ANIMAL BREEDING AND

GENETICS
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ANIMAL BREEDING AND GENETICS  Recombinant type gamete- a gamete that carries
two or more genes resulting from the crossover of
TERMS IN ANIMAL BREEDING AND GENETICS________ segments of homologous chromosomes during meiosis
 Segregation- the separation of the pair of genes in
 Additive effects- the effect of each allele in the locus the process of gametogenesis
where no interaction exists  Selection- the process where certain individuals are
 Alleles- one or more alternative forms of a gene able to contribute more progeny in the next generation
occupying the same site(locus) on a chromosome, one than other individuals
of a pair of controlling genes  Sex chromosomes- the chromosomes that
 Allelic gene- genes that occupy the same locus in the determines the sex of the individual
chromosomes  Sex- linkage- the state where a gene is located in the
 Autosomal linkages- state when genes are located in sex chromosome.
the same autosomes  Spermatogenesis- the process of producing sperm
 Autosome- the type of chromosome other than the cells
sex chromosome  Test- crossing- crossing of an individual of unknown
 Bases- the chemical component of the gene consisting genotype to be completely recessive genotype
of adenine, guanine, thymine, and cytosine  Transcription- the process whereby the sequence of
 Chromosome- the colored bodies in the nucleus that the bases in the DNA is transcribed by the mRNA in the
contain the DNA. nucleus for subsequent translation into the
 Chromatid- a longitudinally divided half chromosome corresponding protein
which occur during mitosis and meiosis.  Translation- the process of synthesis of the
 Crossbreeding- the breeding of individuals from one polypeptide chain based on the sequence in the mRNA
population to individuals from another distinctly  Zygote- fertilized egg.
different population.
 Dominance- the condition where the expression of a *From Various Sources
gene suppression that of its alternative allele
 Diploid- the occurrence of chromosome in pairs HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT OF GENETICS
 Epistasis- a type of genetic interaction, where a gene
in one locus suppresses the action of a gene in another  Before the work of Gregor Mendel, an Austrian monk
locus was rediscovered in 1900, everyone attributed the
 Gamete- the collective term for the reproductive cells phenomenon too simply because of the blending of the
from either the male or female blood of the parents. Mendel’s work was made in the
 Gametogenesis- the process of production of 18th century but this just gathered bust in the shelf until
gametes it was recognized in 1865 that indeed there is s
 Gene- 1. the carrier of hereditary characteristics 2. A scientific bases of inheritance
segment of the DNA that determines the base  In 1901, de Vries, Correns and Von Tschermark
sequence of the nucleotides in the mRNA that makes independently rediscovered the work of Mendel which
up the code for a certain biological function then resulted to the understanding and acceptance of
 Gene frequency- The proportion of particular gene at Mendel’s work.
a given locus  W. Bateson, an English biologist studied the
 Genotype- the specific combination of genes in the inheritance of certain characteristics of chicken in
diploid phase representing a phenotype 1906.
 Genotypic frequency- the proportion of a particular  Galton (1822-1911) - introduced statistical methods
phenotype present in the population or breeding group. into the study of heredity and can be considered as
 Haploid- The state of an organisms or cell having only the founder of the modern science of biometrics.
one complete set of chromosomes, e.g. gamete.  Johannsen -a dannish biologists coined the term
 Heritability- the degree by which a character is “gene” to refer to the particulate factor that Mendel
genetically transmitted from parent to offspring hypothesized as the basic unit of inheritance.
 Heterogametic sex- the sex that carries different sex  TH Morgan (1910)- working with the fruity
chromosomes, e.g. X and Y in the mammals drosophila put forward the linear theory of the gene,
 Homogametic sex- the sex that carries identical sex explained the crossing over of an genetic basis and
chromosomes; e.g. X and X in the mammals produced the first chromosome maps.
 Hybrid vigor or heterosis- a condition where the  Bridges (1916)- developed the theory of sex
heterozygote is better than the average of the determination
homozygotes  Muller (1928) - demonstrated that gene mutations
 Inbreeding- the process of mating animals that are could be artificially induced in X-rays.
closely related by decent  Avery and Co-worker (1944) - produced the
 Law of independence- In Mendelian inheritance , evidence of the role of the nucleic acid DNA as the
members of one pair genes segregates independently carrier of genetic information.
with other pairs of genes  James Watson and Francis Crick-produced the
 Locus- the specific location of a pair of genes in the model of the molecular structure of DNA and
chromosomes ( pl. loci) introduced the basic concept of genetic codes.
 Maternal inheritance- inheritance of maternal
characteristics through the distinctive maternal HISTORY OF ANIMAL BREEDING
phenotypes; e.g. lack of teats in the udder of the sow
could retard the growth of some piglets  Robert Bakewell (1725-1795) is generally considered
 Meiosis- The process of cell multiplication in which the to be the first great pioneer of animal breeding. He laid
number of chromosomes in the reproductive cells are the foundation for three new breeds of animals: the
reduced from diploid to haploid as in gametogenesis Shire horse, longhorn cattle and Leicester sheep.
 Mitosis-the process of multiplication of identical cells o The principles Bakewell used were:
 Mutation- spontaneous change in the biochemical or  Like produces like or the likeness of
structural characteristics in the genetic material that some ancestor
results in a different biological action  Inbreeding produces prepotency and
 Oogenesis- The process of production of female refinement
gamete  Breed the best to the best.
 Phenotype – the observable effect of a gene action
 Random mating- process where each individual of
one sex has an equal chance of mating with any other
individual in the opposite sex

