Lecture 3: Maxwell equations and electromagnetic wave

propagation

• Plane waves
• Phase velocity
• Polarization
• Maxwell equations
• Wave equations
• Solutions of wave equations
• Poynting vector
• Fresnel reflection
• Total internal reflection
• Evanescent wave

Reading: Senior 2.3

Keiser 2.1-2.2

1
 Plane linearly polarized waves
• The electric or magnetic field of a plane linearly
polarized wave traveling in a direction k can be
represented in the general form

A(r, t) = eiA0 exp i(k ● r – ωt)

where r = xex + yey + zez represents a general

position vector and k = kxex + kyey + kzez represents
the wave propagation vector (wavevector).

The magnitude of the wavevector k is k = 2π/λ, which

is known as the wave propagation constant, λ is the
wavelength of the light in a vacuum or free space

ω = 2πυ, where υ is the frequency of the light, υ = c/λ

2
A0 is the maximum amplitude of the wave
 Plane waves

y
exp i(kr – ωt) @ a particular time t

r
k

Wave vector k perpendicular to the

plane wavefront

kr = const. + 2π

spatial phase kr = const.
x

3
• The components of the actual (measurable) electromagnetic field
are obtained by taking the real part of the complex exponential form.

• For example, if k = kez, and A denotes the electric field E in the

ei = ex direction, then the real measurable electric field is given by

Ex(z, t) = Re (E) = ex E0x cos (kz – ωt)

which represents a plane wave that varies harmonically as it travels

in the z direction. y
wavefronts (⊥ k)
E-field
polarization (x)
z
k = ez k = ez 2π/λ

(plane wave λ
(wavevector)
in free space)

4
 Phase velocity
• For a plane optical wave traveling in the z direction, the electric field
has a phase varies with z and t

φ = kz – ωt

For a point of constant phase on the space- and time-varying field,

φ = constant and thus kdz – ωdt = 0. If we track this point of constant
phase, we find that it is moving with a velocity of

vp = dz/dt = ω/k phase velocity

• In free space, the phase velocity vp = c = ω/k = υλ

(c = 3 × 108 m/s)
the propagation constant k = ω/c
5
• For a wave propagating in a dielectric medium of refractive index n

vp = c/n = ω/k

Propagation constant in a k = n ω/c

medium of refractive index n

• The propagation constant in any medium

k = n ko = n 2π/λο

free space free space

wavenumber wavelength
6
 Fields in a linearly polarized plane wave
H

E
H

k
k
• Maxwell equations show that E and H are both perpendicular to
the direction of propagation. Such a wave is called a transverse wave.

• Furthermore, E and H are mutually perpendicular – E, H, and k form

7
a mutually orthogonal triad.
 General state of polarization
• A general state of polarization is described by considering another
linearly polarized wave which is independent of the first wave and
orthogonal to it.

Ey (z, t) = ey E0y cos (kz - ωt + δ)

where δ is the relative phase difference between the waves. The

resultant wave is

E(z, t) = Ex(z, t) + Ey(z, t)

• If δ is zero or an integer multiple of 2π, the waves are in phase. The

wave is then also a linearly polarized wave with polarization vector
making an angle
E0y
θ = tan-1 E0y/E0x E

with respect to ex and having a magnitude

θ

E = (E0x2 + E0y2)1/2 E0x

• Conversely, an arbitrary linearly polarized wave can be resolved into 8

two independent orthogonal plane waves that are in phase.
 Elliptical and circular polarization
• For general values of δ the wave is elliptically polarized. The
resultant field vector E both rotates and changes its magnitude
as a function of the angular frequency ω. For a general value of
δ

(Ex/E0x)2 + (Ey/E0y)2 – 2(Ex/E0x) (Ey/E0y) cosδ = sin2δ

which is the general equation of an ellipse.

• This ellipse represents the trajectory of the E vector = state of

polarization (SOP)
• The axis of the ellipse makes an angle φ relative to the x axis
given by

tan 2φ = 2E0xE0y cosδ / (E0x2 – E0y2)

9
• To get a better picture, let us align the principal axis of the ellipse
with the x axis. Then φ = 0, or equivalently, δ = ±π/2, ±3π/2, …, so that

(Ex/E0x)2 + (Ey/E0y)2 = 1

This is the familiar equation of an ellipse.

• When E0x = E0y = E0 and the relative phase difference δ = ±π/2,

±3π/2, …, then we have circularly polarized light.

Ex2 + Ey2 = E02 which defines a circle

• Choosing the positive sign of δ,

Ex (z, t) = ex E0 cos(kz - ωt)

Ey (z, t) = -ey E0 sin(kz - ωt)

• In this case, the endpoint of E traces out a circle at a given point in space.

