PHYSIOLOGY B y: M A

2. BREATHING AND EXCHANGE OF GASES

Respiration is the oxidation of nutrients in the living cells to resulting in decrease of intra-pulmonary pressure to less
release energy for biological work. Breathing is the exchange than the atmospheric pressure. So air moves into lungs.
of O2 from the atmosphere with CO2 produced by the cells. b. Expiration
Respiratory organs - Passive expelling of air from the lungs.
General body surface: E.g. lower invertebrates like - During this, inter-costal muscles & diaphragm
sponges, coelenterates, flatworms etc. relax causing a decrease in thoracic volume and
Skin or moist cuticle (cutaneous respiration): thereby pulmonary volume. So air moves out.
E.g. earthworms, leech, amphibians etc. - During forceful expiration, abdominal muscles
Tracheal tubes: E.g. insects, centipede, millipede, spider etc. and internal inter-costal muscles contract.
Gills (Branchial respiration): E.g. fishes, tadpoles, prawn etc. - Respiratory cycle= an inspiration + an expiration
Lungs (Pulmonary respiration): E.g. most vertebrates. - Normal respiratory (breathing) rate: 12-16 times/min
HUMAN RESPIRATORY SYSTEM - Spirometer (respirometer): To measure respiratory rate.
It consists of a pair of air passages (air tract) and lungs. Respiratory volumes and capacities
1. Air passages Tidal volume (TV): Volume of air inspired or expired during
- Conducting part which transports the atmospheric a normal respiration (volume of air renewed in respiratory
air into the alveoli, clears it from foreign particles, system during each breathing). It is about 500 ml.
humidifies and brings the air to body temperature. Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV) or complemental
External nostrils → nasal passage → nasal chamber air: Additional volume of air that can inspire by forceful
(cavity) → nasopharynx (a part of pharynx) → glottis → inspiration. It is about 2500-3000 ml.
larynx → trachea → primary bronchi → secondary Expiratory reserve volume (ERV) or supplemental
bronchi → tertiary bronchi → bronchioles → terminal air: Additional volume of air that can expire by a
bronchioles → respiratory bronchiole → alveolar duct. forceful expiration. It is about 1000-1100 ml.
- Each terminal bronchiole gives rise to a number of Residual volume (RV): Volume of air remaining in lungs
very thin and vascularised alveoli (in lungs). even after a forcible expiration. It is about 1100-1200 ml.
- A cartilaginous Larynx (sound box or voice box) Inspiratory capacity (IC): Volume of air inspired after a
helps in sound production. normal expiration (TV + IRV). It is about 3000-3500 ml.
- During swallowing, epiglottis (a thin elastic cartilaginous Expiratory capacity (EC): Volume of air expired after a
flap) closes glottis to prevent entry of food into larynx. normal inspiration (TV + ERV). It is about 1500-1600 ml.
- Trachea, all bronchi and initial bronchioles are Functional residual capacity (FRC): Volume of air
supported by incomplete cartilaginous half rings. remaining in the lungs after a normal expiration
2. Lungs (ERV + RV). It is about 2100-2300 ml.
- Situate in thoracic chamber and rest on diaphragm. Vital capacity (VC): Volume of air that can breathe in
- Right lung has 3 lobes whereas left lung has 2 lobes. after a forced expiration or Volume of air that can breathe
- Lungs are covered by double-layered pleura (outer out after a forced inspiration (ERV + TV + IRV). It is
parietal pleura and inner visceral pleura). 3500-4500 ml.
- The pleural fluid present in between these 2 layers Total lung capacity (TLC): Total volume of air in
lubricates the surface of the lungs and prevents the lungs after a maximum inspiration. (RV + ERV +
friction between the membranes. TV + IRV or VC + RV). It is about 5000-6000 ml.
- Lungs= Bronchi + bronchioles + alveoli. Part of respiratory tract (from nostrils to terminal bronchi)
- Alveoli and their ducts form the respiratory or not involved in gaseous exchange is called dead space.
exchange part of the respiratory system. Dead air volume is about 150 ml.
- Alveoli are the structural and functional units of lungs. GAS EXCHANGE
Steps of respiration Gas exchange occurs between
1. Pulmonary ventilation (breathing). 1. Alveoli and blood 2. Blood and tissues
2. Gas exchange between alveoli & blood. Alveoli are the primary sites of gas exchange. O2 and CO2
3. Gas transport (O2 transport & CO2 transport). are exchanged in these sites by simple diffusion based on
4. Gas exchange between blood & tissues. - Pressure/ concentration gradient
5. Cellular or tissue respiration. - Solubility of gases
MECHANISM OF BREATHING - Thickness of membranes
(INSPIRATION & EXPIRATION) - Surface area of respiratory membrane (lungs)
The Partial pressures (individual pressure of a gas in a gas
a. Inspiration
mixture) of O2 and CO 2 (pO2 and pCO2) are given below.
- Active intake of air from atmosphere into lungs.
- During this, the diaphragm contracts (flattens) causing Respiratory gas pO2 (in mm Hg) pCO2 (in mm Hg)
an increase in vertical volume (antero-posterior axis). Atmospheric air 159 0.3
- Contraction of external inter-costal muscles (muscles Alveoli 104 40
found between ribs) lifts up the ribs and sternum causing Deoxygenated blood 40 45
an increase in thoracic volume in the dorso-ventral axis. Oxygenated blood 95 40
- These changes reduce pressure inside the thorax causing Tissues 40 45
the expansion of lungs. Thus pulmonary volume increases

