

The results are reported as follows:-

a) Temperature with corresponding forces & sags

Sag calculated without wind & ice load

T= Lowest expected ambient F= the maximum static tension (the Y= the sag calculated
temperature value entered under (l) of the at the lowest
previous section in Newtons. temperature in cm

T= highest expected F= the minimum static tension Y= the sag calculated

ambient temperature calculate from the information at the highest
provided in Newtons. temperature in
cm.

b) Swing force in cable : The maximum tension in the conductor during the conductor
(Ft) swing action under short circuit conditions in Newtons.

c) Force during cable fall : The maximum tension in the conductor reached when the
(Ff) conductor has dropped after the fault is removed by the
operation of the protection system.

d) Horizontal displacement : The maximum horizontal displacement of the phase conductor

(Yk) from its real position in centimetres.

e) Force on insulator : This is the maximum dynamic cantilever force exerted on the
two supporting structures at either end of the conductor spans
under consideration.

Short Circuit Forces in Flexible Bus Systems

5.1.1.3 Sag calculations at eight given temperatures

If the response to 5.1.1.1 (a), “Short circuit”, is No, this implies that a series of sag calculations are required, i.e. the
sags for eight discretely specified temperatures is required.

Table 41-2.6: Standard Substation Conductors - Stranded All-Aluminium for Busbars, Stringers, Droppers and Connections

Ref. Area Number and Nominal Mass per Max. Resist at Breaking Current Rating Corona limit at
o
Dia. Dia. km 20 C Strength (Amperes) 1800 m
of wires o o
(kV)
2) 75 C 90 C
(mm (mm) (mm) (kg) (ohms / km) (kN)
160 (Hornet) 19/3,25 16,25 433 0,182 25,3 365 470 132 (1xCond)
400 220 (1xCond)
37/3,78 26,46 1150 0,069 63,1 647 860
(Centipede) 330 (2xCond)
800 330 (1xCond)
61/4,26 38,34 2397 0,034 112,0 986 1353
(Bull) 400 (2xCond)

Table 41-2.7: Standard Earth-Wires and Earth-Mat Copper

100/18 6/4,72 SCA Conductor for stations more than 15

14,16 425 0,272 35,9
(Hare) 1/4,72 km from the coast.
Aluminium-alloy conductor for stations less
150 (Oak) 7/4,65 13,95 326 0,277 36,0
than 15 km from the coast
100 19/2,65 13,25 943 0,175 41,7 Alternative copper conductor

Table 41-2.8: Standard Earth-Mat Copper

o
Copper Rod 10 - 8 kA at 450 C -
o
Flat Copper 50 x 3,15 - 13,2 kA at 250 C -
o
Strap 4 x 3,15 - 10,5 kA at 250 C -

6. OVERHEAD CONDUCTORS ON A SLOPE

It sometimes occurs that the spans in a section of overhead strung conductor is on rapidly sloping ground and in many
instances, the supports are at considerably different levels. This makes the calculation of sags and tensions a little more
difficult, while the checking of the actual sag in practice is more complicated than on level ground.

The calculations are similar to similar to those used for support at the same level with the modification that the
calculations are done on the equivalent complete span length. Span lengths are always measured horizontally on the
survey. If, however, the slope of the ground is known, it is a fairly simple matter to determine the actual span length on
the slope from the horizontal span length and the ground slope.

The calculations are based on the parabolic formulae, and according to Watson, this is sufficiently accurate so long as
the tension ratio is greater than 2. If the tension ratio is less than 2, a correction factor should be applied.

The formula is based on the fact that a parabola span ℓ1 between supports has an equal sag in the same vertical plane
as a parabola formed by supports at different levels on the same span length ℓ.

The equation of the parabola is:-

2
y = k.x eq. 41-2.28

Referring to Figure 41-2.4:-

Letting S1 = sag and ℓ/2 half the span length

When x = , and y = S1, then from eq.41-2.28:-

2
l
S1 = k. 
2
2
k.l
=
4

4.S1
k= 2
eq. 41-2.29
l

Substituting eq. 41-2.29 into eq. 41-2.28:-

4.S1.x 2
y= eq. 41-2.30
l2

Slope of the parabola:-

dy 4.S1
= .2x
dx l2
eq. 41-2.31
8.S1
= .x
l2

h
The slope of the inclined parabola is :-
l

h 8.S1
∴ = .X eq. 41-2.32
l l2

h.l
∴X = eq. 41-2.33
8.S1

2
Y = k.X
2
.
4.S1 h.l 
= 
l2  1
8.S
(from eq. 41-2.28)
4.S1 h2 .l2
= .
l2 64.S12
h2
=
16.S1

Figure 41-2.4: Sag of a Flexible Conductor Having Differing Attachment Heights

The total sag on the equivalent complete span is:-

h
S= + S1 + Y eq. 41-2.34
2

Inserting the value of Y from above:-

h h2
S= + S1 +
2 16.S1
eq. 41-2.35
h 
. 1 +
h  + S1
= 
2  8.S1 

Letting ℓ1 = Equivalent complete span, then:-

l1 l
= +X eq. 41-2.36
2 2

Inserting the value of X from eq. 41-1.5b into eq. 41-1.8 above:-

l1 l h.l
= + eq. 41-2.37
2 2 8.S1

Calculating the sag

2
w.l
S1 = eq. 41-2.38
8.T

where:-

S1 = Sag of the conductor in metres (m)

T = Tension in the conductor in Newtons (N)
1
m = mass of the conductor in kilograms per metre (kg/m)

Substituting the value of S1 in eq.41-1.10 into eq. 41-1.9:-

. 2 
l1 l h.l 8.T
= +
2 2 8  w.l  eq. 41-2.39
l h.T
= +
2 w.l

Length of equivalent span is:-

2.h.T
l1 = l + eq. 41-2.40
w.l

Equation 12 is the formula generally used for calculating the length of the equivalent span length.

The distance from the lowest support to the lowest point of sag, a, is found as follows:-

2
l .w − 2.h.T
a= eq. 41-2.41
2.l.w

If the value of “a” is negative, the lowest point of the sag is outside the actual span length.

Example:

Two substation gantries are positioned 40m apart, one at a height of 6m above a given reference point, whilst the other
is at a height of 2m above the same reference point. The conductors strung between the two portals comprises twin Bull
per phase, installed with a tension of 18kN per phase which is the maximum the beam is designed for.

1
Given: ℓ = 40m, hupper = 6m, hlower = 2m, T = 18kN/phase. From tables, m Bull = 2,391kg/m

Difference in height of the two gantries h = hupper - hlower = 6 – 2 = 4m

The tension per conductor T = 18000/2 = 9000 N/conductor

The sag of one of the conductors is given as:-

2
w.l
S1 =
8.T
 2,391.402 
=   (from eq. 41-2.38)
 8.9000 .1000
 
= 53mm

h h 
. 1 +
S=
2 
 + S1
8.S1 

= . 1 +
4 4 
2  8.53 
 + 53 (from eq. 41-2.35)

= 108mm

The length of the Equivalent Span ℓ1:-

2.h.T
l1 = l +
w.l
2.4.9000
= 40 + (from eq. 41-2.40)
2,391.40
= 792,82m

Mid-span on the Equivalent span:-

l1
1 l1
2 =
2
792,82
=
2
= 396,41m

Determining the value a:

2
l .w − 2.h.T
a=
2.l.w
2
40 .2,391 − 2.4.9000
= (from eq. 41-2.41)
2.40.2,391
= −356,41m

The negative value of “a” implies that the lowest point of the sag is outside the actual span length on the side of the
lower gantry as shown in Figure 41-2.5. The actual lowest point on the conductor is therefore the lower attachment
point.

ℓ1 = 792,82m
½.ℓ1 = 396,41m ½ℓ1 = 396,41m
ℓ = 40m

h/2

h = 4m
S = 108mm

Actual Lowest
S1 = 53mm

Theoretical Lowest Point of Conductor

Point of Sag

Y = 0,019m
X = 0,3777m
a = 356,41m ℓ = 40m

Figure 41-2.5: Sag of a Flexible Conductor Having Differing Attachment Heights

APPENDIX ‘A’

SEIL PROGRAMME FOR FLEXIBLE CONDUCTOR

APPENDIX ‘A’

SLDG 41 – 2 APPENDIX A

ALL-ALUMINIUM CONDUCTORS

1. STANDARD CONDUCTORS

Tables’ 41-2A.1 and 41-2A.2 give details of the standard conductors laid down by BS 215 and SABS 128 respectively.

Table 41-2A.1: Standard Aluminium Conductors to BS 215

Reference Area Number and Nominal Mass Max. Breaking Current Rating
2
mm Diameter of Diameter Per Km Resistance Strength (Amperes)
o o o
(Old Code Ref) Wires at 20 C 75 C 90 C
(mm) (mm) (kg) (Ohms/km) (kN)
22 (Midge) 7/2,06 6,18 64 1,227 4,0 116 143
40 (Mosquito) 7/2,59 7,77 101 0,774 6,3 153 190
60 (Fly) 7/3,40 10,21 174 0,449 9,9 212 267
100 (Wasp) 7/4,39 13,17 290 0,269 16,0 288 367
150 (Hornet) 19/3,25 16,25 433 0,182 25,3 365 470
250 (Cockroach) 19/4,22 21,10 730 0,108 50,5 497 650
400 (Centipede) 37/3,78 26,46 1150 0,069 63,1 647 860
500 (Scorpion) 37/4,27 29,90 1463 0,045 72,2 745 1000
600 (Cicada) 37/4,65 32,54 1735 0,046 90,4 824 1114
800 (Bull) 61/4,26 38,34 2397 0,034 122,0 986 1353

Notes:-
o
1. Temperature coefficient of resistance = 0,00403 per C

[
Rt2 = Rt1. 1 + 0,00403. t2 − t1 ( )] eq. 41-2A.1

2. Current rating equations

0,448
o 0,2655.d - 0,0212.d
I (75 C) = o 5
eq. 41-2A.2
R(at 20 C). 1,22165 . 10

0,448
o 0,379.d - 0,0273.d
I (90 C) = o 5
eq. 41-2A.3
R(at 20 C).1,2821 . 10

Table 41-2A.2: Standard Aluminium Conductors to SABS 182

Reference Area Number and Nominal Mass Max. Breaking Current

2
mm Diameter of Dia. Per Km Resistance Strength Rating
o
(Old Code Ref) Wires at 20 C Amperes
o o
(mm) (mm) (kg) (Ohms/km) (kN) 75 C 90 C
25 (Midge) 7/2,12 6,36 68 1,187 4,1 118 146
40 (Mosquito) 7/2,65 7,95 106 0,756 6,1 155 194
63 (Fly) 7/3,35 10,05 169 0,473 9,3 206 259
100(Wasp) 7/4,25 12,75 272 0,294 14,6 273 348
160 (Hornet) 19/3,35 16,75 461 0,175 24,7 371 478
250 Cockroach 19/4,25 22,25 742 0,108 38,8 495 649
400 (Centipede) 37/3,75 26,25 1127 0,072 59,6 634 842
500 (Scorpion) 37/4,25 29,75 1447 0,056 75,6 712 940
630 (Cicada) 61/3,75 33,75 1862 0,044 96,0 849 1152
800 (Bull) 61/4,25 38,25 2391 0,034 121,8 985 1350

Notes:-

1. The reference area in square millimetres is the nominal Renard-Series area which is closest to the actual area of
aluminium.

2. REFERENCES

2.1 BS 215: Aluminium Conductors and Aluminium conductors, steel reinforced. Part 1: Aluminium stranded conductors

2.2 SABS 182: Conductors for overhead electrical transmission lines Part 2: Stranded Aluminium conductors

Figure 41-2A.2: Thermally Limited Short-Circuit Currents in Bare Aluminium Conductors

SLDG 41 – 2 APPENDIX B

ALUMINIUM ALLOY CONDUCTORS

1. STANDARD CONDUCTORS

Standard Aluminium-alloy conductors to B.S. 3242 are given in Table 41-2B.1. This type of conductor is
recommended for use in coastal areas because of its resistance to corrosion and it is proposed that the 0.1 sw. in.
conductor (Oak) be adopted as a standard for earth-wires at substations located within 15 km of the coast.

These conductors are not manufactured locally. They can be obtained from Canada under the trade name "ARVIDAL"
or from Switzerland under the name "ALDRAY".

Table 41-2B.1: Standard Aluminium-Alloy Conductors to B.S. 3242

Copper Code Number Nominal Mass Resist. At Min Breaking Current

o
Equiv. Area Word and Dia. of Diameter per mile 20 C Rating Amps
o o
(Sq. mm) wires (ins) (ins) (lbs.) (Ohms / Strength (lbs) 75 C 90 C
mile)
0.015 Box 7/.073 0.129 183 2.774 1290 97 119
0.020 Acacia 7/.082 0.246 231 2.198 1625 111 137
0.025 Almond 7/.092 0.276 291 1.746 2045 127 159
0.030 Cedar 7/.100 0.300 344 1.478 2420 141 176
0.040 Fir 7/.116 0.348 463 1.098 3255 168 212
0.050 Hazel 7/.130 0.390 580 0.875 4085 193 244
0.060 Pine 7/.142 0.426 693 0.733 4880 215 272
0.075 Willow 7/159 0.477 869 0.585 6115 246 313
0.100 Oak 7/.183 0.549 1150 0.441 8100 291 374
0.125 Mulberry 19/.125 0.625 1464 0.350 10260 334 434
0.150 Ash 19/.137 0.685 1759 0.292 12320 373 486
0.175 Elm 19/.148 0.740 2053 0.250 14380 410 535
0.200 Poplar 37/.113 0.791 2344 0.221 16330 442 579
0.250 Sycamore 37/.127 0.889 2961 0.175 20600 505 666
0.300 Upas 37/.139 0.973 3547 0.146 24700 563 746
0.400 Yew 37/.160 1.120 4700 0.110 32700 662 886
o
Temperature coefficient of resistance = 0,00353 per C

2. REFERENCES

2.1 B.S. 3242: 1960

SLDG 41 – 2 APPENDIX C

S.C.A. CONDUCTORS

2. STANDARD CONDUCTORS

Tables’ 41-2C.1 and 41-2C.2 gives details of the standard BS 215 and SABS 182 conductors respectively. The latter
are included for information only. Eskom have now adopted BS 215 conductors as the standard, mainly because
existing compression tools are based on this standard and because of the danger of these tools being inadvertently
used on SABS conductors.

Data on SCA conductors is included in the Design Guide to enable suitable clamps to be selected from the droppers to
transmission lines.

2
It is proposed that the 100 mm (Hare) conductor be adopted as a standard for earth wires at substation located more
than, say, 15 km from the coast.

Table 41-2C.1: SCA Conductors to BS 215

Reference Area Number and Nominal Mass Minimum Minimum Current Rating
Amperes
Al/steel Diameter of Diameter per km resistance at Breaking
2 o o o
mm wires 20 C Strength 75 C 90 C
(Old Code name) Al/steel (Al only
(mm) (mm) (kg) ohms/km) (kN)
25/4,5 (Gopher) 6/1/2,36 7,08 106 1,089 9,6 126 157
40/70 (Fox) 6/1/2,79 8,37 149 0,778 12,9 155 193
50/90 (Rabbit) 6/1/3,35 10,05 214 0,540 18,4 192 243
63/11 (Mink) 6/1/3,66 10,98 255 0,454 21,6 214 265
100/18 (Hare) 6/1/4,72 14,16 425 0,2722 35,9 290 372
160/40 (Wolf) 30/7/2,59 18,13 728 0,1831 67,4 371 482
250/40 (Bear) 30/7/3,35 23,45 1219 0,1093 111,0 504 665
400/50 (Zebra) 54/7/3,18 28,62 1619 0,06773 129,0 664 888
500/60 (Camel) 54/7/3,35 30,15 1805 0,06076 144,6 707 950
630/75 (Dinosaur) 54/3,95 35,56 2486 0,043 204,9 865 1179
19/2,37

o
Temperature coefficient of resistance for aluminium = 0,00403 per C

Table 41-2c.2: SCA Conductors to SABS 182

Reference Area Number and Nominal Mass Minimum Min. Current Rating
Al/steel Diameter of Diameter per km resistance at Breaking Amperes
2 o
mm wires 20 C Strength o o
75 C 90 C
(Old Code name) Al/steel (Al only
(mm) (mm) (kg) ohms/km) (kN)
25/4,5 (Gopher 6/1/2,36 7,08 106 1,117 9,6 125 155
40/70 (Fox) 6/1/3,00 9,00 172 0,690 15,2 166 209
50/90 (Rabbit) 6/1/3,35 10,05 214 0,554 18,4 190 239
63/11 (Mink) 6/1/3,75 11,25 268 0,442 22,9 218 276
100/18 (Hare) 6/1/4,75 14,25 430 0,275 36,5 289 370
160/40 (Wolf) 30/7/2,65 18,55 760 0,178 72,5 378 491
250/40 30/7/3,35 23,45 1214 0,111 111,4 498 658
(Bear)
400/50 54/7/3,00 27,00 1443 0,077 128,6 615 820
(Zebra)
500/60 54/7/3,35 30,15 1799 0,062 146,2 699 940
(Camel)
630/75 54/3,75 33,70 2238 0,049 184,4 799 1083
(Dinosaur) 19/2,24
o
Temperature Coefficient of resistance for aluminium = 0,00403 per C

2.2 Alcon catalogue of B.S. conductor details

2.3 SABS 182: Conductors for overhead electrical transmission lines Part 3: Aluminium conductors, steel reinforced

SLDG 41-3

DIMENSIIONING TUBULAR CONDUCTORS FOR MECHANICAL STRENGTH

1. INTRODUCTION

The cost of land, the sensitivity of the environment to construction, and a host of other techno-economic and social
pressures are requiring new compact designs for outdoor air insulated (AIS) substations. They are to become more
compact, without introducing additional operational risks, and at the same time producing the same or improved
reliability of supply. In addition to this, greater demands are being placed on utilities to provide substations with larger
busbar capacities to service electrical corridors with higher power densities. Of late, this has become the general trend,
where existing Eskom substations are being required to service larger electrical loads due to the absence of suitably
sized plots of land and power corridors to costruct additional infrastructure. This new requirement has highlighted the
limitations of bundled flexible conductors where many of Eskoms Main Transmission Substations with bundled flexible
conductor busbars requiring upgrading to larger numbers of conductors per bundle. In most cases additional support
steelwork is required to limit the sag of the conductor phases as a result of the limitations in the strain forces that can be
exerted on existing busbar strain portals leading to lower tensions per bundle conductor. In many instances, this is
impractical due to the limited time that is available for substation outages. It takes several days to “drop” a busbar and to
restring it with a larger number of flexible conductors per phase bundle.

In the past, the standards used by Eskom in the design of busbar systems were based on phase-to-earth and phase-to-
phase clearances calculated using a deterministic approach, i.e. an approach that assumes that all the factors that may
contribute to the conditions that could occur at the time of a fault, all occurred at the same time. Strung flexible
conductor busbar systems are particularly problematic in this regard due to the excessive horizontal conductor
displacement that takes place as a result of conductor swing under fault conditions. The deterministic approach leads to
electrical clearances that are very large which, coupled with the excessive conductor swing, require phase-to-structure
and phase-conductor separation distances that may be possible for a particular site. This is of particular concern at the
EHV (400kV) and UHV (765kV) voltage levels.

One also needs to consider the “skin effect” influences on the current distribution within an electrical conductor. The
outer conductor layers of a stranded conductor, conduct higher currents than the inside ones and consequently the
theoretical conductancy of the material is not utilized to its full potential.

The conduction current density is given by:-

− z' π .f.µ . σ
J x = σ .E x0 .e eq. 41-3.1

Considering the exponential term, an exponential decrease in the conduction current density and electric field intensity
with penetration into the conductor occurs. At the surface of the conductor, i.e. z′ = 0 therefore,

− z' π .f. µ .σ
e = 1 , i.e. the exponential factor is unity. eq. 41-3.2

1
When z' = then, eq. 41-3.3
π.f.µ.σ

− z' π .f.µ . σ -1
e =e
, i.e. the exponential factor is unity. eq. 41-3.4
= 0,368

This distance is termed the the depth of penetration or skin depth and is denoted by δs.

1
δs =
π.f.µ.σ
eq. 41-3.5
1
=
α'

and

µ = µr. µ0 eq. 41-3.6

where:-

f = system frequency
-1
σ = conductivity per unit lenth in Ω / m
α′ = attenuation constant in Np/m
µ = permeability of material
-7
µ0 = permeability of free space (4π.10 H/m)
µr = relative permeability of material

Table 41-3.1: Representative Metallic Electical Parameters

Material Specific Conductivity Relative Permeability

-1
σ] (Ω / m)
[σ µr
7
Aluminium 3,82.10 1,00000065
7
Copper 5,8.10 0,99631

1.1 Considering Some Metallic Conductors

1.1.1 Aluminium Conductors

-7
µAl = 1,00000065. 4π.10
-6
= 1,2566.10 H/m

1
δsAl = (from eq. 41-3.5)
-6 7
π . 50 . 1,2566.10 . 3,82.10

= 11,5mm

1.1.2 Considering Copper Conductors

-7
µCu = 0,9963.4π.10
-6
= 1,2520.10 H/m

δscu = 1 (from eq. 41-3.5)

π . 50 . 1,2520.10 - 6 . 5,8.10 7

= 9,4mm
2
At power frequency (50 Hz) therefore, δsAl = 11,5mm and δscu = 9,35 mm. Power density (W/m ) carries an exponential
-2αz 2
term e . The power density is then multiplied by a factor of 0,368 = 0,135 for every 11,5mm of distance into
aluminium and 9,35 mm of distance into the copper, the power density.

Therefore, any current density or electric field intensity established at the surface of a good conductor, decays rapidly as
one progresses into the conductor. Electromagnetic energy is not transmitted in the interior of a conductor; it travels in
the region surrounding the conductor, while the conductor merely guides the waves. The currents established at the
conductor surface propagate into the conductor in a direction perpendicular to the direction of the current density, and
they are attenuated by ohmic losses. This power loss is the price exacted by the conductor for acting as a guide. The
tubular shape of the conductor makes this profile a very efficient one as far as current distribution in the material is
concerned, i.e. as a tube, compared to the diameter, has relatively low wall thickness, the differences in the currents
between the material zones located on the inside and outside are small. Tubular conductors are therefore far more
efficient transmitters of electrical power at power frequency than stranded flexible conductors.

When considering all the above together with the fact that the “skin” effect phenomenon inherent in a.c. systems
contributes to lowered effective use of the “solid” flexible conductors, and, that the volume of concrete and steel
necessary to realise the infrastructure required to support the larger numbers of conductors per bundle, increases
exponentially making this design philosophy techno-economically inefficient. This has prompted the author to
concentrate on the alternative conductor configuration of using tubular conductor and associated support systems that
would lead to more efficient use of materials and also make it possible to upgrade existing strung flexible conductor
busbar systems as required by the increasing demand for power in a manner that will result in shorter “outages” being
required.

The use of rigid conductors for busbars is widely employed in modern HV and EHV outdoor air insulated substations
(AIS). The “structure” must, however, have enough strength to withstand the significant mechanical stresses that
develop due to wind and ice loadings, Aeolian vibration and mechanical forces as a result of the short circuit currents
that may occur on, or near the busbar system. These stresses are imposed on the tubular conductors and the
supporting structures, composed of insulators and substructures (steelwork supports and support foundations). The
mechanical requirements to ensure the strength in the tubular conductors inherently leads to a conductor with a high
current carrying capacity. The mechanical stresses on equipment is lower with tubular conductors and with a short-
circuit they do not clench together and tear at the armature fittings, as is the case with stranded flexible conductors
connected in parallel where bundle collapse occurs. The rigidity of the tubular conductors also offers an opportunity for
smaller portal clearances due to smaller conductor deflections under fault conditions and due to its own weight.

The corona and thermal performance of tubular conductors is inherently better than that of bundled flexible conductors
due to the larger surface areas that are available, leading to lower voltage gradients and and lower running
temperatures respectively.

Experiences gained to date have also resulted in a particularly unlimited longevity of aluminium tubes independent of
location or environmental conditions. The tubes require neither anodising nor a coat of paint as their natural oxide film
has proven to be a sufficient protection against corrosion.

To sum up the problem, substation designers are constantly under pressure to provide cost effective substation designs
that meet both the technical requirements, and have low visual impact on the environment. Within this framework, the
rigid tubular conductor bus structure comes into its own right for compactness, low visual profile and cost. Since this
document is an application design guide, only the results of a comparative cost profile between overhead strung flexible
conductor busbars and a chosen tubular busbar arrangement is given and is essentially summarised in Figure 41-3.1.

1,3 Flexible Conductor

(1,21)
1,2
(1,16)
1,1 0,21
0,16 (or 16%) (or 21%)
(1,04) 0,10 (or 10%)
1,0
0,04 (or 4%)
Cost of Construction [Normalised]

0,9 Tubular Conductor

Theoretical
0,8
Break Even Point
0,7

0,6

0,5

0,4

0,3

0,2

0,1

0 1000 (1400) 2000 3000 4000 5000

2150 5400 4300 5400
1075 3xBull
2xBull 1xØ150mm x 1xØ200mm x
1xBull
8mmWT tube 8mmWT tube
o
Busbar Current Capacity [In] (A) @ 85 C & 4xBull & 5xBull

Figure41-3.1: Cost of Construction [Normalised] vs Busbar Current Capacity (Ampacity) [In] (A)
(Cost of the 1xØ200mm x 8mmWT tubular conductor system used as the base value

2. BACKGROUND

Cigré Working Group 23 parametric studies determined that there are a number of criteria that influences the dynamic
stressing of conductors and insulators. These are as follows:-

• mechanical resonances (see section 10 of this document)

• damping (see section 1 of this document)

• boundary conditions for the ends of the conductors (see section 10 of this document)

• the time patterns of electromagnetic forces, the worst case being the centre phase of a three phase system (see
below)

Centre phase (b)

 
1 1 3  
F b(t) =F sc . 1ƒ 0 + ƒ 2 ω(t) + ƒ ω(t) + ƒ 
2 424 3 g(t)
steady state 1424 3
 decaying 
1
=F sc .ƒ b(t) eq. 41-3.7
1 2
= 0,866.F sc . κ

where:-
1
F b(t) = Force per unit length on the centre phase in N/m
1
F sc = Reference force per unit length N/m
ƒ0 = Constant term (arithmetic mean of ƒ (t) in steady state)
ƒ 2 ω (t) = Undamped oscillation at double the electrical frequency
ƒ ω (t) = L
Oscillation with electrical frequency, decaying with τ ƒ =
R
ƒ g(t) = τƒ
Exponential term decaying with
2
κ = Kappa factor

Outer phases (a and c)

 
1 1 1 3 + 2. 3  
F a(t) = F c(t) = F sc .  ƒ 0 + ƒ 2ω(t) + ƒ ω(t) + ƒ g(t) 
2  1424 3 14243 
steady state decaying 
1
=F sc .ƒ a/c(t) eq. 41-3.8
1 2
= 0,808.F sc . κ

where:-

1
F a(t) = Force per unit length on the outer phase a in N/m

1
F c(t) = Force per unit length on the outer phase c in N/m

• short circuit duration

• supports

• number of conductor spans where the conductor is either supported freely or clamped along the continuous length
of conductor (see section 10 of this document )

• unsuccessful auto-reclosure (see section 12 of this document)

3
2,825

2
Stationary
ƒ2ω,ƒ0 = 0
ƒb = 0

1
0,866

-1

Figure 41-3.2: Worst Case Curve of Electromagnetic Force on Centre Conductor (b) Related To Isc When X/R =
15 under Three Phase Short Circuit

3
2,636

2
ƒa ,ƒc = 0

0,433
1
0,808

0,375 = ƒ0
0

Figure 41-3.3: Worst Case Curve of Electromagnetic Forces on Outer Conductors (a and c) Related To Isc When
X/R = 15 under Three Phase Short Circuit

3
2,447

0,375
ƒ2 = 0

1
0,750

0,375 = ƒ0
0

-
Figure 41-3.4: Worst Case Curve of Electromagnetic Force on Two Conductors Related To Isc When X/R = 15
under Phase-to-Phase Short Circuit

For further explanation on time patterns of forces, the reader is referred to the two refences provided above, viz. “The
Mechanical Effects of Short Circuit Currents in Open Air Substations” and “Dynamic Short-Circuit Stress of Busbars-
Structures with Stiff Conductors”

Figure 41-3.6 is a Spot Plot which provides a visual result of electric field strength at various locations within a 765kV
HV yard. One can immediately determine the areas of concerns by visual inspection.

The “RESULTS” arisng out of applying the methodology forms an integral part of the design guide and combined with
the discussion within the main text in which the results are analysed and justified.

Figure 41-3.5: A Typical Result from a CDEGS Programme Simulation

Figure 41-3.6: A Typical Spot Plot from a CDEGS Programme Simulation

The process that is followed for each of the components of the tubular bus system, viz. tubular conductor (maximum
stress and maximum deflection) and support insulators can by-enlarge be categorised into the following order:

• Reference calculation

• Static condition

• Dynamic condition

• Dynamic condition with auto-re-close

• Combined static and dynamic forces

• Safety factor

• Test for limits

The behaviour of the tubular busbar system under static and dynamic conditions is dependent upon a number of factors.
These factors, one of which is the type of support system employed (boundary condition) will be presented and
discussed in turn under different chapters. The order in which these are discussed is an attempt to provide a logical and
understandable presentation of the subject concerned. In order to provide the reader with a brief insight into what is to
follow, brief descriptions are given:-

2.1 The Length of the Bus Tubing

The length of the bus tubing that is employed is dependent upon:

2.1.1 The boundary conditions of the busbar system employed, i.e. the support system employed at the ends of each
bus tube (both ends freely supported, one end freely supported + one end fixed, both ends fixed)

2.1.2 The minimum allowable phase-to-earth and phase-to-phase clearances between items of equipment in a three-
phase system

2.1.3 The maximum allowable sag of the bus tubing

2.1.4 Bus tubing outer diameter and wall thickness

2.1.5 The maximum allowable stress in the tube under extreme dynamic conditions - mechanical characteristics of the
material (the alloy employed) such as the 0,2% Proof Stress

2.1.6 The maximum horizontal deflection of the bus tubing – required to calculate the phase-to-phase clearance
between bus ducting and ensure that minimum values are not infringed.

2.2 Strength of the Support Insulators

2.2.1 The boundary conditions of the busbar system employed, i.e. the support system employed at the ends of each
bus tube (both ends freely supported, one end freely supported + one end fixed, both ends fixed)

2.2.2 The minimum allowable phase-to-earth and phase-to-phase clearances between items of equipment in a three-
phase system

2.2.3 The maximum allowable sag of the bus tubing

The required strength of the support insulators that are to be employed:

2.2.4 The maximum allowable dynamic force for a given guaranteed static strength

2.2.5 The maximum allowable bending moment at the base of the insulator

2.2.6 The maximum allowable torsion on the head of the insulator

2.3 Conductor Heights

The required conductor heights that are to be employed:

2.3.1 The minimum allowable height of a phase conductor to ensure there is no corona

2.3.2 The minimum allowable height of the three phase conductors to ensure that the electric and magnetic field
strengths at 1,8m above ground level do not exceed accepted values in working and public areas

2.4 Summary of Design Process in the Selection of Rigid Tubular Conductors

The rigid bus design process is detailed in ANSI/IEEE Standard 605 “IEEE Guide for Design of Substation Rigid Bus
Structures” [9]. The steps in this process are repeated below for reference:

2.4.1 Establish design requirement and bus arrangement

2.4.2 Select bus conductor shape (generally circular) and material (generally aluminium)

2.4.3 Establish minimum bus size based on ampacity and corona

2.4.4 Select trial conductor size

2.4.5 Establish need for damping and select damper type and size

2.4.6 Calculate total gravitational force

2.4.7 Calculate conductor wind force

2.4.8 Calculate conductor short-circuit force

2.4.9 Calculate resultant (total vector sum) force (FR) on conductor

2.4.10 Location of bus support fittings (i.e. slip, rigid, and expansion fittings)

2.4.11 Calculate maximum span (Ld) based on deflection

2.4.12 Calculate maximum span (Ls) based on material 0,2 % proof stress

2.4.13 Select maximum span equal to (Ld) or (Ls), whichever is the lesser

2.4.14 Calculate total insulator cantilever load

2.4.15 Select insulator strength required based on multiplying the cantilever load multiplied by the appropriate safety
factor

2.4.16 Thermal expansion and capacity considerations

2.4.17 Analyse the continuous spans for calculated loading as a final design (with torsion)

2.4.18 Determine locations of welded couplings if these are required to join tubes to make up the full span

2.4.19 Analyse steelwork structures (see SLDG 21-1)

2.4.20 Analyse support foundations (see SLDG 16-1)

Figure 41-3.7 is a high level flow diagram produced to illustrate the design process described above. It essentially
summarises the process into a much condensed form and was produced by the author and to conform in the order that
the subject is presented in this work.

2.5 Rigid Bus Design is an Iterative Process

If the calculations indicate that the conductor chosen will not to be suitable, then a number of options are available. By
changing the variables one at a time or combinations thereof will eventually provide the best techno-economic solution.
The variables are as follows:-

• Conductor span length

• Conductor phase spacing

• Conductor size

• Conductor shape

• Conductor material (alloys)

• Conductor height - Although theoretically speaking, the height of the conductor is a design variable in the choice of
a tubular conductor, the conductor is normally sized for mechanical strength, i.e. to withstand short circuit, wind
and ice loadings on it. This generally results in a bus tube that is oversized for electrical purposes, both in terms of
current carrying capacity and corona performance. Although it is necessary to check it, the surface voltage
gradient on the tube is in virtually all practical cases, an order of magnitude lower than the corona inception value.
This is clearly demonstrated in the example given under paragraph 15.2.2.1.

Start Stored Data

LIWL, SIWL, Ce, Cp, E, αA,αB,
γ, αTH, Rp0,2
Input Data

Thermal Expansion Considerations

Electrical Bay Width For Bus Tubing: ∆L, D
Span Length Bus Tubing: L Test: ∆L ≤ D No
Wb=Wbs+3.deq+2.(Ce+Cp) Reduce Span Length: L
Yes
Bus Tubing to Meet Ampacity Electric Field Strength
Choice of Bus Tubing: dbo, t Equipment Conductor Height: he=hi+hs
At 1,8m above Ground: E1,8
Test: E1,8 ≤ 10 No Increase hc

Static Forces Yes

Weight of Bus Tubing: wb
Corona
Weight of Ice on Bus Tubing: wi
Inception Level: Ec
Wind Force: Fw1
Conductor Calculated Value: Ee
Test No Increase:
Ee < Ec No Phase Spacing: sp
Boundary Condition Substation Conductor Heights Eq Conductor Height: hc
Choice Busbar : hc=he+Cp
Stringer : hst=hb+Cp

Reference Force Yes

F1sc
Finish

Kappa Factor
κ
Force on PI
Static: FA(PI)st, FB(PI)st
Peak Forces Dynamic: FA(PI)dyn, FB(PI)dyn
F1L2p Dynamic Force + ARC: FA(PI)dyn+ARC, FB(PI)dyn+ARC

Dynamic Factors
Fc/f, VF, Vσ,Vr Bending Moment on PI Deflection of Conductor
Force on PI MA(PI), MB(PI) No Static Deflection: yc
Resultant FRA(PI), FRB(PI) Test: yc≤½dbo
Max Force on PI with SF=1,2 No Maximum: ymax
Resultant Force on
FRA(PI)max, FRB(PI)max Test: Cp≤a-2.ymax-dbo
Conductor Max Bending Moment on PI
FR( σ) Support
MA(PI), MB(PI) Yes

Stress in Conductor
Static σst
Dynamic σdyn
Dynamic Force+ARC σdyn+ARC Finish

Figure 41-3.7: High Level Process Flow Diagram forDimensioning Post Insulators and Bus Tubes

2.6 Design Criteria and Bus Arrangement

• Bus current carrying capacity (ampacity)

• Maximum expected three phase rms symmetrical short circuit current. This is the ultimate long term value
expected at the substation.