10
• Consider an observer located at some arbitrary point toward which the wave is
approaching. For convenience, we choose this point at z = π/k at t = 0.

Ex (z, t) = -ex E0, Ey (z, t) = 0 E lies along the –x axis.

At a later time, say t = π/2ω, the electric field vector has rotated through 90o and now lies
along the -y axis. Thus, as the wave moves toward the observer with increasing time, E
rotates counterclockwise at an angular frequency ω. It makes one complete rotation as
the wave advances through one wavelength. Such a light wave is right circularly
polarized.

• If we choose the negative sign for δ, then the electric field vector is given by

E = E0 [ex cos(kz - ωt) + ey sin(kz – ωt)]

Now E rotates clockwise and the wave is left circularly polarized.

H H

k k
E E
LHC RHC
11
 Electromagnetic fields
• The electromagnetic field in a medium is generally characterized by
the following four field quantities:

Electric field E(r, t) V m-1

Electric displacement D(r, t) C m-2
Magnetic intensity H(r, t) A m-1
Magnetic field
or magnetic induction B(r, t) Wb m-2 or T

(The units are in SI units)

(coulomb C = A•s)
(weber Wb = V•s)

• E and H are the electric and magnetic field vectors, and D and B are
the corresponding flux densities. 12
 Maxwell equations

∇ × E = -∂B/∂t Faraday’s law of induction

curl
equations
∇ × H = J + ∂D/∂t Ampere-Maxwell law

divergence ∇●D=ρ Gauss’ law for the electric field

conditions
∇●B=0 Gauss’ law for the magnetic field
(No free poles)

where the current density vector J (= σE, σ is the conductivity)

and the charge density ρ represent the sources for the electromagnetic
field.

13
 Constitutive relations
• The flux densities (arise in response to E and H propagating
inside the medium) are related to the field vectors by the
constitutive relations

D(r, t) = εoE(r, t) + P(r, t)

B(r, t) = µoH(r, t) + µ0M(r, t)

where εo = 8.854 × 10-12 F m-1 ≈ (1/36π) × 10-9 F m-1 is the

electric permittivity of free space, µo = 4π × 10-7 H m-1 is the
magnetic permeability of free space,

polarization (electric polarization) P(r, t) C m-2

magnetization (magnetic polarization) M(r, t) A m-1

• For nonmagnetic materials such as silica glass, M = 0, and

thus B = µ0H. 14
 Electric susceptibility
• The relation between E and P is through the electric
susceptibility function χe.

P(r, t) = ε0χe(k, ω) E(r, t)

D = εo (1+ χe(k, ω)) E(r, t) = ε0 εr(k, ω) E(r, t) = ε(k, ω) E(r, t)

where the dielectric constant (relative permittivity) εr is

defined as 1+χe, and the permittivity of the medium ε = εr ε0.

• For isotropic medium, χe and εr are scalars so that E // P and

D // E. (∇·E = (1/ε) ∇·D = 0 in free space)

• In general, χe and εr are second-rank tensors (expressed in 3×3

matrices), in which case the medium they describe is
anisotropic. (E not // P, D not // E, in general ∇·E ≠ 0) 15
• The four field vectors are related by the relations:

D = εE

B = µH

where ε is the dielectric permittivity and µ is the magnetic

permeability of the medium

ε = ε0 εr

µ = µ0 µr

where µr and εr are the relative permeability and relative

permittivity for the dielectric medium, and µ0 and ε0 are
the permeability and permittivity of free space
(for non-magnetic materials, µr = 1) 16
 Maxwell equations in a medium with no sources
• The basis for the study of electromagnetic wave
propagation is provided by Maxwell equations.
• For a medium with zero conductivity these vector
relationships may be written in terms of the electric field
E, magnetic intensity H, electric flux density D and
magnetic flux density B as the curl equations and the
divergence conditions:

∇ × E = -∂B/∂t
Curl equations
∇ × H = ∂D/∂t

∇●D=0 (no free charges)

Divergence equations

∇●B=0 (no free poles) 17

 Wave equations
• Maxwell equations can be used to obtain the wave
equations that describe light propagation.

