Structure of the Earth

The interior structure of the Earth, similar to the outer, is layered. These layers can be defined by either their chemical or their rheological properties. The Earth has an outer silicate solid crust, a highly viscous mantle, a liquid outer core that is much less viscous than the mantle, and a solid inner core. Scientific understanding of Earth's internal structure is based on observations of topography and bathymetry, observations of rock in outcrop, samples brought to the surface from greater depths by volcanic activity, analysis of the seismic waves that pass through the Earth, measurements of the gravity field of the Earth, and experiments with crystalline solids at pressures and temperatures characteristic of the Earth's deep interior. The force exerted by Earth's gravity can be used to calculate its mass, and by estimating the volume of the planet, its average density can be calculated. Astronomers can also calculate Earth's mass from its orbit and effects on nearby planetary bodies. Observations of rocks, bodies of water and atmosphere allow estimation of the mass, volume and density of rocks to a certain depth, so the remaining mass must be in the deeper layers.

Structure
The structure of Earth can be defined in two ways: by mechanical properties such asrheology, or chemically. Mechanically, it can be divided into lithosphere,asthenosphere, mesosphere, outer core, and the inner core. The interior of the earth is divided into 5 important layers. Chemically, Earth can be divided into the crust, upper mantle, lower mantle, outer core, and inner core. The geologic component layers of [1] Earth are at the following depths below the surface:

Depth

Kilometres

Miles

Layer

060

037

Lithosphere (locally varies between 5 and 200 km)

035

022

Crust (locally varies between 5 and 70 km)

3560

2237

Uppermost part of mantle

352,890

221,790 Mantle

100200

62125

Asthenosphere

35660

22410

Upper mesosphere (upper mantle)

6602,890

4101,790 Lower mesosphere (lower mantle)

2,890 5,150

1,790 3,160

Outer core

5,150 6,360

3,160 3,954

Inner core

Mapping the interior of the Earth with earthquake waves.

The layering of Earth has been inferred indirectly using the time of travel of refracted and reflected seismic waves created by earthquakes. The core does not allow shear waves to pass through it, while the speed of travel (seismic velocity) is different in other layers. The changes in seismic velocity between different layers causes refraction owing to Snell's law. Reflections are caused by a large increase in seismic velocity and are similar to light reflecting from a mirror.

Core
The average density of Earth is 5,515 kg/m . Since the average density 3 of surface material is only around 3,000 kg/m , we must conclude that denser materials exist within Earth's core. Further evidence for the high density core comes from the study of seismology. Seismic measurements show that the core is divided into two parts, a [2] solid inner core with a radius of ~1,220 km and a liquid outer core extending beyond it to a radius of ~3,400 km. The solid inner core was discovered in 1936 by Inge Lehmannand is generally believed to be composed primarily of iron and some nickel. In early stages of Earth's
3

formation about 4.5 billion (4.510 ) years ago, melting would have caused denser substances to sink toward the center in a process calledplanetary differentiation (see also the iron catastrophe), while lessdense materials would have migrated to the crust. The core is thus believed to largely be composed of iron (80%), along with nickel and one or more light elements, whereas other dense elements, such as lead and uranium, either are too rare to be significant or tend to bind to lighter elements and thus remain in the crust (see felsic materials). Some have argued that the inner core may be in the form of a [3][4] single iron crystal. On August 30, 2011, Professor Kei Hirose, professor of high-pressure mineral physics and petrology at the Tokyo Institute of Technology, became the first person to recreate conditions found at the earth's core under laboratory conditions, subjecting a sample of iron nickel alloy to the same type of pressure by gripping it in a vice between 2 diamond tips, and then heating the sample to approximately 4000 Kelvins with a laser. The sample was observed with x-rays, and strongly supported the theory that the earth's [5] inner core was made of giant crystals running north to south. The liquid outer core surrounds the inner core and is believed to be composed of iron mixed with nickel and trace amounts of lighter elements. Recent speculation suggests that the innermost part of the core is enriched in gold, platinum and [6] other siderophile elements. The matter that comprises Earth is connected in fundamental ways to matter of [7][8] certain chondrite meteorites, and to matter of outer portion of the Sun. There is good reason to believe that Earth is, in the main, like a chondrite meteorite. Beginning as early as 1940, scientists, including Francis Birch, built geophysics upon the premise that Earth is like ordinary chondrites, the most common type of meteorite observed impacting Earth, while totally ignoring another, albeit less abundant type, called enstatite chondrites. The principal difference between the two meteorite types is that enstatite chondrites formed under circumstances of extremely limited available oxygen, leading to certain normally oxyphile elements existing either partially or wholly in the alloy portion that corresponds to the core of Earth. Dynamo theory suggests that convection in the outer core, combined with the Coriolis effect, gives rise to Earth's magnetic field. The solid inner core is too hot to hold a permanent magnetic field (see Curie temperature) but probably acts to stabilize the magnetic field generated by the liquid outer core. The average magnetic field strength in the Earth's outer core is estimated to be 25 Gauss, 50 times stronger [9][10] than the magnetic field at the surface. Recent evidence has suggested that the inner core of Earth may rotate slightly faster than the rest of the [11] planet. In August 2005 a team ofgeophysicists announced in the journal Science that, according to their estimates, Earth's inner core rotates approximately 0.3 to 0.5 degrees per year relative to the rotation of [12][13] the surface. The current scientific explanation for the Earth's temperature gradient is a combination of heat left over from the planet's initial formation, decay of radioactive elements, and freezing of the inner core.

