Machine Learning Based Footprint Recognition

Tianjin Daxue Xuebao (Ziran Kexue yu Gongcheng Jishu Ban)/
Journal of Tianjin University Science and Technology

ISSN (Online):0493-2137
E-Publication: Online Open Access
Vol: 55 Issue: 12:2022
DOI10.17605/OSF.IO/DX6ZS
MACHINE LEARNING BASED FOOTPRINT RECOGNITION
ANSHU GUPTA
Department of Computer Science, Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University, Lucknow (U.P.), India.
Email: [email protected]
DEEPA RAJ
Department of Computer Science, Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University, Lucknow (U.P.), India.
Email: [email protected]
Abstract
With the escalating digitization of the modern era and the infusion of technology into almost every aspect
of human lives, biometric authentication systems have become the need of the hour to control the identity
thefts. They are the automated systems that divulge individuals identify based on their unique biological or
behavioral personality traits like fingerprints, face, iris etc. This article presents personal recognition using
Foot biometrics by following machine learning approach. The implementation of three supervised machine
learning methods namely, Regression, Classification and ANN (artificial neural network) has been done.
The proposed method works in two stages: Geometric Feature Extraction and implementation of Machine
Learning algorithms. Firstly, handcrafted foot features are extracted using geometrical methods which are
instilled as input to three supervised machine learning algorithms to predict the identity of user.
Experimental results reveal that the weighted KNN model is the most performant method among all the
implemented classifiers with 99.5% validation accuracy and the overall training time of 0.29886 seconds.
While other two utilized and tested supervised machine learning methods, also achieved a reasonable
accuracy of 99.15% by Squared Exponential GPR model (Regression) and 97.47% by ANN (Feed Forward
Neural Network with Back Propagation).
Keywords: Biometrics, Footprint Recognition, Feature Extraction, Geometrical Features, Machine
learning, ANN, Regression, Classification
INTRODUCTION
In this technology driven era, the profusion of network security breaches and identity
thefts, make a tremendous stipulation for sturdy and robust biometric authentication
systems that truly rely on something that “you are” with unique God gifted physiological
or behavioral characteristics as opposed to something “you know”(passwords, IDs etc.)
or something “you have”(Identity cards, keys etc.). To have an easy and secure access
to the digital world, many biometric systems like face, finger, iris, gait and ear, are
prevalent. Unlike other biometrics, Foot Biometry has achieved limited global acceptance.
This very idea is the catalyzation and motivation behind present research work to explore
new potentials in foot biometrics comparable to state-of-the-art biometric techniques.
Footprint identification can be applied in many areas like protection against child thefts,
forensics, defense systems and legal capacitance etc. This paper proposes a novel
archetype scheme for footprint recognition by amalgamating feature extraction and
machine learning algorithms. The working proposal can be broadly divided into two parts;
drilling down Geometrical foot Features followed by the application of supervised machine
learning techniques. At first, 20 hand crafted geometric foot features are extracted from
each sample footprint image which are fed into the machine learning algorithms as an
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input foot feature vectors in the second part of proposed technique. In this paper, three
supervised machine learning methods namely regression, classification and ANNs have
been applied for predicting the recognition outcomes. To measure the effectiveness of
proposed algorithms, the biometric performance is tested by calculating False Accept
Rate (FAR), False Reject Rate (FRR), Accuracy, Precision, Sensitivity, Specificity, F1-
Score and training time. The experimental results of recommended approach
demonstrate that the weighted KNN model (Classification) has achieved the highest
recognition accuracy of 99.5% (with 0.29886 seconds as an average training time)
compared to other two tested machine learning methods viz. Regression (99.15%) and
ANN (97.47%).
The rest of the paper is structured as follows: Section 2 briefly presents the related work
on footprint recognition. Section 3 presents the dataset used for experimentation. Section
4 introduces the proposed methodology of current work. Section 5 presents and analyzes
the experimental results. At the end, Section 6 concludes the paper with the hints to future
work.
2. RELATED WORK
This section provides a comprehensive literature available in the foot biometry
Robert B. Kennedy [1] can be awarded as the father of foot biometrics for exploring
human footprints for the first time as biometric feature and used them for medical and
forensic research by using inked bare footprints impressions. 38 local geometric features
were extracted by proposing 6 different methods and achieving the minimum error
recognition rates of 1.35% FMR and 2.18% FNMR. Nakajima et al. [2] performed a
conscientious study of pressure distribution of footprints using positional and directional
normalization and achieved recognition rate of 85% using Euclidean distance image
matching. A rotation invariant footprint based authentication system was introduced by
Uhl and Wild [3] who used geometry, shape and texture based foot features and
achieved with 97% recognition accuracy for 16 subjects.
To protect against the child pilfering, Jia et al. [4] proposed an automated footprint based
newborn personal recognition system by extracting 4 orientation based features (Ordinal
Code, Binary Orientation Co-occurrence Vector, Competitive Code and Robust Line
Orientation Code) and achieved 98% recognition accuracy. Also, Jia et al. [5] presented
another scheme based on band-limited phase-only correlation (BLPOC) for extracting
foot features using 101 footprint images of infants and claimed 97% recognition accuracy.
Infant’s footprints were further explored by Kotzerke et al. [6] who developed a novel
algorithm for feature extraction from crease patterns of infants at three diverse
timestamps i.e. three days since birth, eight weeks and six months. With the
implementation of morphological processing, directional ﬁltering and block-wise crease
line reconstruction, they observed an EER of 22.22%.
Nagvanshi [7] and Kumar [8] incorporated various prevalent techniques like PCA, SOM,
SVD, HMM, NN, ART2 and Fuzzy logic etc. for footprint recognition. An extensive study
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on Correlation analysis of the scanned footprint images of 94 people (37 F and 37 M) of