∇ × (∇ × E) = -µε ∂2E/∂t2

∇ × (∇ × H) = -µε ∂2H/∂t2

• Using the vector identity ∇ × (∇ × ) ≡ ∇ (∇ • ) - ∇2( )

• For homogeneous (source free), isotropic media, ∇·E = (1/ε) ∇·D = 0

We obtain the wave equations:

∇2E = µε ∂2E/∂t2 and ∇2H = µε ∂2H/∂t2

18
 Scalar wave equations
• For rectangular Cartesian and cylindrical polar
coordinates the above wave equations hold for each
component of the field vector, every component
satisfying the scalar wave equation:
∇2ψ = µε ∂2ψ/∂t2
where ψ may represent a component of the E or H field

• If planar waveguides, described by rectangular Cartesian

coordinates (x, y, z), or circular fibers, described by
cylindrical polar coordinates (r, φ, z), are considered,
then the Laplacian operator takes the form:

∇2ψ = ∂2ψ/∂x2 + ∂2ψ/∂y2 + ∂2ψ/∂z2

or ∇2ψ = ∂2ψ/∂r2 + (1/r) ∂ψ/∂r + (1/r2) ∂2ψ/∂φ2 + ∂2ψ/∂z219

 Uniform plane waves as a basic solution
• The basic solution of the wave equation is a harmonic wave.
The most important form of which is a uniform plane wave:

ψ = ψo exp i(k • r – ωt)

where ω is the angular frequency of the field, t is the time,
k is the propagation vector which gives the direction of
propagation and the rate of change of phase with distance, the
components of r specify the coordinate point at which the field is
observed

λ is the optical wavelength in a vacuum. The magnitude of the

propagation vector or the vacuum phase propagation constant k
(where k = |k|) is given by k = 2π/λ
20
(k is also known as the free space wave number)
To see the plane wave as a solution to the wave equation:

Consider a plane wave propagating in free space in the z direction,

E = Eo exp i(kz - ωt)

1-D wave equation ∂2E/∂z2 = µε ∂2E/∂t2 = µ0ε0 ∂2E/∂t2

k2 E = µ0ε0 ω2 E

k2/ω2 = µ0ε0

k2/ω2 = (2π/λ)2 / (2πυ)2 = 1/(λυ)2 = 1/c2 = µ0ε0

21
 Phase velocity in free space
• It is known that εo = 8.854 x 10-12 F m-1 ≈ (1/36π) × 10-9 F m-1
is the electric permittivity of free space, µo = 4π × 10-7 H m-1 is
the magnetic permeability of free space,

(µ0 ε0)-1/2 = (4π × 10-7 × (1/36π) × 10-9)-1/2 = 3 × 108 (F·Hm-2)-1/2

[F = C/V = A· s/V; H = Wb/A = V· s/A; F·H = s2]

• Maxwell realized that light is an electromagnetic wave from the fact

that the phase velocity derived from the wave equation agrees with the
measured speed of light.
22
 Phase velocity in dielectric media

vp = 1/√(µ0ε) = 1 /√(µ0ε0εr)

• The velocity of light in a dielectric medium is therefore

vp = c /√εr

where we used the relation µ0ε0 = 1/c2 and c is the speed of light.

vp = c / n
n = √εr
⇒The refractive index n is rooted in the material relative
permittivity. 23
 Transverse waves
• For plane waves in a non-conducting isotropic medium the Maxwell
equations take the following forms

k × E = ωµ H H

k × H = -ωε E

k●E=0 E

k●H=0
k

• The three vectors k, E, and H constitute a mutually orthogonal triad.

24
 Vector Helmholtz equations
• Using the operator form ∂/∂t = -iω, we find that the wave
equations become
∇2E + k2E = 0
∇2H + k2H = 0

where k = ω√(µ0ε) is the wavenumber, having units of m-1.

• These two equations are known as the vector Helmholtz

equations.
• They form the starting point for the analysis of all types of
waveguides that are constructed from linear, homogeneous,
and isotropic materials.

25
 Energy flow and the Poynting vector
• Poynting’s theorem states that the time rate of flow of
electromagnetic energy per unit area (or optical power per unit area)
is given by the vector S, called the Poynting vector,

S=E×H

This vector specifies both the direction and the magnitude of the energy
flux. (watts per square meter)

• Consider the case of plane harmonic waves in which the fields are
given by the real expressions

E = Eo cos (k • r - ωt)

H = Ho cos (k • r - ωt) 26
• For the instantaneous value of the Poynting vector

S = Eo × Ho cos2 (k • r - ωt)

• As the average value of the cosine squared is ½, then for the

average value of the Poynting vector

<S> = ½ Eo × Ho

*if the complex exponential form of the wave function for E and H
is used, the average Poynting flux can be expressed as ½ Eo × Ho*

• As the wavevector k is perpendicular to both E and H, k has the

same direction as the Poynting vector S.

