INTRODUCTION TO INFORMATION

COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY
Osun State School of Midwifery,
Asubiaro, Osogbo, Osun State.

Prepared by

Rightway Mega Network

1, Dada Estate, Osogbo, Osun State, Nigeria.
Website: https://rightwaymega.com
Email: [email protected]
Phone No.: +2347064503055
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 Table of Contents

Unit 1

INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................... 4

Unit 2

COMPONENT OF COMPUTER SYSTEM ......................................................................... 21

Unit 3

COMPUTER FILES .......................................................................................................... 27

Unit 4

DATA COLLECTION AND CONTROL ............................................................................... 35

Unit 5

COMPUTER NETWORKING ........................................................................................... 43

Unit 6

ICT IN HEALTH CARE ..................................................................................................... 49

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 Unit 1
INTRODUCTION

The increasing need for application of information communication technology (ICT) to all
spheres of human endeavour makes it important that the nurse keeps abreast of ICT and its
application to health care. This course is designed to introduce the student to ICT and its
importance to health care delivery.

The Evolutions of computers and its increasing effects on the way we do things nowadays is
important to discuss at this stage. This is to have insight into how far and how well humanity
had gone in applying technology to our day-to-day living.

DEFINITION OF COMPUTER

(1) What Is Computer?

Computer is an electronic machine that can accept data as input, process and store it to give
out the result as output information.

The keynotes to zero upon here are:

1. Electronic 2. Machine 3. Data 4. Process 5. Output 6. Input 7. Information

What Is Data?

Data is unprocessed information and can be alphabets or numeric.

Diagrammatic representation of the definition of computer.

Input Process & Storage Output Information

COMMON ABBREVIATIONS AND TERMINOLOGY IN ICT

Here are some commonly used terms that you’ll encounter in ICT:

Hardware Terminology
1. CPU: Central Processing Unit. This is the “brain” of the computer, responsible for
carrying out instructions and performing calculations.

2. RAM: Random Access Memory. This is the short-term memory of the computer,
where data is stored temporarily while the computer is running.

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3. Hard Drive: The main storage device of the computer, where all your files and
programs are stored long-term.

4. Motherboard: The main circuit board of the computer, which connects all the other
components.

Software Terminology
1. Operating System (OS): This is the software that manages the computer’s resources
and provides a user interface for interaction with the hardware. Examples include
Windows, macOS, and Linux.

2. Application (App): A program or software designed to perform specific tasks, such as

word processing, image editing, or gaming.

3. Browser: A software application used to access and view websites on the internet.
Examples include Google Chrome, Mozilla Firefox, and Microsoft Edge.

4. Firewall: A security system that monitors and controls incoming and outgoing
network traffic based on predetermined security rules.

Networking Terminology

1. LAN: Local Area Network. This is a network of computers and devices that are
connected within a limited area, such as an office or a home.

2. WAN: Wide Area Network. This is a network that spans a large geographical area,
such as a city or even multiple cities.

3. Router: A networking device that forwards data packets between computer

networks.

4. VPN: Virtual Private Network. A network that allows remote users to securely access
a private network over the internet.

File System-Based Terminology

• Directory: Also known as a folder, a directory is a container for files and other
directories.

• File: A file is a collection of data that is stored on a storage device.

• Path: A path is the location of a file or directory in a file system. It is usually

represented as a series of directories separated by slashes, such as
/home/user/documents/file.txt.

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• Partition: A partition is a section of a storage device that is treated as a separate
entity. It can be formatted with a file system and used to store files.

Here are some commonly used terms related to file system types:

1. FAT: File Allocation Table. A file system used by older versions of Windows and some
removable storage devices.

2. NTFS: New Technology File System. A file system used by modern versions of
Windows.

3. Ext4: Fourth Extended File System. A file system used by Linux.

4. APFS: Apple File System. A file system used by macOS.

The following are the most commonly used file size options:

1. Byte (B): The smallest unit of file size, equivalent to 8 bits.

2. Kilobyte (KB): 1 KB is equivalent to 1024 bytes.

3. Megabyte (MB): 1 MB is equivalent to 1024 KB or 1,048,576 bytes.

4. Gigabyte (GB): 1 GB is equivalent to 1024 MB or 1,073,741,824 bytes.

5. Terabyte (TB): 1 TB is equivalent to 1024 GB or 1,099,511,627,776 bytes.

6. Petabyte (PB): 1 PB is equivalent to 1024 TB or 1,125,899,906,842,624 bytes.

KB and MB Conversion

Converting between KB and MB is a common task when dealing with file sizes. Here’s a
simple method for converting KB to MB and vice versa:

1. To convert KB to MB, divide the number of KB by 1024. For example, 4096 KB is

equivalent to 4 MB (4096/1024 = 4).