Northern Indian regions aged between 15-25 years, was carried out by Khokher and
Singh [9]. They observed a strong correlation between actual height and foot length,
actual height and weight and actual height and toe lengths, and claimed a recognition
accuracy of 93.1% for males and 94% for females. A variety of Neural Networks have
also been utilized for footprint recognition like ANN by Hashem and Ghali [10], CNN by
Keatsamarn and Pintavirooj [11] and fuzzy neural network and wavelets by Wang et
al.[12] and Kumar and Ramakrishnan [13] with 92.5%, 92.69% and 92.80% and
96.32% recognition rates respectively. A novel method of Fuzzy Ensemble Subspace
Discriminant (FESD) was proposed by Basheer et al. [14] for personal identification with
the recognition accuracy of 98.89% and error rates of FMR at 0.01% and FNMR at
0.093%. Ruben et al. [15] presented a novel fusion scheme for personal recognition
using spatiotemporal footstep information with respect to space, time and an
amalgamation of both. They [16], also, presented a prototype scheme of footsteps and
gait for the same with an EER of 4.83% at score level. King and Xiaopeng [17] proposed
an innovative approach for identification using static foot features of silhouette and friction
ridges by implementing Minutiae extraction and GVF snake model with the verification
accuracy of 98-99%. An analysis of footstep pressure signals was done by Michael and
Xianghua [18] by integrating CWT (continuous wavelet transform) and RFC (Random
forest classifier) with 16.7% ± 1.2% Predictive Error Rates.
Moorthy et al. [19] explored footprints of Indian Tamils to reveal their stature details.
Later, a study on Malaysian Malays footprints using crease marks, corns and cracks,
phalange marks and humps in the toe line, etc., was carried out [20] for personal
recognition. Ambeth et al. [21, 22] followed an amalgamation technique to combine
statistical computations of foot factors and Neural Networks with the recognition accuracy
of 97.43%. Khokher et al. [23] proposed a novel texture and shape-oriented features
based footprint biometric system using PCA and ICA with an accuracy of 97.23%.
An incisive classification method was proposed by Costea et al. [24] for elder persons
by exploiting plantar foot features from middle area of footprints of 67 females aged 52-
84 years. 5 types of foot categories were defined to help in designing age based
customized prophylactic components, shoe lasts and foot wears. Omar et al. [25]
presented a footstep identification system using CNN and SVM with an acquired EER of
9.392% for validation and evaluation processes. Nagvanshi and Dubey [26] conducted
fuzzy logic based deep analytics (using IBM Watson Analytics and BigML tools) by
utilizing 27 unique foot features of 220 people and claimed the recognition accuracy of
97%. In [27] Nagvanshi also investigated footprint and gait behaviour using statistical
and morphological methods for personal recognition. Abuqadumah et al. [28] explored
5 deep transfer learning models (Googlenet, Inception v3, Alexnet, Vgg16 and Vgg19) for
footprint recognition and observed the highest accuracy of 98.52% by Inception v3model.
Ibrahim et al. [29] achieved 100% recognition accuracy by incorporating Image
Processing feature extraction techniques (Binarization and Morphology) and AI based
feature selection heuristics (ACO-Ant Colony Optimization) for Footprint Recognition.
Later, Kushwaha et al. [30] investigated texture based feature extraction techniques (viz.
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HOG, GLCM and LBP) in conjunction with the classification methods (namely, LDA, SVM,
KNN and ESD) using footprints and observed an accuracy of 97.9% for LBP + LDA as
the most performant scheme for personal verification.The empirical studies on footprint
biometrics done by Khokher and Singh [31] explored many footprint recognition
techniques along with their impediments and future dimensions. They indicated footprints
as a revealer of individuality information like age, height, gender, weight, health status
and region specific personality traits etc. A multi-model rank-level fusion system was
proposed by Kumar and Shekhar [32] by utilizing features from two modalities - palm
and foot with the suggested accuracy of 92-99% using fusion. Pataky [33] presented
correlation based approach by using 1040 dynamic plantar foot pressure images from
104 volunteers(40 males and 64 females)and obtained the classification rate of 99.6%.
Gupta and Raj [34-36] proposed a novel method for footprint recognition using eigenfeet
and a new distance metric for touch-less footprints with recognition accuracy of
97%.They further, presented a comparative analysis of texture based methods using
LBP, LPQ, SIFT and SURF methods using footprints and claimed a 98% recognition
accuracy. They also introduced an innovative approach for footprint biometrics using
chronological implementation of LBP and SIFT with the recognition accuracy of 98.93%.
3. DATASET
Figure 1. Sample footprint images of 10 subjects from Nagwanshi and Dubey [37]
database
Presently, there are only two publically available databases of human footprint images for
biometric experimentation. The first database is uploaded by Nagwanshi and Dubey
[37] in the IEEE Dataport open access repository of scanned grayscale planter footprint
images of left feet of 220 volunteers. By varying the hue and saturation levels at different
times, 6 diverse image samples are captured for each person, hence, add up to a total of
1320 (=6X220) images. The size of each image is 256 X 666.Another dataset has been
uploaded by R. Kumar [38] in 2019 at GitHub repository, now available at kaggle. It is a
database of 100 scanned plantar footprint images of 21 persons and 100 dactyloscopic
images (including left and right footprints) of 32 individuals with two to five images per
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subject [37].The first database [37] of 1320 images is being used in this paper for
experimentation. Following Figure 1 shows the sample footprint images of ten persons.
4. PROPOSED METHODOLOGY
In this section, the detailed description of proposed prototype scheme of foot biometrics
is exhibited. Following Figure 2 shows the basic schematic diagram of proposed
framework. Working methodology has been broadly divided into two phases:
1. Generation of Handcrafted Geometric foot features using feature extraction
2. Generation of Machine Learning model for foot recognition
Figure 2. Proposed Framework
I. Phase 1
Phase 1 of the working methodology starts with the pre-processing steps followed by
outer foot helix detection of registered plantar footprint images. Afterwards, geometric
feature extraction followed by dimensionality reduction and normalization of feature
vectors during enrollment and authentication process. The resulting dataset of extracted
geometric feature vectors become the input vectors for the implementation of machine
learning model in phase 2. Diagrammatically, various steps of phase 1 are shown below:
Figure 3. Phase 1 of proposed method
The detailed description of each step followed in phase 1 of the proposed scheme is
explained as below. Table 1 illustrates the listing of main abbreviations used in the
following steps.
a) Pre-processing and the foot helix detection
The presence of noise in the scanned footprint images can hinder the results of obtaining
outer helix of the footprint images. Hence, morphological operation-dilation is performed
by using disc as structuring element resulting in the enlarged foot boundaries and small
holes in objects are filled. After the application of dilation, outer helix of foot is detected
using canny edge operator. Figure 4 shows the typical edge detection results to extract
the foot contours with/without dilation. It can easily be observed that by applying dilation
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followed by edge detection, improved results are obtained as cluttering edges and noise
are suppressed and salient contours are enhanced.
Figure 4. Preprocessing and outer foot helix detection
Table 1. Summary of main abbreviations used