• Maximum operating voltage.

• Insulator BIL rating.

• Maximum anticipated wind speed (extreme wind).

• Maximum expected icing condition combined with wind.

• Altitude of the substation (if greater than 900m).

• Basic substation layout (rigid bus arrangement).

• Seismic design conditions if substation is located in an area of seismic activity. Seismic considerations and their
impact on the design of substations have not been taken into account in this dissertation due to their complex
nature. It would require a dissertation on its own to deal with all the issues satisfactorily. Suffice it to say that a
supported busbar system as is covered in this text needs drastic measures to be taken, and it would be better to
suspend tubular conductors.

2.7 Selection of Bus Conductor Shape and Material

For high voltage and extra high voltage substations, seamless, round, aluminium bus tubing should be used. IEC
standard tube sizes of various specified grades.

3. DETERMINATION OF THE APPROPRIATE SPAN OF BUS TUBING – EQUIPMENT BAY WIDTH

Objectives of this Chapter:

• Determine equipment horizontal phase-phase spacing (sp) based on the conductor-conductor and rod-to-conductor
electrical clearance dependent upon the type of equipment employed

• Determine equipment phase-earth spacing (se) based on the conductor-structure and live rod-to-structure electrical
clearance dependent upon the type of equipment employed

• Determine the appropriate bay width for the equipment bay and so the appropriate length of bus tubing (Wb)

In most cases, the items of equipment that are close to or under the busbars are the bus selection isolators. For Um ≤
145kV, where single busbars are used in small distribution type substations, the bay width is dictated by a conventional
isolator. However, if double busbars are to employed, in-line isolators are a far cheaper alternative to pantograph that
are cost effective only above these voltages.

3.1 Bay Width Dictated by Pantograph Type Isolators for Substation System Voltages for Um > 145kV

As a first step in determining the bay width, we make a basic assumption that all components are essentially rigid. The
bay width in its most elementary form is then given by:

Wb = ½.dbs + Cpe + deqB + Cpp + deqW + Cpp + deqR + Cpe + ½.dbs

= dbs + deqB + deqW + deqR + 2(Cpe + Cpp) + Cpp eq. 41-3.9

where:-

Wb = Bay width in mm
dbs = Width of the busbar support structure in mm
deqB,W,R = Width of the live part of the item of equipment on the blue, white and red phases respectively

dbs Cpe deqB Cpp deqW Cpp deqR Cpe dbs

Blue White Red

Phase Phase Phase
Equipment Equipment Equipment

Busbar Busbar
Supports Supports
Equipment Bay Width

Figure 41-3.8: Bay Width Dictated by Pantograph Type Isolators for Substation System Voltages for Um ≤ 145kV

The equipment on the three phases is usually identical, then:

Wb = dbs + 3.d eq + 2.(Cpe + Cpp ) eq. 41-3.10

If it is possible to reduce these clearances, then it is possible reduce the bay widths, that in turn reduces the lengths of
the busbar conductor.

In the case where items of equipment with moving live parts are located side by side (eg. Isolators) or close to earthed
structures (see Figure 41-3.8 above and 41-3.9 below), the position of these live parts relative to one another and
earthed parts, need to be taken into account when dimensioning.

3.2 Bay Width Dictated by In-line Type Isolators for Substation System Voltages Um ≤ 145kV

Substation bay widths for system voltages Um ≤ 145kV are generally dictated by In-line type Isolators used for busbar
o
selection. These are a variation on conventional isolators where the isolating unit of each phase is turned through 90 ,
requiring the bay width to be somewhat larger than normal. In addition, when multi-conductor bundles are used to
interconnect items of primary plant, it is necessary to take the bundle dimensions into account as well, i.e. the diameter
of the conductors making up the bundle and the width of the bundle.

Wb = dbs + 3.d eq + 6.(dc + dbn ) + 2.(Cpe + Cpp ) eq. 41-3.11

where:-

Wb = Bay width in mm
dc = Diameter of each of the conductors in the bundle in mm
dbn = Width of the conductor bundle in mm

The purpose of this discussion therefore, is to alert the reader to the implications of the positioning of energised air
insulated primary equipment. Excessive bay width dimensions could possibly be avoided by repositioning such
equipment away from earthed structures.

Once the bay width has been established, this then determines the length of the tubular bus conductor which is
effectively also equal to the bay width (ℓ = Wb)

dbs Cpe dbn deqB dbn Cpp dbn deqW dbn Cpp dbn deqW dbn Cpe dbs

… … … … … …

Se Sp Sp Se

Blue White Red

Phase Phase Phase
Equipment Equipment Equipment

Busbar Busbar
Supports Equipment Bay Width
Supports
ℓ= Wb

Figure 41-3.9: Bay Width Dictated by In-line Type Isolators for Substation System Voltages Um ≤ 145kV

4. DIMENSIONING OF BUS TUBING BASED ON CURRENT CARRYING CAPACITY (AMPACITY)

Objectives of this Section:

• Selection of bus tube size from Manufacturers tables to meet current carrying capacity (ampacity), provides tube
outer diameter (dbo) and tube wall thickness (tw)

• Selection of supporting system to be employed (i.e. choose appropriate boundary condition: both ends supported,
one end supported and one end fixed, both ends fixed)

4.1 Dimensioning Of Bus Tubing Based On Current Carrying Capacity (Ampacity) – Tables

Tubular aluminium conductors are provided under various specifications, viz. British Standards (BS), American National
Standards, German DIN Standards, South African Bureau of Standards, etc. Table 41-3.2 is based on the DIN
Standards. Table 41-3.3 provides data on the electrical and mechanical properties of equivalent alloys that are available
for this purpose.

Load flow studies are carried out to determine the maximum expected power flow through the bus tubing, taking into
account the worst possible contingencies. This maximum power flow is then translated into an equivalent current value
at the chosen system voltage. Manufacturers provide tables of electrical and mechanical parameters for of variety of
extruded aluminium and copper alloy bus tubes. Table 41-3.2 is an example of such a table indicating parameters for
two such aluminium alloys that are used extensively for this application, E-AlMgSiO,5F22 and E-AlMgSiO,5F25. Bus
tubing of the E-AlMgSiO,5 F25 alloy may be preferred because of its better mechanical properties for only a slightly
higher material resistance.

The most important electrical parameter provided in Table 41-3.2 is the current carrying capacity (ampacity) for a given
tube size. As a first attempt in selecting the correct tube, a tube with a current rating of at least the expected value must
be chosen. This then provides a starting point from which to work. The more familiar one becomes with the process, the
better ones feel gets for which tube sizes are better suited for certain span lengths. The tubes are to be selected in
accordance with the widest equipment bays, since the same tube size must be used throughout the length of the
busbar. The tables then also provide additional parameters that are required in the calculation process, viz. the tube
outer diameter (dbo) and tube wall thickness (tw)

Although a large range of tubular conductor sizes are given, those with the outer diameter sizes shown in bold print, are
those that Eskom has standardise on. The related wall thickness sizes in bold print are the IEC preferred sizes.

Table 41-3.3 provides a comparison of the Electrical and Mechanical Properties of various aluminium alloys used for
this application. Bus tubing of the E-AlMgSiO,5 F25 alloy may be preferred because of its better mechanical properties
for only a slightly higher material resistance.

Table 41-3.2: Aluminium Tubular Conductors

Outer Wall Cross- Mass Continuous Current Continuous Current

Diameter Thickness Sectional per Metre Rating for Rating for
(dbo) (tw) Area E-AlMgSiO,5F22 E-AlMgSiO,5 F 25
(mm) (mm) (mm²) (kg) 65 ° 85° 65° 85°
(A) (A) (A) (A)
4 741 2,00 1150 1530 1110 1480
5 911 2,46 1280 1700 1240 1640
63
6 1074 2,90 1380 1830 1330 1770
8 1382 3,73 1560 2070 1510 2000
4 955 2,58 1400 1860 1350 1800
5 1178 3,18 1560 2070 1510 2000
80 6 1395 3,77 1690 2240 1630 2160
8 1810 4,89 1920 2550 1850 2460
10 2199 5,94 2110 2790 2040 2690
4 1206 3,26 1690 2240 1630 2160
5 1492 4,03 1880 2490 1820 2400
100 6 1772 4,78 2040 2710 1970 2620
8 2312 6,24 2320 3070 2240 2960
10 2827 7,63 2540 3360 2450 3240

Table 41-3.2: Aluminium Tubular Conductors (Continued)

Outer Wall Cross- Mass Continuous Current Continuous Current

Diameter Thickness Sectional per Metre Rating for Rating for
(dbo) (tw) Area E-AlMgSiO,5F22 E-AlMgSiO,5 F 25
(mm) (mm) (mm²) (kg) 65 ° 85° 65° 85°
(A) (A) (A) (A)
4 1458 3,94 1950 2580 1880 2490
5 1806 4,88 2170 2880 2090 2780
6 2149 5,80 2370 3140 2290 3030
120
8 2815 7,60 2700 3580 2610 3460
10 3456 9,33 2960 3920 2860 3790
12 4072 10,99 3130 4150 3020 4010
4 1960 5,29 2520 3330 2430 3220
5 2435 6,57 2790 3700 2690 3570
6 2903 7,84 3060 4050 2950 3910
160 7 3365 9,08 3270 4330 3160 4180
8 3820 10,31 3490 4630 3370 4470
10 4712 12,72 3830 5070 3700 4900
12 5579 15,06 4060 5380 3920 5200
4 2463 6,65 3030 4010 2930 3870
5 3063 8,27 3410 4520 3290 4360
6 3657 9,87 3720 4920 3590 4750
200
8 4825 13,0 4270 5660 4120 5470
10 5969 16,1 4680 6200 4520 5990
12 7087 19,1 4990 6610 4820 6390
250 5 3848 10,4 4140 5490 3900 5300
6 4599 12,4 4520 5990 4370 5780
8 6082 16,4 5190 6870 5010 6640
10 7540 20,4 5700 7560 5500 7300
12 8972 24,2 6100 8080 5890 7800
14 10380 28,0 6420 8500 6200 8210
16 11762 31,8 6640 8800 6410 8500
300 7 6443 17,4 5810 7700 5610 7440
8 7339 19,8 6140 8130 5930 7850
10 9111 24,6 6720 8900 6490 8600
12 10857 29,3 7180 9510 6930 9190
14 12579 34,0 7490 9930 7230 9590
16 14275 38,5 7770 10300 7500 9950
18 15947 43,0 7920 10500 7650 10140

Table 41-3.2: Aluminium Tubular Conductors (Continued)

Outer Wall Cross- Mass Continuous Current Continuous Current

Diameter Thickness Sectional per Metre Rating for Rating for
(dbo) (tw) Area E-AlMgSiO,5F22 E-AlMgSiO,5 F 25
(mm) (mm) (mm²) (kg) 65 ° 85° 65° 85°
(A) (A) (A) (A)
315 8 7716 20,8 6420 8510 6200 8220
10 9582 25,9 7060 9360 6820 9040
12 11423 30,8 7540 9990 7280 9650
14 13239 35,7 7850 10400 7580 10050
16 15030 40,6 8150 10800 7870 10430
18 16795 45,3 8380 11100 8090 10720
8 8595 23,2 7060 9350 6820 9030
10 10681 28,8 7770 10300 7506 9950
12 12742 34,4 8230 10900 7950 10530
350
14 14778 39,9 8600 11400 8310 11010
16 16789 45,3 8910 11800 8610 11400
18 18774 50,7 9130 12100 8820 11670
10 12252 33,1 8750 11600 8450 11200
12 14627 39,5 9360 12400 9040 11980
400 14 16977 45,8 9810 13000 9480 12560
16 19302 52,1 10100 13400 9760 12940
18 21602 58,3 10300 13700 9950 13230

Table 41-3.3: Electrical and Mechanical Properties of Various Aluminium Alloys

ALLOY TYPE HULETT’S S.A. ASA STANDARD DIN STANDARD

D50STF D65STF 6063T6 6061T6 AlMgSi,5F22 AlMgSi,5F25
Electrical resistivity at 20 0,03133 0,037 0,0325 0,0431 0,03333 0,03571
o 2
C (max.) in Ω mm / m
3
Specific mass kg / m 2703 2703 2703 2703 2703 2703
9 9 9 9 9 9
Modules of elasticity E in 65,66.10 69,12.10 69.10 70.10 70.10 70.10
2
N/m
-6 -6 -6 -6 -6 -6
Thermal co-efficient of 23.10 23.10 23.10 23.10 23.10 23.10
o
expansion per C
0,2 % Proof stress in 170 240 214 276 160 195
MPa Rp0,2

5. BUS CONDUCTOR SUPPORT SYSTEM

Objectives of this Section:-

Choosing the supporting system to be employed has a major impact on the selection of the tube itself, and upon the
strength of the supporting insulators on top of which the tubes are secured. This provides the boundary conditions for
the calculation. Three main boundary conditions are defined, viz. both-ends supported, one end supported and one end
fixed, both ends fixed.

5.1 Fundamental Busbar Models

The three fundamental busbar models that are usually considered are as follows:

5.1.1 Conductors with Both Ends Freely Supported

The bus support system illustrated in Figure 41-3.10 is used in the majority of cases where both sides are freely
supported. This boundary condition allows lateral movement at both ends of the bus tubing that would otherwise result
in a torque on the head of the supporting insulators if they were fixed. The clamps are normally designed in such a
o
manner so as to allow some vertical movement, usually in the region of ±5 .to allow for small deviations in foundation
levels and support structure heights.

Figure 41-3.10: Conductors with Both Ends Freely Supported

5.1.2 Conductors with One End Supported and One End Fixed

The bus support system illustrated in Figure 41-3.11 should only be used in cases where the tube lengths (ℓ) are either
short so that the torque value, which is a product of half the tube length and resultant force per unit length, does not
exceed the insulator rated value (see section 14). Here one end is fixed, while the other end is allowed to move freely to
allow for any change in length due to linear expansion. This boundary condition only allows lateral movement at one
end. The fixed clamp will not allow for vertical movement, another reason for not applying it in this configuration.

F S

Figure 41-3.11: Conductor with One End Supported and One End Fixed

5.1.3 Conductor with Both Ends Fixed

Figure 41-3.12 is, as with the configuration illustrated in Figure 41-3.11, only employed in the case of short bus tube
lengths or where the torsional forces are low and do not exceed the manufacturers rated values. This configuration

should in general not be employed in high voltage substations where long tube span lengths are normally required.
There may, however, be some application where short interconnecting pieces are required, and the cantilever forces
imposed on the post insulators as a result of linear expansion are low. The calculation of these cantilever forces are
demonstrated in paragraph 5.4 below.

F F

Figure 41-3.12: Conductor with Both Ends Fixed

5.2 Continuous Beam Busbar Models with a Combination of the Fundamental Models

In reality, however, substations do not consist of a single span of busbars, but rather a series of bays side by side.
These busbars may comprise sections made up from single bus tubes of length ℓ coupled via an expansion clamp as
demonstrated in Chapter 14, or can be continuous beams that are simply supported or fixed as demonstrated below.
Continuous beams may result from long lengths of bus tubing that are produced from continuous extrusions or from
sections of bus tubing that are welded in a prescribed manner to form long beams. This is briefly discussed under
paragraph 7.3.

5.2.1 Two Spans (Simple-Fixed-Simple)

Figure 41-3.13 illustrates a continuous beam spanning two bays, simply supported at the ends and fixed in the centre.
This arrangement is quite acceptable since the torsional forces at the fixed point F cancel out. Any linear expansion is
allowed for by the simply supported ends S.

ℓ ℓ

S F S

Figure 41-3.13: Two Spans (Simple-Fixed-Simple)

5.2.2 Three or more spans (simple-fixed-fixed-simple)

This arrangement should only be employed in the case where the two fixed supports (F) are short enough so that the
cantilever forces imposed on the post insulators as a result of linear expansion are low. The calculation of these forces
is given in paragraph 5.4 below.

ℓ ℓ ℓ

S F F S

Figure 41-3.14: Three or More Spans (Simple-Fixed-Fixed-Simple)

5.2.3 Two or More Spans Simple Supports

The arrangement shown in Figure 41-3.15 is probably the safest of the three arrangements illustrated in this section.
There are no restrictions as far as linear expansion and torsional forces are concerned. The sag in the bus tubing is also
smaller than in the case of Figure 41-3.10 where the bus system is made up of a series of such arrangements.

ℓ ℓ ℓ

S S S S

Figure 41-3.15: Two or More Spans Simple Supports [19]

5.3 Welded Joints and Finish

The large sized aluminium tubes are at times only available in short lengths, but joining of two or more lengths by
welding to obtain the required span length has been proved acceptable. A welded joint using a short piece of inner tube
as backing plate, gives a joint which is mechanically and electrically acceptable. It is important, however, to follow the
tube manufacturer’s recommendations with regard to filler rod and weld preparation meticulously. In this regard, the
designer is referred to the “Welding Aluminium Manual TIG and MIG” issued by Alcan Booth Sheet Limited.

A build up of weld beads at the joints to the order of 1,0 - 2,0 mm considerably improves the mechanical strength of the
joint and will not generate unnecessary corona, provided all sharp edges are removed.

In order to prevent non-required loads of the surrounding area of the welded joint (ca. 50 % weakening due to welding) it
is necessary to provide for a minimal bending moment in the joint area or generally to cut the bending moment (see
Figure 41-3.16). When ordering the tubes the resulting tube lengths should be taken into account. Both outside weld
joints are placed at the zero passages of the curve of the bending moment. To prevent the individual parts being too
short, the third weld joint can be arranged in the middle of field BC.

0,8. ℓ 0,7. ℓ 0,7. ℓ 0,8. ℓ

A B C D

Busbar Bending Moment Support Weld joint

Figure 41-3.16: Weld Joints

5.4 Longitudinal Expansion of Busbars

Operational temperature variations result in longitudinal expansion or contraction of the busbars. This is calculated from:

ℓt = ℓ0.(1+αth.∆θth) eq. 41-3.12

where:-

ℓt = Length of bus tube at temperature t in m

ℓ0 = Initial length of bus tube in m
o -1
αth = Coefficient of linear expansion for material in C
o o
∆θth = The difference between the final and initial temperatures in C or K

Table 41-3.4: Materials Coefficients of Linear Expansion [19]

o -1
Material Coefficient of Linear Expansion ( C )
-6
Aluminium 23.10
-6
Copper 17.10

These temperature induced longitudinal changes may cause significant mechanical stresses on the conductors, on their
support insulators and equipment terminal connections if there are no expansion joints. The forces that are generated
can be calculated by equating the longitudinal change caused by the change in temperature is assumed to be equal to
the longitudinal change that would be caused by a mechanical force Fm.

Fm .l 0
∆ℓt = ℓ0.αth.∆θth = eq. 41-3.13
E.A c
Where:-
o
Fm = Mechanical Force due to bus tube expansion or contraction in N/( K.mm)
2
E = Youngs Modulus of Elasticity in N/m
2
Ac = Cross-sectional are of bus tube in m

Fm
αth.∆θth = eq. 41-3.14
E.A c

Fm = αth.E.Ac.∆θth eq. 41-1.15

π 2 2
Fm = αth.E. .[dbo − (dbo − 2.t w ) ] .∆θth
4
where:-

dbo = Outer diameter of bus tube in mm

tw = Bus tube wall thickness in mm

An aluminium bus tube Ø250 x 6WT of length 20m is employed. If we assume that the temperature at installation was
o o
25 C, and the maximum temperature it can reach under operational conditions is 90 C then:

-6
∆ℓt = 20.23.10 .(90-25)

= 29,9 mm

10 π 2 2
Fm = 0,0299.7.10 .[ .[0,25 − (0,25 − 2.0,006) ] /20
4
2
= 243,615 kN/(K.m )

-6 10 π 2 2
Fm = 23.10 .7.10 .[ .[0,25 − (0,25 − 2.0,006) ] .(90-25)
4
2
= 243,61 kN/(K.m )

2
= 0,2436 N/(K.mm )

= 0,2436.(90-25).2328

Fm = 36,86 kN

From this, it is clear that the insulator will break if the bus tube is fixed at both ends.

6. STATIC FORCES - WEIGHT OF BUS TUBING, DAMPING CONDUCTOR, ICE AND WIND LOADING

Objectives of this Section:-

• Define the static force

1
• Determine the mass of bus tubing (m b) alone. This will simply be the mass per unit length of the selected tube
obtained from the fourth column of Table 41-3.2 under the heading mass per metre in kg, or calculated from first
principles.

1 1 1
• Determine the total mass of the tube (m b) inclusive of damping conductor (m c) and excluding ice coating (m b+c)

1
• Determine the total mass of the tube inclusive of damping conductor and ice coating (m b+c+i)

• Determine the environmental conditions (IEC requirements on ice coating and wind loading-RSA wind conditions
at various heights)

• Wind loading on bus tubing without ice coating (wind force) (Fw)

• Ice loading on bus tubing for additional weight of ice per unit length (wi)

• Wind loading on bus tubing with ice coating (wind force) (Fwi)

• Two cases to be considered, one where the average maximum wind force is applied, the other when a 50 year
extreme wind takes place. The consequences of failure need to be weighed up with the cost of over-design for a
single occurrence every 50 years

Static forces may be defined those forces that have, at least for a few minutes at a time, a constant magnitude. That is,
for all intents and purposes, none time varying. In the context of tubular conductor busbar design these would consist of
1 1
the weight of the bus tubing itself (w b), the weight of the damping conductor (w c) that is inserted inside the bus tubing,
1
and the weight of ice (w i) that may form around the bus tubing during winter months in areas where this is applicable.
1
These three are directed vertically downward due to gravity. A fourth static component is that due to wind (F w1),

normally taken as perpendicular to the first three. Figure 8.1 below illustrates how these components act on the bus
tubing. The remaining components shown in this drawing will be discussed at a later stage.

Wind
1
Force F wi 1
Short Circuit Loading F L2p

Weight of Bus
1
Tubing w b

Weight of Damping Resultant F

1
R
1
Conductor w c

1
Ice Loading w i

Figure 41-3.17: Vector Representation of the Per Unit Length Component Forces Exerted on the Tubular
Conductors

1
6.1 Determine the Mass of Bus Tubing (m b) Alone

This will simply be the mass per unit length of the selected tube obtained from the fourth column of Table 41-3.2 under
the heading mass per metre in kg. Alternatively, the mass per unit length can be derived simply by making use of the
well known quantity of density.

1
m b 3
ρ al = (kg/m ) eq. 41-3.16
Vb

where:-
3 3
ρal = Density of aluminium in kg/m (Al-Mg-Si = 2700kg/m )
1
m b = Mass per unit length of bus tube in kg/m
3
vb = Volume per unit length of bus tube in m

The mass per unit length is simply:-

1
m b = ρ al .v b (kg/m) eq. 41-3.17

The volume per unit length is not normally a quantity that appears in manufacturers tables so this can be resolved in
those parameters that are normally given, viz. outer bus tube diameter and tube wall thickness.

-7
(
vb = 2,5.10 .π dbo − dbo − 2.t w
2
[ ]2 ) (m3 /m) eq. 41-3.18

where:-

dbo = Outer diameter of bus tube in mm

tw = Bus tube wall thickness in mm
1
Once the volume (vb) is calculated, the mass per unit length (m b) is easily arrived at.

6.2 Determine the Total Weight of Bus Tubing

1 1
Determine the weight of bus tubing (w b) per unit length + weight of damping conductor (w c) per unit length

6.2.1 Total Conductor Mass per Unit Length.

This will simply be the sum of the mass per unit length of the selected tube and the mass per unit length of the damping
conductor. In areas where snow is expected to occur, the mass of the ice that may form around the bus tubing also
needs to be taken into account.

6.2.1.1 Bare bus tubing (no ice)

a) Mass of bus tubing and damping conductor

1 1 1
m b +c =m b +m c (kg/m) eq. 41-3.19

where:-
1
m b+c = Mass of bus tube and damping conductor per unit length in m
1
m b = Mass of bus tube per unit length in m
1
m c = Mass of damping conductor per unit length in m.

b) Weight of bus tubing and damping conductor [19]

1 1
w b+c = 9.81.m b +c

( )(N/m)
eq. 41-3.20
1 1
= 9.81. m b +m c

where:-
1
w b+c = Weight of bus tube and damping conductor per unit length in N/m

6.3 Determining the Unit Mass of Ice Forming Around Bus Tubing

3
An ice load equivalent to a layer of ice 15mm, with density of 714 kg/m must be taken into account. On the other hand
categorises radial ice thickness as follows:-

Table 41-3.5: Ice Formation on Tubular Conductors

Loading Radial Ice Thickness

(mm)
Heavy 12,7
Medium 6,4
Light 0

6.3.1 Diameter on outer edge if ice

dio = dbo + 2.t i (mm) eq. 41-3.21

where:-

dio = Diameter on outer edge of ice in mm

dbo = Outer diameter of bus tube in mm
ti = Thickness of ice formed around bus tubing in mm

6.3.2 Mean diameter on the ice

dmi = dbo +
(2.t i )
2 eq. 41-3.22
= dbo + t (mm)
i

Where:-

dmi = Mean diameter on ice in mm

6.3.3 Volume of ice formed around the bus tubing

6.3.3.1 Circumference on mean diameter of ice

(
Cmi = π. dbo + t i (mm) )
eq. 41-3.23
(
= π. dbo + t i .10 ) −3
(m)

where:-

Cmi = Mean circumference on ice in mm

6.3.3.2 Projected Area

3 2
Ai = t i .10 (mm )
eq. 41-1.24
(
= π. dbo + t i .10 ) −3 2
(m )

where:-
2
Ai = Projected Area on ice in m /m

8.3.3.3 Volume of Ice

1
v i = Cmi. Ai

( )
= π. dbo + t i .t i (mm /m)
3
eq. 41-1.25

= π.(dbo + t i ).t i .10

-6 3
(m /m)

where:-
1 3
v i = Volume of ice in m /m

6.3.3.4 Mass of ice formed around the bus tubing per unit length of bus tubing

1
m i = ρ i .vi (kg/m) eq. 41-1.26

where:-
1
m i = Mass per unit length of ice in kg/m
3
ρi = Density of Ice = 714kg/m [16]
3
Normal density of ice = 920kg/m

6.3.3.5 Weight of ice per unit length of bus tubing

1
w i = 9,81.mi

[
= 9,81. ρ i .v i .10
1 -9
] eq. 41-1.27
-6 1
= 9,03.10 .v i (N/m)

Where:-
1
w i = Weight per unit length of ice in N/m

6.4 Wind Force (Loading) per Unit Length.

6.4.1 General

Wind loading on the bus tubing becomes an important component in the determination of the total force per unit length
of the bus conductor as the velocity of the air increases. These velocities increase logarithmically with height, and the
appropriate velocity at the given height need to be employed in the calculations. A number of additional considerations
need to be taken into account, which are given below:

6.4.1.1 Use nominal wind speed Vz at height z (conductor level, equipment and busbars) above the ground

6.4.1.2 Obtain the nominal wind speed Vz from the appropriate regional basic wind speed V, determined in
accordance with the geographical location given in Figure 8.5) below. This value is to be adjusted for:-

6.4.1.2a) Mean return period – 50-years

6.4.1.2b) Terrain category – defines the characteristics of those surface irregularities of an area that arise from natural
or constructed features and that create a surface roughness affecting the degree of turbulence and the
variation of speed with height of the wind passing over the area.

100kmh
Height above Ground (m)

77kmh
104kmh 138kmh
91,5
50kmh
61,0
72kmh 115kmh
30,5

a) Centre of Large b) Rough Wooded c) Flat Open Country

City Country Towns, Open Flat Coastal Belts
City Outskirts

Figure 41-3.18: An Illustration of Wind Speed Variation with Height Passing Over Different Types of Terrain

On selection of the category, the permanence of a feature that constitutes roughness needs to be taken into
account, and the distance (in the direction of upwind of the installation) over which the terrain remains unchanged.

i) Category 1: Exposed smooth terrain with virtually no obstructions and in which the height of any obstruction is less
than 1,5m. This category includes open sea coasts, lake shores and flat, treeless plains with little vegetation other
than short grass as illustrated by Figure 41-3.18c).

ii) Category 2: Open terrain with widely spaced obstructions (more than 100m apart) having heights and plan
dimensions generally between 1,5m and 10m. This category includes large airfields, open parklands or farmlands,
and undeveloped outskirts of towns and suburbs, with few trees. This is the category on which the regional basic
wind speed V is based.

iii) Category 3: Terrain having numerous closely spaced obstructions generally having the size of domestic houses.
This category includes wooded areas and suburbs, towns and industrial areas, fully or substantially developed as
illustrated by Figure 41-3.18b).

iv) Category 4: Terrain with numerous large, tall, closely-spaced obstructions. This category includes large city
centres as illustrated by Figure 41-3.18a).

6.4.1.2c) Effect of wind direction

Depending on the direction from which the wind blows, a change in wind direction may imply a change in Terrain
Category since a substation may be surrounded by obstacles of different classification. However, the regional basic
wind speed V should be varied only if for design purposes according to specific wind directions, sufficient meteorological
information is available. Such information can be obtained from the newly installed Geographic Information System
(GIS) resident in the Transmission GIS Department in the form of an online information system. Wind Roses as
illustrated in Figure 41-3.19.

Wind Rose

Public Area Limit

Comp No: 30561 Station Name: ADDO: ADDO AWS
Latitude: -33.5833 Longitude: 25.6833 Magisterial District: KIRKWOOD
Period: 14/09/2002 – 17/09/2006 Altitude: 55 Long Term Wind Rose For: All Months

NW NE

W 15,8% E

SW SE

S
Legend

1-3 4-7 8-13 13-20 >20 m/s

Dotted circles represents 5% intervals Percentage of wind calmness indicated in circle

Figure 41-3.19: Wind Rose for the Addo Weather Station Located in Close Proximity to the Coega IDZ

The Wind Rose shows that the dominating wind speed ranges from 1-3 m/s, and that the rest of the time it ranges from
4-7 m/s. It is clear that there is no dominant direction in this case, and that at least 5 different directions need to be
considered.

If, however, the Wind Rose is orientated geographically correctly and superimposed on the substation layout, a clearer
picture emerges. The direction of the wind approaching the substation shows that the tubular conductors do not
experience the full force of some of these winds when resolved into components in-line with, and perpendicular to the
busbar as illustrated in Figure 41-3.20. The illustration shows that none of the dominant wind directions are
perpendicular to the busbar. This offers an opportunity for an optimised techno-economic design. It is immediately
apparent that the most dominant wind direction is south west (SW). One should, however, also investigate the easterly
(E) and north-easterly (NE) wind directions.

Suppose the angle of incidence of the wind onto the busbar is χ, then the wind perpendicular to the tubular conductor
is:-

Vp = Vz.cosχ eq. 41-3.28

Example:

o
χ= 16

o
Vp = Vz.cos16

Vp = 0.96.Vz

In other words, the tubular conductor will experience a wind speed of 96% of the total wind speed. In this case, it is not
that significant, however, there will be cases where this will make a big difference to the design.

The layout shown in Figure 41-3.20 is that of the proposed Dedisa 400/132kV Substation which is to be built in the
Coega IDZ as one of the main electrical supply points into this area.

where:-

6.4.1.2d) Local effects on wind speed

A number of geographical aspects need to be considered within the immediate vicinity of where the substation is to be
built. These include:-

i) Shielding: Already considered under terrain categories

ii) Exposure: Important to consider effects of exposure resulting from a fetch of open (more severe) terrain in an
otherwise rougher (less severe) terrain category.

iii) Local topography: Where the local topography is such that increases in wind speed may occur as a result of
tunnelling or other effects, the design speed needs to be adjusted accordingly, on the basis of appropriate
meteorological advice or tests

iv) Sudden change in ground level: Increased exposure due to situations on or near the edge of a cliff, bluff or
escarpment.

v) Wind speed multiplier: Determine the characteristic wind speed Vz at height z above site mean ground level for
the assessed terrain category and class of structure.

N
NE
E

NW
S

W
o
SW
16

Figure 41-3.20: Wind Rose Geographically Orientated and Superimposed on the Proposed Dedisa Substation in the Coega IDZ

Vz = V.k z eq. 41-3.29

where:-

Vz = Characteristic wind speed in m/s (value fixed on statistical bases to correspond to a prescribed
probability of not being exceeded on the unfavourable side during the lifetime of the installation-nominal
value)
V = Regional basic wind (gust) speed in m/s, according to regional location, for a 50-year return period
(see Figure 8.5)
kz = Wind speed multiplier (dimensionless), factor for converting regional wind speed into nominal wind
speed for the variation of wind speed with height, according to terrain category and class of structure.

Table 41-3.7 below gives the “Variation of Characteristic Wind Speed with Terrain, Height and Class of Structure”. It is
expected that the majority of design situations will fall into Terrain Category 3, and that the selection of a more severe
(Categories 1 and 2) or less severe (Category 4) terrain category will be deliberate.

The table provides factors for discreet values of height (z). It is, however, normally required to determine a wind speed
multiplier kzn for an intermediate value of z, it can be estimated as follows:-

 k z2 − k z1 
k zn =  ( )
. zn − z1 + k z1 eq. 41-3.30
 z2 − z1 

Owing to the large differences in wind speeds between Terrain Categories 2 and 3, and where there is doubt whether
the terrain under consideration falls into Category 2 or 3, the design wind speed may be obtained by interpolation
between the two values for these categories.

k zn = 
 k z2B + k z3B 
 eq. 41-1.31
 2 

6.4.1.2e) height above ground (z): measured from ground level in the immediate vicinity of the structures.

6.4.1.2f) class of structure or element

i) Class A: For the determination of forces on units of cladding, roofing, glazing and their intermediate fixings,
including roof battens and minor purlins supporting small areas of roofing, and on individual members of roofing.

ii) Class B: For the determination of forces on main structural members as well as for the overall resultant forces and
for over-tuning moments on buildings, where neither the height nor the width nor the depth of the building exceeds
50m.

iii) Class C: For the determination of the overall resultant forces and over-turning moments on buildings where the
height or the width or the depth exceeds 50m.