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GENES AND THEIR ROLE IN ANIMAL PRODUCTIVITY ribonucleic acid (RNA) and the ribosome in the cells. In
the nucleus, the RNA transcribes the sequence of the
Genes and their Function________________________ bases in the DNA and then carries the information to
the cytoplasm of the cells. The ribosomes attach to the
 Gene is the basic biological unit of inheritance. m-RNA and then “reads” the message according to 3
Through this, parents transmit their characteristics to bases at a time. Each string of 3 bases codes for a
their offspring. The biochemical nature and function of certain amino acid. As each string of 3 bases is read,
the gene however was hypothesized by James the corresponding free amino acid in the cytoplasm is
Watson and Francis Crick (1956) which is now picked up and assembled into the string. When enough
universally accepted. of the specific amino acids have been assembled
 Gene may be defined as a segment of the together, it forms a protein molecule.
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) which determines
the base sequence of nucleotides in the THE ROLE OF GENOTYPE________________________
messenger ribonucleic acid(mRNA) that makes
up the code for certain biological function  The mechanisms by which the gene is able to
 The DNA is a biochemical compound consisting of a synthesize protein in the cells underlies the relationship
chain of nucleotides called polynucleotide. Each among the genotype (G) and the environment (E)
nucleotide consist of a phosphate (P), a sugar (S) in the formation of the phenotype (P) of the
and a base (B). The coding system of the gene is organism.
based on the arrangement of the four bases: Guanine  Genotype refers to the specific combinations of
(G), Adenine (A), Thymine (T) and Cytosine (C). genes that are associated with a particular
characteristics of the individual. The environment
DNA RNA is the totality of non-genetic factors affecting the
Contains A,G,C, and T Contains A,G,C, Uracil (U) individual.
 The phenotype is the observable manifestation of
Contains deoxyribose Contains ribose
a given character of an individual.
Double stranded Single stranded  This relationship is best expressed mathematically as
Store of genetic information Expression of genetic P=G + E + (GXE) is the interaction of the genotype of
information an individual and the environment which it is raised.