Mantle
Main article: Mantle (geology)

Schematic view of the interior of Earth. 1. continental crust - 2. oceanic crust - 3. upper mantle - 4. lower mantle - 5. outer core - 6. inner core - A: Mohorovii discontinuity - B: Gutenberg Discontinuity - C: Lehmann discontinuity

Earth's mantle extends to a depth of 2,890 km, making it the thickest layer of the Earth. The pressure, at the bottom of the mantle, is ~140 GPa (1.4 Matm). The mantle is composed of silicate rocks that are rich in iron and magnesium relative to the overlying crust. Although solid, the high temperatures within the mantle cause the silicate material to be sufficiently ductile that it can flow on very long timescales.Convection of the mantle is expressed at the surface through the motions of tectonic plates. The melting point and viscosity of a substance depends on the pressure it is under. As there is intense and increasing pressure as one travels deeper into the mantle, the lower part of the mantle flows less easily than does the upper mantle (chemical changes within the mantle may also be important). The 21 24 [14] viscosity of the mantle ranges between 10 and 10 Pas, depending on depth. In comparison, the 3 7 viscosity of water is approximately 10 Pas and that of pitch is 10 Pas. [edit]Crust Main article: Crust (geology) The crust ranges from 570 km in depth and is the outermost layer. The thin parts are the oceanic crust, which underlie the ocean basins (510 km) and are composed of dense (mafic) iron magnesium silicate rocks, like basalt.The thicker crust iscontinental crust, which is less dense and composed of (felsic) sodium potassiumaluminium silicate rocks, like granite. The rocks of the crust fall into two major categories - sial and sima (Suess,18311914). As the main mineral constituents of the continental mass are silica and aluminium, it is thus called sial (si-silica, 6575% and al-aluminium). The oceanic crust mainly consists of silica and magnesium. it is therefore called sima (si-silica and mamagnesium). It is estimated that sima starts about 11 km below theConrad discontinuity (a second order discontinuity). The uppermost mantle together with the crust constitutes the lithosphere. The crust-mantle boundary occurs as two physically different events. First, there is a discontinuity in the seismic velocity,

which is known as theMohorovii discontinuity or Moho. The cause of the Moho is thought to be a change in rock composition from rocks containing plagioclase feldspar (above) to rocks that contain no feldspars (below). Second, in oceanic crust, there is a chemical discontinuity between ultramaficcumulates and tectonized harzburgites, which has been observed from deep parts of the oceanic crust that have been obducted onto the continental crust and preserved as ophiolite sequences. Many rocks now making up Earth's crust formed less than 100 million (110 ) years ago; however, the 9 oldest known mineral grains are 4.4 billion (4.410 ) years old, indicating that Earth has had a solid crust [15] for at least that long.
8

Earth's radial density distribution according to the preliminary reference earth model (PREM).

Earth's gravity according to the preliminary reference earth model (PREM). Comparison to approximations using constant and linear density for Earth's interior.