2. To convert MB to KB, multiply the number of MB by 1024. For example, 2 MB is

equivalent to 2048 KB (2 x 1024 = 2048).

Internet and Web Terminology

1. URL: Uniform Resource Locator. This is the address of a website, which you enter
into a web browser to access the site.

2. HTTP/HTTPS: Hypertext Transfer Protocol/Secure. These are the protocols used to

transfer data over the internet. HTTPS is the more secure version, which encrypts
data to prevent unauthorized access.

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3. DNS: Domain Name System. This is a system that translates domain names (such as
google.com) into IP addresses, which are used to identify devices on a network.

4. HTML: Hypertext Markup Language. This is the standard language used to create
web pages

Common Computer Abbreviations

• 2FA – Two Factor Authentication

• 3G – Third Generation

• 4G – Fourth Generation

• 5G – Fifth Generation

• A/D – Analog to Digital

• ACL – Access Control List

• AD – Active Directory

• ADC – Analog to Digital Converter

• ADC – Analog-to-Digital Converter

• AI – Artificial Intelligence

• ALU – Arithmetic Logic Unit

• API – Application Programming Interface

• APN – Access Point Name

• APS – Advanced Planning and Scheduling

• ARP – Address Resolution Protocol

• ASP – Active Server Pages

• ATA – Advanced Technology Attachment

• ATM – Asynchronous Transfer Mode

• AV – Audio/Visual

• AVG – Anti-Virus Guard

• AVI – Audio Video Interleave

• AVR – Automatic Voltage Regulator

• BCC – Blind Carbon Copy

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• BIOS – Basic Input/Output System

• BIT – Binary Digit

• BMP – Bitmap

• BRB – Be Right Back

• CAPTCHA – Completely Automated Public Turing test to tell Computers and Humans
Apart

• CAT – Category

• CBT – Computer-Based Training

• CC – Carbon Copy

• CD – Compact Disc

• CDN – Content Delivery Network

• CD-R – Compact Disc Recordable

• CD-ROM – Compact Disc Read-Only Memory

• CD-RW – Compact Disc Re-Writable

• CERT – Computer Emergency Response Team

• CIFS – Common Internet File System

• CLI – Command Line Interface

• CMOS – Complementary Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor

• CMS – Content Management System

• CMS – Customer Management System

• CPU – Central Processing Unit

• CRC – Cyclic Redundancy Check

• DBMS – Database Management System

• DC – Direct Current

• DNS – Domain Name System

• DOS – Disk Operating System

• DRM – Digital Rights Management

• DVD – Digital Versatile Disc

• DVD – Digital Video Disc

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• EULA – End User License Agreement

• FAQ – Frequently Asked Questions

• FDD – Floppy Disk Drive

• FTP – File Transfer Protocol

• GB – Gigabyte

• GHz – Gigahertz

• HD – High Definition

• HDD – Hard Disk Drive

• HDMI – High-Definition Multimedia Interface

• HTTP – Hypertext Transfer Protocol

• HTTPS – Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure

• I/O – Input/Output

• IP – Internet Protocol

• IPv4 – Internet Protocol version 4

• IPv6 – Internet Protocol version 6

• ISP – Internet Service Provider

• IT – Information Technology

• LAN – Local Area Network

• MB – Megabyte

• Mbps – Megabits per second

• MMS – Multimedia Messaging Service

• MOBO – Motherboard

• MS SQL – Microsoft SQL Server

• MSDN – Microsoft Developer Network

• NAV – Norton Anti-Virus

• OS – Operating System

• PDF – Portable Document Format

• PHP – Hypertext Preprocessor

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• PNG – Portable Network Graphics