 Amino acids which are building blocks of proteins are GENE ACTION_______________________________
known to be coded by specific combinations of 3 bases.
There are about 20 amino acids  Genes could only be expressed in the phenotype if they
are in pairs or alleles during the diploid phase. Alleles
Functions of Genes_____________________________ are the genes that may occupy the same locus or
position in the paired chromosomes. During the
 Store and transmit genetic information from cell to cell gametic stage, the cells is in the haploid phase where
and from parent to offspring only one-half of the genetic compliment of the
 Copy or replicate itself with great consistency and organism is contained. At this stage, the genes are
precision inert and will only be activated soon after fertilization.
 Undergo mutation or error in the copying of the genetic After the mating and the sperm cell successfully
code which would subsequently be copied and fertilized the ovum or egg cells, the fertilized eggs
replicated becomes a diploid cell containing half of the genetic
complement of the male and the other half, the female
The manner by which the genetic information is transmitted parent. Not all of the genes become active at the same
from cell to cell is made possible thru the somatic cell division time however. Those that are responsible for growth
(mitosis). The transmission of the genetic material from the and development become active sooner than genes
parent to the offspring is made possible through the reduction that are responsible for reproduction.
division of the germinal cells (meiosis) and the subsequent  Genes perform different roles. There are the
union of the gametes. Structural genes- which directly responsible for the
synthesis of certain biochemical products during cell
 Consistency in the copying of the genes during mitosis metabolism. Regulator genes- which serve to control
is made possible by the gene structure itself. The DNA or regulate the function of other genes. Regulator
segment consists of two strands of the chain of bases. genes may function in terms of quantity or timing of
These 2 strands are linked together at each other of the activity of certain structural genes.
the base so that it forms a helical shape or twisted
ladder. The nature of the gene is such that each base Action of the genes may be detected only from the phenotype.
in one strand can only pair with a specific base.
 Adenine (A) always opposite Thymine (T) forming A- Generally there are two types of gene action
T base pair
 Guanine (G) always opposite cytosine (C) forming G- Non-additive- non-linear expression of genes or variations
C base pair attributed to a deviation from additive action of the different
factors
 In spite of the consistency and the precision by which
the gene copies itself, mistakes, even if they are rare  Dominance: co dominance, complete, over
occur. These mistakes are copied and become dominance
incorporated as part of the genetic information itself.  Epistasis- interaction leading to masking of the effects
Such mistakes are called mutations. If the mutation of one gene (at one locus) by the action of another (at
occurs in the somatic cell, then it is transmitted only another locus)
from cell to cell in the in the same individual. But if it
occurs in the germinal cells, then it may be transmitted Additive- when a pair of allelic genes contribute independently
to the next generation. to the genotypic value, the action of the gene is said to be
 The genetic information that is stored must be such additive. This intra-allelic interaction is sometimes referred to
that it can be decoded and translated into action in the as partial dominance or incomplete dominance.
developing individual.
 Protein is a basic nutrient for growth, maintenance, and When a gene suppresses the expression of its alleles, the
reproduction of all organisms. The orderly synthesis of former is called the dominant gene while the later is referred to
proteins in the body is made possible by genes. Genes as the recessive genes.
provide the code for the synthesis of proteins through
a process of transcription and translation involving the
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Gene action is not only the result of interaction of genes in the that only one of the pair is transmitted by a particular
same locus but also between genes at different loci. Such inter- gamete.
allelic interactions are called epistasis, which is taken from the 2) Law of Independent Recombination- The paired
Greek word which means “to stand up”. factor(genes) recombined (by chance and
independently) to compose the genetic character of the
Examples individual