27
Relationships among the directions of E, D, H, B, k,
and S in free space or in simple media

H // B

E // D

k // S

• In isotropic media the direction of the energy flow is specified

by the direction of S and is the same as the direction of the
wavevector k. (In anisotropic media (e.g. in certain crystals and
semiconductors) S and k are not always in the same direction.) 28
 Intrinsic impedance √(µ0/ε)
• The electric and magnetic field amplitudes are related by the
intrinsic impedance Z = √(µ0/ε). (in units of Ω)

• In free space, it becomes Zo = √(µ0/ε0) ≈ 120π Ω ≈ 377 Ω. We

can express Z = Z0/n.

• Consider a uniform plane wave that propagates in the +z

direction. Suppose the polarization is along x, so that its
phasor form is E = axE = ax E0 exp(-ikz), where ax is a unit
vector along x. Apply the curl E equation

∇ x E = (∂E/∂z) ay = -ikE ay = -iωµ0H

⇒H = H0 exp(-ikz) ay, where E0/H0 = ωµ0/k = √(µ0/ε) ≡ Z.

29
• An alternative expression for the average Poynting flux is

<S> = I k/k

magnitude of the unit vector in the

average Poynting flux direction of propagation

• I is called the irradiance or intensity, given by

I = ½ EoHo = (n/2Zo) |Eo|2 ∝ |Eo|2

[W/cm2] = [V2/(Ω·cm2)] = [1/Ω] [V/cm]2

• Thus the rate of flow of energy is proportional to the square of the

amplitude of the electric field. Z0 is the intrinsic impedance of free
space in units of Ω. 30
 Reflection and refraction
• We now review the phenomena of reflection and refraction of light
from the standpoint of electromagnetic theory.

• Consider a plane harmonic wave incident upon a plane boundary

separating two different optical media.

*The space-time dependence of these

ki kr three waves, aside from constant
θi θr reflected amplitude factors, is given by
incident
exp i(ki•r – ωt) incident
θt transmitted exp i(kr•r – ωt) reflected
kt exp i(kt•r – ωt) transmitted
31
• The condition that ki • r = kr • r = kt • r

is required at the interface for the boundary conditions to be satisfied

at all points along the interface at all times.

• This implies that the three wavevectors lie in the same plane known
as the plane of incidence.

• The projections of these three wavevectors on the interface are all

equal so that

ki sin θi = kr sin θr = kt sin θt

where θi is the angle of incidence, θr is the angle of reflection and

θt is the angle of refraction.
32
 • Because ki = kr and ki/kt = n1/n2

θi = θr (Law of reflection)

n1 sin θi = n2 sin θt (Snell’s law)

Boundary conditions
n
n × H1 B1n D1n n × E1
Medium 1
Medium 2
n × H2 n × E2
B2n D2n

Because B = µoH for optical fields, the tangential component of B and the
normal component of H are also continuous. All of the magnetic field
components in an optical field are continuous across a boundary. Possible
discontinuities in an optical field exist only in the normal component of E or the
tangential component of D. 33
 TE polarization (s-wave)
• The electric field is linearly polarized in a direction perpendicular
to the plane of incidence, while the magnetic field is polarized parallel to
the plane of incidence. This is called the transverse electric (TE)
polarization. This wave is also called s-polarized.
n

Hi Hr
ki kr
x θi θr x
n1 Ei Er

n2
θt Ht
x
Et
kt 34
• The reflection coefficient, r, and the transmission coefficient, t,
of the TE electric field are given by the following Fresnel equations:

n1 cos θi – n2 cos θt n1 cos θi - (n22 – n12 sin2θi)1/2

rs ≡ Er/Ei = =
n1 cos θi + n2 cos θt n1 cos θi + (n22 – n12 sin2θi)1/2

2n1 cos θi 2n1 cos θi

ts ≡ Et/Ei = =
n1 cos θi + n2 cos θt n1 cos θi + (n22 – n12 sin2θi)1/2

• The intensity reflectance and transmittance, R and T, which are also

known as reflectivity and transmissivity, are given by

n1 cos θi – n2 cos θt 2
Rs ≡ Ir/Ii =
n1 cos θi + n2 cos θt

Ts ≡ It/Ii = 1 - Rs 35
 TM polarization (p-wave)
• The electric field is linearly polarized in a direction parallel to the
plane of incidence while the magnetic field is polarized perpendicular
to the plane of incidence. This is called the transverse magnetic (TM)
polarization. This wave is also called p-polarized.
n
Ei Er
ki kr

• θi θr •
n1 Hi Hr
n2
θt Et
•
Ht
kt
36
• The reflection coefficient, r, and the transmission coefficient, t,
of the TM electric field are given by the following Fresnel equations:

-n2 cos θi + n1 cos θt -n22 cos θi + n1(n22 – n12 sin2θi)1/2

rp ≡ Er/Ei = =
n2 cos θi + n1 cos θt n22 cos θi + n1(n22 – n12 sin2θi)1/2

2n1 cos θi 2n1n2 cos θi

tp ≡ Et/Ei = =
n2 cos θi + n1 cos θt n22 cos θi + n1(n22 – n12 sin2θi)1/2

• The intensity reflectance and transmittance for TM polarization are

given by

-n2 cos θi + n1 cos θt 2

Rp ≡ Ir/Ii =
n2 cos θi + n1 cos θt

Tp ≡ It/Ii = 1 - Rp 37
 Total Internal Reflection

For θi > θc sin θi > n2/n1

n1 cos θi - i (n12 sin2θi - n22)1/2

|rs| = =1
n1 cos θi + i (n12 sin2θi - n22)1/2

-n22 cos θi + i n1(n12 sin2θi – n22)1/2

|rp| = 2
=1
n2 cos θi + i n1(n1 sin2θi
2 – n2 2)1/2

38
 total internal reflection
n1 = 1.5 (internal
for θ > θc
n2 = 1.0 reflection)

θB ~ 34o (Brewster angle)

θc ~ 42o

Rs Rp

θB θc

39
 Phase changes in total internal reflection
• In the case of total internal reflection the complex values for the
coefficients of reflection, given by the Fresnel coefficients rs and rp,
imply that there is a change of phase which is a function of the angle
of incidence.

• As the absolute values of rs and rp are both unity, we can write

rs = ae-iα / aeiα = exp –iϕs

rp = -be-iβ / beiβ = -exp -iϕp

where ϕs and ϕp are the phase changes for the TE and TM cases, and
the complex numbers ae-iα and –be-iβ represent the numerators in
rs and rp. Their complex conjugates appear in the denominators.
40
 2 2 2 1/2
ae-iα = n1 cos θi - i (n1 sin θi - n2 )
n 2 cos θ - i n (n 2 sin2θ – n 2)1/2
be-iβ = 2 i 1 1 i 2

• We see that ϕs = 2α and ϕp = 2β. Accordingly, tan α = tan (ϕs/2) and

tan β = tan (ϕp/2).

• We therefore find the following expressions for the phase changes that
occur in internal reflection:

tan (ϕs/2) = (n12 sin2θi - n22)1/2 / (n1 cos θi)

tan (ϕp/2) = n1(n12 sin2θi – n22)1/2 / (n22 cos θi)

41
 Total internal reflection phase shifts

Phase change (radian) n1 = 1.5, n2 = 1

ϕp
ϕs

Angle of incidence
• Useful for our discussion on the phase-matching condition of
waveguide modes 42
 Evanescent wave
• In spite of the fact that the incident energy is totally reflected when
the angle of incidence exceeds the critical angle, there is still an
electromagnetic wave field in the region beyond the boundary. This
field is known as the evanescent wave.

• Its existence can be understood by consideration of the wave

function of the electric field of the transmitted wave:

Et = Et exp i (kt • r – ωt)

Choose the coordinate axis such that the plane of incidence is on the xy
plane and the boundary is at y = 0.

43
 exp (-κy) exp i((ki sin θi)x – ωt)
y wavefronts λ/(n1sin θi)

vp = ω/(ki sinθi)
n2
x
n1 λ/n1

Ei θi > θc
Er total
internal
reflection
kt • r = kt x sin θt + kt y cos θt

= kt x (n1/n2) sin θi + kt y (1 – (n1/n2)2 sin2 θi)1/2

= ki x sin θi + i kt y ((n12sin2θi/n22) – 1)1/2

44
• The wave function for the electric field of the evanescent wave is

Eevan = Et exp (-κy) exp i ((ki sin θi)x - ωt)

where κ = kt ((n12sin2θi/n22) – 1)1/2

• The factor exp (-κy) shows that the evanescent wave amplitude drops
off very rapidly in the rarer medium as a function of distance from the
boundary.
• The oscillatory term exp i ((ki sin θi) x - ωt) indicates that the
evanescent wave can be described in terms of surfaces of constant phase
moving parallel to the boundary with phase velocity ω/(ki sin θi).

• The evanescent field stores energy and transports it in the direction of

surface propagation, but does not transport energy in the transverse
direction. Therefore, evanescent wave is also known as surface wave.
45
 Evanescent wave amplitude normal to the
interface drops exponentially
e-κy
y
n2=1
λ = 600 nm θi n1=1.5

θi= 42o ≈ θc

1/e
θi= 44o
θi= 60o

Position y (nm)
46