• PPC – Pay-per-click

• PS/2 – Personal System/2

• QA – Quality Assurance

• RAM – Random Access Memory

• ROM – Read-Only Memory

• RTF – Rich Text Format

• SEO – Search Engine Optimization

• SFTP – Secure File Transfer Protocol

• SMTP – Simple Mail Transfer Protocol

• SMTP – Simple Network Management Protocol

• SVG – Scalable Vector Graphics

• TCP – Transmission Control Protocol

• URI – Uniform Resource Identifier

• URL – Uniform Resource Locator

• USB – Universal Serial Bus

• UX – User Experience

• VNC – Virtual Network Computing

• VPN – Virtual Private Network

• W3C – World Wide Web Consortium

• WAN – Wide Area Network

• WAP – Wireless Application Protocol

• Wi-Fi – Wireless Fidelity

• WLAN – Wireless Local Area Network

• WMP – Windows Media Player

• WPA – Wi-Fi Protected Access

• WWW – World Wide Web

• ZIP – Zone Improvement Plan

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 CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTER

There are so many types of computer now. So, it is very difficult to say precisely the types of
computer we have without classifying them. The topic has to be made clear when you ask
question like, name 3 types of computer. Some people will say: Analog, while some will say
special purpose computer. We must be specifying by taking some factors into consideration.

1. On the Basis of Function, Hardware Design and Type (Analog, Digital, and Hybrid
Computer).

2. On the Basis of Size and Capacity, (Supercomputer, Mainframe, Mini, and Micro
Computer).

3. On the Basis of Purposes, (General and Special Purpose).

4. Generation of Computer

Classification By Function and Type:

(1) Analog (2) Digital and (3) Hybrid

ANALOG

These are the types of computers that operate on continuous variables like signs and symbols
for them to accept and process information. A very close example of this is the car
speedometer, thermometer, petrol dispensers and analog watch etc.

Analog computers are fundamentally used to gauge actual units which solved voltage,
pressure, electric flow, temperature, and convert them into digits.

These computers are very fast in their operations to be carried and a powerful tool to solve
differential equations. The productivity of this computer increases, when we get the
consequence of the information as diagrams.

Analog Computers can’t store measurements.

Some Examples of Analog Computers.

• Operational Amplifiers.

• Mechanical integrators

• Slide rules.

• Tide Predictors

• Electric Integrators

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 • Thermometer

• Speedometer

• Seismometer

• Voltmeter

• Flight Simulators

DIGITAL

A Digital computer represents physical quantities with the help of digits and numbers. These
numbers are used to perform Mathematics calculations and made logical decision to reach a
conclusion, depending on, the data they receive from the user.

The digital computer is also known as the Digital Data processing system. It’s performs such
as addition, occurrence, multiplication, or calculations as well as logical operations. It can also
perform organize and analyze data, control industrial and other processes such as global
weather patterns. These types of computer that stores and processes data in the digital form,
usually in the binary 0 or 1 system.

It is more common type of computer we have because they can be used to do most work.
Hence called General Purpose Computer.

Examples of Digital Computers

• Digital Clock.

• Calculator.

• Weighing Machine.

• Consumer Electronic Equipment.

• Laptop.

• ATM Machines

• Smart Phones.

• Automobiles.

HYBRID:

Hybrid computer combines the function of digital computer and that of analog computer. It
can be used to operate in different variables as well as continuous variables.

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It is built for using both data by a single control system. It encompasses the best features of
both Analog and Digital computers. This computer is capable of inputting those signals and
converts them to digital form.

The purpose of designing this computer is to provide functions and features that could found
on both devices. It made to solve extremely complex calculations or problems. These
computer system setup offers a cost-effective method of performing complex simulations.
These computers are mostly used in very large industries, organizations, and business firms.

Examples of Hybrid Computers.

• Gasoline Station

• Electrocardiogram Machine

• Monitoring Machine

• Ultrasound Machine

Classification By Size:

When or if computer is to be classified by size, then there are three types of computer based
on size. They are:

(1) MAINFRAME COMPUTERS:

Mainframe computers are earliest form of computers, which were available in the early 50’s.
They are mainly multi-user and multitasking. They are the largest, fastest and most expensive
type of computer. Mainframe support full range of programming languages such as scientific
languages (Basic, Pascal, Fortran etc) and commercial (COBOL, PRG, Dbase) type. Example of
such computers is IBM 370 series.