Earth's structure
The earth consists of several layers. The three main layers are the core, the mantle and the crust. The core is the inner part of the earth, the crust is the outer part and between them is the mantle. The earth is surrounded by the atmosphere. Till this moment it hasn't been possible to take a look inside the earth because the current technology doesn't allow it. Therefore all kinds of research had to be done to find out, out of which material the earth consists, what different layers there are and which influence those have (had) on the earth's surface. This research is called seismology.

The Core
The inner part of the earth is the core. This part of the earth is about 1,800 miles (2,900 km) below the earth's surface. The core is a dense ball of the elements iron and nickel. It is divided into two layers, the inner core and the outer core. The inner core - the center of earth - is solid and about 780 miles (1,250 km ) thick. The outer core is so hot that the metal is always molten, but the inner core pressures are so great that it cannot melt, even though temperatures there reach 6700F (3700C). The outer core is about 1,370 miles (2,200 km) thick. Because the earth rotates, the outer core spins around the inner core and that causes the earth's magnetism.

What does the core consist of?

Inner core: It is 3,200 - 3,960 miles (5,150-6,370 km) below the earth's surface and mainly consists of iron, nickel and some lighter elements (probably sulphur, carbon, oxygen, silicon and potassium. The temperature in the inner core is about 9032 - 10832 F (5000-6000 C). Because of the high pressure, the core is solid. The average density of the core is about 15g/cm. Outer core: The outer core is at 1,800 - 3,200 miles (2,890-5,150 km) below the earth's surface. The outer core is liquid and mainly consists of iron, some nickel and about 10% sulphur and oxygen. The temperature in the outer core is about 7200 - 9032 F (4000-5000C). The density of the outer core is between the 10g/cm and 12,3g/cm. The outer core and inner core together cause the earth's magnetism.

What Influence does the Core have?

Because the core is so hot, it radiates a natural heat to the upper layers. Because of this a current of heat comes into being. Those are also known as the convection currents. The convection currents cause the movement of the tectonic plates. This movement is called plate tectonics. The outer core and the inner core together cause the earth's magnetism. Because the earth rotates, the outer core spins, the inner core doesn't spin because it's solid. This gives a kind of dynamo effect and causes the earth's magnetism. Magnetism has been used by sailors to find their way on earth for thousands and thousands of years. Magnetism also influences electro-particles outside the atmosphere of the earth, up to more than 37,000 miles (60,000 km) into space

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Earth Cutaway Here, sections of the Earth have been removed to show its internal structure. Image By: Colin Rose, Dorling Kindersley

The Mantle
The layer above the core is the mantle. It begins about 6 miles(10 km) below the oceanic crust and about 19 miles (30 km) below the continental crust (see The Crust). The function of the mantle is to separate the inner mantle and the outer mantle. It is about 1,800 miles(2,900 km) thick and makes up nearly 80 percent of the Earth's total volume. Science deals with the structure of the mantle in two different ways. One way is based on its chemical construction (the material), the other on the way layers stream or move.

What does the mantle consist of?

Based on the chemical construction: Inner Mantle: the inner mantle can be found between 190 miles (300 km) an 1,800 miles (2,890 km) below the earths surface. The average temperature is 5400 F (3000C), nevertheless the rock is solid because of the high pressures. The inner mantle for the biggest part probably consists of sulphides and oxides of silicon and magnesium. The density is between 4.3g/cm and 5.4g/cm.

Outer Mantle: The outer mantle is a lot thinner than the inner mantle. It can be found between 7 miles (10 km) and 190 miles (300 km) below the surface of the earth. You can divide the outer mantle into two different layers. The bottom layer is tough liquid rock and probably consists of silicates of iron and magnesium. The temperature in this part is between 2520 F (1400C) and 5400 F (3000C) and the density is between 3.4g/cm and 4.3g/cm. The upper layer of the outer mantle consists of the same material but is stiffer because of its lower temperature. Based on the way layers stream or move: From this perspective, you look at the outer mantle and the crust together. Here we make a difference in asthenosphere and lithosphere. Asthenosphere: The tough liquid part of the outer mantle. Lithosphere: The stiffer part of the outer mantle and the crust. The lithosphere 'floats' on the asthenosphere, like ice on water.

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Earth Cutaway Here, sections of the Earth have been removed to show its internal structure. Image by: Colin Rose, Dorling Kindersley

What Influence does the Mantle Have?