NB: In virtually all cases, Class B structures will be employed

1. A characteristic wind speed (Vz) of at least 24m/s (86,4km/hr) must be used

2. Characteristic wind pressure (pz)

pz =Cp .kp .Vz2 eq. 41-3.32

where:-
2
pz = Pressure on the surface at height z in N/m
Cp = Pressure coefficient for the particular surface
kp = A constant dependent on site altitude (dimensionless)

Table 41-3.6: Values of kp for a range of site altitudes

Site Altitude above Sea Level (m) kp

0 0,60
500 0,56
1000 0,53
1500 0,50
2000 0,47

air density
kp = eq. 41-3.33
2

Half the density of air under the relevant conditions and therefore varies with temperature and atmospheric pressure. A
o
temperature of 20 C has been selected as appropriate for South Africa and variation of mean atmospheric pressure with
altitude is allowed for above. Intermediate values of kpn may be obtained by linear interpolation.

 kp2 − k p1
k pn =  .(Han )
− Ha1 + k p1 eq. 41-3.34
 Ha2 − Ha1 

where:-

kpn = Interpolated constant dependent on site altitude (dimensionless)

kp1 = Lower constant dependent on site altitude (dimensionless)
kp2 = Upper constant dependent on site altitude (dimensionless)
Ha2 = Altitude upper value in m
Ha1 = Altitude lower value in m
1 2
F w = Cd .k pn (V.k z ) .Cc .A e
eq. 41-3.35
2
(
= Cd .k pn (V.k z ) .C c . dbo + 2.t i ) N/m

where:-
1
F w = Resultant force on components in N/m
Cd = Drag coefficient =1 for circular tubes
kp = A constant dependent on site altitude (dimensionless)
kz = Wind multiplier (dimensionless)
Cc = Curvature coefficient = 0,6
2
Ae = Projected or effective area of element in m

F
1
w
2
= C d .k pn (V.k z ) .C c . d bo + 2.t i( )
2
= 1.k pn (V.k z ) .0,6. d bo + 2.t i( ) eq. 41-3.36

F
1
w
2
(
= 0,6.k pn (V.k z ) . d bo + 2.t i ) N/m

Polokwane
40
25

Pretoria
Johannesburg

Latitude,
Deg. S
Upington Kimberly
Alexander Bay
Bloemfontein
30 Durban

50
Beauford West
40 East London
George
Cape Town Port Elizabeth

15 20 25 30
Longitude, deg E

Figure 41-3.21: Regional Basic Wind Speed V, m/s (Isopleths of 3 Second Gust Speeds at 10m Height in Terrain of Category 2,

Estimated to be exceeded on Average Only 50 Years)

Table 41-3.7: Variation of Characteristic Wind Speed with Terrain, Height and Class of Structure

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13

Height z Wind Speed Multiplier - kz

(m) Terrain Category 1 Terrain Category 2 Terrain Category 3 Terrain Category 4

Up to Class of Structure Element

A B C A B C A B C A B C

5 1,03 1,02 1,00 0,94 0,92 0,88 0,67 0,64 0,60 0,65 0,62 0,57

10 1,09 1,08 1,05 1,00 0,98 0,95 0,74 0,71 0,68 0,65 0,62 0,57

15 1,12 1,11 1,09 1,04 1,02 0,99 0,81 0,78 0,76 0,65 0,62 0,57

20 1,14 1,13 1,11 1,07 1,05 1,02 0,86 0,83 0,81 0,65 0,62 0,57

50 1,22 1.21 1,20 1,16 1,15 1,13 1,00 0,98 0,96 0,86 0,84 0,80

100 1,28 1,27 1,27 1,23 1,22 1,21 1,11 1,10 1,08 1,00 0,98 0,95

There are essentially four separate climatic conditions to be considered when determining the contribution of wind force
on the tubular conductor. They comprise studying the effect of firstly, the average wind force and secondly, a 50 year
extreme wind force, exerted on tubes with no ice covering, and then for the case where tubes have an ice covering. The
later two studies are done for cases where ice covering could be expected since the added weight of the ice and the
larger effective diameter of the tube changes the dynamic performance of the tube.

Tubular conductors, together with supports, may be subjected to a wind pressure of 700Pa or more. In the case of
lattice support structures the area for calculating the force due to wind pressure is 1,5 times the projected area of the
members of one side and in the case of round tubular conductors, hexagonal or elliptical poles, the area is 0,6 times the
projected area.

2
Although dynamic, the wind loading is treated as a steady continuous force in Pa or N/m , i.e. a static force.

Ice Covering (t i)

Wind Force Along

Projected Area
Of the Tube

Wind Velocity
Vw dbo (dbo+2.ti)

Bus Tubing

Figure 41-3.22: No Ice Covering (Applicable for most areas in RSA)

dbo = obtained from Manufacturers tables

6.4.2 Average or Maximum Expected Wind Force

1 1 -3
F wo =P w .(dbo + 2.t i ).10 .Cc
eq. 41-1.37
1 -3
=P w .(dbo + 2.t i ).10 .0,6 (N/m)

where:-
1
F wo = Force per unit length of bus tubing with no ice in N/m
1 2
P w = Maximum wind pressure on the projected area in N/m
Cc = Curvature coefficient = 0,6 for circular tubes (used on electrical substations)

7. ELECTROMAGNETIC SHORT CIRCUIT FORCES

Objective of this Chapter:

1
• Determine the reference force (F sc)

• Determine the Kappa Factor (κ)

1
• Determine the peak short circuit forces per unit length for 3-phase fault on middle phase (F L2p) and two outer
1 1
phases (F L1p and F L3p)

1
• Determine the peak short circuit forces per unit length for 2-phase fault (F sc(L2p))

• Distinguish between the applicable static and dynamic forces

• Determine the static forces on the conductor: Own weight, Ice Loading and Wind Loading

• Determine the resultant force (FR(σ))

• Determine the maximum static stress imposed on the conductor σST chosen boundary conditions

• Test against 0,2% proof stress of alloy

1 1
Although dynamic in nature, the short circuit reference force (F sc) and peak short circuit force (F L2p) is employed
as the fifth component in the calculation of the resultant force (FR(σ))

7.1 Theoretical Analysis

The parallel conductors in a 3 phase busbar system are subjected to time varying forces evenly distributed along the
length of the conductor as a result of the time varying current flowing in the conductors. Under short circuit conditions,
these time varying forces are far larger than under system healthy conditions. The magnitude of these short circuit
currents can be as great as 10 times the nominal system healthy values, particularly as the distance of the parallel
conductors is reduced.

The modern day trends in high voltage systems strive for compactness (smaller phase separations) which in
combination with ever increasing fault levels place high demands on substation hardware for mechanical integrity.
Mechanical stresses can no longer be ignored in new designs and older systems should be re-evaluated. This often
results in refurbishment work being required.

These effects are the manifestations of the response of the bus system to the electromagnetic excitation forces during
electrical short circuits. When rating substation hardware, the following mechanical quantities are imperative for the
sound performance of the system during short circuits:-

i) Maximum bending stresses in the tubular conductor that could result in permanent deformation

Bending Stress due to Own

Weight of Tube

Bending Stress due to Short-

circuit Forces

Cpp
≥C

deqR

Figure 41-3.23: Deflection of Conductors due to Short Circuit Forces

ii) Forces transferred to the hardware (clamps and fittings)

iii) Dynamic loading which result in a maximum bending moment at the base of support insulators and steel structures

iv) Twisting (torque) effects which could lead to failure normally at the top end of porcelain support insulators

For rigid tubular conductors, the method and equations for calculating the stresses are linear. Different stress
components, however, may be superimposed on each other hence mechanical resonance of conductors at higher
harmonic orders should not be neglected.

The simplified method for calculating the stress and forces is based on the following assumptions:-

i) The centre line distance between conductors is much smaller than the conductor length so that the conductors can
be regarded as being of infinite length

ii) The conductor diameter and conductor deflection during oscillations are much smaller than the centre line distance
between conductors, so that the conductors can be treated as a parallel line-conductors

iii) The short circuit occurs far from rotating machines

iv) The short circuit occurs simultaneously for all faulted phases

v) Conductor support structures are rigid, implying that it will have no deflection whatsoever under any applied force.

For all calculations, the conventional arrangement of conductors (flat configuration), as shown in Figure 9.2, is taken as
the basis.

The short circuit peak force is sufficient to determine the dynamic stress only if the fundamental mechanical frequency
of the system is large in comparison to the excitation frequencies.

The mechanical fundamental frequency of high voltage tubular busbars is normally less than 10 Hz (see Chapter 10 of
this dissertation). However, the excitation forces contain frequency components that are the same as or double the
electrical frequency, with large constant components occurring as well. The exact time patterns of the electromagnetic
forces are therefore of great importance; the investigation of these forces yields the time patterns of the dynamic
stresses necessary for the dimensioning of the structures.

1 1 1
F L1p F L2p F L3p
sp sp

a) Three Phase Short Circuit [4]

a b c

ib2 ic2

1 1
F 2p F 2p

sp sp

b) Phase to Phase Short Circuit

Figure 41-3.24: Short Circuit Forces between Conductors

7.2 Reference Short Circuit Force per Unit Length

The reference short circuit force per unit length is simply the force per unit length experienced between two parallel
conductors through which a short circuit current flows equal in magnitude, but not necessarily in the same direction. It
can cause the either conductors to either attract or repel each other. The magnitude of the force can be derived from the
following well known equation:-

F
1
sc =
µ
0
2.π. sp
( 2 .I ) sc
2

(I )
-7
4.10 2
= eq. 41-3.38
sp sc

where:-
1
F sc = Reference short-circuit force per unit length of bus tubing in N/m
Isc = 3 phase symmetrical short circuit current (rms) value in A.
NB: For HV yards close to or at rotating machines (power stations) the sub-
transient value of the symmetrical short circuit current should be used.
sp = phase spacing in metres
-7
µ0 = Permittivity of free space = 4. π . 10

1 1
F sc
∝
sp

The short-circuit force is inversely proportional to the phase spacing. The larger the phase spacing, the smaller the
forces acting on the bus tubing for the same short-circuit current.

κ)
7.3 Kappa Factor (κ

The peak forces caused by simultaneous short circuits are proportional to the square of the factor κ for the short circuit
peak current. Factor κ is the ratio of the largest asymmetric value of the short circuit current to the largest symmetric
value of the short circuit current. Single phase earth faults are not taken into account since the electromagnetic forces
are small.

R
κ is determined for the ratio from the resulting system impedance Zk=Rk + jXk at the fault location. The values of κ in
X
different networks:-

Table 41-3.8: Limits of κ for Various Electrical Systems

Network Limits of κ
Low Voltage 1,8
High Voltage substations far from rotating machines 2,0
At or near rotating machines (generators) < 100MVA 1,8
At Rotating Machines (generators) , >100MVA 1,9

κ = 1,02 + 0,98.e
( )
− 3.
R
X
eq. 41-3.39

= Kappa factor for peak short circuit current

For designs of power station HV yard bus systems therefore, the value of κ becomes larger than 1.8, a fact that needs
to be allowed for.

2,0

1,9

1,8

1,7

1,6

κ 1,5

1,4

1,3

1,2

1,1

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
X/R
Figure 41-3.25: κ (Kappa) Factor

Time variant electromagnetic forces act on the conductors during short circuits and the whole structure
performs forced oscillations for the short circuit duration and free oscillations after the fault. The resultant
force consists of a steady state component (constant oscillation plus un-damped oscillation at double the
electrical frequency) plus a decaying component (oscillation at electrical frequency plus exponential decaying
term).

7.4 Peak Short-circuit Forces per Unit Length

Objectives:

1 1 1
• Determine the peak short-circuit forces on all three phases (F L2p, F L1p and F 2p)

• Deflection of conductor such that phase-to-phase clearance not infringed

At the instant that the fault occurs, the current wave form lifts to be asymmetrical about the time axis, containing an
alternating current component and a direct current component. This produces an initial peak value (Ip) before settling
symmetrically about this axis. Two cases are shown below, that for stations close to or at generating stations, and the
other where the station is far from generation.

2.√2.Isc
Ip
A

2.√2.I′sc
t

a) Short Circuit Near To Generating Plant

2.√2.Isc
Ip
A
2.√2.Isc
t

b) Short Circuit Far From Generating Plant

Figure 41-3.26: Curves of Short Circuit Currents

In a 3-phase system, fault current flowing in all three phases has a compounded effect on the centre phase. Figure 41-
3.26a) showing the short-circuit forces between conductors, illustrates that the force per unit length on the centre phase
is larger than that on the outer phases. In the case where only two phases are subjected to the flow of fault current the
peak short-circuit force is smaller than that for a 3-phase fault. The following equations have been derived to calculate
the peak short circuit forces per unit length:-

7.4.1 Three phase short circuit [4]

7.4.1.1 Force on centre phase

1 1 2
F L2p = 0,866.F sc . κ (N/m) eq. 41-3.40

7.4.1.2 Force on outer phases

1 1
F L1p =F L3p
eq. 41-3.41
1 2
= 0,808.F sc . κ (N/m)

7.4.2 Phase-to-phase short circuit

1 1 2
F sc(L2p) = 0,750.F sc . κ (N/m) eq. 41-3.42

Since faults happen for a large variety of reasons, and that it is difficult to predict the occurrence of a particular type of
fault, it stands to reason that a typical three phase busbar system will be designed to satisfy the worst case condition
given by (eq. 41-3.48) and that the other two equations need not be further considered. The resultant short circuit force
on the centre conductor is about 7 percent greater than that on the outer phases.

7.5 Maximum Static Resultant Force Imposed on the Conductor

Chapter 8 dealt with the essentially static forces imposed on the bus tubing, viz. weight of the bus tubing on its own, the
weight of the damping conductor, the weight of ice that may form around the bus tubing during the winter months, and
lastly the wind loading on the bus tubing.

The fifth and final component of force that needs to be considered was dealt with above, viz. the short circuit forces on
the centre and outer tubes. This is essentially dynamic force, but does not take into account the natural mechanical
frequency of the bus tubing. A typical tubular busbar system is subjected to a combination of static and dynamic forces
and stresses (see Figure 41-3.27).

Wind
1
Force F w1 1
Short Circuit Loading F L2p

Weight of Bus
1
Tubing w b

Weight of Damping Resultant F

1
1 R (σ)
Conductor w c

1
Ice Loading w i

Figure 41-3.27: Vector Representation of the Component Forces Including the Short Force Exerted on the
Tubular Conductors

7.6 Resultant Force

The rigid bus tube must be capable of withstanding the simultaneous application of the forces shown in Figure 41-3.27,
viz. following forces:-

1
a) Weight of bare bus tubing (w b)

1
b) Weight of vibration damping conductor (w c)

1
c) Wind force (F w1)

1
d) Weight of ice if applicable (w i)

1
e) Short-circuit force (F L2p)

The vector sum of these forces is given by:-

F
1
R( σ ) = (F
1
L2p +F
1
w1 )
2
+ (w
1
b +w
1
c
1 2
+ w i) (N/m) eq. 41-3.43

where:-

1
F R(σ) = The resultant force due to short-circuit current, wind loading, conductor weight
and ice loading if applicable in N/m

7.7 Maximum Static Stress Imposed On the Conductor

The maximum static stress imposed on the conductor σST is calculated as follows:-

In general, the static stress is given as:

2
FR( σ ) . l 2
σ ST = (N/m ) eq. 41-3.44
k.W

where:-

k = Static stress factor

Table 41-3.9: Static Stress Factors for Different Fixing Configurations and Spans

Type of Support System Static Stress Factor

Tube supported at both ends 8
Tube with one end supported and one end fixed 8
Tube fixed at both ends 12
Tube on three supports 8
Tube on four supports 10
Tube on more than four supports 9

7.7.1 For conductors with both ends supported [4]

2
FR( σ ) . l 2
σ ST = (N/m ) eq. 41-3.45
8.W

9.7.2 For conductors with one end supported and one end fixed

2
FR( σ ) . l 2
σ ST = (N/m ) eq. 41-3.46
8.W

9.7.3 For conductor with both ends fixed

2
FR( σ ) . l 2
σ ST = (N/m ) eq. 41-3.47
12.W

where:-
3
W = Moment of resistance for bending in m

J 3
W= (m ) eq. 41-3.48
 dbo 
 
 2 

where:-
4
J = Moment of inertia in m
dbo = outside tube diameter in mm
dbi = inside tube diameter

J=
π
64
( 4
. dbo − dbi
4
) (m )
4
eq. 41-3.49

8. FUNDAMENTAL MECHANICAL FREQUENCY OF THE SELECTED SYSTEM DUE TO TIME VARIANT

ELECTROMAGNETIC FORCES - PARAMETRIC STUDIES

Objectives of this Section:-

• Choose support system to set the boundary conditions

• Determine the fundamental mechanical frequency (fc)

• Determine the ratio fc/f

• Test fc/f>>1, fc/f<<1

• Determine the ratio between dynamic and static forces on the support insulator (νF)

• Determine the ratio between dynamic and static conductor stress (νσ)

• Determine the ratio between stress with and without unsuccessful auto-re-closure (νr)

• Determine the Eigen value for the busbar support system (λ)

• Determine the dynamic conversion factors (νF, νσ and νr)

• Choose ratio X/R = 15

The three fundamental busbar models as described in section 5 are; Conductors with both ends freely supported,
conductors with one end supported and one end fixed, and conductors with both ends fixed [see Figures 41-3.10, 41-
3.11 and 41-3.12].

8.1 Fundamental Mechanical Frequency

Parametric studies carried out show that the most important parameter for the calculation of the dynamic short circuit
stress is the fundamental mechanical frequency (fc), also referred to as the characteristic or natural frequency of the
tube that is a function of the tube cross-section (diameter and wall thickness), material properties (Modulus of Elasticity)
and length.

2
λ E.J
fc = . eq. 41-3.50
1 4
2.π mb + c.l

If the frequency of the mechanical fundamental oscillation or of a mechanical harmonic oscillation is equal to the
electrical or double the electrical frequency resonance enhancements will occur.

X
The increases caused by resonances with electrical frequency are comparatively small when = 15 , but increases
R
X
considerably when = 30
R

Fundamental frequency and dynamic factors were calculated for the simplified method and Cigré presented the results
in graphic form for easy reference (see Figures 41-3.28 and 41-3.29).

The fundamental mechanical frequency for a tubular conductor is given by:-

From:-

2
λ E.J
fc = 2
. 1
2.π.l m b+c

γ E.J
fc = 2
. 1
(Hz) eq. 41-3.51
l m b+c

where:-

fc = Fundamental mechanical frequency for a tubular conductor in Hz

λ = Eigen value for busbar type (see Table 41-3.10)
ℓ = Span length of tubular conductor in metres
γ = Fundamental (natural) frequency factor based on rigid busbar boundary
conditions (see Tables 41-3.10 and 41-3.11).
2
λ
γ = (Hz) eq. 41-3.52
2.π

Table 41-3.10: Eigen Values for Busbar Support Systems [20]

Type Eigen value n=1 n=2 n=3

λ λ γ λ γ λ γ
Both Ends Simple Support n.π 3,14 1,57 6,28 6,28 9,42 14,14
One Simple & One Fixed  4.n + 1  3,93 2,45 7,07 7,96 10,21 16,59
 ⋅π
 4 
Both Ends Fixed  2.n + 1  4,71 3,56 7,85 9,82 11,00 19,24
 ⋅π
 2 

Fundamental 2 nd Harmonic 3 rd Harmonic

Table 41-3.11: Fundamental Frequency Factors for Various Boundary Conditions of Tubular Busbars
Complete with Support Arrangements

Type of beam and supports Factor Factor Factor

α β γ

Single span A and B A : 0.5 1,0 1,57

beam simple supports B : 0,5
A B

A simple support A : 0,625 0,73 2,45

B fixed support B : 0,375

A B

A and B A : 0,5 0,5 3,56

fixed supports B : 0,5

A B

Continuous Two spans A : 0,375 0,73 2,45

beams with B : 1,25
equidistant (simple-fixed- A B A
simple simple)

supports
Three or more A : 0,4 0,73 3,56
spans B : 1,1
A B B A
(simple-fixed-fixed-
simple)

Two or more spans A : 0,5 0,73 1,57

simple supports B : 1,0

A B B A

The three dynamic factors are determined by the ratio of fundamental mechanical frequency and the nominal electrical
system frequency f = 50Hz.

where:-

fc lowest mechanical frequency of conductor

= eq. 41-1.53
f nominal system frequency

fc
Where: >> 1 the stress is proportional to the exciting force
f

and

fc
Where: << 1 the stress is lower, except for special harmonic resonance.
f

Multiphase auto re-closure at the optimally worst time with respect to mechanical vibration of the rigid tubular
conductor will increase the stress significantly as compared to the case without auto-re-closure. A fitted curve
was plotted by Cigré that can be used to supplement the simplified calculation procedure.

8.2 Dynamic Factors

The simplified method of calculation, which is being proposed here, makes use of three dynamic factors to convert
from static to dynamic conditions. The dynamic factors are a function of the fundamental mechanical frequency of
the system. Since we regard conductor support structures as rigid, only the tubular conductors determine the
fundamental mechanical frequency. The three dynamic conversion factors are as follows:-

8.2.1 Dynamic factor for the support insulator system

where:-

νF = ratio between dynamic and static forces on the support insulator

dynamic force on support insulator

νF = eq. 41-1.54
static force on support insulator

10.2.2 Dynamic factor for the tubular conductor system

Where:-

νσ = Ratio between dynamic and static conductor stress

dynamic stress on conductor

ν = eq. 41-3.55
σ static stress on conductor

fc
The values for νF and νσ can be found by evaluating the ratio and using Figure 41-3.28.1 to determine these two
f
dynamic factors.

8.2.3 Dynamic factor for unsuccessful auto re-closure on the system

Where:-

νr = Ratio between stress with and without unsuccessful auto-re-closure

dynamic stress with auto - reclosure conductor

νr = eq. 41-1.56
dynamic stress without auto - reclosure

From Figure 41-3.29 it can be seen that considerable increases in stress are to be anticipated in large high voltage
systems with very low fundamental mechanical frequencies. The dynamic factor for auto-re-closure in large high
voltage systems can be as high as ν r = 1,8 (80 percent increase in stress).

fc
Medium voltage substations with higher mechanical frequencies (typically > 3) are not effected by auto-re-closure
f
and the increased stress can be ignored.

For the simplified method, two curves are provided; one for auto-re-closure dead time ≥ 0,3 seconds and one for dead
time ≥ 1,0 second.

1,2

1,0

0,8

νF

0,6
νF
νσ
νσ
0,4

a b c
0,2

0
0,02 0,03 0,04 0,06 0,08 0,1 0,2 0,4 0,6
fc/f

Figure 41-3.28: Dynamic Factors νF (Support System) vs fc/f and νσ (Tubular Busbar) vs fc/f

The functions given in the above graphs have been determined empirically and the value of νF and νσ can either be read
off the graph for a calculated value of fc/f or calculated by functions that form a close fit to the straight lines above:-

νF = 0,1684*Log(fc/f) + 0,5903 for 0,02 ≤ fc/f ≤ 0,04 eq. 41-3.57

νF = 0, 6108*Log(fc/f) + 1,2087 for 0,04 ≤ fc/f ≤ 0,6 eq. 41-3.58

νσ = 0,0352*Log(fc/f) + 0,3471 for 0,02 ≤ fc/f ≤ 0,04 eq. 41-3.59

νσ = 0, 5586*Log(fc/f) + 1, 0788 for 0,04 ≤ fc/f ≤ 0,6 eq. 41-3.60

As with the above functions, the function for νr given in the graph below have been determined empirically and its value
can either be read off the graph for a calculated value of fc/f or calculated by functions that form a close fit to the straight
line below:-

ν r = 1,8 for 0,02 ≤ fc/f ≤ 0,0274; tU≥1s eq. 41-3.61

ν r = 0,8009 - 0, 6395*Log(fc/f) for 0,0274 ≤ fc/f ≤ 0.4883; tU≥ 1s eq. 41-3.62

ν r = 1,8 for 0,02 ≤ fc/f ≤ 0,05; tU≥0,3s eq. 41-3.63

ν r = 1,0152 - 0, 6032*Log(fc/f) for 0,05 ≤ fc/f ≤ 0,6; tU≥ 0,3s eq. 41-3.64

1,8

tU≥0,3s

1,6

νr
tU≥1
1,4

a b c
1,2

1
0,02 0,04 0,06 0,08 0,1 0,2 0,4 0,6
fc/f

Figure 41-3.29: Dynamic Factor νr (Auto-Reclosure) vs fc/f

9. DIMENSIONING OF BUS TUBING BASED ON MECHANICAL RESPONSE TO LAMINAR WIND FLOW (AEOLIAN
VIBRATION)

Objectives of this section:

• Determine whether or not damping is required for the length of tube selected

• Types of dampers

1 1 1
• If damping conductor is required, determine total mass per unit length (m b+c =m b + m c)

9.1 Determine the Requirement of Damping due to Aeolian Vibrations

There are two causes of bus vibration. The first is by wind blowing across the bus tubing, the second being due to the
50Hz the bus tubing is carrying.

9.1.1 Wind Induced (Aeolian) Vibrations and Damping

Under certain conditions, wind can encourage oscillations of tubular conductors. This is known as Aeolian vibration.
An abundance of literature is available on Aeolian vibration that substantiates the fact that some form of damping of the
tubular conductors is necessary. Damping can either be in the form of tuned dampers or stranded conductors inserted
in the tubes

Boundary Layer Vortex Shedding

Vw
α
Tubular

Laminar Flow of Air Vortex

Figure 41-3.30: Whirl Path of Kárrén Generated at Laminar Flow around a Cylindrical Obstacle

9.1.2 Maximum Frequency of the Aeolian Force

To calculate the maximum frequency of the Aeolian force, one requires meteorological information regarding wind
speeds of the general area. Experience has shown that wind speeds of 24km/hr can have laminar flow. The maximum
frequency is calculated as follows:-

51,75.Vw
fa = (Hz) eq. 41-3.65
dbo

where:-

fa = Maximum Aeolian force frequency in Hz

Vw = Maximum wind speed for laminar flow in km/hr
dbo = Outside diameter of bus tube in mm

In Chapter 10, the fundamental mechanical (or natural) frequency for a tubular conductor in Hz is given by:-

γ E.J
fc = 2
. 1
(Hz) eq. 41-1.66
l m b+c

As an indication that damping may be required, fa and fc need to be calculated. If 2.fc > fa, then either the bus span
length needs to be changed, or dampers are to be employed.

9.2 Types of Dampers

When determining the need for a vibration damper, whether a fixed damper which is tuned for a few frequencies, or a
conductor damper on the inside of the rigid bus tubing which caters for a large spectrum of frequencies, one needs to
select an appropriate bus system.

Tuned dampers are very effective over a narrow bandwidth at the design frequency. They, however, loose their
effectiveness rapidly outside this bandwidth. This makes it almost necessary to tailor make a tuned damper for every
different span length or clamping arrangement.

Dash-pot Leaf Spring

Active Mass

Figure 41-3.31: Tuned Vibration Damper

0,6 2 nd Mode Vibration Span ratio L/D = 114

frequency 12,4Hz Log decrement of first
Mode in still air ≈ 0,01
Dimensionless
1 st Mode Vibration
Amplitude 0,4 frequency 3,6Hz
Y/D (peak-to-peak)
3 rd Mode Vibration
frequency 26,6Hz
0,2

10 20 30 40 50
Dimensionless air velocity v/fnD

Figure 41-3.32: Typical Vibration Characteristics of an 8m Flexibly Mounted Span

On the other hand, an inserted stranded conductor is not as effective as the tuned damper at the design frequency, but
it provides a reasonable degree of damping over a much wider frequency spectrum including the second and third
modes. The inserted conductor is fixed at one end to prevent partial discharge resulting from contamination that is
caused by the potential differences between the conductor and the tube. The inserted stranded conductor should be of
the same material as the bus tubing to prevent corrosion due to the difference in electro-potential difference. The weight
of the stranded conductor should be from 10% to 33% of the bus conductor weight. Some applications have shown that
stranded conductor weights of 25% that of the bus conductor have worked well.

For our purposes the use of the stranded conductor is therefore preferred and the following guidelines are
recommended:-

Table 41-3.12: Damping Conductors

Tube Outer Diameter Damping Conductor Number of Damping Length of Damping

(mm) Conductors Conductors
80 - 120 Centipede 1 Within 100mm of tube length
160 + Bull 1
Centipede 2 (see Note below) Both ⅔ length of tube

Note: In particular disadvantageous cases, a diametrically opposite insertion of two damping conductors into
the tube will become necessary. It is normal and a preferred practice to do this in any event.

ℓ - 100mm

Figure 41-3.33: Damping Conductor Configuration for Bus Tubes with Outer Diameters 80mm to 120mm
Inclusive

⅔.ℓ

Figure 41-3.34: Damping Conductor Configuration for Bus Tubes with Outer Diameters in Excess of 120mm

10. MAXIMUM DYNAMIC STRESS IMPOSED ON THE CONDUCTOR DYNAMIC FACTORS νσ AND νr – THE
TRANSITION FROM STATIC TO DYNAMIC

Dynamic electromagnetic forces resulting from short circuit current in the network add a substantial load to the system
and could dominate loadings that result from own mass and wind. In certain parts of South Africa it may be necessary to
add a vertical and horizontal loading component which results from seismic activity. Seismic loading is a subject on its
own and is not considered in this document.

νσ = ratio between dynamic and static conductor stress

νr = ratio between stress with and without unsuccessful auto-re-closure

10.1 Maximum Dynamic Stress Without Auto-Re-close

The maximum Dynamic stress without auto-re-close imposed on the conductor (σDYN) is calculated using the maximum
static stress value and multiplying it with the ratio νσ as follows:-

2
σ DYN = σ ST .ν σ (N/m ) eq. 41-3.67

10.2 Maximum Dynamic Stress With Auto-Re-close

The maximum Dynamic stress with auto-re-close imposed on the conductor σDYN+ARC is calculated using the maximum
dynamic stress without auto-re-close value and multiplying it with the ratio ν r as follows:-

2
σ DYN + ARC = σ DYN .ν r (N/m ) eq. 41-3.68

10.3 Choice between Maximum Dynamic Stress Without or With Auto-Re-close [3]

Of the two values to employ depends on whether or not the auto-re-close function is applied to the operating regime. If it
is not required, forces and stresses on components are much reduced, resulting in cost savings on equipment.

The conductor must be able to withstand the stress with a degree of safety. A number of minimum safety factors (SFAl)
have been suggested, from 2,5 to 2,65 for aluminium conductors with respect to the 0,2 % proof stress.

2
R p0,2 ≥ σ DYN + ARC .SFAl (N/m ) eq. 41-3.69

where:-
2
Rp0,2 = Stress resulting in permanent elongation less than 0,2% in N/m
SFAl = Aluminium Safety Factor applied

Table 41-3.13 below provides the mechanical properties for a range of aluminium alloys that are widely used in tubular
busbar substations.

Table 41-3.13: Mechanical Properties of Various Aluminium Alloys

ALLOY TYPE HULETT’S S.A. ASA STANDARD DIN STANDARD

D50S D65S 6063 6061 AlMgSi0,5 AlMgSi0,5
TF TF T6 T6 F22 F25
3
Specific mass kg / m 2703 2703 2703 2703 2703 2703
9 9 9 9 9 9
Modules of elasticity 65,66.10 69,12.10 69.10 70.10 70.10 70.10
2
E in N / m
0,2 % Proof stress in MPa (Rp0,2) 170 240 214 276 160 195

11. DIMENSIONING BUS TUBING TO MEET CONDUCTOR DEFLECTION UNDER DIFFERENT CRITERIA

11.1 Maximum Vertical Deflection under Static “Dead-Load” Conditions

Objectives of this Section:

• Define the support system

• Determine the deflection of the bus tube alone under its own weight

• Determine the deflection of the bus tube under its own weight and inserted damping conductor

• Various definitions of aspect ratio

• Choose Applicable Aspect Ratio ya/dbo, Acceptance criteria ya/dbo = 0,5, i.e. ya = ½.dbo

• Determine Maximum Vertical Deflection of a Rigid Bus Due To Own Weight (yc)

• Test yc/dbo ≤ 0,5

• Determine the deflection of the bus tube under its own weight, inserted damping conductor and ice coating

Vertical yc

yc Deflection ≥
Ce≥Cp
Ce

Figure 41-3.35: Vertical Deflection of Tube under Own Weight

11.1.1 Maximum Vertical Deflection of a Rigid Bus Due to Own Weight (Bus Tubing and Damping Conductor)

Refer to the three fundamental busbar models considered for calculating boundary conditions for the tubular busbars in
Section 6.

The deflection is in the direction of the applied force, viz. vertically due to own weight, for:-

11.1.1.1 Conductor with both ends supported

1 4
5 9,81.m b + c .l
yc = . (m) eq. 41-3.70
384 E.J

11.1.1.2 Conductor with one end supported and one end fixed

1 4
1 9,81.m b + c .l
yc = . (m) eq. 41-3.71
185 E.J

11.1.1.3 Conductor with both end fixed

1 4
1 9,81.m b + c .l
yc = . (m) eq. 41-3.72
384 E.J

where:-

yc = Actual vertical deflection of chosen bus tubing in m

1
m b+c = Mass of conductor (bus tubing and damping conductor) per unit length in kg/m

11.1.2 Allowable Vertical Deflection of a Rigid Bus

The allowable vertical deflection of a rigid bus is usually limited by appearance and is sometimes referred to as the
aspect ratio. The aspect ration is a subjective matter that may be defined according to the perception of the public or a
utility. The following are some of the ratios used.

ya
aspect ratio = eq. 41-3.73
dbo

where:-

Aspect = 0,5 to 1,0 (dimensionless) [Eskom Transmission uses 0,5]

Ratio
ya = Allowable vertical deflection in mm

l
aspect ratio = eq. 41-3.74
150

l
aspect ratio = eq. 41-3.75
300

The aspect ratio is often not considered for icing conditions, and therefore ice weight is usually, not considered for
vertical deflection.

13.1.3 Test Aspect Ratio

ya
aspect ratio = = 0,5 ≤ y c eq. 41-3.76
dbo

If the condition is not met, either a tube of smaller wall thickness to reduce the mass per unit is chosen and retested, or
a tube with a larger outer diameter can be chosen and retested.

Figure 41-3.36: Unacceptable Vertical Deflection of a Tube Due to Own Weight

Figure 41-3.37: Acceptable Vertical Deflection of a Tube Due to Own Weight

11.2 Maximum Deflection of the Tubular Conductor due to the Resultant Dynamic Force (Without Auto-Reclose)

Objectives of this Section:-

• Definition of deflection due to resultant force (FR(σ)DYN)

• Determine Maximum Deflection (yDYN) of a Rigid Bus Due To the resultant force (FR(σ)DYN) resulting from the fault
current and chosen boundary conditions

• Determine Maximum Horizontal and vertical Deflection of two Rigid Bus conductors under Dynamic Conditions
(wind, fault & without ARC) ([yDYNh1,yDYNv1] and [yDYNh2,yDYNv2])

• The associated phase-to-phase clearance and ensure required phase-to-phase clearance is not infringed

The maximum deflection of the tubular conductor under dynamic conditions (yDYN) is in the direction of the applied
resultant force, i.e. the force due to the weight of the conductor, the weight of the ice, the wind force and the short circuit
force (no ARC). This resultant force can be determined by working backward from the calculated maximum dynamic
stress without auto-re-close (σDYN) as calculated from the maximum static stress value and multiplying it with the ratio
νσ shown in eq. 41-3.67.

1 2
F R( σ )DYN
.l
2
σDYN = (N/m ) (from eq. 41-3.44)
k.W

1 σ DYN .k.W
F R( σ )DYN = 2
(N/m) eq. 41-3.77
l

Deflection of conductor must be such that phase-to-phase clearance is not infringed.

The maximum deflection of the tubular conductor under dynamic conditions due to wind, short current forces and its own
1
weight is in the direction of the applied force, i.e. the resultant force (F R(σ)) and is given by:-

Extreme wind force F w1 (w2) Short Circuit Loading FDYN+ARC

Vertical
Own Mass w c Resultant
Deflection
yDYN Deflection

Ice Loading w i

Resultant FR(σ)DYN
yDYNh
Horizontal Deflection

Figure 41-3.38: Horizontal Deflection of a Tube Due to Short-Circuit Forces

11.2.1 Conductor with both ends supported

1 4
5 F R( σ )DYN
.l
yDYN = . (m) eq. 41-3.78
384 E.J

11.2.2 Conductor with one end supported and one end fixed

1 4
1 F R( σ )DYN
.l
yDYN = . (m) eq. 41-3.79
185 E.J

11.2.3 Conductor with both ends fixed

1 4
1 F R( σ )DYN
.l
yDYN = . (m) eq. 41-3.80
384 E.J

11.2.4 Calculating the Phase-to-Phase Distance between the Conductors

In each of the above cases, it is important to determine how close the two attracting phases approach in order to
determine whether or not phase-to-phase clearance is breached. This requires the straight line distance between the
surfaces of the bus tubes (C1,2).

It must be remembered that for phase conductor 2, the short circuit force now acts in the opposite direction to that of
phase conductor 1, against the wind force.

Extreme wind Short Circuit Extreme wind

force F w1 (w2) Loading FDYN+ARC1,2 force -F w1 (w2)

φ1
yDYNv1
φ2
yDYN1 yDYNv2
Own Mass wb+c
yDYN2

Ice Loading wi C1,2

Resultant Resultant
yDYNh1 FR(σ)DYN1 FR(σ)DYN2 yDYNh2

Figure 41-3.39: Closeness of Approach of Two Tubular Conductors Moving Towards Each Other to Short-Circuit
Forces

The following parameters are known for conductor 1 as shown in Figure 41-3.39:

1
Weight of bus tubing (w b+c)

1
Weight of ice (w i)

1
Wind force (F w)

Resultant force (FR(σ)DYN1)

Phase conductor 1 deflection (yDYN1)

At this point the short circuit loading (FDYN+ARC1,2) is not known, but can be easily calculated by working backward from
the resultant force equation in the form ofeq. 41-3.43.