Characteristics

• They produce larger amount of heat

• Requires strict environmental conditions

• They are multi-user (many people can use it at the same time)

• It has a large memory size. Larger storage capacity.

• Large in size

• Multi-processing

• Supports a variety of peripherals

Areas where mainframe computers are used:

Mainframe computers are mostly found in government departments, big organizations and
companies which have large information processing needs, e.g., they are used;

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In Banks & Hospitals for preparing bills, Payrolls, etc.

In communication networks such as the Internet where they act as Servers.

By Airline reservation systems where information of all the flights is stored.

Examples of Mainframes:

• IBM 360,4381.

• ICL 39 Series.

• CDC Cyber series.

• BINAC

• UNIVAC

2. MINI COMPUTER

Mini computer is smaller in size compared to mainframe computer; it is next to mainframe

computer in size. It has some characteristics as that of mainframe computer. It came into
existence at about the late 60’s. It is a multi tasking as well as a multi user computer.

Multi tasking: Ability to perform many tasks at the same time.

Multi user: Many people can make use of it at the same time.

It has the same characteristics as that of mainframe above; it is only smaller than mainframe
computer.

Characteristics

• Multi-user, e.g., can be operated by 6 users at a time.

• Easier to manufacture & maintain compared to mainframes.

• Cheaper than the mainframes

• They handle small amounts of data, are less powerful, & have less memory than the
mainframes.

• Minicomputers are slow compared to mainframe computers.

Applications

1. Used in scientific laboratories

2. Used in research institutions

3. Engineering plants

4. Automatic processing

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Also they are well adapted for functions such as

• Accounting

• Word processing

• Database administration

3. MICRO COMPUTER

Microcomputer is simple user type of computer and support wide range of applications.
Microcomputer has no limit in terms of usage and application. It is far smaller in size
compared to mini computer. The first commercially available microcomputer was introduced
by Intel Around 1974. You can have the whole set of it on your computer unlike the mainframe
minicomputer. Examples of some manufacturers of microcomputers are:

(1) IBM (2) Dell (3) Hewelt Packard, Samsung, Compaq, Microbos and compatibles

Shape: The shape of microcomputer can be in form of a Desktop (flat), minitower, Notebook
and Laptop.

Micro computer does not generate heat as that of mainframe and mini computer but then
still requires A, C or fan in its working environment. It is easy to repair or maintain and also
cheaper to purchase compared to others.

Characteristics

• Are cheaper than both mini & mainframe computers.

• Are very fast (i.e. have high processing speeds).

• Small in size, hence they occupy less space in an office.

• Are more energy efficient (i.e., consume less power).

• Are more reliable than the early Mainframe computers.

Areas where microcomputers are used:

Microcomputers are commonly used in:

1. Training and learning institutions such as schools.

2. Small business enterprises, and

3. Communication centers as terminals.

The following are the various types of microcomputers in operation today arranged in
descending order according to size.

• Desktop computer; is designed to be placed on top of an office desk

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 • Notebook or laptop; portable convenient for mobile users.

• Personal Digital Assistant(PDA); Is small enough to fit in the pocket

• Other examples of the microcomputer are smartphone, Tablet, server, palmtop, and
workstation.

Classification By Purpose/Usage

When computer is to be classified based on usage, then we have just two types of computers.
They are:

1. Special Purpose Computer

2. General Purpose Computer

1. SPECIAL PURPOSE COMPUTERS: These are the types of computers designed to perform a
specific function. No matter what you do to it, it will only do what it has been designed to do.

It is mostly used in some environments like scientific laboratory, medical research laboratory,
petrol stations, weather forecasting environment etc.

Examples:

Feature Phones

The so-called feature or dumb phones (many of which are still in use even nowadays) are
specialized computing devices. Their processing functions are limited to activities such as
making or receiving calls, sending and receiving text messages, and storing contact
information.

Modern smartphones are general purpose computers.

Gaming Consoles from a few years ago

While present day gaming consoles are becoming more of general purpose computing devices
because of their increasing amount of functionality, their predecessors from only a few years
ago were specialized for playing video games and could not do much else. Many hand held
gaming devices are still special purpose computers.

E-book Readers

Ebook readers are another example of special purpose computers. Devices which are made
for the sole purpose of reading electronic books such as the Amazon Kindle are special
purpose computers.