a. The red-roan-white coat color of Shorthorn cattle One of the most important implication of Mendel’s finding is that
where there are three phenotypic classes (instead of the process of segregation and recombination of genes is
two) is said to be affected by partial or co-dominance governed purely by chance and that the occurrence of each new
b. The mating of a homozygous pea comb (genotype PP) combination may be predicted according to the rules of
and a single comb (pp) results to progeny with pea probability
comb (Pp). The gene P for a pea comb suppresses the
expression of a single comb gene p such that in a NON-MENDELIAN INHERITANCE
heterozygous pair/allelic combination, the phenotype
will be pea comb. Gene P is said to be dominant while 1) SEX LINKAGE
gene p is recessive
c. Plumage color in chickens is governed by epistasis  Animals carry a pair of sex chromosomes in addition to
where the interaction of genes at different loci autosomes. Sex chromosomes determine the sex of
interact. Dominant gene C at the C-c locus and the individual. The Autosomes carry genetic material
another dominant gene O at the O-o locus enables the but do not determine sex. Types of sex chromosomes
individual to synthesize the color pigment for its are Mammals- females XX; males XY while in birds-
feathers. In the presence however of a dominant gene females ZW and males ZZ. The male XY sex
I at the I-I locus, the action of the C and O genes is chromosomes in the male animal and the ZW in the
inhibited female avian are non-homologous. The Y and the W
chromosomes are also smaller than their respective X
THE MECHANISM OF INHERITANCE and Z pairs. Genes that are located in the sex
chromosomes are referred to as sex-linkage genes
 The flow of the genetic material from generation to  The sex that produces only one kind of gamete is
generation is made possible by reproduction which in referred to as homogametic while the one that
animals involves two processes: gametogenesis and produces two types of gametes is referred to as the
fertilization. heterogametic sex. .
 Gametogenesis is the process of producing the
reproductive cells (spermatogenesis in male; Features of sex-linked genes
oogenesis in female).
 Fertilization on the other hand is the process of the  The heterogametic offspring could only received the
union of the sperm and egg cells to form a zygote which gene from its homogametic parent while the
develops as a new individual) Note that each individual homogametic offspring receives the allelic genes from
animal is provided with specialized organs which are both parents
responsible for the formation of the reproductive cells.  The distribution of the genotypes in the male and
 These cells serve as the vehicle for the transmission of female progeny is not the same when reciprocal
the genetic material from the parents to their offspring. crosses are made between pure recessive and
These specialized organs are the testis in the male and dominant genotypes
the ovary in the female.
 Examples of sex-linkage characteristics in farm animals
are hemophilia and color-blindedness in some
GAMETOGENESIS AND FERTILIZATION____________ mammalian species ; barring plumage pattern and
dwarfism in some species of poultry
 Normally, each individual animal is provided with
specialized organs which are responsible for the 2) AUTOSOMAL LINKAGE
formation of the reproductive cells. These cells serves
as the vehicles for the transmission of the genetic  Chromosomes is a chain of genes linked together.
material from the parent to their offspring. These Genes that are more closely linked tend to be inherited
specialized organs are the testes in the male and the together more often than those that are located further
ovary in the female. in the same chromosome. This is because during the
 In the juvenile stage, the primordial germ cells in the prophase stage of meiosis when the chromosome
diploid stage. Upon approach to sexual maturity, the double, segments of the homologous chromosomes
reproductive cells undergo meiosis, a process by which usually cross—over and exchange segments. The
the germinal cell divides to produce haploid cells longer is the distance between genes in the
carrying one-half of the genetic complement of the chromosomes the more likely that cross-over will take
individual. Eventually, these haploid cells develop into place between them.
sperm cells in the male while in the female, the ova or  Parental type’s gametes will be more frequent than
the egg cells recombinant type gametes. The former are those that
 During mating, the male deposits the sperm cells into were similar to what the offspring received from the
the reproductive tract of the female which if it meets a parent while the latter are those that are different from
matured egg cell in the oviduct/fallopian tube; it may what was received from either of the parents but were
penetrate though the walls of the ovum. When that produced as a result of crossing-over of chromosomes
happens, fertilization takes place and the fertilized egg during meiosis. Examples of such linkages are those of
cells would contain now one-half of the genetic white/ non-white plumage color in chicken
compliments of each parent. The fertilize egg then
undergoes active cell multiplication or mitosis to form
the zygote (2n) 3) NON-NUCLEAR INHERITANCE

 This more commonly seen in plants where chlorophyll-

THE MENDELIAN INHERITANCE AND PROBABILITY bearing plants are carried in the cytoplasm. In animals
however, this is very rare. There are some evidences
1) Law of independent segregation- characters are that cytoplasmic genetic material affecting milk
determined by particular factors (later given the term production may be present in cattle. If needed there
gene)) and that these factors occur in pairs. In the are cytoplasmic genetic materials affecting
formation of gametes, these factors are segregated so economically important traits in animals, females
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would play a larger role than the males in influencing mating are assortive (individuals which are
the characteristics of the progeny since the sperm cells phenotypically similar tend to mate more often),
have very little or if any cytoplasmic material disassortive (mating of individuals which are
phenotypically less similar) and inbreeding (mating of
4) MATERNAL INFLUENCE individuals that are related by descent tend to mate
more often).
 Other than the genetic material in the chromosomes
and the possibility that there may be genetic materials
in the cytoplasm, the mother could further influence ANIMAL BREEDING
the characteristics of her offspring because of the
maternal care she provides to her young. One example  Art and science of the genetic improvement of farm
is that of the incidence of mammary cancer in the animals.
progenies of white mice.
 Maternal effect forms part of the total environment of Objectives of animal breeding____________________
the individual. Nonetheless, it is important to recognize
variability due to maternal effects because it could  Improve the quantity of production of farm animals and
easily be mistaken as genetics. of their product per unit time
 Improve the efficiency of production and their products
GENES IN POPULATION  Improve the quality of farm animals and their products
 Improve the aesthetic value of farm animals and
Population in biological standpoint is a group of individuals products
sharing a common gene pool. The “gene pool “is the
frequencies in which the genes and genotypes occur in them. METHOD OF SELECTION
Thus, in a particular locus with tow alleles, A and a; a population
may be characterized as follows  Selection is defined as choosing animals as parents of
the next generation of animals. Selection is the most
Genotype Gene important tool that could change the genetic
F(AA)= PP f(A)=P composition of a population considering that man could
F(Aa)=2Pq f(a)=q interfere in this and effect the standards that he would
F(aa)= qq like to have in his herd of animals. There are three
Where: PP + 2Pq + qq = 1 where P+q=1 methods of selection available to anybody and these
are: tandem method, independent culling method and
EQUILIBRIUM POPULATION the index method.