Abbreviation Full Name
FHL Foot Height Line (as Feature vector FV1)
FWL Foot Width Line (as Feature vector FV2)
Ut Uppermost Toe end point on FHL
Lh Lowermost Heel end point on FHL
Lw Leftmost end point on FWL
Rw Rightmost end point on FWL
w1,w2,...,w5 Five Equidistant Points on FWL
ul1,ul2,…,ul7 Seven Lengths from Utto Lw,w1,…..w5,Rw (as Feature vectors FV3-FV9)
ll1,ll2,…,ll7 Seven Lengths from Lhto Lw,w1,…..w5,Rw(as Feature vectors FV10-FV16)
UPPER_Area Area of triangle formed by points Ut, Lwand Rw(as Feature vector FV17)
LOWER_Area Area of triangle formed by points Lh, Lwand Rw(as Feature vector FV18)
LEFT_Area Area of triangle formed by points Lw, Utand Lh(as Feature vector FV19)
RIGHT_Area Area of triangle formed by points Rw, Utand Lh(as Feature vector FV20)
b) Geometric Feature Extraction
After the smooth outer contour detection of foot by Canny edge detector, the next step is
to extract the unique geometric features for unwavering description of outer helix of foot
which, in turn, are helpful for the personal recognition. For the purpose, the first task is to
find the boundary and boundary points lying on the contour of foot. Next step involves
identification of 20 foot shape based geometric features that include maximum foot height,
maximum foot width, 14 sub-lengths and 4 areas of triangles derived using maximum
Foot height and maximum Foot width points. Following Figure 5 portraits the visual view
of all 20 features of a footprint image. Likewise, every footprint image in the database
goes through the same process to extract their 20 geometric features to construct a
feature set of 26,400 (=1320X20) features from1320 images.These features are strong
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enough to characterize the contour of outer helix of foot for personal identification and
hence, achieve a better recognition performance.
Figure 5. All Feature vectors of a footprint image
The Feature extraction method involves three sub steps:

1. Finding the maximum Foot Height Line (FHL) and maximum Foot Width Line
(FWL)
2. Calculation of sub-lengths lli and Uli where (i=1, 2,....,7) using uppermost toe point,
lowest heel point, leftmost and rightmost point on maximum FWL.
3. Computation of four areas of triangles: Upper, Lower, Left and Right
i. Finding the maximum FHL and maximum FWL
The maximum Foot Height Line (FHL) refers to the longest length between any pair of
foot boundary points. It is found by determining the two endpoints U t and Lh, where Ut is
the uppermost toe point and Lh is the lowermost heel point existing on the boundary of
the foot helix.. Similarly, maximum Foot Width Line (FWL) denotes the largest width
between any pair of points lying on the foot boundary. It is calculated by finding its
endpoints Lw and Rw the leftmost end point and the rightmost end point respectively. So,
maximum FHL and maximum FWL are considered as the first two geometric feature
vectors, FV1 and FV2 respectively, of the proposed scheme. Figure 6a clearly shows
these two feature vectors FHL and FWL and their respective endpoints,Ut and Lh ; Lw and
Rw. Algorithm 1 illustrates the detailed procedure of finding the maximum FHL and
maximum FWL.
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Algorithm 1
Input: Binary edge (boundary) of footprint image.
Output: Ut and Lh , Lw and Rw, FHLmax and FWLmax as feature vectors FV1 and FV2
1. Search among the boundary points having minimum y value to get the uppermost toe
point Ut.
2. Similarly, find Lh, the lowermost heel point, as the boundary point having maximum y
value.
3. Also, find the boundary points Lw and Rwwith the minimum and maximum x values
respectively as the leftmost and rightmost endpoints of FWL.
4. Calculate FHLmax by finding the length of the line joining endpoints Ut and Lh.
5. In the same way, find FWLmax by computing the length of the line joining Lw and R
Figure 6. Individual feature vectors of a Footprint
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ii. Calculation of sub-lengths lli and Uli