For conductor 1 where the wind direction is in the same direction as the short circuit force:

F
1
R( σ )DYN1 = (F
1
DYN +F
1 2
w) + (w
1
b +c
1 2
+ w i) (N/m) eq. 41-3.81

For conductor 2 where the wind direction is in the opposite direction as the short circuit force:

F
1
R( σ )DYN2 = (F
1
DYN +F
1 2
w) + (w
1
b+c + w i)
1 2
(N/m) eq. 41-3.82

The important issue here, however, is to find the relative position of phase conductor 1 due to the resultant force.

1 1
(w b1+ c1 + w i1 )
cos φ1 = 1
F R( σ )DYN1
q. 41-3.83
-1  (w 1b1+ c1 + w 1i1 ) 
φ1 = cos
 F1R( σ )DYN1 
 

yDYNh1 = yDYN1.sin φ1 eq. 41-3.84

yDYNv1 = yDYN1.cos φ1 eq. 41-3.85

The co-ordinates of phase conductor 1 is therefore (yDYN1.sin φ1, yDYN1.cos φ1)

The relative position of phase conductor 2 makes use of the magnitude of FR(σ)DYN1 which must equal FR(σ)DYN2. In like
manner to phase conductor 1 therefore:-

1 1
(w b2 + c2 + w i2 )
cos φ 2 = 1
F R( σ )DYN1
eq. 41-3.86
-1  (w 1b2 + c2 + w 1i2 ) 
φ 2 = cos
 F1R( σ )DYN2 
 

yDYNh2 = yDYN2.sin φ2 eq. 41-3.87

yDYNv2 = yDYN2.cos φ2 eq. 41-3.88

The co-ordinates of phase conductor 2 is therefore (yDYN2.sin φ2, yDYN2.cos φ2)

From these two sets of co-ordinates then, the straight-line distance between the surfaces (C1,2) of the two conductors
can be calculated by subtracting the diameter of one tube from the calculated value.

2 2
C1,2 = (sp - yDYN2 .sin φ2 − yDYN1 .sin φ1 ) + (yDYN2 .cos φ 2 − yDYN1 .cos φ1 ) − dbo eq. 41-3.89

It must then be ensured that for the given voltage:-

C1,2 ≥ Cpp. eq. 41-3.90

11.3 Maximum Deflection of the Tubular Conductor due to Resultant Dynamic Force (With Unsuccessful Auto-
Re-close)

Objectives of this Section:-

• Definition of deflection due to resultant force (FR(σ)DYN+ARC)

• Determine Maximum Deflection (yDYN+ARC) of a Rigid Bus Due To the resultant force (FR(σ)DYN+ARC) resulting from
the fault current and chosen boundary conditions

• Determine Maximum Horizontal and vertical Deflection of two Rigid Bus conductors under Dynamic Conditions
(wind, fault & without ARC) ([yDYN+ARCh1,yDYN+ARCv1] and [yDYN+ARCh2,yDYN+ARCv2])

• The associated phase-to-phase clearance and ensure required phase-to-phase clearance is not infringed

Horizontal deflection

ymaxh
Cpp
C≥

ymaxh
deqR

Figure 41-3.40: Maximum Deflection of the Tubular Conductor due to Resultant Dynamic Force (With
Unsuccessful Auto-Re-close)

As in 13.4, the maximum deflection (yDYN+ARC) of the tubular conductor is in the direction of the applied force, i.e. the
resultant force due to the weight of the conductor, the weight of the ice, the wind force and the short circuit force (with
ARC). This resultant force can be determined by working backward from the calculated maximum dynamic stress with
auto-re-close (σDYN+ARC) as calculated from the maximum dynamic stress value and multiplying it with the ratio νr shown
in eq. 41-3.68

1 σ DYN + ARC .k.W

F R( σ )DYN + ARC
= 2
(N/m) eq. 41-3.91
l

Extreme wind force F w1 (w2) Short Circuit Loading FDYN+ARC

Resultant Vertical
Own Mass wc Deflection Deflection
yDYN+ARC Resultant FR(σ)DYN+ARC

Ice Loading wi

yDYN+ARCh
Horizontal Deflection

Figure 41-3.41: Deflection of a Tubular Conductor under Fault Conditions

11.3.1 Conductor with both ends supported

1 4
5 F R( σ )DYN + ARC
.l
yDYN + ARC = . (m) eq. 41-3.92
384 E.J

11.3.2 Conductor with one end supported and one end fixed

1 4
1 F R( σ )DYN + ARC
.l
yDYN + ARC = . (m) eq. 41-3.93
185 E.J

11.3.3 Conductor with both ends fixed [3]

1 4
1 F R( σ )DYN + ARC
.l
yDYN + ARC = . (m) eq. 41-3.94
384 E.J

11.3.4 Calculating the Phase-to-Phase Distance between the Conductors

The straight line distance between the surfaces of the bus tubes (C1,2) is calculated in the same manner as in paragraph
11.2.4, but using FR(σ)DYN+ARC.

11.4 Maximum Deflection Of A Rigid Bus Under Dynamic Conditions Due To Wind, Short Current Forces, Own
Weight And Bending Of Steelwork Support Structure

11.4.1 Deflection of the tubular conductor and steelwork support structure.

The combined deflection of the tube (ymax), the support structure (yss) and the movement of the tube due to the tilting
action of the post insulator (yPI), plus the outer diameter of the tube (dbo) must be such that the minimum phase-to-
phase clearance is not exceeded.

Attraction Repulsion

C1,2 ≥ Cpp
θ1
θ2
yss
2
θ1
yPI =hPI .θ
2
θ2
yPI =hPI .θ

M M M

Figure 41-3.42: Deflection of the Insulator Steelwork Support

Cpp ≥ C1,2 = 2.(y max + y ss + yPI ) − dbo eq. 41-3.95

The amount by which the structure deflects is a property of the structure geometry and material e.g. lattice or tubular
steel, lattice or tubular aluminium, concrete, etc. and can be determined in the manner indicated in SLDG 21-1 or by
using civil engineering software packages such as Prokon. The use of this software is deemed to be out of the scope of
this dissertation and a more practical approach is to consider the support structure in terms of its elastic properties and
ability to absorb some of the energy as demonstrated in Figure 41-3.42 above and so effectively reduce the fault current
forces translated to the tubular conductor and post insulators. This is dealt with in the next chapter.

11.4.2 Graphical Representation of Phase-to-Phase Distance between the Conductors

Figure 41-3.43 is an Excel based graphical representation of the phase-to-phase clearances expected for a Ø250mm x
6mmWT bus tube, 20m long extruded from 6063T6 aluminium alloy. This forms one of several graphical outputs from
the Excel based busbar program developed by the author for carrying out the studies that forms part of this document.

It is clear from this printout that for phase separations in excess of 4,5m, the differences in the phase-to-phase
clearance becomes vitually negligible, perhaps 100mm or so. This shows the weakened impact of the short circuit
forces as the phase separation increases and also the rigidity of this alloy.

13
Chosen Phase Spacing
12

11
Phase-to-Phase Clearance at Time of Fault [Cpp] (mm)

9
12kA
8
16kA
7 25kA
6 31,5kA
40kA
5 5,1
50kA
Minimum Phase-to-Phase Clearance 63kA
4

3 100mm difference

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Phase Spacing [sp] (m)

Figure 41-3.43: Phase-to-Phase Clearance [Cpp] (m) at the time of the Fault on a 20m Bus Tube Ø250mm x 6mmWT vs Phase Spacing [sp] (m) 6063T6 aluminium
alloy

12. MAXIMUM FORCES IMPOSED ON THE POST INSULATORS

12.1 The Maximum Static Force Imposed Onto the Insulators

Objectives of this Section:

• Determine the maximum static force imposed on the post insulators A (FA(PI)ST) and B (FB(PI)ST) for a chosen
boundary conditions

• Choose α factor for rigid conductor boundary conditions depending the number of spans

• Determine the post insulator strength with a 1,2 Safety Factor

The force acting on the conductor as a result of short circuit current, impose a reaction force at the top of the support
insulator. The insulator must be able to withstand this force with a degree of safety (a minimum safety factor of 1,2 is
recommended for porcelain insulators).

The static force imposed onto the insulators for a single span is calculated as follows:-

1
F L2p from eq. 41-3.40:-

12.1.1 Systems with both ends supported (A and B)

1
FA,B(PI)ST = 0,5.F L2p . l (N) eq. 41-3.96

12.1.2 Systems with one end supported and one end fixed

12.1.2.1 Supported end (A)

3 1
FA(PI)ST = .F L2p .l
8 eq. 41-3.97
1
= 0,375.F L2p . l (N)

12.1.2.2 Fixed end (B)

5 1
FB(PI)ST = .F L2p .l
8 eq. 41-3.98
1
= 0,625.F L2p . l (N)

12.1.3 Systems with both ends fixed (A and B)

1
FA,B(PI)ST = 0,5.F L2p . l (N) eq. 41-3.99

Busbars, by definition, do not consist of single spans, but multiple spans that could be made up of various combinations
of boundary conditions. A simplification of the various combinations of conductor boundary conditions are provided in
the form of factor α as given in Table 41-3.11 as follows:-

1
F(PI)ST = α .F L2p . l (N) eq. 41-3.100

where:-

α = factor for rigid conductor boundary conditions (see Table 41-3.11)

For Supports A and B

1
FA(PI)ST = α A .F L2p . l (N) eq. 41-3.101

1
FB(PI)ST = α B .F L2p . l (N) eq. 41-3.102

12.2 Maximum Dynamic Forces Imposed On the Insulators

Objectives of this Section:

• Choose γ fundamental (natural) frequency factor based on rigid busbar boundary

• Determine the Dynamic Force Acting on the Insulator [F(PI)DYN]

• Determine the Dynamic Force Acting with ARC on the Insulator [F(PI)DYN+ARC]

Forces acting on the tubular busbar support post insulators

The forces acting in the post insulators are multiplied by 1,2. The resultant must not exceed the minimum insulator
failing load (cantilever strength).

The dynamic force acting on insulators is therefore:-

12.2.1 Dynamic forces without ARC

1
F(PI)DYN = α .F L2p . l .ν F
eq. 41-3.103
= F(PI)ST .ν F (N)

12.2.1.1 Post Insulators A and B

FA(PI)DYN = FA(PI)ST .ν F (N) eq. 41-3.104

FB(PI)DYN = FB(PI)ST .ν F (N) eq. 41-3.105

12.2.2 Dynamic forces with ARC

F(PI)DYN + ARC = F(PI)DYN . ν r (N) eq. 41-3.106

12.2.2.1 Post Insulators A and B

FA(PI)DYN + ARC = FA(PI)DYN .ν r (N) eq. 41-3.107

FB(PI)DYN + ARC = FB(PI)DYN .ν r (N) eq. 41-3.108

12.3 Resultant Forces Imposed On the Post Insulators

Objective of this section:-

• Determine the Resultant Force Acting on the Insulator [FR(PI)]

12.3.1 Resultant Forces acting on the tubular busbar support post insulators

2 2
FR(PI) = (w b + c + w i ) + (Fw1 + FDYN + ARC ) eq. 41-3.109

12.3.1.1 Post Insulators A and B

2 2
FRA(PI) = (w b + c + w i ) + (Fw1 + FA(PI)DYN + ARC ) eq. 41-3.110

2 2
FRB(PI) = (w b + c + w i ) + (Fw1 + FB(PI)DYN + ARC ) eq. 41-3.111

12.3.2 Maximum Resultant Forces acting on the tubular busbar support post insulators

The performance of porcelain insulators subjected to dynamic forces is somewhat different to that under static
conditions. This is due to the fact that an insulator inherently has microscopic deformities as a result of imperfect
manufacturing processes. These deformities may cause partial rupturing within these zones when sudden changes in
stress acts on structures at an atomic level. In order to prevent this from taking place and ensure enough residual
strength, the insulators are oversized by a predetermined safety factor.

Initial tests conducted by Eskom have indicated that a safety factor of 1,2 should be used.

12.3.2.1 Post Insulators A and B

FRA(PI)MAX = FRA(PI) .SF

eq. 41-3.112
= FRA(PI) .1,2

FRB(PI)MAX = FRB(PI) .SF

eq. 41-3.113
= FRA(PI) .1,2

Force on Post Insulator vs Phase Spacing

250mm x 6mmWT - Tube Span Length 20m

17000

16000

15000

14000

13000

12000

11000
Force on Post Insulator (N)

12k A
10000 16k A
25k A
9000 31,5k A
8000 40k A
50k A
7000 63k A
6000 Selected Phase Spacing

5000

4000

3000

2000

1000

0
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Busbar Phase Spacing (m)

Figure 41-3.44: Force on Post Insulator (N) vs Busbar Phase Spacing (m) for a given Fault Current (kA) [Excel Printout from Busbar Programme]

Maximum Dynamic Stress on Conductor vs Phase Spacing

250mm x 6mmWT - Tube Span Length 20m

300
290
280
270
260
250
240
230
220
210
Max Dynamic Stress on Conductor

200 12kA
190
16kA
180
170
25kA
160 31,5kA
150 40kA
140 50kA
130
63kA
120
110 Se le cte d Phas e Spacing
100 Se le cte d 0,2% Proof Stre ss
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Phase Spacing

Figure 41-3.45: Maximum Dynamic Stress inBus Tube (MPa) vs Busbar Phase Spacing (m) for a given Fault Current (kA) [Excel Printout from Busbar Programme]

13. BENDING MOMENTS IMPOSED ON THE TUBULAR BUSBAR SYSTEM

Objectives of this Section:-

• Calculate the bending moments exerted on the base of the support post insulator

• Calculate the bending moments exerted on the base of the post insulator support steelwork

• Demonstrate the effect that different types of support systems have on the support post insulator

13.1 Bending Moment Imposed At the Base of the Porcelain Insulators

A further requirement in the choice of the Insulator whether it be porcelain or composite is to ensure that the maximum
allowable bending moment at the base is no exceeded. This is done simply by considering the maximum dynamic force at
the base of each of the insulators, and the height of the centre line of the tube above the base of the insulator.

A B A

Figure 41-3.46: Two to Three or more spans (See Table 41-3.11)

Attraction Repulsion

M M M

Figure 41-3.47: Bending moment at the base of the porcelain insulator for a single combined support structure

Attraction Repulsion

FR(A,B)MAX FR(A,B)MAX
hI

M M M

Figure 41-3.48: Bending moment at the base of the porcelain insulator for three single supports

M = FRMAX . hI (N.m) eq. 41-3.114

where:-

hI = height of the centre line of the tube above the base of the insulator in m

13.1.1 Porcelain A and B:

M(A) = FR(A)MAX . hIA (N.m) eq. 41-3.115

M(B) = FR(B)MAX . hIB (N.m) eq. 41-3.116

13.2 Bending Moment Imposed At the Base of the Steelwork Structure

At EHV and UHV voltage levels, the insulators are supported on dedicated structures as shown above. The moment
generated is in fact transferred to the base of the structure. It is therefore necessary to ensure that the moment at the
base of the steelwork support structure does not exceed the maximum allowable bending moment. As in the case of the
insulators, this is done simply by considering the maximum dynamic force on the insulators, and the height of the centre
line of the tube above the base of the insulator.

13.2.1 Bending moment at the base of the insulator steelwork support structure

M = 1,7 . FRMAX(DYN+ARC) . (hi + hs) (N.m) eq. 41-3.117

where:-

hs = height of the support above the foundation in m

13.2.1.1 Support structures A and B:

M(A) = 1,7 . FR(A)MAX(DYN+ARC) . (hiA + hs) (N.m) eq. 41-3.118

M(B) = 1,7 . FR(B)MAX(DYN+ARC) . (hiB + hs) (N.m) eq. 41-3.119

A safety factor of 1,7 is built into all steelwork structures.

Attraction Repulsion

M M M

Figure 41-3.49: Deflection of the Insulator Steelwork Support

13.2.1.2 Steelwork Structure Flexibility

Busbar support structures can be fabricated from various types of materials and in various configurations. Due to their
flexibility, these structures are capable of absorbing some of the energy generated under fault conditions and so reduce
the effective short-circuit forces. Eq 41-3.38 could in effect be reworked as follows:-
−7
F
1
sc = Kf .
4.10
( )2
. I sc eq. 41-3.120
sp

where:-
Kf = Busbar support structure flexibility factor

Where all three phases are mounted on one structure as shown in Figure 41-3.50, Kf is taken as unity (Kf = 1)

Attraction Repulsion

FR(A,B)MAX(DYN+ARC) FR(A,B)MAX(DYN+ARC)
hi

M M M

Figure 41-3.50: Bending moment at the base of the porcelain insulator for a single combined support structure

Where the three phases are mounted on separate support structures as illustrated in Figure 41-3.49 above, the Kf
values can be determined from Figure 41-3.51

1,0

D
0,9

C
0,8
B

A
0,7

1524 3048 4572 6096 7620 9144 10668 12192

Busbar Height [hc] (mm)

Figure 41-3.51: Kf vs Busbar Height

The estimated parameters for the decrement factor functions are given below:-

KfA = 1,0 0 < hc ≤ 2683m

-5
= 1,0723 - 2,6953.10 .hc 2683mm < hc ≤ 12192mm eq. 41-3.121

KfB = 1,0 0 < hc ≤ 4213m

-5
= 1,1056 - 2,5066.10 .hc 4213mm < hc ≤ 12192mm eq. 41-3.122

KfC = 1,0 0 < hc ≤ 4543m

-5
= 1,1467 - 2,3841.10 .hc 6152m < hc ≤ 12192m eq. 41-3.123

KfD = 1,0 0 < hc ≤ 10007m

-5
= 1,2519 - 2,5172.10 .hc 10007mm < hc ≤ 12192mm eq. 41-3.124

where:-

A = Lattice and tubular aluminium

B = Tubular and wide flange steel
C = Lattice steel
D = Solid concrete

14. THERMAL EXPANSION CONSIDERATIONS FOR BUS TUBING

Objectives of this section:-

• Calculate the expansion clamp slot length

When the temperature of a bus conductor changes the length of the conductor also changes. The change in length with
respect to change in temperature can also be calculated as follows:-

 1 + α th .Tf  
∆l i = l i .
  − 1 (mm) eq. 41-3.125
 1 + α th .Ti  

where:-

li = Span length of tubular conductor in mm

∆ li = Change in span length in mm
o -1
αth = Coefficient of thermal expansion in C
-6 -1 -6 -1
= αCu = 17.10 K , αAl = 23.10 K
o
Ti = Initial temperature in C
o
Tf = Final temperature in C

14.1 Forces on Equipment Due To the Elongation of Rigid Conductors Fixed At Both Ends

Temperature related changes can exert considerable mechanical stresses on the conductors, their supports and
connection points (equipment) if lengthy conductor runs include no means of compensation.

o o
Example: Using the maximum emergency value of 90 C with an ambient temperature of 40 C, and assuming a tube
length of typical 10 m:-

For Copper Bus Tubing

 -6
17.10 .50 
∆l Cu = 10.10 . 
3
 -6
(mm)
 1 + 17.10 .40 

∆ l Cu = 8,5 mm

For Aluminium Bus Tubing

 -6
23.10 .50 
= 10.10 . 
3
∆l  -6
(mm)
Al
 1 + 23.10 .40 

∆ l Al = 11,5 mm

The forces applied can be calculated very easily if the change of length due to temperature ∆L is put equal to the
change of length caused by a mechanical force F

 α th . Tf −Ti   F.l i

∆l i = l i .
  = eq. 41-3.126
E.A
 1 + α thTi 

where:-

F = Mechanical force in N
2
A = Conductor cross-sectional area in mm
o -1
E = Modulus of Elasticity in C
5 2 5 2
= Cu = 1,1 x 10 N/mm , Al = 0,65 x 10 N/mm
o
Ti = Initial temperature in C

F  α th . Tf − Ti  
=
  eq. 41-3.127
E.A  1 + α th .Ti 

 α th . Tf −Ti  

F = E.A.
  eq. 41-3.128
 1 + α th .Ti 
2
For ∆θ = 1K, A = 1 mm (specific values)

Specific loading

1
F = αth.E eq. 41-3.129

1 2
F cu ≈ 2,53 N / (K.mm )

1 2
F Al ≈ 1,50 N / (K.mm )

14.2 Compensating For the Elongation of Rigid Conductors Fixed At Both Ends

The expansion of the tubular conductors is accommodated be installing expansion clamps into which the conductors are
fixed as illustrated in Figures 41-3.52 and 41-3.53. One side may be fixed, while the other is allowed to slide, or both
sides may slide. There is, however, a limit to the length of the bus that an expansion bus support can accommodate.
This is due to the preset gap D that the expansion clamp is designed with to allow for bus expansion.

o
Manufacturers may specify the gap dimension D for 20 C installation temperature and is therefore used as temperature
for Ti in the above equation. The final bus temperature used for Tf in the above equation must consider the temperature
o
of the bus right after the occurrence of a short-circuit condition. A value of 90 C can be assumed since this is the value
used for emergency conditions.

Rearranging equation 17.1 for ℓi:-

 1 + α th .Ti 
l i = ∆l i .  (mm) eq. 41-3.130
 α . T − T  
 th  f i  

CL Bus Tube

Expansion
Clamp
C
L

F ∆ℓ S

Figure 16.1: Tubular Bus Expansion Clamp

-6 o
Since αth is very small (23.10 per unit length per C), 1 + αth ≈ 1

 1 
l i ≈ ∆l i .  (mm) eq. 41-3.131
 α . T − T  
 th  f i  

Suppose it is assumed that D = 100mm, then the length of a tube should not exceed:-

 1 
l i ≈ 100. 
-6
( )
 23.10 . 90 − 20 
= 62112 mm

≈ 62 m

This value will generally far exceed any practical length of tube employed in tubular bus substations and should
therefore not present a problem providing the correct gap is used. This will be dictated by the width of the clamp and the
amount of movement that is allowed by the sliding slot.

ℓ+∆ℓ

∆ ℓ
ℓ
Tube contraction

F S Tube expansion F S

Figure 41-3.153: Tubular Bus Expansion System

14.3 Torsional Forces on the Post Insulators

The maximum allowable torsion on the post insulator head is usually in the region of 3kN.m and varies from
manufacturer to manufacturer. For example, CERAM, a very well known and reputable insulator manufacturer offer the
following products:-

Table 41-3.14: Post Insulator Minimum Failing Loads

Type Minimum Failing Load

Bending (kN) Torsion (Static Load ) Torsion (Dynamic Load )
(τPI) (kN.m) (τPI) (kN.m)
C4 - 1425 4 3 2,5
C6 - 1425 6 3 2,5
C8 - 1425 8 4 3,33
C10 - 1425 10 4 3,33
C12,5 - 1425 12,5 6 5
C16 - 1425 16 6 5
C20 - 1425 20 6 5

Under dynamic conditions, the allowable torque is only 80% that of the static value as the failure mechanism is slightly
different to that under static conditions.

τsc< τ (PI)DYN eq. 41-3.132

where:-

τsc = Torque due to short circuit forces on the bus tubing exerted on the head of the post
insulator in kN.m
τ (PI)DYN = Rated maximum allowable dynamic torque on the head of the post insulator in kN.m
(Manufacturers tables)

Torque

Cpe
C≥

deqR

Figure 41-3.54: Torsional Forces

In the event that the allowable post insulator torsional forces are exceeded, the head of the insulator will shear off. This
could result from excessive movement of the tubular conductor due to a fault in conjunction with high wind loading, or an
incorrectly applied clamping arrangement at the end of the busbars.

If a rigidly fixed (F) clamp is used at the end of a bus system with no allowance for lateral movement, the force is
asymmetrical, unlike the other post insulators which would have opposing moments on them that essentially cancel out
the torsional moment. The former case would therefore result in a torsional force on it as indicated in the area enclosed
by the chain line in Figure 41-3.54 above. This latter case would result in a torsional force, which if greater than the
strength of the post insulator, would result in failure. The bus system would fail due to the domino effect as illustrated in
Figure 41-3.55 below.

Head
Twisted
Balanced Balanced Balanced Balanced
Off
Forces Forces Forces Forces

Initial Failure Domino

Failures

First Second Third

Failure Failure Failure
Fourth
Failure

Figure 41-3.55: Mechanism of Catastrophic Failure

In an attempt to determine what the magnitude of the torsional force would be if one of the ends was fixed, we assume
for a moment that the shape bus tube is such that it forms a sector on a circle as illustrated in Figure 41-3.56.

r r

ℓ½ δ
β
yDYN+ARC α
β
s'
s
b'

Figure 41-3.56: Modelling Torsional Forces

 
-1
 yDYN + ARC 
α = tan   eq. 41-3.133
 l1 
 2 

where:-

α = The angular displacement of the tube with respect to the straight line joining the
two supporting post insulators in degrees
ℓ½ = Half the span length in mm
yDYN+ARC = The maximum displacement of the tube at its midpoint under fault conditions in
mm
o
β= 90 – α eq. 41-3.134

o
θ= 180 – 2.β eq. 41-3.135

β and θ are merely angles within the geometry of the model measured in degrees.

 2 
s' =  l 1 + yDYN + ARC
2
 eq. 41-3.136
 2 

where:-

s' = The length of the chord subtended by angle θ measured in mm

s' r
= where θ is in radians
sinθ sinβ
eq. 41-3.137

s'.sinβ
∴r =
sinθ

where:-

r = The radius of the approximated circle of which the deformed tube forms a part in mm

b' = r.θ where θ is in radians eq. 41-3.138

b' = The length of the arc subtended by angle θ measured in mm

Total amount of movement

dm = b' – ℓ½ eq. 41-3.139

The slot must therefore accommodate a total of ds mm from its rest position

ds = dm + ∆ℓ eq. 41-3.140

Thermal contraction will shorten the tube length, reducing the amount the sliding pin can move. This needs to be
checked in conjunction with the movement of the tube under fault conditions. Figure 41-3.57 shows a typical expansion
clamp where the one side is fixed marked F, while the other side is allowed to move or slide marked S. The slot S must

be long enough to cater for the worst condition with respect to either full tube expansion or contraction and then
experiencing a fault condition.

Bus Tube
C
L

Figure 41-3.57: Tubular Bus Expansion Clamp Slot Length

As illustrated in Figures 41-3.57 and 41-3.58, if it is assumed that the initial position is in the centre of the slot, then
accounting for contraction, it is safe to say total slot length must be at least:

Ls = 2.ds eq. 41-3.141

The problem arises when the contraction is such that when a fault occurs, there is not enough distance left in the slot to
allow for the movement, causing the sliding pin to knock up against the end of the slot. Under these conditions, not only
will there be a cantilever force exerted on the insulator, but also a torsional force.

Example: This clamp must is to be used for the following design:-

400kV Yard in an area close to the coast with sparse vegetation and experiencing high wind speeds of 50 m/s. Suppose
o
the temperature difference from the installed value is 25 C. The fault current is calculated to 50kA.

ℓ= 10 000mm

yDYN+ARC = 335mm

C Bus Tube
L

Expansion
Clamp

C
L

dm
F S

Figure 41-3.58: Tubular Bus Expansion Clamp

ℓt = ℓ.(1+αth.∆θth) (from eq. 41-3.12)

-6
= 10 000.(1 + 23.10 .25)

ℓt = 10 006mm

 yDYN + ARC 
-1
α = tan  
 l 
- 1 335 
= tan   (from eq. 41-3.133)
 10 006 
o
= 1,9175

o o
β = 90 – 1,9175

o
= 88,0825

o o
θ= 180 – 2. 88,0825

o
= 3, 8350

s' = (l 2
+ yDYN + ARC
2
)
= (10006 2
+ 335
2
) (from eq. 41-3.136)

= 10012 mm

s' r
= where θ is in radians
sinθ sinβ

s'.sinβ
r= (from eq. 41-3.137)
sinθ
o
10012.sin88,0825
= o
sin3,8350
= 149,610 m

b' = r.θ

π
= 149,421.3,8350. o
where θ is in radians (from eq. 41-3.138)
180
10,014 m

Total amount of movement

dm = b' - ℓ (from eq. 41-3.139)

= 10 014 – 10 006

dm = 8 mm

The slot must therefore allow for:-

ds = dm + ∆ℓ (from eq. 41-3.140)

= 8mm + 16mm

ds = 24mm from its original set position.

Assuming this was in the centre of the slot then it would require a slot length of:-

Ls = 2.ds eq. 41-3.142

= 2 . 24mm

Ls = 48mm long.

It would probably best to make it 50mm in length to allow for any inaccuracies in the calculation.

In the worst case, if the end tube was fixed, the torsional force exerted on the insulator would be:-

1
τ sc = F R( σ )DYN + ARC .l eq. 41-3.143

= 0,6767.10

= 6,767 kN.m

The result would obviously mean failure of the insulator as the calculated torsional force exceeds the rated static and
dynamic values of all the insulators.

Example: The failure of the 400kV Red phase busbar at Maputo Substation, Maputo, Mozambique.

A cyclone moved through the Maputo area and Maputo substation experienced wind speeds in the order of 50 m/s. The
result of this was that part of the 400kV red phase busbar, which bore the brunt of the wind, fell to the ground as a result
of insulator failure. On investigation it was found that a fixed clamp was used at the end of the busbar. The fault level at
Maputo is only around 10kA.

Falling of Bus Tube Severely

Damaged a Red Phase
Pantograph Isolator

Fixed Clamp
Caused Excessive
torsion on PI Head

Figure 41-3.59: Catastrophic Failure at the End of the 400kV Red Phase Conductors

FR(σ)DYN+ARC = 275,38 N

1
τ sc = F R( σ )DYN + ARC .l (from eq. 41-3.143)

= 0,27538.10

= 2,754 kN.m

At Maputo Substation, 6kN post insulators were used which have a dynamic rating of 2,5kV.m. This value was
exceeded and therefore resulted in the failure shown in Figures 41-3.59 and 41-3.60.

Figure 41-3.60: Catastrophic Failure of the 400kV Red Phase Conductors

15. SUBSTATION CONDUCTOR HEIGHTS DETERMINED BY CORONA PERFORMANCE

Objectives of this Section:-

15.1 Ensuring Electrical Clearances are not Infringed

Having met all the horizontal phase-to-earth and phase-to-phase electrical clearances and thus establishing the bay
width, the height of the inter-equipment conductors needs to be determined.

Cpe Cpe het

hc ≥Cwv

(a) Elevation transverse to an equipment bay (across the phases)

het
EB

Cwv

C C C
L L L

CB CT ES

41-3.61: Determining the Inter-equipment Conductor Height

As a starting point therefore:-

hc = h s + het − s c ≥ C wv eq. 41-3.144

where:-

hc = Height of the lowest point of the equipment interconnector conductor above the
equipment foundation top of concrete in mm
hs = Statutory clearance to the base of the equipment porcelain in mm
het = Height from the base of the equipment porcelain to the equipment connection terminal in
mm
sc = Expected sag in the inter-equipment conductors (applicable when stranded flexible
conductors are used) in mm
sp = Phase spacing in mm

Eq. 41-3.44 would suffice for low system voltages with low phase currents, where electric and magnetic field strengths
would probably be below the recommended safe levels. However, as a general guideline, and for illustrating the
complete analysis process, the remaining criteria need to be checked, viz. corona inception levels and allowable electric
and magnetic field strengths within the boundaries of the substation, and on the substation perimeter edges where the
public has access. These would in any event be required at EHV and UHV levels.

15.2 Corona Requirements

Objectives of this Section:

• Chosen Line Voltage VL

• Determine the height of the inter-equipment connection conductors (hc) to result in E ≤ 10kV/m and H ≤ 500µT (E
and H fields)

• Determine the height of the busbars (hb).

• Determine the height of the stringers (hss)

• Determine the height of the lightning protection conductors (He)

15.2.1 Substation Conductor Heights (determine corona performance)

The surface field strength on a tubular conductor is dependant on various factors such as height above ground, tube
diameter, and to a lesser degree, phase spacing (sp).

The corona inception or threshold limits for various single conductors are listed in Table 41-3.15. Theoretically it should
be possible to reduce these figures by a reasonable safety factor and then select a suitable tube size from Table 41-3.2
for that particular voltage. However, another factor that should be borne in mind is the span length that might

necessitate the use of a much larger tube to meet the mechanical strength requirements as discussed in Section 10.
Under such conditions, the increased diameter would also contribute to a lower surface field strength as mentioned
further on in this chapter.

To give the substation designer a bit of leeway, the recommendation would be to consider two separate sets of
conditions as follows:-

• Relatively short span lengths without welds and ;

• Long span lengths where welds may be essential (today imported tubes of lengths up to 30m are possible, thus
negating the requirement of welds).

15.2.2 Calculation of Conductor Surface Field Strength and Determination of Corona Inception Levels for
Typical Arrangements

This section deals with the calculation of conductor surface field strength, for single and bundle conductor arrangements
and compares inception levels at various voltages.

15.2.2.1 Corona threshold limits (Ec)

Empirical expressions that were developed by Peek (UK) and Heymann (University of Pretoria) give corona threshold
field strengths for single conductors as follows:-

 0,03  10 kV
Peek : E c = 3.mr .δ 1 + . (rms) eq. 41-3.145
 rb .δ  2 cm

 0,0937  10 kV
Heymann : E c = 2,4.m r .δ 1 + . (rms) eq. 41-3.146
 (rb .δ )0,4  2 cm

where:-

Ec = Corona threshold surface field strength

δ = Relative air density (RAD)
rbo = Conductor radius in metres
mr = Factor to allow for surface roughness

Typical values for mr are as follows:-

Polished tubes - 1,0

Extruded tubes - 0,95
stranded conductor - 0,8

The relative air density (RAD) can be determined from the reciprocal of equation 4-131 of SLDG 4-1.

 Ha 
- 
 8150 
RAD = e (dimensionless) eq. 41-3.147

If RAD is taken as 0,8 typical of 1800 m above sea level, equations 41-3.145 and 41-3.146 give the values listed in
Table 41-3.15 below for Ec.