 The genetic composition of most population is in AIDS TO SELECTION__________________________

constant change from generation to generation. For us
to understand and appreciate the change of population  Pedigree selection- animals are selected based on
however, let us examine a condition where a population their ancestors.
may remain in equilibrium (Hardy-Weinberg  Progeny testing-the breeding value of each individual
equilibrium, 1908). The Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium is assessed on the average performance of a random
principle states that in an indefinite large random sample of its progeny and animals are selected or
mating population; the gene and genotypic culled based on this progeny average.
frequencies will remain constant from one  Mass or individual selection- a single (or repeated)
generation to the next provided that selection, measurement of each animals phenotype is made and
migration and mutation do not operate in the individuals selection or culled on the basis of the
population performance.
 Family selection
FACTORS AFFECTING THE GENETIC COMPOSITION OF A
POPULATION METHODS OF SELECTION

 Selection- is a process in which certain genotypes  Tandem method considers one trait at a time while
contribute more progeny in the next generation than in the independent culling method considers two or more
other genotypes. This make takes place because of traits at one time. The index method considers the
natural forces (natural selection) or because of the whole animals characteristics and makes use of the
intervention of man (artificial selection). Selection score card
increases the frequency of the desired gene and
depress the gene selected against. The above-mentioned selection method should be gauged on
 Migration- is the transfer of individuals from one the phenotype/performance of animals for a particular trait(s)
population to another. The change in the genetic that one would like to improve. Measures like heritability (h2)
composition in the host population after migration is estimates could be also looked into to check whether one could
directly proportional to the following factors. (1) The make improvements in the herd for traits in question.
number of migrants in proportion to that of the
resulting population after migration and (2) the  Heritability measures the genetic component of the
difference in the gene frequencies between the phenotype and traits that are highly heritable are more
migrants and the natives. likely to be transmitted to the offspring from the
 Mutation- is an error in the copying of the genetic parents. Growth performance traits like liveweight
code resulting in different phenotypic effect. If gains have high heritability estimates though fertility
mutation happens in the somatic cell s(as in cancer), it traits like no. of services per conception have low
is not heritable. However, if it happens in the gametes estimates indicating that one could make improvement
/ germinal cells than it could be transmitted from the in these traits through the manipulation of the
parents to the offspring environment.
 Small population size- would result in the change in
the gene frequency simply because of change in  Tandem selection- selection is made for one trait or
variations. character at a time until it is improved, then for a
 Random genetic drift- is the chance fluctuation of second trait and so on. Selection may thereafter be
genes from one generation to the next and is switched back to the first trait, then to the second etc.,
proportional to the population size until finally each reaches a desired level.
 Non-random mating- occurs when some individuals  Independent Culling Levels or Independent Score
do not have the same chances of mating with Method- in this case, a minimum phenotypic level is
individuals of the opposite sex. Forms of non-random set for each character under consideration. Below these
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levels animals are culled whether they reach the