After calculating the first two feature vectors, 14 more feature vectors are found using
FWL, Ut and Lh. For the purpose, five equidistant points on FWL, as w1, w2, w3, w4and w5,
are determined. Figure 6b clearly shows these points. Afterwards, seven lines are
constructed using one common end point Ut and Lw, w1, w2, w3, w4, w5 and Rw as the other
end points respectively. The lengths of these seven lines (referred as ul1, ul2, ul3, ul4, ul5,
ul6, ul7) are considered as feature vectors FV3 to FV9. Similarly, seven other feature
vectors (FV10 to FV16) are calculated by finding the lengths of the lines joining Lh as one
common end point and the same above mentioned seven end points along FWL (namely
ll1, ll2, ll3, ll4, ll5, ll6, ll7). Figure6c, d display the feature vectors FV3 to FV9 and FV10 to FV16
of a sample footprint respectively. Algorithm2 explains the pseudo code of finding sub-
lengths lli and Uli.
Algorithm2
Input: Ut and Lh ; Lw and Rw

Output: Fourteen feature vectors FV3, FV4 ,…………, FV16
1. Find five equidistant points (w1, w2, w3, w4and w5) on FWL.
2. Construct seven lines by joining Ut as one common end point and Lw, w1, w2, w3, w4, w5
and Rw as the other end points respectively.
3. Calculate the lengths of above mentioned seven lines(ul1, ul2, ul3, ul4, ul5, ul6, ul7) and
refer them as next seven feature vectors i.e. FV3to FV9
4. In the same way, construct another seven lines by joining lowest heel point Lh as one
common end point and Lw, w1, w2, w3, w4, w5 and Rw as other end points respectively.
5. Compute their lengths as ll1, ll2, ll3, ll4, ll5, ll6, ll7 and denote them as feature vectors FV10to
FV16
iii. Computation of four areas of triangles

Furthermore, the remaining four feature vectors are extracted that comprise of the areas
of triangles formed using Ut and Lh, Lw and Rw. in different combinations. We have
considered four triangles namely: UPPER_TRI, LOWER_TRI, LEFT_TRI and
RIGHT_TRI. UPPER_TRI is formed using uppermost toe point Ut and FWL as base(or Lw
and Rw.as other vertices) Figure 6e. Similarly, LOWER_TRI is framed using lowest heel
point Lh and FWL as base Figure 6f. Lw ,Ut and Lh form the LEFT_TRI Figure 6g.In the
same way, RIGHT_TRI is formed from the points Rw, Ut and Lh Figure 6h. The areas of
these four triangles, namely UPPER_ Area, LOWER_ Area, LEFT_ Area and RIGHT_
Area, are included as last four feature vectors FV17, FV18, FV19 and FV20. Algorithm3
gives a quick glance of the procedure followed.
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Algorithm 3
Input: Ut and Lh ; Lw and Rw
Output: UPPER_ Area, LOWER_ Area, LEFT_ Area and RIGHT_ Area
1 Consider four triangles namely: UPPER_TRI, LOWER_TRI, LEFT_TRI and RIGHT_TRI
where
∆ UPPER_TRI→ Triangle formed with Ut , Lw and Rw
∆ LOWER_TRI→ Triangle formed with Lh, Lw and Rw
∆ LEFT_TRI→ Triangle formed with Lw ,Ut and Rw
∆ RIGHT_TRI→ Triangle formed with Rw, Ut and Lh
2 Find areas of step 1 four triangles as UPPER_ Area, LOWER_ Area, LEFT_ Area and
RIGHT_ Area respectively.
3 Designate UPPER_ Area, LOWER_ Area, LEFT_ Area and RIGHT_ Area as feature
vectors FV17, FV18, FV19 and FV20.
By following the above steps of algorithms 1, 2 and 3, a feature set FV= {FV 1, FV2... FV19,
FV20}, consisting of 20 geometric feature vectors, is extracted which characterizes the
shape of outer helix of foot for personal recognition. Finally, feature vector set consisting
of 26,400 features (=1320 ×20) from1320 plantar foot images gets generated. Table 2
illustrates the listing of sample feature vectors of 12 footprint images of 2 subjects.
Table 2. Sample feature vectors of 12 footprint images.
c) Feature Reduction using PCA and Normalization