Because the earth is very hot inside, a current of heat flows from the core to the crust. This is called convection current and it also takes place in the mantle. This current cools down as it comes closer to the surface of the earth. As a result, the rising of the current decreases and goes into horizontal direction along the bottom of the crust. When the current cools down more, the convection current descends again and goes to the inner earth. There the temperature increases and the current rises again. This goes on and on. When the current comes at a weaker part of the crust, for example at a volcano, magma comes above the earth's surface. The convection current along the bottom of the crust causes the moving of the tectonic plates. This is called plate tectonics. The movement of these plates goes very slowly. The bumping of two tectonic plates causes an earthquake.

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Convection Currents Large convection systems in the mantle may carry along the plates of the lithosphere like a conveyor belt. Image by: Colin Salmon, Dorling Kindersley

The Crust

The crust covers the mantle and is the earth's hard outer shell, the surface on which we are living. Compared to the other layers the crust is much thinner. It floats upon the softer, denser mantle. The crust is made up of solid material but this material is not the same everywhere. There is an Oceanic crust and a Continental crust. The first one is about 4-7 miles (6-11 km) thick and mainly consists of heavy rocks, like basalt. The Continental crust is thicker than the Oceanic crust, about 19 miles(30 km) thick. It is mainly made up of light material like granite.

What does the crust consist of?

The crust consists of two parts: the oceanic and the continental crust. Oceanic crust: As the name already suggests, this crust is below the oceans. There, the crust is 4-7 miles (6-11 km) thick. The rocks of the oceanic crust are very young compared with the rocks of the continental crust. The rocks of the oceanic crust are not older than 200 million years. The material of which the oceanic crust consists is for the greater part tholeiitic basalt (this is basalt without olivine). Basalt has a dark, fine and gritty volcanic structure. It is formed out of very liquid lava, which cools off quickly. The grains are so small that they are only visible under a microscope. The average density of the oceanic crust is 3g/cm.
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Earth cutaway Here, sections of the Earth have been removed to show its internal structure. Image by: Colin Rose, Dorling Kindersley

Continental crust: When you look at the globe, you see that the surface of the earth consists of a lot of water (71%). The other 29% consists of land. You can divide this land into six big pieces, which are called continents. The different continents - arranged in decreasing order of size - are: Eurasia (Europe and Asia together), Africa, North-America, SouthAmerica, Antarctica and Australia. In the past the division of the continents was different (see plate tectonic). The earth's crust is the thickest below the continents, with an average of about 20 to 25 miles (30 to 40 km) and with a maximum of 45 miles (70 km). The continental crust is older than the oceanic crust, some rocks are 3.8 billion years old. The continental crust mainly consists of igneous rocks and is divided into two layers. The upper part mainly consists of granite rocks, while the lower part consists of

basalt and diorite. Granite is lightly-colored, coarse-grain, magma. Diorite has the same composition, but it's scarcer than granite and is probably formed by impurities in the granite-magma. The average density of the continental crust is 2.7g/cm.

Which influence does the crust have?

The crust itself has no influence on the earth, but the constant moving of the crust does. This moving is caused by the influence of theconvection current, or to be more precise, this convection current actually causes the earth plates to move and sometimes touch each other. These movements cause earthquakes and at weak parts of the earth's crust volcanoes can erupt. Because of all these ongoing movements in the last millions of years, mountains and valleys have been formed, and thats why the surface of the earth looks as it is now. The form of the surface of the earth has its daily influence on the way people live and work. An example: the building of houses. When you build a house in the mountains, you build it in an other way than on flat land. In the mountains the bottom is more solid than on flat land. Volcanoes and earthquakes also have their direct influence on the people who live near places where they occur. It destroys their houses and many times people are killed or wounded.

The Atmosphere
The earth is surrounded by all kind of gases. This layer is called the earth's Atmosphere. Without this atmosphere life on earth isn't possible. It gives us air, water, heat, and protects us against harmful rays of the sun and against meteorites. This layer around the earth is a colorless, odorless, tasteless 'sea' of gases, water and fine dust. The atmosphere is made up of different layers with different qualities. It consists of 78 percent nitrogen, 21 percent oxygen, 0,93 percent argon, 0,03 percent carbon dioxide and 0,04 percent of other gases. The Troposphere is the layer where the weather happens. Above this layer is the Stratosphere and in between them is the Ozone layer, that absorbs the sun's harmful ultraviolet rays. Above the Stratosphere is the Mesosphere, the Thermosphere including the Ionosphere - and the Exosphere. The atmosphere measures about 500 miles (700km).