Table 41-3.15: Corona Threshold Surface Field Strength for Various Conductors

CONDUCTOR DETAILS PEEK HEYMANN

Type Conductor mr Ec Ec
Dia. (mm) kV / cm (rms) kV / cm (rms)
Tubular Conductor 50 0,95 19,54 18,68
Tubular Conductor 75 0,95 18,91 17,81
Tubular Conductor 100 0,95 18,54 17,28
Tubular Conductor 150 0,95 18,10 16,62
Tubular Conductor 200 0,95 17,83 16,22
Tubular Conductor 250 0,95 17,65 15,93

15.2.2.2 Calculation of conductor surface field strength (Em) using the image method.

sp sp
b 2.rb
1 2 3 4 5 6
A B C

Gound
Plane
hb D1 D2 D3 D4 D5

Figure 41-3.62: Conductor Surface Field Strength on a Conductor Bundle Using the Image Method

By applying the formulae derived for a three phase transmission line to a bundle conductor arrangement as shown
above, the phase to ground voltage on conductor 1 is given by:

V =
Q1  2.hb  + Q 2 .ln  D1  + Q 3 .ln  D2  + Q 4 .ln  D3 
.ln
1 2.π.ε     
 b  2.π.ε  b  2.π.ε  sp  2.π.ε  sp + b 
eq. 41-3.148

Q5  D4 Q 6  D5 
+ .ln  + .ln   (Volts)
2.π.ε  2.sp  2.π.ε  2.sp + b 

where:-

V1 = instantaneous phase to ground voltage on conductor 1 in volts (V)

2
Q1, Q 2....Q6 = instantaneous charges on conductors 1, 2 ...6 respectively in coulomb/m C/m .
ε
2 2
= the dielectric constant for air in C /Nm .
rb = the radius of the conductor in metres (m)

hc = height of conductors above ground in metres (m)

sp = phase spacing in metres (m)
D1,D2....D5 = relative distances between conductors in metres (m)

The instantaneous charge on a conductor is proportional to the instantaneous phase to ground voltage of the conductor,
o
but due to the fact that the voltages on the three phases are displaced by 120 and the algebraic sum of the
charges ∑nx =1 Q x = 0 , it follows that if the charge on conductor 1 at any particular instant equals +Q coulomb/m, then
the charges on the other two phases are -0,5.Q coulomb/m each. This leads to the following simplification:-

Q1 ≈ Q2 = Q eq. 41-3.149

Q3 ≈ Q4 = -0,5.Q1 = -0,5.Q eq. 41-3.150

Q5 ≈ Q6 = -0,5.Q1 = -0,5.Q eq. 41-3.151

Substitute in (17.6), (17.7) and (17.8) above and we get:-

Q   2.hb   D1   D2   D3   D4   D5  
V1 = Vn = .ln   + ln   − 0,5.ln   + ln   + ln   + ln   (Volts)
2.π.ε b  sp   sp + b   2.sp   2.sp + b  
  rb 

V1 = Vn =
Q
[ ]
. P1 (Volts) eq. 41-3.152
2.π.ε

Where Vn = phase to neutral voltage in volts

 2.hb   D1   D   D3   D 4   D5 
P1 = ln   + ln − 0,5.ln  2  + ln   + ln   + ln  eq. 41-3.153
 
 rb   b   sp   sp + b   2.sp   2.sp + b 

but the average field strength on the surface of any conductor with radius r and charge + q coulomb/m is given by:-

+q
E av = (Volts/m) eq. 41-3.154
2.π.ε.rb

(17.11) applied to conductor 1 of the above arrangement gives:-

Q
E1av = (Volts/m) eq. 41-3.155
2.π.ε.rb

Where :-

Q = charge on conductor 1 in coulomb/m

rbo = radius of conductor 1 in metres

Substitute for Q from (17.10)

E1av =
[Vn ].2.π.ε . 1
[P1 ].2.π.ε rb

Vn 1
=
[P1 ]
. kV/m(rms)
rb

E1av =
[VL ] . 1
.
1
kV/cm(rms) eq. 41-3.156
2
3 P1r 10

with VL in kV (rms) and rb in metres.

The average field strength for the other conductors can be calculated in a similar manner.


E e = E av . 1 + n - 1 .
 ( ) db .cosθ  eq. 41-3.157
b 

where:-

n = Number of conductors in a bundle

db = Conductor diameter
b = Bundle diameter

Figure 41-363: Variation of the Electric Field Strength w.r.t Angular Position Relative to a Bundle Conductor

This is termed the effective field strength and is given by:-


E e = E av . 1 + 0,71. n - 1 .
 ( ) db  eq. 41-3.158
b 

The above is true if each phase was made up of a bundle of conductors, however, since a single bus tube per phase (n
= 1) is generally used, the above relationship reduces to:-

E e = E av eq. 41-3.159

sp sp
db

1 A 2 3 C

Ground
Plane

hc D21 D31 D12 D32 D13 D23

Figure 41-3.644: Conductor Surface Field Strength on a Bus Tube Using the Image Method

By applying the formulae derived for a three phase transmission line to a tubular conductor arrangement as shown
above, the phase to ground voltage on conductor 1 is given by:-

Q 11  2.hb  Q12  D12  Q13  D13 

V1 =
2.π.ε
.ln
 r  + 2.π.ε .ln  s  + 2.π.ε .ln  2.s  (Volts) eq. 41-3.160
 b   p  p

The average field strength for the other conductors can be calculated in a similar manner.

Q 21  D21  Q 22  2.hb  Q13  D23 

V2 = +
2.π.ε
.ln  .ln
 + .ln   (Volts) eq. 41-3.161
 sp  2.π.ε  rb  2.π.ε  sp 

Q 31  D31  Q 32  D32  Q13  2.hb 

V3 = .ln  + .ln  + .ln (Volts) eq. 41-3.162
2.π.ε  
 2.sp  2.π.ε  sp  2.π.ε  rb 

where:-

V1 , V2 , V3 = instantaneous phase to ground voltage on conductors 1, 2 and 3

respectively in volts
Q11, Q12, Q13, Q21, = instantaneous charges on conductors
Q22, Q23, Q31, Q32,
Q33 1, 2, 3 respectively in coulomb/m.
2 2
ε = the dielectric constant for air in C /Nm .
dbo = the diameter of the conductor in mm
rbo = the radius of the conductor in mm
hc = height of conductors above ground in mm
sp = phase spacing in mm
D11, D12, D21, D22, = relative distances between conductors in mm
D31, D32

charges ∑nx =1 Q x = 0 , it follows that if the charge on conductor 1 at any particular instant equals +Q coulomb/m, then
the charges on the other two phases are -0,5Q cou1omb/m each. This leads to the following simplification:-

Q11 ≈ Q22 ≈ Q33 = Q eq. 41-3.163

Q12 ≈ Q13 = -0,5.Q1 = -0,5.Q eq. 41-3.164

Q21 ≈ Q23 = -0,5.Q1 = -0,5.Q eq. 41-3.165

Q31 ≈ Q32 = -0,5.Q1 = -0,5.Q eq. 41-3.166

Substitute in eqns. 41-3.160, 41-3.161 and 41-3.162::-

Q   2.h  D   D13  
o
12 .cos120 o
 + ln 
b
V1 = Vn = .ln  + ln  .cos240 (Volts) eq. 41-3.167
2.π.ε   rb   sp   2.sp  

Q   D21  o  2.hb   D23  o


V2 = Vn = .ln .cos120 + ln   + ln  .cos240 (Volts) eq. 41-3.168
2.π.ε
  sp   rb   sp  

Q   D31  o
 D32  o  2.hb  
V3 = Vn = .ln  .cos120 + ln  .cos240 + ln  (Volts) eq. 41-3.169
2.π.ε
  2.sp   sp   rb  

Simplified

Q   2.hb   D12   D13  

V1 = Vn = .ln   − 0,5.ln   − 0,5.ln   (Volts) eq. 41-3.170
2.π.ε  sp   2.sp  
  rb 

Q   D21   2.hb   D23  

V2 = Vn = .− 0,5.ln   + ln   − 0,5.ln   (Volts) eq. 41-3.171
2.π.ε  sp   rb   sp  


 D 
V3 = Vn = Q .− 0,5.ln 31 −0,5.ln  32  +ln 
D 2.hb  
 sp   rb  
(Volts) eq. 41-3.172
2.π.ε  2.sp 
 

V1 = Vn =
Q
[ ]
. P1 (Volts) eq. 41-3.173
2.π.ε

V2 = Vn =
Q
[ ]
. P2 (Volts) eq. 41-3.174
2.π.ε

V3 = Vn =
Q
[ ]
. P3 (Volts) eq. 41-3.175
2.π.ε

where:-

Vn = phase to neutral voltage in volts

 2.hb  D  D 
P1 = ln   − 0,5.ln  12  + −0,5.ln  13  eq. 41-3.176
 rb   sp   2.sp 

 D21   2.hb  D 
P2 = −0,5.ln   + ln   − 0,5.ln  23  eq. 41-3.177
 sp   rb   sp 

 D31   D32   2.hb 

P3 = −0,5.ln   − 0,5.ln   + ln   eq. 41-3.178
 sp   sp   rb 

In terms of the basic parameters

 2.hb 
P1 = ln  −


([2.h ] + s ) − 0,5.ln ([2.h ] + [2.s ] )
b
2
p
2
b
2
p
2

 0,5.ln eq. 41-3.179

 rb   sp   2.sp 
   


= −0,5.ln 
([2.h ] + s ) + ln 2.h
2 2
  ([2.h ] + s )
2 2

 − 0,5.ln 
b p b b p
P2  eq. 41-3.180
 sp   rb   sp 
   


= −0,5.ln 
([2.h ] + [2.s ] ) − 0,5.ln ([2.h ] + s ) + ln 2.h
b
2
p
2
b
2
p
2
b

P3   eq. 41-3.181
 sp   sp   rb 
   

but the average field strength on the surface of any conductor with radius r and charge + q coulomb/m is given by:-

+q
E av = (Volts/m) eq. 41-3.182
2.π.ε

Eq. 41-3.182 applied to conductor 1 of the above arrangement gives:-

Q
E1av ≈ E 2av ≈ E 3av = (Volts/m) eq. 41-3.183
2.π.ε.rb

where:-

Q = charge on conductor 1 in coulomb/m

rbo = radius of conductors 1, 2 and 3 in metres

Substitute for Q from 41-3.183

E1av =
[Vn ].2.π.ε . 1
[P1 ].2.π.ε r1b
Vn 1
=
[P1 ]
. kV/cm(rms) eq. 41-3.184
r'1b

E =
[VL ] . 1
.
1
.
1
kV/cm(rms) eq. 41-3.185
2
1av 3 P1r r1b 10

with VL in kV (rms) and rbo in metres.

Similarly for the centre phase

E 2av =
[Vn ].2.π.ε . 1
[P2 ].2.π.ε r2b
Vn 1
=
[P2 ]
. kV/cm(rms) eq. 41-3.186
r2b

E2av =
[VL ] . 1
.
1 1
. 2 kV/cm(rms) eq. 41-3.187
3 P2r r2b 10

For the outer phase

E 3av =
[Vn ].2.π.ε . 1
[P3 ].2.π.ε r3b
Vn 1
= eq. 41-3.188
[P3 ].r3b kV/cm(rms)

E3av =
[VL ]. 1 . 1 . 1
kV/cm(rms) eq. 41-3.189
2
3 P3r r3b 10

17.2.2.3 Effective field strength for typical outdoor busbar configurations

Equation 41-3.157 applied to horizontal busbar arrangements, using single, double and bundle conductors give values
for effective field strengths at line voltages of 765 kV, 400 kV and 275 kV respectively. Results are shown in Tables 41-
3.19 to 41-3.24 in Appendix A of this document.

Ee < Ec ⇒ no corona eq. 41-3.190

The program BUSBAR was developed to calculate the effective field strength Ee and compare it to the value Ec, the
equation of which was determined experimentally and fitted with the equations 41-3.145 and 41-3.146. A typical
BUSBAR report sheet is shown below.

BUSBAR REPORT SHEET

CORONA CALCULATION PROGRAM

INTRODUCTION
A computer program based on the image method as discussed in the previous section was developed for calculation
of conductor surface field strengths, as well as corona threshold limits.
The corona calculation program will calculate the maximum electric field strength as well as the corona threshold limit
for single and bundle stranded conductors as well as tubular conductors.
An example of the input and output of the program is shown below for a 200 mm diameter tubular conductor at 1800 m
above sea level.
CORONA CALCULATION PROGRAM
System Voltage (kV) 400.00000000
Number of Phases 3
Phase Spacing (m) 7.00000000
Height above Ground (m) 5.80000000
No of Conductors per bundle 1
Conductor Diameter (mm) 200.00000000
Centipede = 26.46 Zebra = 28.6 Bull = 38.4
Conductor on Circle Y/N N
Bundle should be centered round phase position
Input Co-ordinates should be relative to phase position
and be given in mm
X Pos. of cond. No.1 1.00000000
Y Pos. of cond. No.1 1.00000000
Input effective bundle diameter in mm 1.00000000
CORONA THRESHOLD LIMITS
Relative Air Density 0.80000000
Surface Factor: 0.95000000
Polished Tubes = 1.0
Extruded Tubes = 0.95
Stranded Conductor = 0.8
Maximum Electric Field Strength
Corona Threshold limit = 17.024 kV/cm
Phase 1: 5.3797 kV/cm Corona Absent
Phase 2: 5.6419 kV/cm Corona Absent
Phase 3: 5.3797 kV/cm Corona Absent
Another try? Y/N Y
______________________________________________________________________
If the equipment conductor height (hc) as determined in (18.1) meets the corona performance criterion Ee < Ec, then as
far as corona performance is concerned, that height is fixed. If, however, Ee is very close to Ec or Ee ≥ Ec, corona will
result, requiring the conductor height (hc) to be increased. Ee is recalculated for a larger value of hc. Ee should be at
least 5-6kV/m less than Ec to allow for slight variations in the conductor height. A suitable conductor height can be
determined through iteration, increasing hc until Ec = (Ee + 5)kV/m

16. SUBSTATION CONDUCTOR HEIGHTS DETERMINED BY ALLOWABLE ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC FIELD
STRENGTHS

16.1 Background

For some time now, there is an international perception that electromagnetic fields at power frequencies present a
health hazard to living tissue, particularly humans where it has been claimed that these fields can cause certain types of
cancers, i.e. brain tumours and leukaemia. There has been much publicity and research to establish links between
cause and effect, but no conclusive evidence has been found.

NRPB Advisory Group on non-ionising radiation power frequency electromagnetic fields and risk of cancer, issue a
statement in March 2001 as follows:-

“Laboratory experiments have provided no good evidence that extremely low frequency electromagnetic fields are
capable of producing cancer, nor do human epidemiological studies suggests that they cause cancer in general. There
is, however, some epidemiological evidence that prolonged exposure to higher levels of power frequency magnetic
fields is associated with a small risk of leukaemia in children. In practice, such levels of exposure are seldom
encountered by the general public in the UK. In the absence of clear evidence of a carcinogenic effect in adults, or of a
plausible explanation from experiments on animals or isolated cells, the epidemiological evidence is currently not
enough to justify a firm conclusion that such fields cause leukaemia in children. Unless, however, further research
indicates that the finding is due to chance or some currently unrecognised artefact, the possibility remains that intense
prolonged exposures to magnetic fields can increase the risk of leukaemia in children.”

Eskom’s has taken a middle of the road stance on this issue is explained in the following statement made:-

“1. Preamble

“The health, safety and well-being of the general public, our customers and staff are of prime concern to Eskom

“Research into the possible biological effects of exposure to EMF has thus far yielded inconclusive results. However,
some epidemiological studies indicate a possible link between long term exposure to EMF and certain types of cancer. It
is widely agreed that research should continue until firm conclusions are reached as to whether any detrimental health
effects exist.

“Internationally, power utilities are increasingly finding it necessary to inform their staff and the studies are often
contradictory and difficult to replicate.

“A national EMF forum, linked to the international EMF Research Co-ordinators Group was established in 1990, with
Eskom as a member.

“2. Policy

“Eskom will continue to actively participate in national and international initiatives on the biological effects of EMF.
Eskom will continue to review the findings to EMF research and, through the design and operation of its plant, to
mitigate any possible adverse effects on the general public, its customers and its staff.

“3. Strategy

“Eskom supports the view that the medical research council will select and co-ordinate appropriate research on the
biological effects of EMF in South Africa.

“Eskom supports the view that South Africa should support international studies on the biological effects of EMF, but
confine research to areas where local expertise and unique conditions can complement international efforts. Eskom
enjoys support on this view from relevant environmental bodies and municipalities.

“Eskom will measure and calculate electric and magnetic field intensities and related exposure levels associated with
the provision and use of electrical energy. This information will be made available upon request. Eskom will continue to
take part in the National EMF Forum.

“Eskom will endeavour to inform its staff on EMF topics.

“Eskom will be guided by the limits for magnetic fields as given by the ‘International Radiation Protection
Association (IRPA) when designing transmission lines” which will include substations at the terminal ends.

“Eskom will use an electric field limit of 10kV/m in the design of transmission lines.

“Live line work will continue.

“Eskom will review its policy on EMF as new information becomes available.”

16.2 Electric Field Limits

The electric field from overhead live conductors, typically measured at 1 to 1,7m above the ground level, is a function of
the busbar configuration, and is directly proportional to the system voltage. The busbar configuration includes conductor
height above the ground, conductor phase arrangement, conductor diameter, number of sub-conductors per phase and
the presence and size of ground wires. Electric fields are measured in kV/m.

E < 10kV/m
Few Hours

E < 5kV/m
Public Access

Figure 41-3.65: Recommended Safe Levels of Electric Field Strength for Different Periods of Exposure

The recommended safe electric field strengths are given as 10kV/m within a live chamber where it is envisaged that
electrical personnel would not spend more than a few hours carrying out maintenance work, and so limiting exposure to
slightly higher fields than that is recommended for areas where the public has access, viz 5kV/m. This is summarised in
Figures 41-3.65 and 41-3.66 showing the recommended maximum values for various positions in and around the
substation.

At Substation HV Yard & LV Yard Boundaries and Beyond: E<5kV/m

Within HV Yard: E≤20kV/m

Access road and Control Building: E≤5kV/m

Within LV Yard: E≤10kV/m

Figure 41-3.66: Allowable Electric Field Strength (E) in Designated Areas

The electric field strength for a given system voltage is dependent upon a number of factors, one of which is the height
of the conductors above the ground. In order to determine the minimum heights of the first level of conductor, the
electric field strength must satisfy the above criterion of 10kV/m at any point in the substation. Figure 41-3.67 shows a
typical elevation on an equipment bay. The tubular conductor will vary in height due to the different equipment
connection heights one should use the average height of the conductor as a starting point.
1
havec = ∑ n1hai .l ai eq. 41-3.191
l tot

ℓtot
ℓa3
ℓa4

ℓa1 ℓa5 ℓa7

ℓa6
ℓa2

EB
ha3
ha6
ha1 ha2 ha4
ha5 havec
ha7

C C
L C L
L
CB CT ES

Figure 41-3.67: Minimum Height of First Level of Conductor (havec)

There are a number of software packages available that can be used to model the different substation conductor
configurations, taking into account the various conductor levels. The software package CDEGS (Current Distribution
Electromagnetic and Grounding Systems) was used to determine the electric field strengths for a 3-phase bus
conductor system at different conductor heights (hc), a given maximum system voltage (Um), conductor outer diameter
(dbo) and bus phase spacing (sp). The results are plotted in terms of Electric Field Strength in kilo-volts per metre
(kV/m) verses conductor height above 1,8m above ground level as shown in Figure 41-3.68. The value of 1,8m above
ground level is chosen as this represents the height of the head of an average man, the head being the highest point
of a human and is the part of the human anatomy that would be most sensitive to electromagnetic fields.

Figure 41-3.68 represents only one system voltage, at a given phase spacing, for a given conductor size. In order to
provide as much information as possible in the choice of the tubular conductor, a series of curves have been developed.
From the data used to develop this series of curves, one can develop curves for determining the electric field strengths
for a 3-phase bus conductor system at different bus phase spacings (sp), a given maximum system voltage (Um),
conductor outer diameter (do) and conductor height (hc) such as shown in Figure 41-3.69. The results are plotted in
terms of Electric Field Strength in kilo-volts per metre (kV/m) verses conductor phase spacing in metres (m) (See
Appendix B).

Un: 765kV Um: 800kV Conductor Ø: 200mm Phase Spacing 14m

23
Electric Field Strength at 1,8m above the Ground [E] (kV/m)

20
Maximum E

13,3
0
7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21

Bus Tube Height above the Ground [hc] (m)

Figure 41-3.68: Maximum Electric Field Strength (kV/m) vs Bus Conductor Height (m)

[Printout from Excel based Busbar Programme]

Un: 765kV Um: 800kV Conductor Ø: Conductor Heights: 11m and 13m
11.0
Electric Field Strength at 1,8m Above the Ground [E] (kV/m)

9,8kV/m Substation HV Yard

10.0
hb = 11m

9.0

hb = 13m

8.0

7.0

6.0

Public Areas
5.0

10,5m 11,4m
4.0
9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Bus Tube Phase Spacing [sp] (m)

Figure 41-3.69: Maximum Electric Field Strength (kV/m) vs Phase Spacing (m)

[Printout from Excel based Busbar Programme]

The increase in electric field strength with increase in phase spacing is due to the weaker cancellation effect (destructive
o
interference) as the phases move further apart from each other. The electric fields are 120 out of phase with each
other. As illustarated above, the higher the conductors are above the ground, the lower is the electric field strength.

In order to ensure an electric field strength of 10kV and below, the 765kV busbar phases require to be no more than
11,4m apart. Any value more than this will lead to higher phase electric field strengths, and any value less than this will
obviously have lower electric field strengths.. In the latter case, however, phase-to-phase clearance is to be maintained.
If a phase-to-phase value of 10,5m is used, for example, the electric field strength will be within the limits and the phase-
to-phase clearance will be satisfied.

420kV, 250mm Tubular Conductor

Phase Spacing 3,5mm

16
Phase Spacing 4,0mm
Phase Spacing 4,5mm
14 Phase Spacing 5,0mm
Phase Spacing 5,5mm
12 Phase Spacing 6,5mm
Electric Field Strength [E] (kV/m)

Substation HV Yard Phase Spacing 7,0mm

10 Public Area
Substation Yard
8 Busbar Height

6
Public Areas

12,5
0

5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

Conductor Attachement Height [hb] (m)

Figure 41-3.70: Electric Field Strength [E] (kV/m) at 1,8m vs Conductor Height [hc] (m)
[Printout from Excel based Busbar Programme]

11.0

Substation HV Yard
Bus Tube Height = 10m
10.0
Bus Tube Height = 11m
Bus Tube Height = 12m
Electric Field Strength [E] (kV/m)

9.0
Bus Tube Height = 13m
Bus Tube Height = 14m
8.0
Bus Tube Height = 16m
Bus Tube Height = 17m
7.0 Bus Tube Height = 18m
Bus Tube Height = 19m
6.0 Bus Tube Height = 20m

Public Areas
5.0

4.0

3.0
9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Conductor Phase Spacing [sp] (m)

Figure 41-3.71: Printout for Excel based Busbar Programme of Electric Field Strength [E] (kV/m) at 1,8m vs Phase Spacing [s] (m)
[Printout from Excel based Busbar Programme]

16.3 Functional Forms of Regression Analysis on Electric and Magnetic Field Study Data

Having modelled the 3-phase bus ducting system using CEDEGS and obtained the data from the electric and magnetic
field studies it is necessary to ‘fit’ a curve to represent the data in functional form. It is necessary to determine how well
the sample regression line fits the data. If all the observations were to lie on the regression line, one would obtain a
perfect fit, but this is more the exception than the rule. Generally, there will be some deviation from this regression line
i
measured as positive and negative errors (e ). The resulting regression function will then aid the designer in obtaining
intermediate values rapidly for use in the design of the bursar system. Considering regression models that are nonlinear
in the variables and are either linear in the parameters or can be made so by suitable transformations of the variables.

16.3.1 Electric Field Study Data

The two nonlinear functions illustrated in Figure 41-3.68 and Figure 41-3.69 is of the form:-

β2 ui
Ei = β1.hbi .e eq. 41-3.192

where:-

Ei = The electric field as measured at a height of 1,8m above the ground for a given bus
ducting height (hi) above the ground level or the electric field as measured at a height of
1,8m above the ground for a given bus duct phase spacing keeping the height of the bus
ducting above the ground constant (one of a number of such stimuli – response
observations) (kV/m)
hbi = The height of the bus duct above ground level keeping the phase spacing constant, or
the phase spacing of the three phases keeping the height of the bus ducting above the
ground constant (m)
β1 = Intercept coefficient
β2 = Slope or gradient coefficient
ui = The stochastic distribution term substituting for all excluded or omitted variables

Having carried out the required electric and magnetic field studies and obtained the applicable data (hci,Ei), the next
step is to try and fit a curve to the data. In order to do this, the above function must be transformed to appear as a linear
relationship. Applying the natural logarithm to both sides

(
lnEi = ln β 1.hbi
β2
.e
ui
) eq. 41-3.193

lnEi = lnβ1 + β 2 .ln.hbi + ui eq. 41-3.194

) ) )
Ei = β1 + β 2 .hbi + ui eq. 41-3.195

where:-

Êi = The transformed electric field strength (again one of a number of such transformed stimuli – response
observations)
ĥci = The transformed bus duct height above ground level (phase spacing constant) or phase spacing
(height above the ground constant)
β̂
β1 = The Intercept coefficient of the transformed function
β̂
β2 = Slope or gradient coefficient of the transformed function

ui = The transformed stochastic distribution term

Equation 41-3.193 then becomes the transformed function through which the intercept and slope parameters are to be
determined. β 2 can obviously be determined directly, however, the intercept value requires a reverse transformation:-

βˆ 1
β1 = e eq. 41-3.196

From regression analysis

Ne 2 Ne Ne Ne
∑ hˆ bi ∑ Eˆ i − ∑ H
ˆ . ∑ hˆ .Eˆ
i bi i
1 1 1 1
β
β̂1 = 2
eq. 41-3.197
2
Ne. ∑ hˆ bi −  
Ne Ne
 ∑ hˆ
1  1 bi 

Where:-

Ne = The number of ‘height – electric field’ observations

Ne 2 Ne Ne ) Ne
∑ hˆ bi ∑ Eˆ i − ∑ hi . ∑ hˆ bi .Eˆ i
1 1 1 1
βˆ 2 = 2 eq. 41-3.198
2
Ne. ∑ hˆ bi −  
Ne Ne
 ∑ hˆ
1  1 bi 

In order to determine the degree of correlation between the two variables ĥci and Êi , it is necessary to first calculate the
sample correlation coefficient r.

Ne Ne Ne
Ne. ∑ hˆ bi .Eˆ i − ∑ hˆ bi . ∑ Eˆ i
1 1 1
r=

( ) ( )
eq. 41-3.199
 Ne 2 Ne 2
 Ne
ˆ2
Ne 2

 Ne. ∑ hˆ bi − ∑ hˆ bi
.N. ∑1 Ei − ∑ Eˆ i
 
 1 1 1

2
The coefficient of determination r on the other hand measures the proportion or percentage of the total variation in E
explained by the regression model.

2
 Ne ˆ ˆ Ne ˆ Ne ˆ 
 Ne. ∑ hbi .Ei − ∑ hbi . ∑ Ei 
2  1 1 1

( ) ( )
r = eq. 41-3.200
 Ne 2 Ne 2
 Ne 2 Ne
2

Ne. ∑ hˆ bi − ∑ hˆ bi . Ne. ∑ Eˆ i − ∑ Eˆ i
 1 1   1 1 

Once it has been determined that the model used fits the observed data sufficiently well, the resulting relationship can
be used within the programme developed in parallel with this text in order to chose the bus duct size and determine the
required conductor heights to meet the electric (E) and magnetic field (B) limits.

16.3.2 The Matrix Form

As part of the whole design process, it is necessary to be able to predict what the electric field strength (Ei) would be at
1,8m above the ground for any set of parameters of height of conductor above the ground (haveci), conductor phase
spacing (spi), tube diameter (doi) and system voltage (Vi). The single variable regression model is now generalised as a

multi-variable regression model. It is assumed that a function of the form shown in eq. 41-3.201 most appropriately fits
the data, implying that a four variable regression model is applicable here.

β2 β3 β4 β5 ui
Ei = β 1.hbi .spi .doi .Vi .e eq. 41-3.201

(
lnEi = ln β 1.hbi
β2
.spi
β3
.doi
β4
.Vi
β5
.e
ui
) eq. 41-3.202

lnE i = lnβ 1 + β 2 .ln(h bi ) + β 3 .ln(s pi ) + β 4 .ln(d oi ) + β 5 .ln(Vi ) + ui eq. 41-3.203

Eˆ i = βˆ 1 + β 2 .hˆ bi + β 3 .sˆ pi + β 4 .dˆ oi + β 5 .Vˆ i + ui eq. 41-3.204

where:-

Êi = The transformed electric field strength

ĥbi = The transformed bus duct height
ŝpi = The transformed phase spacing
d̂oi = The transformed bus duct outer diameter
V̂i = The transformed system voltage
ui = The transformed stochastic distribution term which becomes very small as the “fit”
becomes better

The above expressions illustrated in paragraph 16.3.1 are adequate for two or three variable functions, however, when
there are multiple variables as in eq. 41-3.201 and a large amount of data is available, it becomes too complex to solve
in this manner. The best approach is to apply the matrix form.

[β] = [[X]T .[X]] -1.[[X]T .[E]] eq. 41-3.205

where:-

[β ] = A 5x1 matrix of coefficients defined above

[X] = A Nx5 matrix of the variables hˆ , sˆ , dˆ , and Vˆ bi pi oi i
T
[X] = The 5xN transposed matrix [X] of the variables hˆ bi , sˆ pi , dˆ oi , and Vˆ i
[E] = A Nx1 matrix of the electric field values

It is necessary to transform the data obtained from the studies and find the natural logarithms of each value as required
by eq. 41-3.202
−1
lnβ 1    1 1 . 1 1  1 ln(have12 ) ln(sp13 ) ln(do14 ) ln(V15 )  
 β 2   ln(have12 ) ln(have22 ) ln(have32 ) . ln(haveN2 )  1 ln(have22 ) ln(sp23 ) ln(do24 ) ln(V25 )  
 β 3  =   ln(sp13 ) ln(sp23 )

ln(sp33 ) . ln(spN3 ) . 1 ln(have32 ) ln(sp33 ) ln(do34 ) ln(V35 )

 β    ln(d )   
 4    o14 ln(do24 ) ln(do34 ) . ln(doN4 )  . . . . . 
 β 5    ln(V15 ) ln(V25 ) ln(V35 ) . ln(VNk )  1 ln(haveN2 ) ln(spN3 ) ln(doN4 )  
ln(VN5 ) 
eq. 41-3.206

 1 1 1 . 1   lnE1  
 ln(h ln(have22 ) ln(have32 ) . ln(haveN2 )  lnE  
   2 
. ln(sp13 )
ave12)
ln(s ) ln(s ) . ln(s ) . lnE 3  
p23 p33 pN3

  ln(do14 ) ln(do24 ) ln(do34 ) . ln(doN4 )   . 
  ln(V15 ) ln(V25 ) ln(V35 ) . ln(VNk )  lnEN  
 

To simplify the above matrix, the cap is applied to the symbols to suit the series of equations generalised by eq. 41-
3.205.

) ) ) ) ) −1
 β1   ) 1 1 1 . 1  1 h ave12 s p13 do14 V15  
β 2   have12 V25  
) ) )
. h aveN2  1
) ) ) )
h ave22 h ave32 h ave22 s p23 do24
β 3  =   s) p13 )
s p23
)
s p33
) 
. s pN3 . 1
)
h ave32
)
s p33
)
do34
) 
V35
β    d) ) ) )  
 4    )o14 do24
)
d o34
)
. doN4   .
) )
. .
)
.
) 
.
VNk  
)
β 5    V15 V25 V35 . 1 h aveN2 s pN3 doN4 
VN5 
 eq. 41-3.207

)
 ) 1 )
1
)
1 .
)
1   E1  
 have12 h ave22 h ave32 . h aveN2  E 2  
)

. s)) p13 . s pN3  .E 3  

) ) ) )
s p23 s p33
 ) ) )   . 
  d)o14 d o24
)
d o34
)
. doN4
)   ) 
  V15 V25 V35 . VNk  EN  


Once the [β ] matrix has been determined, the values of β 2 , β 3 , β 4 and β 5 can be read off directly. For β 1 , however,
)
the value β 1 needs to be converted back in the following manner:-

βˆ 1
β1 = e eq. 41-3.208

Having determined all the β values, it is a matter of substituting them back into eq. 41-3.201. If the curve “fits” the data
to a high degree, i.e. there is a high degree of correlation between the data and the “fitted” curve, the stochastic
distribution term tends to zero. The value for the electric field for any set of parameters can then be determined.

16.3.3 The “Goodness” of Fit

2
In order to access how well the data fits the curve, it is necessary to arrive at the Coefficient of Determination R

 [β ].[X]T [E] − Ne. E 2 

=
 [E]T .[E] − Ne. E 2 
2
r eq. 41-3.209
 

16.3.4 Reporting the results of the Study

The study input data was arranged in rows and columns of conductor height (has required by the N x 4 matrix ‘X’ and
output data (the calculated electric field) in a single column as required by the N x 1 matrix E given in eq. 41-3.207

[β] = [[X] T
. [X] ] -1
. [[X] T
. [E] ] (from eq. 41-3.205)

5x1 5xN Nx55xN Nx1

In this study, 369 sets of data were produced, providing sufficient elements to accurately fit a curve of the form given in
eq. 41-3.201. With the aid of the “MATHCAD” software package and, importing the [X] and [E] matrices from an Excel
spreadsheet, the following results were obtained:-

 β̂β1  - 2.177 
β 2   - 1.798 
β  =  0.43 
β 3   0.22 
 4  
β 5   1.003 

)
β 1 = -2.177

-2.177
β1 = e

= 0.133

β 2 = -1.789

β 3 = 0.43

β 4 = 0.22

β 5 = 1.003

The “goodness” of the fit

 [β ].[X]T [E] − Ne. E 2 

r = 
2
 T 2 
(from eq. 41-3.209)
 [E] .[E] − Ne. E 

2 A −C
r =  eq. 41-3.210
B−C
T
A = [ β ].[X] [E]
eq. 41-3.211
3
= 2.618.10

T
B = [E] .[E]
eq. 41-3.212
3
= 2.619.10

2
C = Ne. E eq. 41-3.213

N = 675

E =1.89

C = 675.1.89
3
= 1.276.10

2 A −C
r = 
B−C
 2.618.10 3 − 1.276.103 
=
 3

3 
(from eq. 41-3.210)
 2.619.10 − 1.276.10 
= 0.999

2
The value of 0.999 for R implies an exceptionally good fit of the curve to the data, hence the stochastic term ui is
ui
virtually zero and e =1

Ei = 0.133.hbi -1.789 .spi 0.43 .dbi 0.22 .Vmi1.003 eq. 41-3.214

where:-

Ei = The electric field as measured at a height of 1,8m above the ground for a given bus ducting height (hbi)
above the ground level or the electric field as measured at a height of 1,8m above the ground for a given
bus duct phase spacing keeping the height of the bus ducting above the ground constant (one of a
number of such stimuli – response observations) (kV/m)
hbi = The height of the bus duct above ground level keeping the phase spacing constant, or the phase spacing
of the three phases keeping the height of the bus ducting above the ground constant (m)
spi = Phase spacing (m)
dbi = Diameter of bus tube (mm)
Vmi = System maximum voltage (kV)

Eq. 41-3.214 can now be applied to calculate the value of E for any combination of hbi, spi, dbi and Vi that may be
required in accordance with the evaluations of all the preceding chapters. These values would have been determined by
the time that the value of the electric field is to be calculated. Providing the electric field limits for public exposure and
substation live yards are not exceeded, no further iterations would be required.

16.3.5 Variation of Electric Field with Bus Tube Diameter

Having established the relationship of electric field E verses hc, sp, dbo and Vm, it is now possible to analyse how E
varies with dbo alone, keeping hc, sp and Vm constant. As an example:-

hc= 14m, sp = 15m, Vm = 800kV and vary 100mm ≤ dbo ≤ 320mm

Un: 765kV Um: 800kV hc: 14m sp: 15m

50
Maximum Electric Field Strength

48 44,6
[E] (kV/m)

38 250

36
100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300 320
Bus Tube Diameter [db] (mm) (m)

Figure 41-3.72: Maximum Electric Field Strength [E] (kV/m) vs Bus Tube Diameter [db] (mm)

[Printout for Excel based Busbar Programme]

From the above study, it is clear that the magnitude of the electric field is affected by the diameter of the tube, but not to
the extent as the other parameters since the practical size of the tubes vary within a relatively narrower range.

16.4 Magnetic Field Limits

The magnetic field at ground level is also a function of busbar configuration, but is directly proportional to the current
flowing in the busbar conductors. The magnetic field may be influenced by secondary field sources, such as current
carrying underground metallic pipelines and fences in the close proximity to the substation. Other aspects such as
current imbalance and earth resistivity may further affect the magnetic field measured at ground level.

A magnetic field can be expressed in two ways, as magnetic flux density (B), expressed in tesla (T), or as magnetic field
strength (H), expressed in ampere per metre (A/m). The two quantities are related by the following expression
-7
B = µ.H (T). µ is the permeability of free space (including non-magnet and biological material = 4π.10 H/m)

In describing a magnetic field for protection purposes, only one of these two quantities needs to be specified.