After extracting 20 features per image, a feature set consisting of 26,400 (=1320×20)
features from1320 plantar foot images gets generated. The larger dimension of feature
set affects the recognition speed of the application. So, PCA method is applied on this
feature set to reduce its dimensionality.PCA (Principal Component Analysis) is a well
known widely used method of linear algebra to automatically perform dimensionality
reduction. It finds maximum variance directions in high-dimensional data and projects it
onto a new subspace with equal or lesser dimensions than the original one [39].So, to
achieve a better recognition performance and smooth computation, 20 elements feature
set of every image is reduced to 5 dominant feature vectors, by applying PCA, thereby,
generating 6,600(=1320×5) features. Further, optimized results are obtained by
performing normalization process that normalizes the values of reduced feature vectors
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in the range [0, 1] to achieve a normalized feature set. Table 3 lists 5 dominant features
of the corresponding 20 features of 12 footprint images of 2 subjects in Table 2.
Table 3. Corresponding reduced feature vectors by applying PCA
S.N. FV1 FV2 FV3 FV4 FV5
1 0.8105 0.1951 0.6266 0.6710 0.1968
2 0.6456 0.2729 0.6210 0.4752 0.1050
3 0.8026 0.1853 0.6287 0.6645 0.1860
4 0.7565 0.4517 0.6952 0.6139 0.3404
5 0.8649 0.4575 0.6405 0.7468 0.1179
6 0.7926 0.4546 0.6721 0.6410 0.2247
7 0.7189 0.4745 0.6527 0.6547 0.0806
8 0.7074 0.4629 0.6552 0.6535 0.0836
9 0.7183 0.4658 0.6539 0.6484 0.0711
10 0.7189 0.4745 0.6527 0.6547 0.0806
11 0.7130 0.4659 0.6543 0.6521 0.0790
12 0.7184 0.4680 0.6535 0.6503 0.0743
II. Phase 2
The normalized feature set of 6,600 features becomes the input for the application of
machine learning algorithms in phase 2 of proposed methodology. On the basis of
predicted output of machine learning algorithms, system decides that the claimed identity
is a genuine user or an imposter. Figure 7 shows diagrammatic representation of phase
2.
Figure 7. Phase 2 of proposed method
Basically, machine learning is the science of programming computers to learn from data
to automatically predict the results for new set of data. It uses two types of techniques:
supervised learning, which trains a model on known input and output data to generate
predictions in response to new data and unsupervised learning, which finds hidden
patterns or intrinsic structures in input data. Supervised learning uses classification and
regression techniques to develop predictive models.
 Classification techniques predict categorical responses means Classification
models classify input data into categories. Typical applications include medical
imaging, image and speech recognition, and biometric identification etc.
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 Regression techniques predict a numerical value based on previously observed

data. Their applications include stock price prediction and electricity load
forecasting etc.
In machine learning, a classifier is a type of algorithm used to assign a class label to a
given data input by employing sophisticated mathematical and statistical methods to
generate predictions. So, a classifier refers to a set of rules used by machines to classify
data. A classification model, on the other hand, is the end result of classifier’s machine
learning. The model is trained using the classifier, so that the model, ultimately, classifies
the input data.
In the proposed work, 3 supervised machine learning techniques [40] namely;
Classification, Regression and NNs (Neural Networks) have been explored and applied
to recognize the footprints. Also, a comprehensive comparison among the above
mentioned algorithms is carried out to find the best machine learning model based on
recognizing accuracy and training time.
A brief description of the tested ML classifiers is as follows:
a) KNN (K-Nearest Neighbors) classifier
K-nearest neighbors (KNN) is a most frequently used supervised machine learning
algorithm based on distance metrics used for classification and regression. It is a non-
parametric algorithm, for it does not make any assumption on original data. It is also called
a lazy learner algorithm because it does not learn from the training set instantly instead it
stores the dataset (that is, it does not learn a discriminative function from the training data
rather it “memorizes” the training dataset) and performs an action at the time of
classification. The process starts by training data features with the assignment of label
for each class. Afterwards, during classification, data is assigned to target classes
according to their distances from query points. KNN uses all the available data and
classifies the new data based on a similarity measure, or distance function. The new data
is then assigned to the class to which most neighbors belong to. The basic idea of KNN
is that similar data with the same classes are more likely to be closer to each other with
respect to their distance. KNN uses many distance metrics like Euclidean, Mahalanobis,
City block, Minkowski, Chebychev, Cosine, Correlation, Hamming, Jaccard and
Spearman distances. Euclidean distance is the most common metric used by KNN which
can be defined as follows:
EU_dx,y=√∑N
i=1(xi − yi )
2 (1)
Where EU_dx,y refers to euclidean distance, xi denotes input data, yi represents training
data, and N declares total number of features on the input data. Steps of K-NN can be
summarized as below:
1. Select the value of K as the number of the neighbors
2. Calculate the Euclidean distances of K neighbors with respect to query point
3. Select the K nearest / closest neighbors as per the calculated Euclidean distance.
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4. Among K neighbors, the number of the data points in each class is counted i.e.
voting of neighbors
5. Assign the new data points to the class with the maximum number of the
neighbors.
b) Gaussian Process Regression (GPR) classifier
Gaussian process regression (GPR) model is kernel-based, nonparametric probabilistic
models. A GPR model is represented as:
y = h (x)T β + f(x), (2)
where,
h(x) = Set of basis functions transforming the original feature vector x in Rd into a new
feature
vector h(x) in Rp.
β = p × 1 vector of basis function coefficients.
f(x) = Gaussian Process with zero mean and covariance function, k (x, x′) i.e. GP (0,
k (x, x′) )
y = Observed response
The model of response y can be represented as:
P(yi ⎸f (xi), xi) ~ N (yi ⎸h(xi)Tβ + f(xi), σ2) (3)
In supervised learning method, the points with similar predictor values xi are expected to
have close response values yi. In Gaussian processes, the similarity is expressed using
covariance function which specifies the covariance between the two latent variables f
(xi) and f (xj), where both xi and xj are d × 1 vectors. The covariance function k(xi, xj) is
defined using various kernel functions based on kernel parameter vector θ. Hence,
covariance function can also be expressed as k(xi, xj ∣ θ). In general, the kernel
parameters depend on two factors; signal standard deviation σf and the characteristic
length scale σl which defines the minimum length between input values xi and response
values to be correlated.There are many built-in kernel (covariance) functions with same
length scale for each predictor are: Exponential Kernel, Squared Exponential Kernel,
Matern 3/2, Matern 5/2 and Rational Quadratic Kernel. Among them, squared
exponential covariance function is most commonly used kernel and is defined as:
1 (xi −xj )T (xi −xj )
k(xi , xj , ⎸Ɵ ) = σ2f exp [− ] (4)
2 σ2l
c) Neural Networks (NNs)