Where does the Atmosphere consist of?

The atmosphere has at the upper side no clear boundary, because higher in the atmosphere, the layer becomes thinner and thinner. It constantly loses molecules of lighter gases such as helium and hydrogen. The further we get from the earth, the atmosphere is divided in thin layers, based on changes in the temperature.

The Troposphere The Troposphere is the lowest layer of the atmosphere and measures about 7 miles(12 km). It contains over 75 percent of all the atmosphere's gases and vast quantities of water and dust. As the sun heats the ground, it keeps this thick mixture churning. The weather is caused by these churnings of the mass. The troposphere is normally warmest at ground level and cools higher up where it reaches its upper boundary (the tropopause). The tropopause varies in height. At the equator it is at 11,2 miles(8 km) high, at 50 N and 50 S, 5,6 miles(9 km) and at the poles 3,7 miles(6 km) high. Stratosphere: The Stratosphere extends from the tropopause up to its boundary (the Stratopause), 31 miles(50 km) above the Earth's surface. In this layer there is 19 percent of the atmosphere's gases and it contains little water vapour. Compared to the troposphere it is calm in this layer. The movements of the gases are slow. Within the stratosphere is the ozone layer, a band of ozone gas, that absorbs harmful ultraviolet rays of the sun. The higher you get in the atmosphere, the warmer the air gets. The temperature rises from -76 F(-60 C) at the bottom to a maximum of about 5 F(10 C) at the stratopause. Mesosphere: The mesosphere is the next layer above the stratopause and extends to its upper boundary (the Mesopause), at 50 miles(80 km) above the ground. The gases in the mesosphere are too thin to absorb much of the sun's heat. Although the air is still thick enough to slow down meteorites hurtling into the atmosphere. They burn up, leaving fiery trails in the night sky. The temperatures in the mesosphere drop to -184 F(-120 C) at the mesopause.

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Layers of the atmosphere The atmosphere is divided into five main layers plus the ionosphere. It extends over 430 miles (700 km) into the sky. Image by: Roy Flookes, Dorling Kindersley

Thermosphere: The Thermosphere is the layer above the mesopause. The gases of the thermosphere are even thinner than those in the mesosphere, but they absorb ultraviolet light from the sun. Because of this, the temperatures rise to 3,600 F (2,000 C) at the top. This is at a height of 430 miles (700 km) of the earth's surface. In the thermosphere is a separate layer, the Ionosphere. This layer extends of 62 miles(100 km) to 190 miles(300 km) of the earth's surface. Ionosphere: The ionosphere is part of the thermosphere. It is made of electrically charged gas particles (ionised). The particles get this electric charge by ultraviolet rays of the sun. The ionosphere has the important quality of bouncing radio signals, transmitted from the earth. Thats why places all over the world can be reached via radio. Exosphere: The Exosphere is the outermost layer of the atmosphere and extends from 430 miles(700 km) to 500 miles(800 km) above the ground. In this layer gases get thinner and thinner and drift off into space.

What influence does the Atmosphere have?

The atmosphere is of vital importance for life on earth. Without atmosphere life would be impossible. It gives us air to breathe and protects us from meteorites and ultraviolet rays from the sun. The atmosphere absorbs so much heat that temperatures on earth are such that life is possible. The weather, that exists by constant circulation of water to water vapor, to rain to water. This cycle causes, together with the differences in temperature and circulation of air (wind), erosion of the earth's surface. By erosion the outside of the earth changes through the years.