B < 500µT

B < 100µT

Figure 41-3.73: Recommended Safe Levels of Magnetic Flux Density for Different Periods of Exposure

The recommended safe magnetic flux densities are given as 500µT within a live chamber where it is envisaged that
electrical personnel would not spend more than a few hours carrying out maintenance work, and so limiting exposure to
slightly higher fields than that is recommended for areas where the public has access, viz. 100µT. This is summarised in
Figure 41-3.73 showing the recommended maximum values for various positions in and around the substation.

16.4.1 ICNIRP 50Hz Exposure Guidelines

The ICNIRP 50Hz exposure guidelines are:-

Table 41-3.16: Electromagnetic Field Reference Levels [25]

Affected Area Electric Field Magnetic Field

kV/m µT
Occupational 10 500
Public 5 100
2
Occupational Basic restriction 10mA/m not to be exceeded!
2
Public 2mA/m not to be exceeded!

At substation, HV Yard & LV Yard boundaries: B≤500µT

Within HV Yard: B≤500µT

Access road and Control Building: B≤100µT

Within LV Yard: B≤500µT

Figure 41-3.74: Recommended Safe Levels of Magnetic Flux Density at Various Positions in and Around a
Substation for Different Durations of Exposure

Cpp Cpp Cpp

Cpe Cpe Cpe

hc≥Cwv
Csy

Figure 41-3.75: Determining the Bus Conductor Height

As with the electric field studies, the software package CDEGS was used to determine the magnetic flux density for a 3-
phase bus conductor system at different conductor heights (hc), a given maximum system phase current (Im) and bus

phase spacing (sp). The results are plotted in terms of Magnetic Flux Density in micro-Tesla (µT) verses conductor
height above 1,8m above ground level as shown in Figure 41-3.74. As before, a value of 1,8m above ground level is
chosen.

Figure 41-3.76 represents only one value of phase current (Im), at a given phase spacing (sp), for a given conductor. In
order to provide as much information as possible in the choice of the tubular conductor, a series of curves have been
developed. Again, from the data used to develop this series of curves, one can develop curves for determining the
magnetic flux densities for a 3-phase bus conductor system at different bus phase spacing (sp), a given maximum
phase current (Im) and conductor height (hc) such as shown in Figure 41-3.75. The results are plotted in terms of
Magnetic Flux Density in micro-Tesla (µT) verses conductor phase spacing in metres (m) (See Appendix B).

λ2 λ3 λ4 ui
Bi = λ 1.hbi .spi .I m .e eq. 41-3.215

Im: 5000A Phase Spacing 15m

100
Maximum Flux Density [B] (µT)

200

150

100
69,2 µT

15m
0
8 10 12 14 15 16 18 20
Conductor Height [hc] ( m)

Figure 41-3.76: Maximum Magnetic Flux Density [B] (µT) vs Bus Conductor Height [hc] (m) – A Single Phase
Spacing

[Printout for Excel based Busbar Programme]

Applying the matrix form to eq. 41-3.215:-

[λ ] = [[X]T .[X]] -1.[[X]T .[B]] eq. 41-3.216

250

215-125 PS=3,5m; I=3150A

200 PS=4,0; I=3150Am
PS=4,5m; I=3150
PS= 5,0m; I=3150A
165-170 PS=5,5m; I=3150A
Magnetic Flux Density [B] (µT)

PS=3,5m I=2500A
150
PS=4,0m, I-2500A
PS=4,5m; I=2500A
PS=5,0m; I=2500A
Public Area PS=5,5m; I=2500A
110-115
100 PS=3.5m; I=1600A
PS=4,0m; I=1600A
PS=4,5; I=1600A
PS=5,0m; 1600A
PS=5,5m; I=1600A
50 Public Area Limit

0
4 5 6 7 8 9
Bus Tube Height above the Ground [hc] (m)

Figure 41-3.77: Maximum Magnetic Flux Density [B] (µT) vs Bus Conductor Height [hc] (m) – Multiple Phase Spacings

(See Appendix E for Study Data)

[Printout from Excel based Busbar Programme]

Im: 5000A Conductor Height: 14m Phase Spacing 15m

Maximum Magnetic Flux Density 100

80 77,9 µT
[B] (µT)

15m
50
8 10 12 14 15 16 18 20
Phase Spacing [sp] (m)

Figure 41-3.78: Maximum Magnetic Flux Density [B] (µT) vs Phase Spacing [sp] (m)

A Single Bus Tube Height

[Printout from Excel based Busbar Programme]

300

250 4,5m
245
220 4,8m
5,0m
Magnetic Flux Density [B] (µT)

200

5,5m
170
6,0m
150

7,0m
115
Public Area
100 8,0m
85
9,0m

4,5
0
4.0 4.2 4.4 4.6 4.8 5.2 5.6
5.0 5.4
Phase Spacing (m)

Figure 41-3.79: Maximum Magnetic Flux Density [B] (µT) vs Phase Spacing [sp] (m) for In = 3150A - Multiple Bus Tube Heights

[Printout from Excel based Busbar Programme]

It is necessary to transform the data obtained from the studies and find the natural logarithms of each value as required
by (18.27)
−1
 1 ln(hb12 ) ln(sp13 ) ln(I 14 )  
lnλ 1    1 1 1 . 1  1 ln(hb22 ) ln(sp23 ) ln(I 24 )  
 λ 2   ln(hb12 ) ln(hb22 ) ln(hb32 ) . ln(hbN2 )   
 λ 3  =  ln(sp13 ) ln(sp23 ) ln(sp33 ) . ln(spN3 )  
. 1 ln(hb32 ) ln(sp33 ) ln(I 34 )

 λ    ln(I )  .
ln( I Nk )  
. . . 
 4    14 ln(I 24 ) ln( I 34 ) .
 1 ln(hbN2 ) ln(spN3 )  
ln(I N4 ) 
eq. 41-3.217

  lnB  
 1 1 1 . 1   1 
lnB 2
ln(hb12 ) ln(hb22 ) ln(hb32 ) . ln(hbN2 ) 
.  lnB3  
ln(sp23 ) ln(sp33 ) . ln(spN3 )  
.
 ln(sp13 ) 
  ln(I 14 )  . 
ln(I 24 ) ln(I 34 ) . ln(I Nk )  
 lnBN   

To simplify the above matrix, the cap is applied to the symbols to suit the series of equations generalised by (18.27).
) ) ) −1
)  1 hb12 s p13 I14  
λ1   ) 1 )
1 1 .
)
1 
1
)
hb22
)
s p23 I 24  
)
λ 2   hb12 hb22 hb32 . hbN2   ) ) ) 
 λ 3  =   s) p13 )
s p23
)
s p33 . s pN3  
) . 1 hb32 s p33 I 34

λ    )I ) ) )  .
INk  
. .
) 
.
 4    14 I 24 I 34 . ) )
 1 hbN2 s pN3 
IN4 
 eq. 41-3.218

)
 1 B 
 ) )
1
)
1 .
)
1   ) 1 
B
h hbN2  ) 2 
.  ) b12
hb22 hb32 .
B 3 
s pN3    
) ) ) .
 s)p13 s p23 s p33 .
  I14 )
I 24
)
I 34 .
)  .
IN4   )  
 BN  

Once the [λ] matrix has been determined, the values of λ2 , λ3 and λ4 can be read off directly. For λ1 , however, the
value λˆ 1 needs to be converted back in the following manner:

ˆ
λ1 = e λ1 eq. 41-3.219

Having determined all the λi values, it is a matter of substituting them back into eq. 41-3.215. If the curve “fits” the data
to a high degree, i.e. there is a high degree of correlation between the data and the “fitted” curve, the stochastic
distribution term tends to zero. The value for the magnetic field for any set of parameters can then be determined.

16.4.2 The “Goodness” of Fit

2
In order to access how well the data fits the curve, it is necessary to arrive at the Coefficient of Determination R Matrix

 [ λ ].[X]T [B] − Ne. B 2 

r = 
2
 T 2 
eq. 41-3.220
 [B] .[B] − Ne. B 

16.4.3 Reporting the results of the Study

The study input data was arranged in rows and columns of conductor height (has required by the N x 4 matrix ‘X’ and
output data (the calculated magnetic field) in a single column as required by the N x 1 matrix B given in eqs. 41-3.215
and 41-3.216

[λ ] = [[X] T
. [X] ] -1
. [[X] T
. ]
[B] eq. 41-3.221

4x1 4xN Nx44xN Nx1

In this study, 369 sets of data were produced, providing sufficient elements to accurately fit a curve of the form given in
eq. 41-3.217. With the aid of the “MATHCAD” software package and, importing the [X] and [B] matrices from an Excel
spreadsheet, the following results were obtained:

 λ̂λ 1   - 0.361
λ 2  - 1.728 
λ 3  =  0.29 
λ   0.997 
 4  

λˆ 1 = -0.361

-1.728
λ1 = e

= 0.697

λ 2 = -1.789

λ 3 = 0.29

λ 4 = 0.997

The “goodness” of the fit

 [ λ ].[X]T [B] − Ne. B 2 

r = 
2
 T 2 
(from eq. 41-3.220)
 [B] .[B] − Ne. B 

2  A−C
r =   eq. 41-3.222
B−C
T
A = [ λi].[X] [B]
eq. 41-3.223
3
= 9.128.10

T
D = [B] .[B]
eq. 41-3.224
3
= 9.129.10

2
C = N. H eq. 41-3.225

Ne = 369

B =5.0

C = 369.5.0
3
= 1.845.10

2  A −C
r = 
B−C
 9.128.10 3 − 1.845.10 3 
=
 3

3 
(from eq. 41-3.220)
 9.129.10 − 1.845.10 
= 0.999

2
Again, the value of 0.999 for R implies an exceptionally good fit of the curve to the data, hence the stochastic term ui is
ui
virtually zero and e =1

-1.728 0.29 0.997

Bi = 0.697.hbi .spi .I mi eq. 41-3.226

where:-

Bi = The magnetic field as measured at a height of 1,8m above the ground for a given bus ducting height (hci)
above the ground level or the electric field as measured at a height of 1,8m above the ground for a given
bus duct phase spacing keeping the height of the bus ducting above the ground constant (one of a
number of such stimuli – response observations) (µT)
hci = The height of the bus duct above ground level keeping the phase spacing constant, or the phase
spacing of the three phases keeping the height of the bus ducting above the ground constant (m)
spi = Phase spacing (m)
Imi = System maximum current (A)

Equation 41-3.226 can now be applied to calculate the value of B for any combination of hci, spi and Ii that may be
required in accordance with the evaluations of all the preceding sections. These values would have been determined by
the time that the value of the electric field is to be calculated. Providing the electric field limits for public exposure and
substation live yards are not exceeded, no further iterations would be required.

17. SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS

The graghs depicted in this section, unless otherwise referenced, are as a result of the studies that were performed
using the Excel based Busbar Programme that the author developed for the purpose of the studies.

Objectives of this Section:-

• To study how deviations in material parameters due to tolerances and error in estimating dynamic and other
factors affect the selection of tubular conductors and support post insulators

17.1 Conductor Diameter and Wall Thickness

Manufacturing tolerances that should normally not be exceeded are given as follows:-

Outside diameter -1 %, +1 % of diameter

Wall thickness -0,4 mm, +0,4 mm

Due to manufacturing tolerances, a sensitivity analysis needs to be carried out to determine the effect on mechanical
strength of the tubular conductor and the forces on the post insulators.

Table 41-3.17: Schedule of Combinations for Tolerances in Aluminium Tube Dimensions

Case 1 Case 2 Case 3 Case 4 Case 5 Case 6 Case 7 Case 8 Case 9

0,99.dbo 0,99.dbo 0,99.dbo dbo dbo dbo 1,01.dbo 1,01.dbo 1,01.dbo
tbw - 0,4 tbw tbw + 0,4 tbw - 0,4 tbw tbw + 0,4 tbw - 0,4 tbw tbw + 0,4

The tube wall thickness has a direct impact not only on the strength of the tube and stiffness of the tube, but also the
strength of the post insulator required. The thicker the tube wall, the stiffer the tube resulting in less movement and
whiplash of the tube translating to a lower cantilever force on the post insulators. (Produce a graph of PI strength vs
tube thickness)

17.1.1 Effect of Conductor Tolerances on Post Insulator Strength

Figure 41-3.80 shows that all the case studies clearly pointed out that the greatest impact on the post insulators occurs
when the tube diameter is slightly larger than nominal (dbo+1%) and the wall thickness is slightly less than nominal (tw-
0,4mm). If this combination occurs, the forces on the post insulators can lead to values between 1,2% to 2% higher than
the nominal values.
2.00

1.80

1.6
Deviation from Nominal PI

1.40
Strength (%)

1.2

1.0

0.80

0.60

0.40

0.2
0

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Busbar Fault Current (Isc - kA)

Legend

Parameters - dbo=250mm, tw=8mm, V=400kV, sp=5.5m, With ARC, Wb=20m

Parameters - dbo=200mm, tw=8mm, V=275kV, sp=4.5m, With ARC, Wb=16m

Parameters - dbo=200mm, tw=8mm, V=132kV, sp=3.5m, Without ARC, Wb=12m

Parameters - dbo=200mm, tw=8mm, V=132kV, sp=3.5m, With ARC, Wb=12m

Figure 41-3.80: Deviation from Nominal PI Strength (%) vs Fault Current (Isc - kA)

[Printout from Excel based Busbar Programme]

17.1.2 Effect of Conductor Tolerances on Stress in the Bus Tube

Figure 41-3.81 shows that in the cases studied, that the greatest impact on the conductor stress occurs when both the
tube diameter and wall thickness is less than nominal, viz. (dbo-1%) and (tw- 0,4mm) respectively. This is relatively
2
obvious if one considers that stress (σ) is measured in N/m , i.e. force per unit area. A smaller diameter and thinner wall
thickness will result in a smaller area for the same force, hence a larger force per unit area. If this combination occurs,
the stress in the conductor can lead to values between 0,6% to 1% higher than the nominal values. This becomes
particularly significant when dealing with tubes with smaller wall thicknesses and higher fault currents. This is shown by
the divergence of the two upper curves. Acceptable tolerances should be stated clearly in the conductor specifications.
By implementing a decrement factor (kf) equal to unity, i.e. no flexibility in the support structure, one observes that when
employing a lattice structure, only a marginal improvement is realised.

It is also interesting to note that the rate of % increase is more pronounced and relatively linear for 10kA ≤ Isc ≤ 30kA,
after which it starts to decrease. The decrease implies that the short circuit forces now start to over dominate the rigidity
of the tube.

9.5
9.0
8.5
Deviation from Nominal Conductor Stress

8.0
7.5
7.0
6.5
6.0
5.5
(%)

5.0
4.5
4.0
3.5
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Busbar Fault Current [Isc] (kA)

Figure 41-3.81: Deviation from Nominal Conductor Stress (%) vs Fault Current [Isc] (kA)

[Printout from Excel based Busbar Programme]

Legend

Parameters - dbo=250mm+1%, tw=8+0.4mm, Un=400kV, sp=5.5m, With ARC, Wb=20m,

kf=varies for lattice steel

Parameters - dbo=250mm -1%, tw=8-0.4mm, Un =400kV, sp=5.5m, With ARC, Wb=20m,

kf=varies for lattice steel

Parameters - dbo=250mm +1%, tw=6+0.4mm, Un =400kV, sp=6m, With ARC, Wb=20m,

kf=varies for lattice steel

Parameters - dbo=250mm -1%, tw=6-0.4mm, Un =400kV, sp=6m, With ARC, Wb=20m,

kf=varies for lattice steel
Parameters - dbo=250mm +1%, tw=6+0.4mm, Un =400kV, sp=6m, With ARC, Wb=20m, kf=1

Parameters - dbo=250mm -1%, tw=6-0.4mm, Un =400kV, sp=6m, With ARC, Wb=20m, kf=1

19.2 Variation of Linear Density of the Bus Tubing

Related to this is the in the variation of the linear density, or mass per unit length of the bus tubing again due to
allowable manufacturing tolerance. Linear density (mass per unit length) can vary ±2% [20]

This doubles the number of cases to be considered

Table 41-3.18: Schedule of Combinations for Tolerances in Aluminium Tube Linear Density

Case 1 Case 1 Case 2

-2% 0% +2%
0,98.mb 1,00.mb 1.02.mb

In order to obtain a perspective on the impact of linear density on the strength of the insulator, a small diameter tube
with small wall thickness, and a large diameter tube with a large wall thickness was investigated. In both cases, there
did not appear to be an distinctive separation of the 3 sets of curves as is depicted in the two cases below. In fact it was
found that a variation in the linear density of the tube by ±2% had only a marginal effect of ±0,18% on the nominal force
on the post insulator.

1400

1200

Post Insulator Strength (N) 1000

800

600

400

200

0 5 10 15 20 25
Short Circuit Current [Isc] (kA)
Figure 41-3.82: Post Insulator Strength (N) vs Short Circuit Current [Isc] (kA)

Ø120mm x 4mmWT, AlMgSi.0,5F25, Terrain Category 1

[Printout from Excel based Busbar Programme]

12
Post Insulator Strength (N)

0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Short Circuit Current [Isc] (kA)

Linear Density (Nominal - 2%)

Linear Density (Nominal)
Linear Density (Nominal + 2%)

Figure 41-3.83: Post Insulator Strength (kN) vs Short Circuit Current [Isc] (kA)

Ø250mm x 8mmWT, AlMgSi.0,5F25, Terrain Category 1

[Printout from Excel based Busbar Programme]

17.3 Error in the estimation of the Wind Speed

A study was carried out on four different tube sizes to determine the significance of an error in the wind speed. The
combinations chosen were as follows:-

Ø120mm x 6mmWT (small outer diameter bus tube with a small wall thickness)

Ø200mm x 8mmWT (larger diameter tube with a large wall thickness),

Ø250mm x 6mmW T (large outer diameter and small wall thickness)

Ø250mm x 8mmWT (large outer diameter and large wall thickness)

The results are depicted in Figures 41-3.84, 41-3.85, 41-3.86 and 41-3.87 respectively.

In all four cases, an error in the wind speed for values below 50km/h will result in relatively small error in the value of the
post insulator, <0,5kN. For wind speeds in excess of 40km/h, and particularly >100km/h, the error becomes much more
significant and care needs to be taken to choose an insulator with a safety margin of 0,5kN per 10km/h of being
uncertain of the wind speed in the positive.

It is be recommended that such a study to be carried out for each design in order to provide the designer with a means
of making an informed decision on what would be an appropriate value that should be added to the resulting calculation
of post insulator strength to ensure a sound design.

All four scenarios were based on the worst case exposure factor, viz. ‘Terrain Category 1’. Other terrain categories will
result in a lesser impact of wind forces on the determination of the strength of the post insulators due to partial shielding
offered by obstacles as defined in Chapter 6.
120mm x 6mmWT, Terrain Category 1, Alloy: F25, 2% Proof Stress: 195MPa
14
Force on Post Insulator [FPI] (kN)

0
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
Wind Speed [Vw] (km/h)

Figure 41-3.84: Force on Post Insulator [FPI] (kN) vs Wind Speed [Vw] (km/h)

[Printout from Excel based Busbar Programme]

200mm x 8mmWT, Terrain Category 1, Alloy: F25, 2% Proof Stress: 195MPa

16
Force on Post Insulator [FPI] (kN)
14

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180

Wind Speed [Vw] (km/h)

Figure 41-3.85: Force on Post Insulator (kN) vs Wind Speed [Vw]] (km/h) for a

Ø200mm x 8mmWT Bus Tube

[Printout from Excel based Busbar Programme]

250mm x 6mmWT, Terrain Category 1, Alloy: F25, 2% Proof Stress: 195MPa,

Phase Spacing: 5,5m
18

16
Force on Post Insulator [FPI] (kN)

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160

Wind Speed [Vw] (km/h)

Figure 41-3.86: Force on Post Insulator (kN) vs Wind Speed [Vw] (km/h) for a

Ø250mm x 6mmWT Bus Tube

[Printout from Excel based Busbar Programme]

250mm x 8mmWT, Terrain Category 1, Alloy: F25, 2% Proof Stress: 195MPa,
Phase Spacing: 5,5m

Force on Post Insulator [FPI] (kN) 14

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160

Wind Speed [Vw] (km/h)

Figure 41-3.87: Force on Post Insulator [FPI] (kN) vs Wind Speed [Vw] (km/h) for a

Ø250mm x 8mmWT Bus Tube

Legend: Fault Current

12kA 16kA 25kA 31.5kA 40kA 50kA

[Printout from Excel based Busbar Programme]

17.4 Uncertainty of Terrain Category Classification

 k z2B
k zn = 
+ k z3B 
 (from eq. 41-3.31)
 2 

It is, however, then advisable to apply the criteria discussed in paragraph 16.3 to allow for any additional uncertainty.

17.5 Error in the estimation of the Dynamic Factors

Different authors have arrived at different curves which essentially follow the same trend. The differences in the factors,
however, can have a significant impact on the choice of tubular busbar infrastructure such as the size of the tube
required for mechanical strength, and the class of insulator strength. These differences impact on the cost of the bus
system and may make the infrastructure unnecessarily expensive.

The aim of this section is to determine the degree to which these differences can impact on the design and provide a
degree of confidence that the values chosen will not result in unexpected failure of the support system.

17.4.1 Error in the estimation of the Dynamic Factor for Post Insulators (νF)

The results presented by the various authors’ shows a wide spread in the values of the dynamic factors νF and νσ. The
spread is much less pronounced at the lower end for 0,02≤ fc/f ≤0,04. However, for fc/f > 0,04 the values diverge quite
significantly. Some authors’ concluded a constant values for νF and νσ, while others provided wildly fluctuating values.

1,2
Points of
Resonance
1

0,8

0,6
νF

0,4

No damping
0,2
With damping

0,02 0,04 0,06 0,1 0,2 0,4 0,6

fc / f

Figure 41-3.88: Ratio between Dynamic and Static Forces on the Support Insulator (νF) vs Ratio of Natural
Frequency and System Frequency (fc/f)

From 41-3.107 and 41-3.108, the dynamic force on the post insulator without auto re-closure is merely the product of
the static force and the dynamic factor for post insulators.

FA(PI)DYN + ARC = FA(PI)DYN .ν r (N) (from eq. 41-3.107)

FB(PI)DYN+ ARC = FB(PI)DYN .ν r (N) (from eq. 41-3.108)

The above therefore indicates that an error in the determination of the dynamic force on the post insulator could very
well be under estimated if the error in estimating νF is negative. Figure 41-3.89 below illustrates how the effect becomes
more pronounced as the fault level increases. The graphs are relatively flat for low fault levels, the gradients of lines
becoming steeper as the fault level increases.

Since there is always some uncertainty of the level of accuracy, when calculations provide results that are close to the
maximum value of the standard post insulator, particularly at high system fault levels, one must rather to err on the side
of caution and choose the next size up of standard post insulator value, Table 41-3.19 showing standard IEC insulator
strengths.

Table 41-3.19: Standard IEC Post Insulator Strengths

Strength Class C4 C6 C8 C10 C12 C14 C16 C18

Strength (kN) 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18

ν F)
Post Insulator Strength (kN) vs Dynamic Factor for Post Insulators (ν
18

63kA 40kA
16
50kA

14
Post Insulator Strength (kN)

12
31,5kA

25kA
8

16kA
6
12kA

0
0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5 0,6 0,7 0,8 0,9 1 1,1 1,2
ν F]
Dynamic Factor for Post Insulators [ν

Figure 41-3.89: Post Insulator Strength (kN) vs Dynamic Factor for Post Insulators [νF]

[Printout from Excel based Busbar Programme]

17.4.2 Error in The Estimation of the Dynamic Factor for Tubular Conductor (νσ)

As with the post insulator dynamic factor, the results presented by the various authors’ shows a wide spread in the
values of the dynamic factors νσ. Again, the spread is much less pronounced at the lower end for 0,02≤ fc/f ≤0,04.
However, for fc/f >0,04 the values diverge quite significantly. Some authors’ concluded constant values for νF and νσ,
while others provided wildly fluctuating values

0,8

0,6

νσ 0,4

0,2

0,02 0,04 0,06 0,1 0,2 0,4 0,6

fc/f

Figure 41-3.90: Ratio between Dynamic and Static Conductor Stress (νσ) vs
Ratio of Natural Frequency and System Frequency (fc/f)

From 41-3.67 the dynamic stress in the bus tubing without auto re-closure is merely the product of the static stress and
the dynamic factor for conductors.
2
σ DYN = σ ST .ν (N/m ) (from eq. 41-3.67)
σ
Once again, the above indicates that an error in the determination of the dynamic stress in the bus tube could be under
estimated if the error in estimating νσ is negative. SinceσST is also fault current dependent, Figure 41-3.91 illustrates
how the effect becomes more pronounced as the fault level increases. The graphs are relatively flat for low fault levels,
the gradients of lines becoming steeper as the fault level increases.

Due to the uncertainty of the level of accuracy, when calculations provide results that are close to the proof stress of a
particular alloy, especially at high system fault levels, rather err on the side of caution and choose an alloy where the
Proof Stress is at least 10% greater than the calculated dynamic stress developed in the tube. Table 41-3.3 provides the
Proof Stresses (Rp0,2) for some allows that are available on the market.

Table 41-3.3: Aluminium Alloy Proof Stress

Alloy Type HULETT’S S.A. ASA STANDARD DIN STANDARD

AlMgSiO,

AlMgSOi
D50STF

D65STF

6063T6

6061T6

,5F25
5F22

0,2 % Proof Stress in 170 240 214 276 160 195

MPa Rp0,2

350

300
40kA
Dynamic Stress in Tubular Conductor (MPa)

50kA 31,5kA
250
63kA

200
25kA

150
16kA

12kA
100

0
0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5 0,6 0,7 0,8 0,9 1 1,1 1,2
νσ]
Dynamic Factor for Bus Tubing [ν

Figure 41-3.91: Post Dynamic Stress in Tubular Conductor (MPa) vs Dynamic Factor for Tubular Conductor (νσ)
[Printout from Excel based Busbar Programme]

17.4.3 Error in the estimation of the Dynamic Factor for Auto Re-closure (νr)

As with the post insulator and tubular conductor dynamic factors, the results presented by the various authors’ shows a
wide spread in the values of the dynamic factors νr. It appears to be spread within a linear band for both lower end for
0,02≤ fc/f ≤0,05 and 0,05≤ fc/f ≤1,8.

2.0

1,8

1,6

νr
1,4

1,2

1
0,02 0,05 0,1 0,2 0,5 1 2 5
fc/f

Figure 41-3.92: Ratio between Stress With and Without Unsuccessful Auto-Re-closure [νr] vs Ratio of Natural
Frequency and System Frequency [fc/f] [6]

From eqs. 41-3.68 and 41-3.106 the dynamic stress in the bus tubing and force on the post insulator with auto re-
closure is as before the product of the dynamic values without auto-reclosure and the dynamic factor for auto-reclosure
(νr).

2
σ DYN + ARC = σ DYN .ν r (N/m ) (from eq. 41-3.68)

F(PI)DYN + ARC = F(PI)DYN . ν r (N) (from eq. 41-3.106)

As with the preceeding dynamic factors, the above indicates that an error in the determination of the dynamic stress in
the bus tube could be under estimated if the error in estimating νr is negative. SinceσDYN is also fault current dependent
as it is a linear multiple of σST, Figure 41-3.93 shows the effect becomes more pronounced as the fault level increases.
The graphs are relatively flat for low fault levels, the gradients of lines becoming steeper as the fault level increases.

As before, due to the uncertainty of the level of accuracy, when calculations provide results that are close to the margins
of the materials, especially at high system fault levels, rather err on the side of caution and choose mateials with higher
Proof Stresses (Rp0,2) and standard insulator strengths were these are applicable.

18
63kA 50kA

40kA
Post Insulator Strength (kN)

10
31,5kA

8
25kA

16kA
6

12kA
4

0
1 1,05 1,10 1,15 1,20 1,25 1,30 1,35 1,40 1,45 1,50 1,55 1,60 1,65 1,70 1,75 1,80
νr]
Dynamic Factor for Auto-Reclosing [ν

Figure 41-3.93: Post Insulator Strength (kN) vs Dynamic Factor for Auto-Re-closing [νr]

[Printout from Excel based Busbar Programme]

300
50kA
275
63kA
σ DYN+ARC]

250
40kA
Dynamic Stress in Tubular Conductor [σ

225

200

175
31,5kA
(MPa)

150
25kA
125

100
16kA
75
12kA
50

0
1,00 1,05 1,10 1,15 1,20 1,25 1,30 1,35 1,40 1,45 1,50 1,55 1,60 1,65 1,70 1,75 1,80
νr]
Dynamic Factor for Auto-Reclosing [ν

σDYN+ARC] (MPa) vs Dynamic Factor for Auto-Reclosing [ν

Figure 41-3.94: Dynamic Stress in Tubular Conductor [σ νr]

[Printout from Excel based Busbar Programme]

17.4.4 The Impact of Safety Factors on the Final Results

Safety factors are included in the design of substructures or systems in order to account for the amount of risk that
unknown variables or factors that may lead to the failure of that substructure or system. The more data one has
available for modelling purposes and the more confident one is that the proposed model being employed accurately
represents the substructure or system, the smaller the safety factors need to be. Safety factors can also be reduced if
there is confidence that the processes employed in the manufacturing of components minimises the probability of latent
defects, or that stringent routine tests are adhered to.

17.4.4.1 Porcelain Post Insulator Safety Factor

For porcelain, safety factors are as high as 2,5 have been used. These values where applicable when manufacturing
processes where not monitored very precisely. Today, reputable manufacturers employ scientists and ceramic
engineers in the formulation of these manufacturing processes. Subsequently, safety factors as low as 1,2 are currently
used to account for the dynamic cantilever loading on the porcelain insulators.

As an example it is determined from a study that a post insulator of 5409,8 kN is required to support a tubular
conductor. Applying the safety factors above:

PI2,5 = 5,410.2,5

= 13,525 kN (standard size is 14kN)

PI1,2 = 5,410.1,2

= 6,492 kN (standard size is 8kN)

The difference in the strength required in the two scenarios is almost by a factor of 2. This obviously leads to cost for
delivery to site. When large numbers of insulators are involved as is normally required by tubular bus designs, as many
as 100 at a time and more, the costs could lead to a project being given the green light or being cancelled.

17.4.4.2 Tubular Conductor Safety Factor

For tubular conductor safety factors that have been used are as high as 2,65. Figure 41-3.95 below is a plot of Dynamic
Stress in the aluminium conductor against the applied safety factor for a Ø250mm x 8mmWT tube. These are linear
relationships since the dynamic conductor stress is merely multiplied by the safety factor.

The 0,2% proof stress (Rp0,2) for each of 6 alloys commonly used for this application, are plotted on the graph to provide
an visual indication of which alloys should be employed. The electrical and mechanical properties of these alloys are
illustrated in Table 41-3.3. It is very evident that the lower the fault current, the less the impact of the safety factor is on
the design value, and even the softer, lower resistivity alloys such as AlMgSi.0,5F22 (Rp0,2=160MPa)and D50S TF
(Rp0,2=170MPa)can be employed. However, for the higher busbar fault levels, the safety factor significantly impacts on
the design value and harder, higher resistivity alloys such as AlMgSi.0,5F25 (Rp0,2=195MPa) and D65S TF
(Rp0,2=240MPa) should be employed. It is even more significant when the fault levels start exceeding 50kA and
approach 63kA. Here one needs to look at special alloys with the characteristics shown by 6061T6, which has a proof
stress of 276MPa.

Dynamic Stress in Tubular Conductors (MPa) vs Safety Factors

350

300
Dynamic Stress in Tubular Conductor [σDYN]

63kA
6061T6

250 D65S.TF
50kA
6063T6

200 AlMgSi.0,5F25
(MPa)

D50S.TF
AlMgSi.0,5F22 40kA
150

31,5kA

100
25kA
16kA
12kA
50

2,25
0
1,8 1,9 2,0 2,1 2,2 2,3 2,4 2,5 2,6 2,7
Safety Factor

σDYN]
Figure 41-3.95: Impact of the Tubular Conductor Safety Factor on the Dynamic Stress Withstand Design Value [σ

[Printout from Excel Based Busbar Programme]

18. SAMPLE CALCULATIONS

Objectives of this section:

• Provide step-by-step hand calculations utilising most or all the concepts discussed in the foregoing chapters

• Illustrate the effect of different parameters on the end result

• To check the accuracy and correctness of the Excel based software programme developed to study the sensitivity
of the end results due to material tolerances and parameter estimates.

18.1 Sample Calculation 1:-

18.1.1 System Parameters

Tubular conductor: 120 mm x 6 mm Alloy D65S TF.

Isc = 25 kA

X
= 15
R

Wind force = 700 Pa

3φARC = 1 second dead time

Boundary conditions:-

One end supported and one end fixed

ℓ = 10 000 mm

sp = 3 000 mm

LIWL = 550kV

Terrain having numerous closely spaced obstructions generally having the size of houses
= category 3

Class of structure = B

Assume structure rigid (Kf) = 1 (decrement factor)

Altitude (Ha) = 1800m

Regional wind velocity (V) = 40m/s

The sample chosen is a typical arrangement for 132 kV with a continuous current rating of 2500A and a short time
current rating of 25kA.

Table 41-3.3: Electrical and Mechanical Properties of Various Aluminium Alloys

Alloy Type HULETT’S S.A. ASA Standard DIN Standard

D50S D65S 6063 6061 AlMgSi AlMgSi
TF TF T6 T6 0,5F22 0,5F25
o
Electrical resistivity at 20 C (max.) in 0,03133 0,037 0,0325 0,0431 0,03333 0,03571
2
Ω mm / m
3
Specific mass kg/m 2703 2703 2703 2703 2703 2703
9 9 9 9 9 9
Modules of elasticity 65,66.10 69,12.10 69.10 70.10 70.10 70.10
2
E in N / m
-6 -6 -6 -6 -6 -6
Thermal co-efficient of expansion per 23.10 23.10 23.10 23.10 23.10 23.10
o
C
0,2 % Proof Stress in Mpa Rp0,2 170 240 214 276 160 195

ℓ =10 m ℓ =10 m

a) Wind and Dynamic Short Circuit Force

A B A

b) Mass of Conductor

Point for
conductor stress
σ

A B A

c) Stress

hS = 6 500 mm
hI = 1 500 mm
ℓ = 10 000 mm

Figure 41-3.96: Diagrammatic Illustration of Component Forces on Tubular Conductors for Example 1

10 000 10 000

3000

Figure 41-3.97: Busbar System for Analysis for Example 1

18.1.2 Support System (Post Insulator and Structure)

18.1.2.1 Reference force per unit length.

−7
Fref = K f .
4.10
( )2
. I cc (from eq. 41-3.120)
sp

−7
Fref = 1.
4.10
3
(
. 25.10 )
3 2

= 83,3 (N/m)

18.1.2.2 Kappa factor.

κ = 1,02 + 0,98.e
( ) − 3.
R
X
(from eq. 41-3.39)

κ = 1,02 + 0,98.e
( )
− 3.
1
15

(-.0,2)
= 1,02 + 0,98 . e

= 1,02 + 0,8024

= 1,8224

18.1.2.3 Peak force on centre phase.

1 2
F L2p = 0,866.Fref .κ (N/m) (from eq. 41-3.40)

F
1
L2p = 0,866.83,3 . 1,8442 ( )2
= 239,6 (N/m)

18.1.2.4 Mechanical frequency

γ E.J
fc = 2
. 1
(Hz) (from eq. 41-3.51)
l m

9 2
E = 69,12.10 (N/m ) (from Table 41-3.3)

J=
64
(π 4
. do − di
4
) (from eq. 41-3.49)

J=
64
(π 4
[
. 0,12 − 0,12 − 2.0,006 ]4 )

-6 4
= 3,46.10 (m )

γ = 2,45 (from Table 41-3.11)

(Boundary condition for post insulator (A) supported and post insulator (B) fixed).