Neural Network or neural net or artificial neural network is a computative learning system
that uses a set of processing functions (activation functions)to learn and translate an input
data set in one form into a desired output data, in another form. They, basically, represent
a set of algorithms, modeled loosely after the human brain, and are designed to recognize
patterns. They interpret sensory data through a kind of machine perception, labeling or
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clustering raw input. By varying layers and neurons, NNs are modeled for classification
and recognition and many other applications [41]. In NNs , three types of layers are used:
input layer, hidden layer, and output layer. Every network has one input and one output
layer. All layers in between are referred to as hidden layers. The function that transforms
the input into the output is known as activation function e.g. Sigmoid, RELU, Tanh, Step,
Gaussian, Ramp and Linear etc.[42].The simplest mathematical representation for the
NNs using Sigmoid Activation Function can be summarized as:
1
ŷ = 1+e−z , where 𝑧=𝑥.𝑤+𝑏 (5)
Where 𝑥 represents the inputs vector, w refers to the weights vector, b is the bias and ŷ
denotes the predicted output.
Broadly, ANN is trained by using three approaches: Supervised Learning (Error based),
Unsupervised Learning and Reinforcement Learning (output based). In supervised
learning, there exists a mapping between input and target known output dataset and ANN
model is trained with the labeled dataset to predict the output while in Unsupervised
Learning, the target output is unknown, hence, ANN model learns on its own by
discovering hidden patterns in the input data [43]. Reinforcement learning is based on
rewarding desired behaviors and/or punishing undesired ones it enables to learn in an
interactive environment by trial and error using feedback from its own actions and
experiences. Our methodology uses supervised learning of ANN.
When ANN is trained using supervised learning, a known set of input data is presented
to the network model along with the known set of desired output data, which produces a
predicted output data. If there is a mismatch between predicted and desired output
values, an error signal is spawned which causes the weights adjustments until zero error
or minimum error value using back propagation Gradient Descent (GD) optimization
method. GD method calculates the Error Gradient with respect to all weights in the
network and is supplied to the optimization method to update the weights to minimize the
error. So, Differentiable activation functions are required to be used by Back propagation.
Mathematically, if ∆W ij is the weight update of link connecting the ith and jth neuron
of two neighboring layers, then ∆W ij is defined as:
∂E
∆W ij = η (− ∂W ) (6)
ij
where, η = Learning rate parameter

∂E
=Error Gradient with respect to weight ∆Wij
∂Wij
Weights are updated using:

Wnew=W old + ∆W ij (7)
Since the error is not directly dependent on the weight matrix, so using chain rule Error
gradient (using sigmoid activation function) is calculated i.e.
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∂E ∂E ̂
∂y ∂z
= ∂ŷ × ∂z × ∂W (8)
∂Wij ij
∂E ∂ 1
̂
= ∂ŷ (2 [y − ŷ]2 ) = −(y − ŷ)
∂y
̂
∂y ∂ 1 1 1
= ∂z (1+e−z ) = (1+e−z ) (1 − 1+e−z ) = ŷ(1 − ŷ)
∂z
∂z ∂
= ∂W (x. Wij + b) = x
∂Wij ij
∂E
⇒ = −(y − ŷ). ŷ(1 − ŷ). x
∂Wij
⇒Wnew=W old+ η(y − ŷ). ŷ(1 − ŷ). x (9)
So, the new weights are assigned / adjusted using equation 9 by propagating the error
backward through network and the process continues until error is minimized to an
acceptable low value or actual output is matched with the desired results.
5. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
All the experiments are configured with Intel® Core™ i5-3110M CPU @ 2.40 GHz with 8
GB RAM, and NVIDIA® GeForce RTX™ 30 graphics card. Microsoft Windows 10 Pro 64-
bit operating system and MATLAB R2019a (64-bit) has been used for the experimentation
and evaluation of the proposed methodology.
5.1 Evaluation Metrics
To measure the effectiveness of proposed algorithm, the most widely adopted biometric
performance indicators are considered such as False Accept Rate (FAR), False Reject
Rate (FRR), Accuracy, Precision, Recall, Specificity and F1-score. These performance
metrics are computed using four primitive variables of confusion matrix i.e.TP, FP, FN
and TN. They are defined as below:
 TP (True Positives) refers to the count of cases when system predicted positive
and it’s actually true.
 FP (False Positives) means count of values when system predicted positive and
it’s actually false.
 FN (False Negatives) gives the number of cases when system falsely predicted
the actual true values.
 TN (True Negatives) counts the cases when system predicted negative and it’s
actually false.
It can be seen that actual results and predicted results contradict for FP and FN values.
So, errors are calculated using these values. Other performance matrices are defined as:
 False Positive Rate (FPR or FAR): It is the rate at which system accepts
unauthorized users.
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 False Negative Rate (FNR or FRR): It is the rate at which system rejects
authorized/genuine users
 Accuracy: refers to the fraction of correct predictions made by the ML Model.
 Error Rate: It refers to the fraction of false predictions and equals to (1- Accuracy)
 Precision: It measures quality of positive predictions made by the model means
fraction of relevant instances among positive retrieved instances
 Recall (Sensitivity or TPR): It quantifies the model’s ability to detect positive
results means fraction of relevant instances among retrieved instances (positive or
negative).
 F1-score: It is defined as the harmonic mean of model’s precision and recall.
5.2 Experimental Results and Analysis