satisfactory level in other characters or not. Methods of Crossbreeding
 Selection index- each character is given a score and
scores for all characters being considered are added a) Single two-way crosses- two different populations
together. Those with the poorest total scores would be can be crossed with each other to produce an F1
culled. It does allow usually high score on one generation which is used only for production purpose
character to make up for deficiencies in another. and not for breeding
b) Three-way cross- this system relies on the crossing
SYSTEM OF ANIMAL BREEDING of two breeds A and B to produce a female excelling in
maternal performance in a particular environment and
A. Random Mating- this is where the males and females in a the use of a third breed to produced the ideal animal
population are allowed to mate at random and with no real for the market product.
control. c) Four-way cross- populations A and B are first crossed
with each other, and so are C and D to obtain the F1
B. Purebreeding-breeding of animal within a herd or at the generation A x B and C x D. These are then crossed
most within a breed together to produce the double hybrids AB x CD. It is
necessary to maintain only relatively small number of
 Inbreeding- is a form of non-random mating or a animals of the lines A, B, C, and D.
special case of assortive mating where individuals that d) Back cross- the F1 females are backed crossed to one
are related by ancestry are mated together. The effect of the parental populations.
of inbreeding is to increase the frequency of the e) Two-way rotational cross-in which males of the two
homozygous genotypes at the expense of the breeds involved are used alternately; this system has
heterozygous. Theoretically, inbreeding does not affect the advantages over the two-way cross, in that the
the gene frequency. When the trait is influence only by crossbreed females can be used for breeding.
the genes with additive effect, inbreeding would not f) Three-way rotational cross-in which the males of
affect the mean phenotypic value of the population. each of the three breeds are used in turn; crossbred
However, when the trait is influenced by genes with females produced can be used for breeding.
dominance effect, inbreeding tends to depress the
mean phenotypic value of the population. Furthermore, REPRODUCTION AND GENETIC IMPROVEMENT OF
when the population is loaded with lethal or deleterious ANIMALS
genes which generally occur as recessives, inbreeding
increases the frequency of defective individuals in the Different species of farm animals have different cycles and rates
population of reproduction. Modern breeds of chickens, for example, could
 Nonetheless, inbreeding is usually resorted to by produce as much as 200 to 250 chicks per year in contrast to
breeders in establishing pure line stock which is more cattle which produces only about one calf per cow in two years
homozygous and is genetically more stable and time. Poultry species could lay eggs almost every day in all
uniform. Inbreeding allows for offspring to perform months of the year whether it is a fertile eggs or not. Fertile
uniformly (prepotency) considering the homozygosity eggs could then be incubated and hatched in multiple
of the genes in the offspring. Inbreeding is also an depending on the capacity of the artificial incubators even if the
intermediate step in the production of hybrid stocks. eggs were hatched in different days. Cattle and other mammals
shed eggs only once in every 3 weeks or so. When the egg is
Within purebreeding the degree of inbreeding usually fertilized, embryonic development happens in the uterus for
occurs into: several months until delivery. The female will ovulate again
after 3 weeks from birth.
 Close inbreeding- the closer together the animals are
in a relationship the greater the degree of inbreeding. Table 1. Frequency of ovulation and length of embryonic
Mating between full sibs or between parents and development and expected number of progeny/year/breeder
progeny. female in various farm animal species
 Linebreeding-mating of animals which are more
distantly related and can be traced back to one Species Estru Incubation Expected
common ancestor. It is accomplished by using parents s /pregnanc number of
that are closely related through the desired ancestor, cycle y (days) youngs
but are little if at all related through any other ancestor.
(days produced per
Mating of cousins, grandparents to grand offsprings or
half-brother to half-sister. ) year
 Outcrossing- Mating of animals of different families Quail 16-19 100-300
within the same breed but not closely related. Pigeon 17 10-20
 Linecrossing- mating of animals from two different Chicken 21 50-300
lines of breeding within a breed. The purpose is to bring
Mallard duck 28 50-100
together desirable traits from different line of breeding.
 Outbreeding- is the mating of two unrelated Turkey 28 50-100
individuals. Under this system are subsequent Geese 30 20-50
subsystems namely: crossbreeding, outcrossing, Muscovy Duck 36 50-100
upgrading and hybridization Rabbit 15-20 32 10-30
Swine 18-24 114 10-25
C. Crossbreeding- refers to mating of animals of different
established breeds. In current practice however, the term Sheep 17 147 1-3
crossbreeding also applies to the mating between groups of Goat 20-21 148 2.5
animals of diverse genotypes such as between varieties and Cattle 21 280 0.5
lines of animals. Crossbreeding increases the frequency of Water Buffalo 22-24 316 0.5
heterozygotes at the expense of homozygotes. There is also
noticeable better performance of offspring to that of the parents
Assuming that the male-female ratio among the progeny is
which is termed as heterosis or hybrid vigor
50:50 and that no mortality is incurred from birth to breeding
age, a farmer could afford to select the top 1 % among the
Outcrossing on the other hand is a mating of two individuals
progeny to replace all the female parent breeders in the flock
within the breed but are not related.
within a period of about 1.5 to 2 years. In cattle, it may take
an average of 2 to 3 years to produce enough calves for
Upgrading is the mating of a purebred to a mongrel or a native
replacement. A period of 4-6 years is then needed by the
while hybridization is the mating of animals from different
farmers to select and replace 50 percent of his present female
species.
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breeders. It would take about 40 years for a cow to produce 10 Water Buffalo (Bubalus 50 25
females calves where there 1 to 10% will be retained to replace bubalis) riverine
the female parent. Cow usually remains productive for only 10 Water Buffalo (B. bubalis) 48 24
years and could not possibly produce enough calves in her
swamp type
lifetime to allow the farmers to exercise the selection pressure
as intense as 10% among the dams. Reindeer (Cervus cervus) 70 35
Sheep (Ovis aries) 54 28
Lower reproduction rate, in effect retard the rate of genetic Goat (Capra hircus) 60 30
improvement because of the longer period requirement to Swine(Sus domesticus) 38 19
produce enough progeny as reliable basis for selection.
Dog (Canis familiaris) 78 39
ARTIFICIAL INSEMINATION (AI) Cat ( Felis catus) 38 19
Rabbit 44 22
AI is a process of inducing fertilization in the female Mouse 40 20
reproductive tract without the benefit of sexual contact between Rat 42 21
the male and female of the species. Semen is usually collected
from the male and extended and stored in vitro. This extended
semen will then be inseminated to the in-heat female. One of
the benefits derived from AI is that it increases the number of
REFERENCES AND FURTHER READINGS
females “serviced” by one male. In bulls, one ejaculate could
even serve as much as 100 females. It also eliminates the
IAS. THE INSTITUTE OF ANIMAL SCIENCE. Lecture Notes
possible transmission of sexually-transmitted diseases and at
in Animal Science 1a. Introduction to Animal Science. IAS,
the same time, prevent possible injuries in the female which are
College of Agriculture, University of the Philippines Los Banos,
smaller in body size with that of the males.
Laguna.
MULTIPLE OVULATION AND EMBRYO TRANSFER (MOET)
PEPITO, J.E. 2008. Lecture Learning Guide in Animal Science
21 (Principles of Animal Science). Department of Animal
While AI increases the number of progeny that a male could
Science. Colllege of Agriculture. Central Mindanao University.
possibly produce. MOET increases the reproduction rate of the
female. Multiple ovulation is a process by which the female
SORIANO, M.L. 2004. Lecture/ Review Notes in Animal
animals is induced to simultaneously produce more eggs than
Breeding and Genetics. IN Preparation for the Agriculturists
the usual number being shed. Embryo transfer is a technique
Licensure Examination held at the CEC, CMU and NIA
wherein a young embryo is collected from a donor and
Conference Hall, Valencia City, Bukidnon. April-June 2004.
implanted to the uterus of a female recipient parent. MOET does
not necessarily increase the rate of reproduction of a given
population, but rather it increases the rate of reproduction in
the females that are selected to serve as embryo donors to as
"I CAN DO ALL THINGS THROUGH CHRIST, WHO
much 30 to 50 times.
STRENGTHENS ME" PHIL 4:13
SEXING SEMEN AND IN VITRO FERTILIZATION