18.1.2.5 Tubular conductor mass per unit length

m120.6 = 5,805 (kg/m) (from Table 41-3.2)

9 -6
2,45 69,12.10 .3,46.10
fc = 2
. (Hz)
(10) 6,95

= 0,0245 . 185,50

= 4,54 Hz

18.1.2.6 Ratio of mechanical frequency

fc lowest mechanical frequency of conductor

= (from eq. 41-3.53)
f nominal system frequency

fc
where >> 1 the stress is proportional to the exciting force
f

and

fc
where << 1 the stress is lower, except for special harmonic resonance.
f

fc 4,45
=
f 50

= 0,09

18.1.2.7 Aeolian Vibration Frequency

51,75.Va
fa = (Hz) (from eq. 41-3.65)
db

51,75.24
fa =
120
= 10,35 (Hz)

To test if 2.fc>fa

2.fc = 2.4,84 =9,68 < 10,35 = fa

Already has damping conductor in.

18.1.2.8 Static forces

Table 41-3.11: Extract from Fundamental Frequency Factors for Various Boundary Conditions of Tubular
Busbars Complete with Support Arrangements

Type of beam and supports Factor Factor

α γ
Single span A fixed support A : 0,625 2,45
beam B simple support B : 0,375

A B

1
F = α.F L2p . l (N) (from eq. 41-3.100)
(PI)ST

18.1.2.8a) End A fixed

FA(PI)ST = 0,625.239,6 .10

= 1498 N

= 1,498 kN

18.1.2.8b) End B supported (2.[5/8]=1,25) Fixed end with force either side x2

FB(PI)ST = 0,325.239, 6 .10

= 899 N

= 0,899 kN

The larger of the two values is FA(PI)ST = 1498 (N)

20.1.2.9 Dynamic factors

1,2

1,0

0,8

νF

0,6
0,57
νF
0,49 νσ
νσ
0,4

a b c
0,2

0
0,09
0,02 0,03 0,04 0,06 0,08 0,1 0,2 0,4

fc/f

Figure 41-3.98: Dynamic Factors νF and νσ vs fc/f for Example 1

Support system

νF = 0,57 (from Figure 41-3.98)

Tubular conductor

νσ = 0,49 (from Figure 41-3.98)

Three phase ARC

( ≥ 1 second)

1,8

tU≥0,3s

1,6

νr
1,45
1,4

a b c
1,

1
0,09
0,02 0,04 0,06 0,08 0,1 0,2 0,4 0,6
fc/f

Figure 41-3.99: Dynamic Factor νr vs fc/f for Example 1

νr = 1,45 (from Figure 41-3.99)

18.1.2.10 Dynamic forces

1
F(PI)DYN = α.F L2p . l .ν F
(from eq. 41-3.103)
= F(PI)ST .ν F

18.1.2.10a) End A fixed

FA(PI)DYN = 1,498 .0,57

= 0,835 kN

18.1.2.10b) End B supported

FB(PI)DYN = 0,899.0,57

= 0,512 kN

18.1.2.11 Dynamic forces with ARC

F(PI)DYN + ARC = FDYN . ν r (from eq. 41-3.106)

18.1.2.11a) End A fixed

FA(PI)DYN + ARC = 0,853 . 1,45

= 1,238 kN

18.1.2.11b) End B supported

FB(PI)DYN + ARC = 1,512. 1,45

= 0,742 kN

18.1.2.12 Weight of tubular conductor

1
mb = mc .ℓ (kg)

= 6,95.10

= 69,5 kg

2
wb = 682 N (g = 9,81 m/s )

= 0,682 kN

18.1.2.13 Wind force on tubular conductor

Assuming tubular support structures

wℓ = (wind force) . (projected area) . 0,6

= 700.0,12.10.0,6

= 504 N

18.1.2.14 Resultant force FR

FR(A) = [ 2
(w b + w i ) + (wind force + F
A(DYN+ ARC)
)
2
] (from eq. 41-3.110)

2 2
= 682 + (504 + 1238)

= 1871 N

= 1,871 kN

Safety factor for porcelain S.F = 1,2

FR(A)MAX = FR(A) . S.F (from eq. 41-3.112)

= 1871.1,2

= 2245 N

= 2,245 kN

FR(B) = [(w b
2
+ w i ) + (wind force + FB(DYN+ ARC) )
2
] (from eq. 41-3.111)

2 2
= 682 + (504 + 742)

= 1420 N

= 1,42 kN

FR(B)MAX = FR(B) . S.F (from eq. 41-3.113)

= 1420.1,2

= 1705

= 1,705 kN

The greater force is exerted on support B insulator, viz. 2,245 kN. A standard porcelain insulator with 4 kN cantilever
strength would suffice.

18.1.2.15 Bending moment at the base of the porcelain insulator

hI (height of insulator) = 1,2 m

M(A) = FR(A)MAX . hI (from eq. 41-3.115)

= 1871.1,2

= 2245 Nm

= 2,245 kNm

M(B) = FR(B)MAX . hI (from eq. 41-3.116)

= 1420.1,2

= 1704 Nm

= 1,704 kNm

18.1.2.16 Bending moment at base of support structure

For steel support structure: hs. = 6,42

M(A) = FR(A) . (hs + hi) (from eq. 41-3.118)

= 1871.(6,42 + 1,2)

= 14,257 kNm

M(B) = FR(B) . (hs + hi) (from eq. 41-3.119)

= 1420 .(6,42 + 1,2)

= 10,82 kNm

18.1.3 Tubular Conductor System

Stress in the Tubular Conductor:-

18.1.3.1 Short circuit forces per unit length including ARC

18.1.3.1a) Weight of bus tubing and damping conductor per unit length

1
w b+c = 68,2 N/m

18.1.3.1b) Wind loading per unit length

1
(w .ℓ) = 50,4 N/m

18.1.3.2 Resultant force FR per unit length

2 1 2
FR( σ ) = (weight conductor + weight ice) + (wind force + F (L2p)
)

2 2
= (68,2 + 0) + (50,4 + 239,66) (from eq. 41-3.43)

= 298 N/m

18.1.3.3 Section Modulus

J=
64
π
( 4
. do − d i
4
)
=
π
( 4
. 0,120 − 0,108
4
) (from eq. 41-3.49)
64
= 3,501.10
−6
(m)
J
W=
 do 
 
 2 
-6
3,501.10
= (from eq. 41-3.48)
 0,12 
 
 2 
-6 3
= 58,35.10 (m )

3
= 58,35 cm

18.1.3.4 Static stress (from eq. 41-3.45)

2
FR( σ ) .l
σ=
8.W

2
298 . 10 2
= N/mm
8 . 58,35

2
= 63,83 N/mm (or MPa)

18.1.3.5 Dynamic stress excluding ARC

σDYN = σST .νσ (from eq. 41-3.67)

= 63,83 . 0,49

= 31,28 MPa

18.1.3.6 Dynamic stress including ARC

σDYN+ARC = σ DYN . νr (from eq. 41-3.68)

= 63,83 . 1,45

= 45,4 MPa

18.1.3.7 Dynamic stress including ARC and S.F.

Safety factor for aluminium tubular conductor SF = 2,65

σ(DYN+ARC) MAX = σDYN+ARC . 2,65 (from eq. 41-3.69)

= 45,4 . 2,65

= 120,2
 MPa
→

0,2 % Proof stress for D65S

Rp0,2 = 240 Mpa (from Table 41.3.3)

i.e. the tubular conductor will not be over stressed or permanently deformed.

120,2 < R
σ(DYN +ARC) MAX =   p0,2
→

18.3.4 Maximum deflection

For conductor with one end supported and one end fixed:-

1 4
1 F L2p
.l
ymax = . (m) (from eq. 41-3.79)
185 E.J

18.1.4.1 Maximum deflection under own weight

The maximum deflection of the tubular conductor under static conditions due to its own weight (force)

1 4
1 (9,81.m ).l
ymax = . (m) (from eq. 41-3.71)
185 E.J

4
9,8 . 6,95 . 10
= 9 −6
185 . 69,12 . 10 . 3,46 . 10

-3
= 15,41.10 m

= 0,0154 m

≈ 15 mm

18.1.4.2 Maximum deflection under dynamic conditions (wind, short current forces and its own weight)

The maximum deflection of the tubular conductor under dynamic conditions due to wind, short current forces and its own
weight is:-

1 4
1 F L2p
.l
ymax = . (m) (from eq. 41-3.79)
185 E.J

3
F .l
1 R(A)
ymax = . (m)
185 E.J

3
2245 . 10
= 9 −6
185 . 69,12 . 10 . 3,46 . 10

-3
= 67,94 . 10 m

= 51
mm
→

18.1.5 Calculation of Conductor Surface Field Strength and Determination of Corona Inception Levels for
Typical Arrangements

18.1.5.1 Corona threshold limits (Ec)

Polished tubes - 1,0

Extruded tubes - 0,95
stranded conductor - 0,8

Ec = Corona threshold surface field strength

δ = 0,8 (Relative air density (RAD))

r′bo = 0,06 (Conductor radius in metres)
m = 0,95 (Factor to allow for surface roughness)

Peek :

 0,03  10 kV
E c = 3.m.δ 1 + . (rms) (from eq. 41-3.145)
 rb .δ  2 cm

 0,03  10
E c = 3.0,95.0,8 1 + .
 0,06.0,8  2
kV
= 18,33 (rms)
cm

Heymann :

 0,0937  10 kV
E c = 2,4.m. δ 1 + . (rms) (from eq. 41-3.146)
 (rb .δ )0,4
 2 cm

 0,0937  10
E c = 2,4.0,95.0 ,8 1 + .
 (0,06.0,8 ) 0,4
 2
kV
= 16,97 (rms)
cm

Ecave = (18,33 + 16,97)/2

= 17,65 kV/cm (rms)

sp sp
dbo

1 A 2 B 3 C

GROUND
PLANE

hc D21 D31 D12 D32 D13 D23

Figure 41-3.100: Conductor Surface Field Strength using the Image Method for Example 1

P1 = ln
 2.hb 

− 0,5.ln 
([2.h ] + s ) − 0,5.ln ([2.h ] + [2.s ] )
b
2
p
2
b
2
p
2

 r   sp   2.sp 
   
 2.6   (2.6) + 3
2 2   2
(2.6) + 2.3( )2  (from eq. 41-3.179)
= ln
 0,06  − 0,5.ln   − 0,5.ln  
 3
  2.3 
= 5,2983 − 0,7083 − 0,4024
= 4,1867

b(
 [2.h ]2 + s 2   2.h 
P2 = −0,5.ln 
p
 + ln b
)  [2.h ]2 + s 2
− 0,5.ln 
b p ( )

 sp   rb   sp 
   

= −0,5.ln 
(
 [2.6]2 + 3 2   2.6 
 + ln 
)  [2.6]2 + 3 2 
− 0,5.ln  
( ) (from eq. 41-3.180)
0,06 
     
3 3

= −0,7083 + 5,2983 − 0,7083

= 3,8817


= −0,5.ln 
([2.h ] + [2.s ]) − 0,5.ln ([2.h ] + s ) + ln 2.h
b
2
p
2
b
2
p
2
b

P3  
 2.sp   sp   rb 
   

= −0,5.ln 
 ([2.6] + [2.3 ]) − 0,5.ln ([2.8] + 3 ) + ln 2.6 
2 2 2 2
(from eq. 41-3.181)
 0,06 
 2.3   3 
= −0,4024 − 0,7083 + 5,2983

= 4,1876

E1av =
[VL ] . 1
.
1 1
. 2
3 P1r r1b 10

=
[132] . 1
.
1
.
1
(from eq. 41-3.185)
3 4,1876 0,06 10 2

= 3,0332kV/cm(rms)

E2av =
[VL ] . 1
.
1
.
1
2
3 P2r r2b 10

=
[132] . 1
.
1 1
. 2 (from eq. 41-3.187)
3 3,8817 0,06 10
= 3,2722 kV/cm(rms)

E3av =
[VL ] . 1
.
1
.
1
3 P3r r3b 10 2

=
[132] . 1
.
1
.
1
(from eq. 41-3.189)
2
3 4,1876 0,06 10
= 3,0332 kV/cm(rms) )

 (
E e = E av . 1 + 0,71. n - 1 . ) d  (from eq. 41-3.157)
 b
Ee=3,2kV/cm<<<18,3 kV/cm =Ec, therefore no corona will be present

18.1.5.2 Electric Field Strength (Ei)

-1.789 0.43 0.22 1.003

Ei = 0.133.hbi .spi .doi .Vi (from eq. 41-3.213)

From (19.24) therefore;

-1.789 0.43 0.22 1.003

Ei = 0,133.6,5 .3 .120 .145

= 2,7kV/m

The magnitude of the electric field is less that the 5kV/m limit required for public areas, and far less than the 10kV/m
limit required for HV yards.

18.1.5.3 Magnetic Flux Density (Bi)

-1.728 0.29 0.997

Bi = 0.697.hbi .spi .I i (from eq. 41-3.225)

therefore;

-1.728 0.29 0.997

Bi = 0.697.6,5 .3 .2500

= 92,2µ2

The magnitude of the magnetic field is less that the 100µT limit required for public areas, and far less than the 500µT
limit required for HV yards.

18.2 Sample Calculation 2:- Comprises a series of calculations for a variety of conditions for the same bus
tube

18.2.1 System Parameters

Description Case 1 Case 2 Case 3 Case 4

System Voltage (kV) 400 400 400 400
SIWL (Urse) (kV) 950 950 950 950
Ratio pp/pe 1,5 1,5 1,5 1,5
SIWL (Ursp) (kV) 1425 1425 1425 1425
Electrode Configuration R-C R-C R-C R-C
Tube 250 mm x 6 mm 250 mm x 6 mm 250 mm x 6 mm 250 mm x 6 mm
Alloy D65S TF 6061T6 AlMgSi0,5F25 6063T6
Isc (kA) 50 63 40 50
In (A) 3500 4500 4000 3750
3φARC dead time (s) 1 0,3 1 1
3-spans 2 ends 2-spans 2 ends Single span 1 end
Multiple spans all
supported , 2-centre supported , centre supported , 1 end
Boundary Conditions supported
fixed fixed fixed

Description Case 1 Case 2 Case 3 Case 4

ℓ (mm) 20 000 21 000 18 500 19 000
sp(mm) 5 500 6 000 5 000 5 200
hs (mm) 9 290 8 400 9 750 8 100
hI (mm) 3250 3 600 3 250 3 400
hb (mm) 12 540 12 000 13 000 11 500
Tubular or Wide Lattice or Tubular
Support Type Lattice Steel Solid Concrete
Flange Steel Aluminium
Structure Class B B B B
Description Case 1 Case 2 Case 3 Case 4
Terrain Category - 1 2 4
Wind Speed (m/s) - 40 45 50
Wind force 750 Pa - - -
Ice Light Heavy Medium None
Thickness of Ice( t i) (mm) 0 12,7 6,4 0

X
= 15
R

Table 41-3.3: Electrical and Mechanical Properties of Various Aluminium Alloys

HULETT’S S.A. ASA STANDARD DIN STANDARD

AlMgSi0,5F22

AlMgSi0,5F25
Alloy Type
D50S TF

D65S TF

6063 T6

6061 T6

o
Electrical resistivity at 20 C (max.) in Ω
2 0,03133 0,037 0,0325 0,0431 0,03333 0,03571
/m
3
Specific mass kg/m 2703 2703 2703 2703 2703 2703
Modules of elasticity 9 9 9 9 9 9
2
65,66.10 69,12.10 69.10 70.10 70.10 70.10
E in N / m
o -6 -6 -6 -6 -6 -6
Thermal co-efficient of expansion per C 23.10 23.10 23.10 23.10 23.10 23.10
0,2 % Proof Stress in Mpa Rp0,2 170 240 214 276 160 195

A B B A

hb
hS

ℓ ℓ ℓ

a) Wind and Dynamic Short Circuit Force

A B B A
ℓ ℓ ℓ

a) Uniformly Distributed Mass of Conductor

Points for
conductor stress
σ

A B B A

b) Stress

a): Diagrammatic Illustration of Component Forces on Tubular Conductors

ℓ ℓ ℓ

c): Multi-Support Busbar System

Figure 41-3.101: Example 2

18.2.2 Support System (Post Insulator and Structure) (See Figures 41-3.101 a), b) & c))

18.2.2.1 Reference force per unit length.

−7
F
1
sc = Kf .
4.10
( )2
. I sc (from eq. 41-3.120)
sp

Support Type Case 1 Case 2 Case 3 Case 4

Lattice Steel (C) Tubular or Wide Lattice or Tubular Solid Concrete (D)
Flange Steel (B) Aluminium (A)
hc (mm) 9 290 8 400 9 750 8 100
Kf 0,820 0,805 0,715 0,960
Isc (kA) 50 63 40 50
sp (mm) 5,5 6,0 5,0 5,2
1
F sc (N/m) 149,09 213,00 91,52 184,62

1,0

0,97

0,9 D

0,805 C
0,8

0,7 A
0,795

1524 3048 4572 6096 7620 9144 10668 12192

12000
10007
11500 13000
Busbar Height (hc) in metres

Figure 41-3.102: Structure Flexibility Factor (Kf) vs Busbar Height (hc) for Example 2

18.2.2.2 Kappa Factor (κ)

κ = 1,02 + 0,98.e
( )− 3.
R
X
(from eq. 41-3.39)

κ = 1,02 + 0,98.e
( )
− 3.
1
15

(-.0,2)
= 1,02 + 0,98 . e

= 1,02 + 0,8024

= 1,8224

18.2.2.3 Peak force on centre phase.

2
Fsc(L2p) = K f .0,866.Fsc .κ (N/m) (from eq. 41-3.40)

Support Type Case 1 Case 2 Case 3 Case 4

Lattice Steel (C) Tubular or Wide Lattice or Tubular Solid Concrete (D)
Flange Steel (B) Aluminium (A)

1
F L2p (N/m) 0,866.149,09. 0,866.213,00. 0,866.91,52. 0,866.84,62.
2 2 2 2
(1,8224) (1,8224) (1,8224) (1,8224)

428,80 612,62 263,22 530,97

18.2.2.4 Mechanical frequency

γ E.J
fc = 2
. 1
(Hz) (from eq. 41-3.51)
l m

Table 41-3.11: Extract from Fundamental Frequency Factors for Various Boundary Conditions of Tubular
Busbars Complete with Support Arrangements

Support Type Case 1 Case 2 Case 3 Case 4

Lattice Steel (C) Tubular or Wide Lattice or Tubular Solid Concrete (D)
Flange Steel (B) Aluminium (A)

Boundary Conditions

A B B A A B B A A B A A B

A : 0,5 A : 0,4 A : 0,375 A : 0,625

PI Force Factor (α)
B : 1,0 B : 1,1 B : 1,25 B : 0,375

β)
Stress Factor (β 0,73 0,73 0,73 0,73
Relevant Characteristic 1,57 3,56 2,45 2,45
Factor (γγ)
9 2
E = 69,12 . 10 (N/m ) (from Table 41-3.3)

J=
π
64
( 4
. do − di
4
) (from eq. 41-3.49)

=
π
64
( 4
[
. 0,25 − 0,25 − 2.0,006 ]4 )
-6 4
= 34,26.10 (m )

18.2.2.5 Ice on tubular conductor (mass per unit length)

m
1
i ( ) -6
= ρi .π. db + t i .t i .10 (kg/m) (from eqs. 41-3.25 & 41-3.26)

3
Density of Ice = 714kg/m
Support Type Case 1 Case 2 Case 3 Case 4
Lattice Steel (C) Tubular or Wide Lattice or Tubular Solid Concrete (D)
Flange Steel (B) Aluminium (A)
Ice Light Heavy Medium None
Thickness of Ice( t i) (mm) 0 12,7 6,4 0
Mass if Ice per unit length 0 714.π.(250+12,7) 714.π.(250+6,4) 0
-6 -6
(kg/m) .12,7.10 .12,7.10
0 7,48 3,68 0

18.2.2.6 Tubular and damping conductors (mass per unit length)

Support Type Case 1 Case 2 Case 3 Case 4

Lattice Steel (C) Tubular or Wide Lattice or Tubular Solid Concrete (D)
Flange Steel (B) Aluminium (A)
Mass per unit length of bus 12,4 + 2.1,15 + 0 12,4 + 2.1,15 + 7,48 12,4 + 2.1,15 + 3,68 12,4 + 2.1,15 + 0
tube + damping conductor
+ ice

14,70 22,18 18,38 14,70

γ E.J
fc = 2
. 1
(Hz) (from eq. 41-3.51)
l m b+c

Support Type Case 1 Case 2 Case 3 Case 4

Lattice Steel (C) Tubular or Wide Flange Steel (B) Lattice or Tubular Aluminium (A) Solid Concrete (D)
Factor γ 1,57 3,56 2,45 2,45
ℓ (m) 20 21 18,5 19

Natural 9 -6 9 -6 9 -6 9 -6
frequency 1,57 69,12.10 .34,26.10 3,56 70.10 .34,26.10 2,45 69,12.10 .34,26.10 2,45 69.10 .34,26.10
2
. 2
. 2
. 2
.
(without Ice) (20) 14,7 (21) 14,7 (18,5) 14,7 (19) 14,7
(fc) (Hz)
1,58 3,24 2,87 2,72

Natural No Ice 9 -6 9 -6 No Ice

frequency 3,56 69,12.10 .34,26.10 2,45 69,12.10 .34,26.10
2
. .
(with Ice) (fci) (21) 22,18 2
18,38
(18,5)
(Hz)
1,58 2,64 2,57 2,72

18.2.3 Ratio of mechanical frequency

fc lowest mechanical frequency of conductor

= (from eq. 41-3.53)
f nominal system frequency

fc
where >> 1 the stress is proportional to the exciting force
f

and

fc
where << 1 the stress is lower, except for special harmonic resonance.
f

Support Type Case 1 Case 2 Case 3 Case 4

Lattice Steel (C) Tubular or Wide Lattice or Tubular Solid Concrete (D)
Flange Steel (B) Aluminium (A)
Frequency Ratio 1,58 3,24 2,87 2,72
fc 50 50 50 50
(without Ice)
f

0,0316 0,0648 0,0574 0,0544

Natural frequency 1,58 2,64 2,57 2,72

fc 50 50 50 50
(with Ice)
f

0,0316 0,0528 0,0514 0,0544

ν F = 0,1684.Log(fc/f) + 0,5903 for 0,02 ≤ fc/f ≤ 0,04 (from eq. 41-3.57)

ν F = 0, 6108.Log(fc/f) + 1,2087 for 0,04 ≤ fc/f ≤ 0,6 (from eq. 41-3.58)

ν σ = 0,0352.Log(fc/f) + 0,3471 for 0,02 ≤ fc/f ≤ 0,04 (from eq. 41-3.59)

ν σ = 0, 5586.Log(fc/f) + 1, 0788 for 0,04 ≤ fc/f ≤ 0,6 (from eq. 41-3.60)

ν r = 1,8 for 0,02 ≤ fc/f ≤ 0,0274; tU≥1s (from eq. 41-3.61)

ν r = 0,8009 - 0, 6395.Log(fc/f) for 0,0274 ≤ fc/f ≤ 0.4883; tU≥ 1s (from eq. 41-3.62)

ν r = 1,8 for 0,02 ≤ fc/f ≤ 0,05; tU≥0,3s (from eq. 41-3.63)

ν r = 1,0152 - 0, 6032.Log(fc/f) for 0,05 ≤ fc/f ≤ 0,6; tU≥ 0,3s (from eq. 41-3.64)

Support Type Case 1 Case 2 Case 3 Case 4

Lattice Steel (C) Tubular or Wide Flange Steel (B) Lattice or Tubular Aluminium (A) Solid Concrete (D)
3φARC dead 1 3 1 1
time (s)
νF 0,1684.Log(0,0316) + 0,5903 0, 6108.Log(0,0648) + 1,2087 0, 6108.Log(0,0574) + 1,2087 0, 6108.Log(0,0544) + 1,2087

0,3376 0,4828 0,4506 0,4364

νσ 0,0352.Log(0,0316) + 0,3471 0, 5586.Log(0,0648) + 1, 0788 0, 5586.Log(0,0574) + 1, 0788 0, 5586.Log(0,0544) + 1, 0788

0,2943 0,4149 0,3855 0,3725

νr 0,8009 - 0, 6395.Log(0,0316) 1,0152 - 0, 6032.Log(0,0648) 0,8009 - 0, 6395.Log(0,0574) 0,8009 - 0, 6395.Log(0,0544)

1,7604 1,7321 1,5946 1,6095

18.2.3.1 Dynamic factors

1,2

1,0

0,8

νF

0,6
νF νσ

νσ
0,4

a b c
0,2

0
0,02 0,03 0,04 0,06 0,08 0,1 0,2 0,4 0,6
fc/f

Figure 41-3.103: Dynamic Factors νF and νσ vs fc/f for Example 2

1,8

tU≥0,3s

1,6

νr

1,4

tU≥1s

a b c
1,2

1
0,02 0,04 0,06 0,08 0,1 0,2 0,4

fc/f
Figure 41-3.104: Dynamic Factor νr vs fc/f for Example 2

18.2.4 Static forces (pertaining to the post insulator alone)

1
F(PI)ST = α.F L2p (N/m)

1
F(PI)ST = α.F L2p . l (N) (from eq. 41-3.100)

Support Type Case 1 Case 2 Case 3 Case 4

Lattice Steel (C) Tubular or Wide Lattice or Tubular Solid Concrete (D)
Flange Steel (B) Aluminium (A)
Boundary Conditions

A B B A A B
A B B A A B A

Factor A : 0,5 A : 0,4 A : 0,375 A : 0,625

α B : 1,0 B : 1,1 B : 1,25 B : 0,375

ℓ (m) 20 21 18,5 19

Support Type Case 1 Case 2 Case 3 Case 4

Lattice Steel (C) Tubular or Wide Lattice or Tubular Solid Concrete (D)
Flange Steel (B) Aluminium (A)
FA(PI)ST 0,5. 428,80 0,4. 612,62 0,375. 263,22 0,625. 530,97
(N/m) 214,40 245,04 98,71 331,86
FA(PI)ST 214,40.20 245,04.21 98,71.18,5 331,86.19
(N) 4288 5146 1826 6305
FB(PI)ST 1,0. 428,80 1,1. 612,62 1,25. 263,22 0,375. 530,97
(N/m) 428,80 673,88 329,03 199,12
FB(PI)ST 428,80.20 673,88.21 329,03.18,5 199,12.19
(N) 8576 14151 6087 3783

The larger of the two values is indicated in green highlight

18.2.5 Dynamic forces without ARC (dynamic factor pertaining to the post insulator alone)
1
F(PI)DYN = α.F L2p . l .ν F
(from eq. 41-3.103)
= F(PI)ST .ν F (N)

Support Type Case 1 Case 2 Case 3 Case 4

Lattice Steel (C) Tubular or Wide Lattice or Tubular Solid Concrete (D)
Flange Steel (B) Aluminium (A)
FA(PI)DYN 214,40.0,3376 245,64. 0,4828 98,71. 0,4506 331,86. 0,4364
(N/m) 72,38 118,60 44,48 144,82
FA(PI)DYN 4288. 0,3376 5146. 0,4828 1826,09. 0,4506 6305,32.0,4364
(N) 1447,63 2484,49 822,84 2751,64
FB(PI)DYN 428,80. 0,3376 673,88. 0,4828 329,03. 0,4506 199,12. 0,4364
(N/m) 144,76 325,34 148,26 86,90

18.2.6 Dynamic forces with ARC (dynamic factor pertaining to the post insulator alone)

F(PI)DYN + ARC = FDYN . ν r (from eq. 41-3.106)

Support Type Case 1 Case 2 Case 3 Case 4

Lattice Steel (C) Tubular or Wide Lattice or Tubular Solid Concrete (D)
Flange Steel (B) Aluminium (A)
FB(PI)DYN 8576. 0,3376 14151. 0,4828 6086,96. 0,4506 3783,19. 0,4364
(N) 2895,26 6832,10 2742,78 1650,98
FA(PI)DYN+ARC 72,38. 1,7604 118,60. 1,7321 44,48. 1,5946 144,82. 1,6095
(N/m) 127,42 205,43 70,93 222,85
FA(PI)DYN+ARC 1447,63. 1,7604 2484,49. 1,7321 822,84. 1,5946 2751,64. 1,6095
(N) 2548,41 4303,39 1312,10 4428,77
FB(PI)DYN+ARC 144,76. 1,7604 325,34. 1,7321 148,26. 1,5946 86,90. 1,6095
(N/m) 254,84 563,52 236,42 139,86
FB(PI)DYN+ARC 2895,26. 1,7604 6832,10. 1,7321 2742,78. 1,5946 1650,98. 1,6095
(N) 5096,82 11833,88 4373,64 2657,26

18.2.7 Weight of tubular conductor

1
mc = mc .ℓ(kg)

Support Type Case 1 Case 2 Case 3 Case 4

Lattice Steel (C) Tubular or Wide Lattice or Tubular Solid Concrete (D)
Flange Steel (B) Aluminium (A)
Weight per unit length of 14,7.9,81 14,7.9,81 14,7.9,81 14,7.9,81
bus tube + damping
conductor (N/m)
Wb+c (N/m) 144,21 144,21 144,21 144,21
Weight per unit length of 14,70.9,81 22,18.9,81 18,38.9,81 14,70.9,81
bus tube + damping
conductor + ice (N/m)

Wb+c+I (N/m) 144,21 217,59 180,31 144,21

18.2.8 Wind force on tubular conductor (see Chapter 8)

Support Type Case 1 Case 2 Case 3 Case 4
Lattice Steel (C) Tubular or Wide Lattice or Tubular Solid Concrete (D)
Flange Steel (B) Aluminium (A)
Terrain Category - 1 2 4
Characteristic Wind Speed - 40 45 50
(V) (m/s)
Wind force 750 Pa - - -
Class of Structure - B B B
Height of Bus Tubing (m) 12,54 12 13 11,5

Wind Multiplier Factor kz1 - 1,08 0,98 0,62

Wind Multiplier Factor kz2 - 1,11 1,02 0,62

Wind Multiplier Factor kzn -  1,11 − 1,08   1,02 − 0,98   0,62 − 0,62 
 .  .  .
 15 − 10   15 − 10   15 − 10 
(15 − 12 ) + 1,08 (15 − 13 ) + 0,98 (15 − 11,5 ) + 0,62
- 1,0920 0,9960 0,62
kp1 0,50

kp2 0,47
Ha1 1500
Ha2 2000
Han 1800
Support Type Case 1 Case 2 Case 3 Case 4

Lattice Steel (C) Tubular or Wide Lattice or Tubular Solid Concrete (D)
Flange Steel (B) Aluminium (A)
Exposure Factor kpn  0,47 − 0,50 .(1800 − 1500 ) + 0,50
 
 2000 − 1500 
0,4820
Wind Speed at given Height 0 1,0920.40 0,9933.45 0,62.50
(Vz) (m/s)
0 43,68 44,70 31,00
Thickness of Ice( ti) (mm) 0 12,7 6,4 0
2 2 2
Wind Loading per unit 0 0,6.0,4820.43,68 . 0,6.0,4820.44,70 . 0,6.0,4820.31,00 .
length of bus tube (N/m) (0,25+2.0,0127) (0,25+2.0,0064) (0,25+2.0)
fW(b+c+i) (N/m) 112,5 151,96 148,16 69,48
ℓ (m) 20 21 18,5 19
FW(b+c+i) (N) 2250 3191,15 2740,96 1320,12

From Table 41-3.7: Variation of Characteristic Wind Speed with Terrain, Height and Class of Structure

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
Height z Wind Speed Multiplier - kz
(m) Terrain Category 1 Terrain Category 2 Terrain Category 3 Terrain Category 4
Up to Class of Structure Element
A B C A B C A B C A B C
5 1,03 1,02 1,00 0,94 0,92 0,88 0,67 0,64 0,60 0,65 0,62 0,57
10 1,09 1,08 1,05 1,00 0,98 0,95 0,74 0,71 0,68 0,65 0,62 0,57
15 1,12 1,11 1,09 1,04 1,02 0,99 0,81 0,78 0,76 0,65 0,62 0,57
20 1,14 1,13 1,11 1,07 1,05 1,02 0,86 0,83 0,81 0,65 0,62 0,57
50 1,22 1.21 1,20 1,16 1,15 1,13 1,00 0,98 0,96 0,86 0,84 0,80
100 1,28 1,27 1,27 1,23 1,22 1,21 1,11 1,10 1,08 1,00 0,98 0,95

18.2.9 Resultant forces FR(A) and FR(B) (see Figure 13.5)

18.2.9.1 Resultant force FRA(PI)

2 2
FRA,B(PI) = (Wb + c + i ) + (Fw1 + FA,B(PI)DYN + ARC ) (from eq. 41-3.103)

Suppt Case 1 Case 2 Case 3 Case 4

Type
Lattice Steel (C) Tubular or Wide Flange Steel (B) Lattice or Tubular Aluminium (A) Solid Concrete (D)

FRA(PI) 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
144,21 + (112,50 + 127,42) 217,59 + (151,96 + 205,43) 180,31 + (148,16 + 70,93) 144,21 + (69,48 + 233,09)
(N/m)
279,93 418,42 283,75 335,18
FRA(PI) 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
2884,2 + (2250 + 2548,41) 4569,39 + (3191,15 + 4303,37) 3335,74 + (2740,96 + 1312,10) 2739,99 + (1320,12 + 4428,17)
(N)
5598,51 8777.69 5249,23 6367,92
FRB(PI) 2 2 217,592 +(151,96+563,52)2 2 2 2 2
144,21 + (112,50 + 254,84) 180,31 + (148,16 + 236,42) 144,21 + (69,48 + 139,86)
(N/m)
394,63 747,83 424,75 254,20
FRB(PI) 2 2 2 2 2 2 2739,99 2 +(1320,12 +2657,26) 2
2884,2 + (2250 + 5096,82) 4569,39 + (3191,15 + 13157,69) 3335,74 + (2740,96 + 4373,11)
(N)
7892,68 15704,49 7857,78 4829,71

18.2.9.2 Resultant force FRA,B(PI) Safety factor for porcelain S.F = 1,2

Support Type Case 1 Case 2 Case 3 Case 4

Lattice Steel (C) Tubular or Wide Lattice or Tubular Solid Concrete (D)
Flange Steel (B) Aluminium (A)
FRA(PI)1,2 279,93.1,2 418,42.1,2 283,75.1,2 335,80.1,2
(N/m) 335,92 502,10 340,50 402,96
FRA(PI)1,2 5598,51.1,2 8777,69.1,2 5249,23.1,2 6369,92.1,2
(N) 6718,21 10533,23 6299,08 7643,90
FRB(PI)1,2 394,63.1,2 747,83.1,2 424,75.1,2 254,20.1,2
(N/m) 473,56 897,40 509,10 305,04
FRB(PI)1,2 7892,68.1,2 15704,49.1,2 7857,78.1,2 4829,71.1,2
(N) 9471,22 18845,39 9429,34 5795,66

18.2.9.3 The greater force is exerted on support B insulator

Support Type A - Lattice and B - Tubular & Wide C – Lattice Steel D - Combination H
Tubular Flange Steel Structure
Aluminium
FRB(PI)1,2 9,471 18845,39 9429,34 7643,90
(kN)
Std PI 10 - 10 8
(kN)

Remarks

In the first and third cases, a post insulator of 10kN would suffice, whilst the fourth case require 8kN units. The second
case is very problematic and would require a redesign in terms of either increasing the phase spacing or reducing the
bus tube span length so as to reduce the forces on the insulators.

18.2.10 Bending moment at the base of the porcelain insulators

FR(A) and FR(B) are the values without the safety factor. The substructures have their own safety factors.