In phase 1 of proposed methodology, the outer foot helix is generated after pre-
processing steps. Afterwards, by implementing algorithms 1, 2 and 3 (discussed under
section 4 b) proposed feature extraction scheme digs out 20 handcrafted geometric
features and generates 20 element feature vector for each image (Table 2). The resulting
20 elements feature set of every image is reduced to 5 dominant feature vectors by
applying PCA, thereby, generating 6,600(=1320×5) features. Further, optimized results
are obtained by performing normalization process that normalizes the values of reduced
feature vectors in the range [0, 1] to achieve a normalized feature set (Table 3) which is
injected further, as input feature vector (5×1320=6600 features set) to implement machine
learning algorithms for personal recognition of Phase 2 of proposed methodology.
In Phase 2 proposed method utilizes 3 supervised machine learning techniques namely,
Classification, Regression and NNs (Neural Networks) to recognize the footprints. All the
experiments are conducted using training size of 6600 features set of 1308 images of 218
persons and 60 random images of 10 persons are kept for testing(genuine and imposter
from seen and unseen data) with 5 features from each image sample. Through the
experiments 1, 2 and 3, it was found that in classification approach KNN models for
classification, GPR (Gaussian Process Regression) models for Regression and Feed
forward Back propagation networks for ANN are the best performing ML models based
on supervised learning. Following experiments are conducted individually by
implementing Classification, Regression and ANN techniques and corresponding
implementation outcomes of each applied ML algorithm are being presented in tabular as
well as graphical notations to analyze the results.
A. Experiment 1
A comparison study between different classifications models has been performed by
implementing 5-fold Cross-Validation. Table 4 presents the results of this comparison
study in terms of validation accuracy and training time.
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Table 4. Comparison of Validation Accuracies and Training Times of different

classifier models
Training
Classifiers Accuracy
Time(Sec)
KNN MODELS
FINE KNN 99.4 1.35800
MEDIUM KNN 98.9 0.37952
COARSE KNN 98.6 0.33961
COSINE KNN 98.8 0.41992
CUBIC KNN 98.9 0.50860
WEIGHTED KNN 99.5 0.29886
DECISION TREES MODELS
FINE TREE 98.9 9.723900
MEDIUM TREE 98.6 9.382900
COARSE TREE 98.8 9.049600
SVM MODELS
LINEAR SVM 98.6 4.123200
QUADRATIC SVM 88.6 0.609390
CUBIC SVM 99.2 0.537360
FINE GAUSSIAN SVM 79.3 0.365050
MEDIUM GAUSSIAN SVM 98.6 0.299560
COARSE GAUSSIAN SVM 98.6 0.299940
ENSEMBLE MODELS
BOOSTED TREES 99 4.125115
BAGGED TREES 99.1 3.133600
RUSBOOSTED TREES 88.9 3.182300
SUBSPACE DISCRIMINANT 98.6 3.815700
SUBSPACE KNN 98.3 3.210000
From the above table, it is evident that weighted KNN model is outperforming among all
the mentioned classification models with 99.5% accuracy and overall training time of
0.29886 seconds. The confusion matrix, scatter plot and the corresponding ROC curve
of weighted KNN model are depicted in figure 8. It can be observed through the
experimental results that all the applied classification models are performing well. But
taking into consideration of training time, Decision Tree classifiers are the slowest ones
in spite of having reasonable accuracy. Ensemble methods are also following the same
scenario.
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Figure 8a. Scatter Plot of Figure 8b. Confusion Matrix of Figure 8c. ROC curve of
Weighted KNN Weighted KNN Weighted KNN
B. Experiment 2
A comparison analysis is done by applying different regression models with an
implementation of 5-fold Cross-Validation strategy. Table 5 outlines the results of this
comparison study in terms of various performance metrics namely, RMSE (Root Mean
Squared Error), MSE (Mean Squared Error), MAE (Mean Absolute Error) and Training
Time in seconds.
Table 5. Comparison of various performance metrics of different classifiers for
Regression models
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C. Experiment 3
It can be clearly seen that Squared Exponential GPR model is the best performing
model among all implemented regression models with the least RMSE value of 0.064363
and overall training time of 41.329 seconds. Figure 9 shows the corresponding graphs
of visualized results of Squared Exponential GPR model are shown below:
Figure 9c. Predicted vs. Actual
Figure 9a. Response Plot of Figure 9b. Confusion Matrix of
Plot of Squared Exponential
Squared Exponential GPR Squared Exponential GPR
GPR
This experiment seeks the efficacy of neural networks for footprint recognition. For the
purpose, Feed-forward back propagation Neural network is implemented with 10 neurons
at the hidden layer 1 with the Tansig as activation function and Purelin activation function
at hidden layer 2 (Figure 10a). Other parameters used are: Data Division – Random;
Adapting Learning Function- learnGDP; Network Training Function- Levenberg-
Marquardt to update weight and bias values; Performance Function- MSE The
experimental results show that the overall accuracy of 97.47% and the training time of
3.4358 seconds were achieved by applying ANN supervised learning approach. The
resulting statistics of other performance metrics are as follows:
Error Rate: 0.0252
Precision: 0.2857
Recall: 0.2500
Specificity: 0.9883
F1-scores: 0.2667
FPR: 0.0117
FNR: 0.7500
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Following Figure 10b, c show the confusion matrix and performance plot of ANN:
Figure 10a. ANN Network Figure 10b. Confusion Matrix Figure 10c. Performance Plot
View of ANN of ANN
D. Experiment 4
From the results of previously discussed 3 supervised machine learning algorithms of
classification, regression and ANN, it was concluded that the weighted-KNN model is
the most performant method among all the mentioned methods with 99.5% validation
accuracy and the overall training time of 0.29886 seconds. Following Table 6 presents
the comparison chart of performance metrics of various machine learning algorithms used
in the proposed work. Also, Figure 11a and Figure 11b depict the bar charts of
Performance metrics and Training Times of the best performing above mentioned ML
algorithms i.e. Weighted-KNN, Squared Exponential GPR and ANN.
Table 6. Comparison of performance metrics of different classifiers
Figure 11a. Performance Metric Bar chart of Figure 11b.Comparison of Training