Recent researches have also demonstrated techniques of

separating fraction of the semen that would carry a much larger
proportion of sperm cells carrying the Y-chromosome than
those that carry the X-chromosome. For example, if only the
fraction of the semen that carry a much higher proportion of X-
carrying sperm cells may be used to fertilized the ova in vitro
then more female offspring could be produced (with the X-X sex
chromosome combination) This however should be coupled with
embryo transfer technology.

NUCLEAR CLONING

Continued splitting of embryos that would lead to an indefinite

duplication of an individual would be referred to as nuclear
cloning. Identical twins, for example is a result of the splitting
of an embryo in its early stage of development. If the
technology for nuclear cloning is fully developed it would have
a dramatic impact on the rate of genetic improvement and on
the methodology of animals breeding as a whole. The challenge
to animal breeders would be to identify the superior genotypes
to be cloned and the system of continues the genetic gain after
the superior genotype have been disseminated.

Table 2. Chromosome numbers in selected animals

COMMON/ SCIENTIFIC DIPLOID HAPLOID

NAME (2n) (n)

Man (Homo sapiens) 46 23

Horse (Equus caballus) 64 38
Ass (Equus astrus) 62 36
European Cattle(Bos taurus) 60 30
Zebu cattle (Bos indicus) 60 30
American Bison (Bison 60 30
bison)
7
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