Influence of the Sun and the Moon

The Sun and the Moon both have their influences on the earth. Sometimes they cooperate and sometimes they counteract each other. Such influences are: gravity, the heat of the sun, sunlight and our chronology. Chronology: The earth rotates with a speed of 65,000 mph(105,000 kph) in an elliptic (oval) orbit around the sun. One rotation around the sun takes 365,42 days. The Western calendar year is 365 days long. Therefore every four years the Western calendar adds an extra day (a leap year) to compensate this. This happens at February 29. In one orbit around the sun the earth 'travels' 584,018,150 miles (939,886,400 km). The distance from the earth to the sun is at the closest point 91,402,300 miles (147,097,800 km) on January 3. The distance at the farthest point is 94,509,400 miles (152,098,200 km) on July 4. The moon rotates around the earth in 273,3 days. But because the earth also spins, there are 29,53 days between two Full Moons. It is Full Moon when we see all of its

bright side lighted by the sun. When the moon is completely dark, it is New Moon. The classification in months is based on the time it takes for the moon to go through all its four phases. The earth also rotates around its own axis. In 24 hours the earth spins around its axis from west to east. One spin of the earth around its own axis is a day. Different places on the earth's surface move at different speeds. Places near the Poles barely move at all, while those on the equator (a line midway between the Poles) zoom around at more than 1,000 mph(1,600 kph).
Light: Because the earth rotates in 24 hours from west to east, you see the sun rising everyday in the east and sinking in the west. The earth's axis is not quite at right angles to the sun, but tilts over at an angle of 23,5 , this is the angle of inclination. Through the tilt of the earth's axis, daylight varies throughout the year. It varies the least at the equator and the most at the Poles. Therefore, it is never completely dark at the Poles in summer nor is it is ever completely light in winter. The cycle of New Moon to Full Moon and back causes that at night a part of the sunlight gets reflected by the moon to the earth's surface. Because of this it gets less dark.

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The Heat of the Sun: Besides light, the sun also produces heat waves. From the total radiation of heat of the sun, 47 percent reaches the earth's surface. The other 53 percent gets absorbed or reflected in different ways: 23 percent gets reflected by clouds, 16 percent gets absorbed by steam, dust and gases in the air, 7 percent gets diffused and spread by the atmosphere, 4 percent gets reflected by land and oceans and 3 percent gets absorbed by clouds.

The fate of solar radiation Only 47 percent of solar radiation reaches the ground. The remaining 53 percent is absorbed or reflected in various ways on its way down. Image by: Roy Flookes, Dorling Kindersley

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Seasonal change It is the Earth's tilted axis that produces seasonal

Because the earth's axis is not quite at right angles to the sun, the four seasons exist: spring, summer, autumn and winter. In summer the sun shines longer and is high in the sky and the sunrays shine more directly at the earth's surface. That's why the weather is warmer then. In winter it is just the opposite. The sun shines shorter and the sunrays reach the

weather and gives us days of different length. If the Earth was at right angles to the Sun, day and night would always be equal length, and there would only be one season throughout the whole year. Image by: Roy Flookes and Dave Donkin, Dorling Kindersley

earth's surface at a wider angle, which causes temperatures to drop.

Gravity: Gravity causes the earth to move around the sun. It is an invisible force that is still not completely understood by science. This phenomenon not only causes the earth to keep moving around the sun, but also to keep the moon rotating around the earth and it makes things fall to the ground. All matter, even the smallest object, has a gravitational force. The heavier the object, the stronger its gravitational force. The sun is far away but it's very heavy and has a big gravitational force with respect to the earth. Because of the speed, the earth has the tendency to fly away from the sun. The gravity of the sun stops this, so that the earth stays in its orbit. This also happens when you swing around an object on a rope. You feel the power by which you keep the item in its orbit as long as you keep swinging the rope. When you let it go, the item shoots outwards.
The earth is also a big and heavy 'object' and also has a big gravity. This is why we keep staying on the ground and that everything you let go, falls to the ground. The moon spins around the earth and keeps moving by the attraction of the earth in the same way as the earth keeps moving around the sun. But the moon also has its attraction to the earth. We can see this every day on the beach when we witness the movements of high tide and low tide. Because the sun and the moon exert their gravitational influences on the earth, the earth gets stretched into a slight oval. The solid part of the earth (the crust) is difficult to stretch. With the water in the oceans it gets easier, because it's fluid. By this the oceans rise and fall at both sides of the earth and you get high tide and low tide. When the sun, the earth and the moon line up, these forces get stronger and

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How tides are formed Roughly every 12 hours, the oceans on each side of the globe rise a little and then fall back. These tides are caused by the varying gravitational pull between the spinning Earth and the Moon and the Sun.

Image by: Dave Donkin, Dorling Kindersley

you get spring tide (especially high tide). When the sun is at right angles with the moon, then these forces counteract and you have neap tides (especially low tide).