Support Type Case 1 Case 2 Case 3 Case 4

Lattice Steel (C) Tubular or Wide Lattice or Tubular Solid Concrete (D)
Flange Steel (B) Aluminium (A)
hs (m) 9,29 8,4 9,75 8,1
hI (m) 3,25 3,6 3,25 3,4
hb (m) 12,54 12 13 11,5
FR(A) 6,718 8,778 5,249 6,368
MAi (kN.m) 21,83 31,60 17,06 21,65
MAs (kN.m) 84,24 105,34 68,24 73,23
FR(B) 9,471 15,704 7,858 4,830
MBi (kN.m) 30,78 56,53 25,54 16,42
MBs (kN.m) 118,77 188,45 102,15 55,55

Safety factor = 1,7

Design value = Ma,b(i,s) . 1,7 (from eq. 41-3.118 & 119)

Support Type Case 1 Case 2 Case 3 Case 4

Lattice Steel (C) Tubular or Wide Lattice or Tubular Solid Concrete (D)
Flange Steel (B) Aluminium (A)
MAs (kN.m) 143,21 179,08 116,01 124,49
MBs (kN.m) 201,91 320,37 173,66 94,43

18.2.11 Tubular Conductor System

Stress in the tubular conductor:

18.2.11.1 Short circuit forces per unit length including ARC

Support Type Case 1 Case 2 Case 3 Case 4

Lattice Steel (C) Tubular or Wide Lattice or Tubular Solid Concrete (D)
Flange Steel (B) Aluminium (A)
1
F L2p (N/m) 428,80 612,62 263,22 530,97
fb+c+i (N/m) 112,5 151,96 148,16 69,48

wb+c+i (N/m) 144,21 217,59 180,31 144,21

νσ 0,2943 0,4149 0,3855 0,3725

νr 1,7604 1,7321 1,5946 1,6095

18.2.11.2 Resultant force on the tubular conductor FR per unit length

2 1 2
F = (weight conductor + weight ice) + (wind force + F (L2p ) (from eq. 41-3.43)
R( σ )

Section modulus

J = 34,25.10
−6
(m ) (from eq. 41-3.49)

J
W=
 do 
 
 2 
-6
34,25.10
= (from eq. 41-3.48)
 0,25 
 
 2 
-6 3
= 274.10 (m )

2
FR( σ ) .l
σ SΤ = (from eq. 41-3.45)
k.W

Support Type Case 1 Case 2 Case 3 Case 4

Lattice Steel (C) Tubular or Wide Flange Steel (B) Lattice or Tubular Aluminium (A) Solid Concrete (D)

fW(b+c+i) (N/m) 112,5 151,96 148,16 69,48

1
F L2p (N/m) 428,80 612,62 263,22 530,97

2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
FR(σ)1 144,21 + (112,50 + 428,80) 217,59 + (151,96.612,62) 180,31 + (148,16 + 263,22) 144,21 + (69,48 + 530,97)
(N/m)

560,18 794,94 449,16 617,52

2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
FR(σ)2 144,21 + (-112,50 + 428,80) 217,59 + (-151,96.612,62) 180,31 + (-148,16 + 263,22) 144,21 + (-69,48 + 530,97)
(N/m) 347,62 509,46 213,89 483,50
Boundary
Conditions

A B B A A B B A A B A
A B

ℓ (m) 20 21 18,5 19

Support Type Case 1 Case 2 Case 3 Case 4

Lattice Steel (C) Tubular or Wide Flange Steel (B) Lattice or Tubular Aluminium (A) Solid Concrete (D)

2 2 2 2
σST1 560,18.20 794,94,58.21 449,16.18,5 617,52.19
(MPa) -6 -6 -6 -6
9.274.10 10.274.10 8.274.10 8.274.10

90,86 127,94 70,13 101,70

2 2 2 2
σST2 347,62.20 509,46,58.21 213,89.18,5 483,50.19
(Mpa) -6 -6 -6 -6
9.274.10 10.274.10 8.274.10 8.274.10

56,39 82,00 33,40 79,63

νσ 0,2943 0,4149 0,3855 0,3725
σDYN1 90,86. 0,2943 127,94. 0,4149 70,13. 0,3855 101,70. 0,3725
(Mpa) 26,74 53,08 27,04 37,88
σDYN2 56,39. 0,2943 82,00. 0,4149 33,40. 0,3855 79,63. 0,3725
(Mpa) 16,60 34,02 12,87 29,66

Support Type Case 1 Case 2 Case 3 Case 4

Lattice Steel (C) Tubular or Wide Flange Steel (B) Lattice or Tubular Aluminium (A) Solid Concrete (D)

νr 1,7604 1,7321 1,5946 1,6095

σDYN+ARC1 26,74. 1,7604 53,08. 1,7321 27,04. 1,5946 37,88. 1,6095
(MPa) 47,07 91,95 43,11 60,97
σDYN+ARC2 16,60. 1,7604 34,02. 1,7321 12,87. 1,5946 29,66. 1,6095
(MPa) 29,21 58,93 20,53 47,74
2,65. σDYN+ARC1 124,74 243,66 114,24 161,58
(MPa)
2,65. σDYN+ARC2 77,41 156,16 54,40 126,51
(MPa)
Alloy σ (DYN +ARC) 2,65 = 124,74 < All Rp0,2 σ (DYN +ARC) 2,65 = 243,66 < Rp0,2 σ (DYN +ARC) 2,65 = 114,24< All Rp0,2 σ (DYN +ARC) 2,65 = 161,58< Most Rp0,2
6061T6 except AlMgSi0,5F22 (only just
outside range)

From Table 41-3.3: Electrical and Mechanical Properties of Various Aluminium Alloys

ALLOY TYPE HULETT’S S.A. ASA STANDARD DIN STANDARD

D50STF D65STF 6063T6 6061T6 AlMgSi0,5F22 AlMgSi0,5F25
0,2 % Proof Stress in 170 240 214 276 160 195
Mpa Rp0,2

20.2.12 Maximum deflection

For conductor with both ends supported:-

1 4
5 F L2p
.l
yc = . (m) (from eq. 41-3.78)
384 E.J
18.2.12.1 Maximum deflection under own weight

The maximum deflection of the tubular conductor under static conditions due to its own weight (force)
1 4
5 (9,81.m ).l
yc = . (m) (from eq. 41-3.70)
384 E.J

Support Type Case 1 Case 2 Case 3 Case 4

Lattice Steel (C) Tubular or Wide Flange Steel (B) Lattice or Tubular Aluminium (A) Solid Concrete (D)

Mass per unit length of bus tube 14,70 14,70 14,70 14,70
+ damping conductor

+ ice 14,70 22,18 18,38 14,70

Boundary Conditions

A B B A A B B A A B A
A B

Deflection factor 0.0069 0.0069 0.0054 0.0054

ℓ (m) 20 21 18,5 19
Alloy D65S TF 6061T6 AlMgSi0,5F25 6063T6
9 9 9 9
E 69,12.10 70.10 70.10 69.10
4 -6
J (m ) 34,26.10

Support Type Case 1 Case 2 Case 3 Case 4

Lattice Steel (C) Tubular or Wide Flange Steel (B) Lattice or Tubular Aluminium (A) Solid Concrete (D)

4 4 4 4
Deflection (9,81.14,7 ).20 (9,81.14,7).21 (9,81.14,7).18,5 (9,81.14,7 ).19
0,0069. 9 -6
0,0069. 9 -6
0,0054. 9 -6
0,0054. 9 -6
yc (m) 69,12.10 .34,26.10 70.10 .34,26.10 60.10 .34,26.10 69.10 .34,26.10

Deflection ≈ 62 ≈ 81 ≈ 44 ≈ 43
yc (mm)

18.2.12.2 Maximum deflection under dynamic conditions (wind, short current forces and its own weight)

The maximum deflection of the tubular conductor under dynamic conditions due to wind, short current forces and its own weight is:-

1 σDYN .k.W
F R( σ )DYN + ARC
= 2
(N/m) (from eq. 41-3.91)
l

1 4
5 F R( σ )DYN + ARC
.l
yDYN + ARC = . (m) (from eq. 41-3.92)
384 E.J

Support Type Case 1 Case 2 Case 3 Case 4

Lattice Steel (C) Tubular or Wide Flange Steel (B) Lattice or Tubular Aluminium (A) Solid Concrete (D)

1
F R(σ)DYN+ARC1 6
47,07.10 .9.274.10
-6 6
91,95.10 .10.274.10
-6 6
43,11.10 .8.274.10
-6 60,97.10 6.9.274.10 -6
(N/m) 2 2 2 19 2
20 21 18,5
290,19 571,30 276,11 370,21
1
F R(σ)DYN+ARC2 6
29,21.10 .9.274.10
-6 6
58,93.10 .10.274.10
-6 6
20,53.10 .8.274.10
-6 6
47,74.10 .9.274.10
-6
(N/m) 2 2 2 2
20 21 18,5 19
180,08 366,14 131,49 289,89
Deflection 4 4 4 4
290,18.20 571,30.21 276,11.18,5 370,21.19
yDYN+ARC1 0,0069. 0,0069. 0,0054. 0,0054.
9 -6 9 -6 9 -6 9 -6
(m) 69,12.10 .34,26.10 70.10 .34,26.10 70.10 .34,26.10 69.10 .34,26.10
0,1353 0,3197 0,0728 0,1102
Deflection 4 4 4 4
180,08.20 366,14.21 131,49.18,5 289,89.19
yDYN+ARC2 0,0069. 0,0069. 0,0054. 0,0054.
9 -6 9 -6 9 -6 9 -6
(m) 69,12.10 .34,26.10 70.10 .34,26.10 70.10 .34,26.10 69.10 .34,26.10
0,084 0,190 0,0347 0,0863

 w b + c +i 
ϕ1 = cos
−1
  (from eq. 41-3.83)
F 
 R( σ )DYN + ARC1 

yDYN+ARCH1 = yDYN+ARC1 .sin( ϕ1 ) (from eq. 41-3.84)

yDYN+ARCV1 = yDYN+ARC1 .cos( ϕ 1 ) (from eq. 41-3.85)

Support Type Case 1 Case 2 Case 3 Case 4

Lattice Steel (C) Tubular or Wide Flange Steel (B) Lattice or Tubular Aluminium (A) Solid Concrete (D)

ϕ1 −1  144,21  −1  217,59  −1  180,31  −1  180,31 

cos   cos   cos   cos  
 290,19   570,30   276,11   276,11 
60,20 67,57 49,23 49,23
o o o o
Deflection 135,3.sin 60,2 319,7.sin 67,57 72,8.sin 49,23 72,8.sin 49,23
yDYN+ARCH1 117,41 295,51 55,13 101,49
(mm)
Deflection o o o o
135,3.cos 60,2 319,7.cos 67,57 72,8.cos 49,23 72,8.cos 49,23
yDYN+ARCV1 67,24 121,98 47,54 42,93
(mm)

 w b + c +i 
ϕ 2 = cos
−1
  (from eq. 41-3.86)
F 
 R( σ )DYN + ARC2 

yDYN+ARCH2 = yDYN+ARC2 .sin( ϕ 2 ) (from eq. 41-3.87)

yDYN+ARCV2 = yDYN+ARC2 .cos( ϕ 2 ) (from eq. 41-3.88)

Support Type Case 1 Case 2 Case 3 Case 4

Lattice Steel (C) Tubular or Wide Flange Steel (B) Lattice or Tubular Aluminium (A) Solid Concrete (D)

ϕ2
 144,21   217,59   180,31   144,21 
cos −1   cos −1   cos −1   cos −1  
 290,19   570,30   131,49   370,20 
60,20 67,57 Invalid – use ϕ 1 = 49,23 49,23
Deflection 84,0.sin 60,2
o
 −1 217,59  [
34,7.sin 49,23 ]  −1 144,21 
yDYN+ARCH2 190,0.sin cos   86,3.sin cos  
(mm)
  570,30    370,20 
72,89 175,63 26,28 80,19
Deflection
 −1  144,21   −1  217,59  [
34,7.cos 49,23 ]  −1  144,21 
yDYN+ARCV2 84,0.cos cos
   190,0.cos cos   86,3.cos cos  
(mm)  290,19    570,30    370,20 
41,74 72,49 22,66 31,89
2 2
C1,2 = (sp - yDYN2 .sin ϕ 2 − yDYN1 .sin ϕ1 ) + (yDYN2 .cos ϕ 2 − yDYN1 .cos ϕ1 ) − db (from eq. 41-3.89)
Support Type Case 1 Case 2 Case 3 Case 4

Lattice Steel (C) Tubular or Wide Flange Steel (B) Lattice or Tubular Aluminium (A) Solid Concrete (D)

(5500 - 72,89 - 117,41)2  (6000 - 175,63 - 295,51)2  (5000 - 26,28 - 64,37 )2  (5200 - 80,19 - 101,419 )2 
Phase-to-Phase
Clearance
       
+ (41,74 - 67,24 ) + (72,49 - 121,98 )  + (22,66 - 55,51) + (31,89 - 42,93 )
(mm) 2 2 2 2
   
- 250 - 250 - 250 - 250
≈ 5309 ≈ 5279 ≈ 4659 ≈ 4768

In all 4 cases, C1,2 > 4000 = Cpp and thus meet the phase-to-phase criteria. (from 13.21)

18.2.13 Calculation of Conductor Surface Field Strength and Determination of Corona Inception Levels for
Typical Arrangements

18.2.13.1 Corona threshold limits (Ec)

Polished tubes - 1,0

Extruded tubes - 0,95
stranded conductor - 0,8

Ec = Corona threshold surface field strength

δ = Relative air density (RAD)
r′bo = 0,125 (Conductor radius in metres)
mr = 0,95 (Factor to allow for surface roughness)
m = Exponent in atmospheric correction factor formula for external insulation withstand
 Ha 
- 
 8150 
δ=e
 1800 
- 
 8150 
=e (from eq. 41-3.147)

= 0,8018 (dimensionless)

 0,03  10 kV
Peek : E c = 3.mr .δ 1 + . (rms) (from eq. 41-3.145)
 ro .δ  2 cm

 0,03  10
Ec = 3.0,95.0,8 018 1 + .
 0,125.0,80 18  2
kV
= 17,6901 (rms)
cm
 0,0937  10 kV
Heymann : E c = 2,4.mr .δ 1 + . (rms) (from eq. 41-3.146)
 (ro .δ )
0,4
 2 cm

 0,0937  10
E c = 2,4.0,95.0 ,8018 1 + .
 (0,125.0,80 18 ) 0,4
 2
kV
= 15,9670 (rms)
cm

Ecave = (17,6901 + 15,9670)/2

= 16,8286 kV/cm (rms)

sp sp
dbo

1 A 2 B 3 C

Ground
d
Plane
hc D21 D31 D12 D32 D13 D23

Figure 41-3.105 Conductor Surface Field Strength using the Image Method for Example 2

 2.hb 
P1 = ln 

− 0,5.ln 
([2.h ] + s ) − 0,5.ln ([2.h ] + [2.s ] )
b
2
p
2
b
2
p
2

 (from eq. 41-3.179)

 rb   sp   2.sp 
   
Support Type Case 1 Case 2 Case 3 Case 4

Lattice Steel (C) Tubular or Wide Flange Steel Lattice or Tubular Aluminium Solid Concrete (D)
(B) (A)
P1  2.12,4   2.12   2.13   2.11,5 
ln ln ln ln
 0,125   0,125   0,125   0,125 
 (2.12,54)2 + 5,5 2   (2.12)2 + 6 2   (2.13)2 + 5 2   (2.11,5)2 + 5,22 
− 0,5.ln   − 0,5.ln   − 0,5.ln   − 0,5.ln  
 5,5
  6
  5
  5,2

 2
(2.12,54) + 2.5,5 ( )2   2
( )2 
(2.12) + 2.6  2
( )2 
(2.13) + 2.5  2
(
(2.11,5) + 2.5,2 )2 
− 0,5.ln   − 0,5.ln   − 0,5.ln   − 0,5.ln  
 2.5,5   2.6   2.5   2.5,2 

= 5,3015-0,8026-0,4547 = 5,2575-0,7083-0,4024 = 5,3375-0,8334-0,5122 = 5,2149-0,7559-0,4203

= 4,0441 = 4,1468 = 3,9919 = 4,0387


P2 = −0,5.ln 
([2.h ] + s ) + ln 2.h
2 2
  ([2.h ] + s )
2 2

 − 0,5.ln 
b p b b p
 (from eq. 41-3.180)
 sp   rb   sp 
   
Support Type Case 1 Case 2 Case 3 Case 4

Lattice Steel (C) Tubular or Wide Flange Steel Lattice or Tubular Aluminium Solid Concrete (D)
(B) (A)
P2
= −0,5.ln 
 ([2.12,54] + 5,5 )
2 2
= −0,5.ln 
 ([2.12] + 6 )
2 2
= −0,5.ln 
 ([2.13] + 5 )
2 2
= −0,5.ln 
 ([2.11,5] + 5,2 )
2 2

 5,5   6   5   5,2 
 2.12,54   2.12   2.13   2.11,5 
+ ln + ln + ln + ln
 0,125   0,125   0,125   0,125 

(
 [2.12,54]2 + 5,5 2
− 0,5.ln 
) (
 [2.12]2 + 6 2
− 0,5.ln 
) (
 [2.13 ]2 + 5 2
− 0,5.ln 
) (
 [2.11,5 ]2 + 5,2 2
− 0,5.ln 
)
 5,5   6   5   5,2 
= -0,7704+5,3015-0,7704 = -0,7083+5,2575-0,7083 = -0,8334+5,3375-0,8334 = -0,7559+5,2149-0,7559
= 3,7607 = 3,8409 = 3,6707 = 3,7031


P3 = −0,5.ln 
([2.h ] + [2.s ] ) − 0,5.ln ([2.h ] + s ) + ln 2.h
b
2
p
2
b
2
p
2
b

  (from eq. 41-3.181)
 2.sp   sp   rb 
   
Support Case 1 Case 2 Case 3 Case 4
Type
Lattice Steel (C) Tubular or Wide Flange Steel (B) Lattice or Tubular Aluminium (A) Solid Concrete (D)

P3
= −0,5.ln 
 ([2.12,54] + [2.5,5] )
2 2

= −0,5.ln 
 ([2.12] + [2.6] )
2 2

= −0,5.ln 
 ([2.13] + [2.5] )
2 2

= −0,5.ln 
 ([2.11,5] + [2.5,2] )
2 2

 2.5,5   2.6   2.5   2.5,2 

− 0,5.ln 
 ([2.12,54] + 5,5 )
2 2
− 0,5.ln 
 ([2.12] + 6 ) 2 2
− 0,5.ln 
 ([2.13] + 5 )
2 2
− 0,5.ln 
 ([2.11,5] + 5,2 )
2 2

 5,5   6   5   5,2 
 2.12,54   2.12   2.13   2.11,5 
+ ln + ln + ln + ln
 0,125   0,125   0,125   0,125 
= -0,4547-0,8026+5,3015 = -0,4024-0,7083+5,2575 = -0,5122-0,8334+5,3375 = -0,4203-0,7559+5,2149
= 4,0442 = 4,1468 = 3,9919 = 4,0387

E1av =
[VL ] . 1
.
1 1
. 2 kV/cm(rms) (from eq. 41-3.185)
3 P1r r1b 10

Support Type Case 1 Case 2 Case 3 Case 4

Lattice Steel (C) Tubular or Wide Flange Steel (B) Lattice or Tubular Aluminium (A) Solid Concrete (D)

E1av 420 1 1 1 420 1 1 1 420 1 1 1 420 1 1 1

= . . . 2 = . . . 2 = . . . 2 = . . . 2
3 4,0441 0,125 10 3 4,1468 0,125 10 3 3,9919 0,125 10 3 4,0387 0,125 10
= 4,7969 kV/cm (rms) = 4,6781 kV/cm (rms) = 4,8596 kV/cm (rms) = 4,2132 kV/cm (rms)

E 2av =
[VL ] . 1
.
1 1
. 2 kV/cm(rms) (from eq. 41-3.1)
3 P2r r2b 10

E2av 420 1 1 1 420 1 1 1 420 1 1 1 420 1 1 1

= . . . 2 = . . . 2 = . . . 2 = . . . 2
3 3,7607 0,125 10 3 3,8409 0,125 10 3 3,6707 0,125 10 3 3,7031 0,125 10
= 5,1695 kV/cm (rms) = 5,0506 kV/cm (rms) = 5,2848 kV/cm (rms) = 5,2386 kV/cm (rms)

E 3av
[V ]
= L .
1
.
1 1
. 2 kV/cm(rms) (from eq. 41-3.1)
3 P3r r3b 10
Support Type Case 1 Case 2 Case 3 Case 4

Lattice Steel (C) Tubular or Wide Flange Steel (B) Lattice or Tubular Aluminium (A) Solid Concrete (D)

E3av 420 1 1 1 420 1 1 1 420 1 1 1 420 1 1 1

= . . . 2 = . . . 2 = . . . 2 = . . . 2
3 4,0442 0,125 10 3 4,1468 0,125 10 3 3,9919 0,125 10 3 4,087 0,125 10

= 4,7967 kV/cm (rms) = 4,6781 kV/cm (rms) = 4,8596 kV/cm (rms) = 4,2132 kV/cm (rms)
Ee = 5,2kV/cm<<<19,8 kV/cm = Ec, therefore no corona will be present

Electric Field Strength

-1.789 0.43 0.22 1.003

Ei = 0.133.hbi .spi .dbi .Vi (kV/m) (from eq. 41-3.213)

Support Case 1 Case 2 Case 3 Case 4

Type
Lattice Steel (C) Tubular or Wide Flange Steel (B) Lattice or Tubular Aluminium (A) Solid Concrete (D)

hbi (m) 12,54 12 13 11,5

spi (m) 5,5 6 5 5,2
dboi 250
(mm)
Vmi (kV) 420
Ei 0,133.12,54
-1,789
.5,5
0,43
.250
0,22
.420
1,003
0,133.12
-1,789
.6
0,43
.250
0,22
.420
1,003
0,133.13
-1,789
.5
0,43
.250
0,22
.420
1,003
0,133.11,5
-1,789
.5,20,43.2500,22.4201,003
(kV/m)
≈ 4,3 ≈ 4,9 ≈ 3,9 ≈ 4,9

The magnitude of the electric field in each case is just less that the 5kV/m limit required for public areas, and far less than the 10kV/m limit required for HV yards.

Magnetic Field Strength

-1.728 0.29 0.997
Bi = 0.697.hbi .spi .I i (µT) (from eq. 41-3.225)

Support Type Case 1 Case 2 Case 3 Case 4

Lattice Steel (C) Tubular or Wide Flange Steel (B) Lattice or Tubular Aluminium (A) Solid Concrete (D)

hbi (m) 12,54 12 13 11,5

spi (m) 5,5 6 5 5,2
dboi (mm) 250
Imi (A) 3500 4500 4000 3750
Bi (µT) 0,697.12,54
-1.789
.5,5
0.29
.3500
0.997
0,697.12,54
-1.789
.5,5
0.29
.3500
0.997
0,697.12,54
-1.789
.5,5
0.29
.3500
0.997
0,697.12,54
-1.789
.5,5
0.29
.3500
0.997

≈ 42,7 ≈ 60,3 ≈ 44,1 ≈ 52,1

The magnitude of the magnetic field in each case is less that the 100µT limit required for public areas, and far less than the 500µT limit required for HV yards.

21. CONCLUSION

The statistical nature of events combined with the improved ability to predict, minimise and control these events leading
to more techno-economic compact substations when employing tubular conductors has been demonstrated. The
objective of the study has been achieved in producing a “tangible” document with the development of a computer
software package to assist substation design engineers in the application of tubular conductors. This package has been
employed extensively in the studies relating to this dissertation, and was tested against several hand calculations that
also form part of this dissertation. The graphical illustrations in this dissertation were generated using the said MicroSoft
Excel programme that the author developed for the purpose of the studies. The Excel based programme was used for:-

• Modelling of a tubular bus system employing different support configurations

• Modelling of different levels of conductor in a substation

• Considering issues such as the limitation of electrical stresses (corona, voltage surges, and self restoring
insulation) and mechanical stresses (forces due to fault current and Aeolian

As part of the research methodology, the following investigations were made:-

• Researched the original contributions from literature and note the criteria on which they were based.

• Researched current statistically based criteria relating to electrical clearances and apply these to produce a
revised set of voltage based clearances

• Compared of results between deterministic and statistical approaches

• Transformed original contributions into a “Design Application Guide”

It is clear from the study conducted above, which covers various aspects of tubular conductor behaviour and
performance under a variety of system and climatic conditions, that it is indeed possible to approach the employment of
tubular conductors in a probabilistic manner and provide a methodology as “A probabilistic Based Design Application
Guide for the use of Tubular Conductors in the Design of High Voltage Substations”.

The IEC document IEC 71-2 on Insulation Co-ordination provides a starting point from which to work, laying out
guidelines for the determination of phase-to-earth and phase-to-phase gap clearances based on the probability of a
flashover for a given gap configuration. Depending on the severity of the consequences of a flashover in the given
substation, one may accept the risk of smaller electrical clearances, and control over-voltages with appropriately
positioned over-voltage control devices such as metal-oxide surge arresters. These devices are in any event installed at
the line terminal feeder bays, at or close to bushings for transformers, reactors and through wall units. It may mean
placing surge arresters on the busbars at pre-calculated locations. This will facilitate a more compact substation in the
end. It is certainly an advantage in terms of cost of land, greater awareness of the public on the sensitivity of the
environment to construction, and a host of other techno-economic and social pressures that are steering

Circuit Breaker Testing
75% (4)
Circuit Breaker Testing
27 pages
33kv SLD C2PA-Model
No ratings yet
33kv SLD C2PA-Model
1 page
Bay MK of Bhaluka 2 Bay Extension PDF
No ratings yet
Bay MK of Bhaluka 2 Bay Extension PDF
7 pages
VVDI Prog User Manual VV4.9.4
No ratings yet
VVDI Prog User Manual VV4.9.4
80 pages
Conductor Design (Substation)
No ratings yet
Conductor Design (Substation)
101 pages
Imran - Understanding Substation
No ratings yet
Imran - Understanding Substation
50 pages
Substationdesign (Autosaved)
0% (1)
Substationdesign (Autosaved)
59 pages
Sitchyard Equip Train
No ratings yet
Sitchyard Equip Train
117 pages
Solar Calculation11
No ratings yet
Solar Calculation11
20 pages
Relay Coordination
100% (1)
Relay Coordination
29 pages
Power Substation Reference List in Iraq - Mes Group
No ratings yet
Power Substation Reference List in Iraq - Mes Group
1 page
Insulation Coordination Study of 275kV AIS Substation in Malaysia PDF
100% (1)
Insulation Coordination Study of 275kV AIS Substation in Malaysia PDF
6 pages
Hiweigh - x1-x3-x5 (Revuelta Rad250 y Rad310) Manual de Servicio
No ratings yet
Hiweigh - x1-x3-x5 (Revuelta Rad250 y Rad310) Manual de Servicio
7 pages
Dolby Digital Multichannel Audio Encoder DP569 Manual
No ratings yet
Dolby Digital Multichannel Audio Encoder DP569 Manual
90 pages
Zorlu Solar - Report
No ratings yet
Zorlu Solar - Report
31 pages
Ieee Base CT PT Sizing For Substation Excel Sheet - Google Search
No ratings yet
Ieee Base CT PT Sizing For Substation Excel Sheet - Google Search
2 pages
Chapter 2 PPT - Lecture 1&L2
No ratings yet
Chapter 2 PPT - Lecture 1&L2
29 pages
Generator Interconnection Technical Guide Edmonton
No ratings yet
Generator Interconnection Technical Guide Edmonton
64 pages
Construction of 11kv Dedicated Feeder of 11kv Dedicated Feeder For Power Supply
100% (1)
Construction of 11kv Dedicated Feeder of 11kv Dedicated Feeder For Power Supply
76 pages
Floating Solar PV System Specification Analysis
No ratings yet
Floating Solar PV System Specification Analysis
42 pages
CBIP G342 - Substations
100% (1)
CBIP G342 - Substations
12 pages
Bridging The Gap: The Digital Substation: Hitachi Abb Power Grids
100% (1)
Bridging The Gap: The Digital Substation: Hitachi Abb Power Grids
11 pages
400kV Cable Installation
No ratings yet
400kV Cable Installation
24 pages
Substation List - PATAN MEHSANA
No ratings yet
Substation List - PATAN MEHSANA
2 pages
Substation Design Course
No ratings yet
Substation Design Course
1 page
Line Differential Protection and Control Red615 Ansi: Application Manual
No ratings yet
Line Differential Protection and Control Red615 Ansi: Application Manual
120 pages
PCB Layout and Design Specifications
No ratings yet
PCB Layout and Design Specifications
2 pages
Arayat Solar EE
No ratings yet
Arayat Solar EE
17 pages
Substation Guide
100% (8)
Substation Guide
78 pages
Experiment 5 - Boost Converter
No ratings yet
Experiment 5 - Boost Converter
13 pages
3HAC021395 001RevB
No ratings yet
3HAC021395 001RevB
140 pages
Introduction To Substations - Part - 01
No ratings yet
Introduction To Substations - Part - 01
49 pages
33 KV Single Core Copper XLPE Cable
No ratings yet
33 KV Single Core Copper XLPE Cable
3 pages
PASS - 245 - KV - 9AKK108467A803 - EN - A23
100% (1)
PASS - 245 - KV - 9AKK108467A803 - EN - A23
2 pages
Substation Design
No ratings yet
Substation Design
29 pages
132 KVA Grid Station and Their Components of Islamabad Electric Supply Company (IESCO)
No ratings yet
132 KVA Grid Station and Their Components of Islamabad Electric Supply Company (IESCO)
3 pages
Lecture Note: Insulation Coordination
No ratings yet
Lecture Note: Insulation Coordination
8 pages
Quad405 Service Data
No ratings yet
Quad405 Service Data
0 pages
CT Sizing
No ratings yet
CT Sizing
2 pages
Apfc Panel
No ratings yet
Apfc Panel
2 pages
Transmission Line Parameters UOM Value
No ratings yet
Transmission Line Parameters UOM Value
2 pages
Short Circuit Calculations
No ratings yet
Short Circuit Calculations
28 pages
Calculating Short Circuit of Parallel Generators
No ratings yet
Calculating Short Circuit of Parallel Generators
7 pages
Qrpguys Digital RF Probe: Parts List
No ratings yet
Qrpguys Digital RF Probe: Parts List
8 pages
ZTT OPGW Cable 24 F 14mm
No ratings yet
ZTT OPGW Cable 24 F 14mm
10 pages
IGS Section 01
No ratings yet
IGS Section 01
49 pages
CT and PT Calculations
No ratings yet
CT and PT Calculations
2 pages
Generator Model Extension For Higher Accuracy Simulation of Powe 2017
No ratings yet
Generator Model Extension For Higher Accuracy Simulation of Powe 2017
7 pages
Inveter-UPS Size With Battery Bank (1.1.18)
No ratings yet
Inveter-UPS Size With Battery Bank (1.1.18)
9 pages
Single Line Diagram of 220Kv Gis, Turavoor: Colour Code Voltage Level
No ratings yet
Single Line Diagram of 220Kv Gis, Turavoor: Colour Code Voltage Level
1 page
1000 KWP Shadow Analysis
No ratings yet
1000 KWP Shadow Analysis
5 pages
2240 162 Pve U 004 SHT 3 3 01
No ratings yet
2240 162 Pve U 004 SHT 3 3 01
13 pages
(Frontiers in Electronic Testing 14) Angela Krstić, Kwang-Ting Cheng (Auth.) - Delay Fault Testing For VLSI Circuits-Springer US (1998)
No ratings yet
(Frontiers in Electronic Testing 14) Angela Krstić, Kwang-Ting Cheng (Auth.) - Delay Fault Testing For VLSI Circuits-Springer US (1998)
200 pages
ACM - Ds Standard Field Machine v2.0.4
No ratings yet
ACM - Ds Standard Field Machine v2.0.4
4 pages
850 SQ MM AAC Conductor PDF
No ratings yet
850 SQ MM AAC Conductor PDF
1 page
CT For Protection: Prof.O.V.Gnana Swathika
No ratings yet
CT For Protection: Prof.O.V.Gnana Swathika
24 pages
N - Arc Consulting Ircon
No ratings yet
N - Arc Consulting Ircon
13 pages
5.426MW APGENCO POWER PLANT Fault Level Calculation: Input Data
No ratings yet
5.426MW APGENCO POWER PLANT Fault Level Calculation: Input Data
1 page
WP Mitigating Harmonics 2014 Thought Leadership White Paper: Mitigating Data Center Harmonic
No ratings yet
WP Mitigating Harmonics 2014 Thought Leadership White Paper: Mitigating Data Center Harmonic
7 pages
Surge Impedance Loading
100% (2)
Surge Impedance Loading
3 pages
Cable Sizing Calc
No ratings yet
Cable Sizing Calc
18 pages
Project - Design of Ehv Substation at FACT UDL
No ratings yet
Project - Design of Ehv Substation at FACT UDL
55 pages
Bus Bar Configurations
No ratings yet
Bus Bar Configurations
7 pages
Adc Dac
No ratings yet
Adc Dac
30 pages
Motion Controller (SV43) Programming Manual
No ratings yet
Motion Controller (SV43) Programming Manual
448 pages
Wind Plant Collector System
No ratings yet
Wind Plant Collector System
16 pages
10 Analog Value Processing
No ratings yet
10 Analog Value Processing
15 pages
Tender 220kV Substations 30.03.17 Package 2
No ratings yet
Tender 220kV Substations 30.03.17 Package 2
2 pages
Matlab Code For Windowing Techniques
No ratings yet
Matlab Code For Windowing Techniques
8 pages
Single Phase Transformer
No ratings yet
Single Phase Transformer
31 pages
Substation Design
100% (1)
Substation Design
2 pages
Transformer Line Loss Calculations
No ratings yet
Transformer Line Loss Calculations
21 pages
Power
No ratings yet
Power
2 pages
Rosemount 3051: F Fieldbus Reference Card
No ratings yet
Rosemount 3051: F Fieldbus Reference Card
2 pages
Current Carrying Capacities & Other Technical Tables
100% (1)
Current Carrying Capacities & Other Technical Tables
7 pages
Repair Manual SR 150 6 2024 v3.5
No ratings yet
Repair Manual SR 150 6 2024 v3.5
100 pages
3 - 10 Guidelines For Power Evacuation and Inter Connection With Grid
No ratings yet
3 - 10 Guidelines For Power Evacuation and Inter Connection With Grid
45 pages
Product Specifications Product Specifications: CNNPX310M CNNPX310M - 6P 6P
No ratings yet
Product Specifications Product Specifications: CNNPX310M CNNPX310M - 6P 6P
2 pages
TRM 1105A Commentary On The 17th Edition IEE Wiring Regs Amendment 1
No ratings yet
TRM 1105A Commentary On The 17th Edition IEE Wiring Regs Amendment 1
9 pages
Fault Calculations - EEP
No ratings yet
Fault Calculations - EEP
10 pages
Mi 3108
No ratings yet
Mi 3108
2 pages
EEE180 Lec Notes Chapter 2 RBM
No ratings yet
EEE180 Lec Notes Chapter 2 RBM
54 pages
TLL Manual en
No ratings yet
TLL Manual en
56 pages
Output Devices of Computer: Definition & Examples
No ratings yet
Output Devices of Computer: Definition & Examples
22 pages
DTR Blank Long Size
No ratings yet
DTR Blank Long Size
9 pages
Displacer NMS81
No ratings yet
Displacer NMS81
12 pages
RP-220635 Revised WID Artificial Intelligence (AI) Machine Learning (ML) For NG-RAN-cl
No ratings yet
RP-220635 Revised WID Artificial Intelligence (AI) Machine Learning (ML) For NG-RAN-cl
8 pages
Qikink
No ratings yet
Qikink
18 pages
SECE Regular 2023 24 Semester II 2nd, 3rd, 4th & 5th Year Final
No ratings yet
SECE Regular 2023 24 Semester II 2nd, 3rd, 4th & 5th Year Final
5 pages
Commutator Cleaning and Repairing 09-08-2024
No ratings yet
Commutator Cleaning and Repairing 09-08-2024
3 pages