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- pO2 in alveoli is more (104 mm Hg) than that in It is useful to study the effect of factors like pCO2, H
the blood capillaries (40 mm Hg). So O2 diffuses concentration etc., on binding of O2 with Hb.
into capillary blood. pCO2 in deoxygenated blood 2. Transport of CO2: In 3 ways
is more (45 mm Hg) than that in the alveolus (40 In tissues, pCO2 is high and pO2 is low. In lungs,
mm Hg). So CO2 diffuses to alveolus.
pCO2 is low and pO2 is high. This favours CO2
- As the solubility of CO2 is 20-25 times higher than that
transport from tissues to lungs.
of O2, the amount of CO2 that can diffuse through the
diffusion membrane per unit difference in partial a. As carbonic acid: In tissues, about 7% of CO2 is
pressure is much higher compared to that of O2.
dissolved in plasma water to form carbonic acid
and carried to lungs.
The diffusion membrane is made up of 3 layers: b. As carbamino-haemoglobin: In tissues, 20-25% of
a) The thin squamous epithelium of alveoli CO2 binds to Hb to form carbamino-haemoglobin. In
b) The endothelium of alveolar capillaries and
alveoli, CO2 dissociates from carbamino-haemoglobin.
c) The basement substance between them.
However, its total thickness is much less than a millimetre. c. As bicarbonates: About 70% of CO2 is
GAS TRANSPORT transported by this method. RBCs and plasma
contain an enzyme, carbonic anhydrase. This
(O2 TRANSPORT & CO2 TRANSPORT) enzyme facilitates the following reactions.
1. Transport of O2: In 2 ways
a. In physical solution (blood plasma): About 3% of
O2 is carried in a dissolved state through plasma.
b. As oxyhaemoglobin: About 97% of O2 is transported
In alveoli, the above reaction proceeds in opposite
by RBC. O2 binds with haemoglobin (red coloured
iron containing pigment present in the RBCs) to form direction leading to the formation of CO2 and H2O.
oxyhaemoglobin. This is called oxygenation. Hb Every 100 ml of deoxygenated blood delivers about
has 4 haem units. So each Hb molecule can carry 4 4 ml of CO2 to the alveoli.
oxygen molecules. Binding of O2 depends upon pO2, REGULATION OF RESPIRATION
+
pCO2, H ion concentration (pH) and temperature. Respiratory centres present in the brain include
Respiratory rhythm centre (Inspiratory and
Expiratory centres): In medulla oblongata.
+ Pneumotaxic centre: In Pons. It moderates the
- In the alveoli, high pO2, low pCO2, lesser H ion functions of the respiratory rhythm centre.
concentration and lower temperature exist. These factors Chemosensitive area: Seen adjacent to the rhythm centre.
are favourable for the formation of oxyhaemoglobin. +
+
Increase in the concentration of CO2 and H activates this
- In tissues, low pO2, high pCO2, high H ions and high centre, which in turn signals rhythm centre. Receptors
temperature exist. So Hb4O8 dissociates to release O2. associated with aortic arch and carotid artery also
- Every 100 ml of oxygenated blood can deliver around 5 ml of +
recognize changes in CO2 and H concentration and send
O2 to the tissues under normal physiological conditions. necessary signals to the rhythm centre.
Oxygen-haemoglobin dissociation curve DISORDERS OF RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
It is a sigmoid curve obtained when percentage 1. Asthma: Difficulty in breathing causing wheezing
saturation of Hb with O2 is plotted against the pO2. due to inflammation of bronchi and bronchioles.
2. Emphysema: Alveolar walls are damaged. It decreases
respiratory surface. Major cause is cigarette smoking.
3. Occupational respiratory disorders: Due to
exposure of fumes or dust.
a. Silicosis: Due to breathing of silica.
b. Asbestosis: Due to breathing in asbestos particle.

Refer Textbook for figures