KNN,GPR and ANN Time of KNN,GPR and ANN
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E. Experiment 5
Through the exhaustive literature study of foot biometry, it was revealed that only one
work from Basheer et al. [14] is available for footprint recognition that applies Machine
learning methods using fuzzy ensemble learning. They claimed the highest recognition
accuracy of 98.88%, FPR at 0.01, FNR at 0.093 and the training time of 18.510 seconds.
While, through the results of experiment 5 the proposed prototype scheme is
outperforming the [14] approach with 99.5% recognition accuracy, FPR at 0.00155039
and FNR at 0.27777778 with overall training time of 0.299 seconds, hence providing a
better robust solution for footprint recognition (Table 7 and Figure 12b).
Table 7. Comparison of performance metrics of proposed method with the
existing method [14]
Method Accuracy FPR FNR Training Time
Proposed Method 0.9946 0.0016 0.278 0.299

Basheer et al. [14] 0.989 0.010 0.093 18.510
Figure 12a.Comparison of performance Figure 12b.Comparison of Training

metrics of proposed method and [14] Time of proposed method and [14]
5. CONCLUSION AND FUTURE SCOPE

In this paper, an agile scheme of footprint recognition using supervised machine learning
techniques has been proposed with an acceptable accuracy. For the purpose, 20 potent
and salient handcrafted foot shape based geometrical features of footprints are extracted.
Afterwards, feature reduction is performed to reduce the 20 foot features set per image
into 5 dominant features followed by normalization. This normalized feature vector is
induced as input vector for implementing Machine learning algorithms. The proposed
methodology utilizes 3 supervised machine learning algorithms viz. classification,
regression and ANN with different classifiers. Experimental results reveal that weighted
KNN method is the outperforming method with the highest accuracy of 99.5% and training
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time of 0.29886 seconds in comparison to Regression and ANN with the greatest
accuracy of 99.15% and 97.5% respectively. The application of optimized deep learning
techniques for footprint recognition is the next target of our present work extension. Also,
in near future, proposed scheme can be combined with other feature modalities to
develop a multimodal biometric system.
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Machine Learning Based Footprint Recognition

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Tianjin Daxue Xuebao (Ziran Kexue yu Gongcheng Jishu Ban)/

Journal of Tianjin University Science and Technology

MACHINE LEARNING BASED FOOTPRINT RECOGNITION

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on Correlation analysis of the scanned footprint images of 94 people (37 F and 37 M) of

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Figure 4. Preprocessing and outer foot helix detection

Table 1. Summary of main abbreviations used

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Figure 5. All Feature vectors of a footprint image

The Feature extraction method involves three sub steps:

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Figure 6. Individual feature vectors of a Footprint

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ii. Calculation of sub-lengths lli and Uli

Input: Ut and Lh ; Lw and Rw

iii. Computation of four areas of triangles

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Table 2. Sample feature vectors of 12 footprint images.

c) Feature Reduction using PCA and Normalization

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 Regression techniques predict a numerical value based on previously observed

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c) Neural Networks (NNs)

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where, η = Learning rate parameter

Weights are updated using:

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5.2 Experimental Results and Analysis

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Table 4. Comparison of Validation Accuracies and Training Times of different

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Figure 11a. Performance Metric Bar chart of Figure 11b.Comparison of Training

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Proposed Method 0.9946 0.0016 0.278 0.299

Figure 12a.Comparison of performance Figure 12b.Comparison of Training

5. CONCLUSION AND FUTURE SCOPE

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