Automobile Onboard Computer

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Cars manufactured nowadays come with at least one computer. This computer is responsible
for, among other things, monitoring engine emissions and adjusting said engine. This
computer receives information from a number of sensors and then uses this information to
control the operation of the car engine. Most can also detect faults and notify their owners
of these through mechanisms such as the “Check engine” light.

So, automobile onboard computer is an example of special purpose computer.

Digital Cameras

Many digital cameras are sophisticated, computing devices which give the photographer the
ability to delete, move or otherwise manage the captured digital image files. In addition many
of these cameras also use digital image processing techniques to enhance, filter or otherwise
modify the captured images.

Digital cameras are a good example of special purpose computers.

Automatic Transmission

This is a type of transmission that automatically changes a car’s gear ratio as it moves thus
doing away with the need for the driver to shift gears manually. In modern cars a computer
controls each and every one of these operations.

Automated Teller Machine

ATMs were created to reduce the banking public’s reliance on banking staff and to also
improve the convenience of their services by allowing people to access some of these even
outside the institutions’ working hours. ATMs allow bank customers to conduct tasks like cash
withdrawals and balance enquiries. These devices require computing power in order to
facilitate their automatic operation and communication with the bank’s computers. The
computers also oversee the authentication of the customer. So an ATM is another example
of a special purpose computer.

MRI Machines

MRI machine is an example of a special purpose computer. Magnetic Resonance Imaging is a

technique used to capture pictures of the human body together with its physiological
processes. MRI scanners use strong magnetic fields together with radio waves to generate
images of the internal organs. These machines are wholly controlled by one or more
computers.

In fact advances in computing technology were crucial to the development of practical MRI
which requires a lot of computational power.

CT scanners

A Computed Tomography (CT) scan is another medical imaging technology which makes
heavy use of computing. The desired images are generated by computer-processing a

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combination of several x-ray measurements which are all taken from different angles. These
machines produce cross-sectional images of specific areas of the scanned object without the
need for any cutting. This is another example of a special purpose computer in the medical
field.

Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs)

These are industrial digital computers which are specially designed for the control of
manufacturing processes and machinery such as assembly lines or robotic devices. PLCs are
rugged and are adapted to be highly reliable, fault tolerant and easy to program in industrial
environments.

Aircraft Autopilot

This is a system designed to automatically control the trajectory of an aircraft. It reduces the
need for constant manual control of the vehicle by a human operator. Modern autopilot
systems use computer software to control the craft. This software reads the aircraft’s current
position and then controls the flight control system in order to guide the aircraft. Both the
software and the hardware that make up these systems are designed to be highly reliable.

2. GENERAL PURPOSE COMPUTER: General Purpose Computers are simply the type of
computers that can be programmed to do so many things. There usages are not limited. So
many programs and applications can be run on it. It can be useful in Medical line, Accounting
line, Personnel line, Business center sector etc.

Examples:

• desktop computers and laptops

• tablets - like desktop computers, they can run a variety of applications
• smartphones - today's smartphones can also run a variety of applications
• games consoles - as well as games, modern consoles also enable users to watch
videos, play music and browse the internet
• media systems in cars - allow users to navigate, listen to music and connect to a
smartphone

Classification Of Computer Based On Generation

Over the years, there has been great improvement in the development of computers since
it’s discovery.

"Generation" in the context of computers refers to the different phases or stages of

development in computer technology. Each generation is characterized by significant
advancements in hardware, architecture, and technology.

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Based on these immeasurable changes, there are generally considered to be five generations
of computers:

FIRST GENERATION:

The first generation was manufactured between the years 1940 – 1960. They were quite very
large, very slow and bulky due to the use of their vacuum tubes for relay and not so reliable
as the computers of this present age. They were very costly to maintain due to their large
electrical power. Air conditioning and space requirement.

First generation computers have magnetic tape for input and output devices.

Other well known examples of first generation computers are: EDSAC, EDVAC, UNIVAC II AND
IBM 650.

SECOND GENERATION:

The second generation was introduced between 1956 and 1965. They were faster and more
reliable than first generation computers. The smaller size brought about low heat generation
and less power requirements. They were able to replace vacuum tubes with transistors. Also,
they were able to introduced removable magnetic disk packs. Magnetic tapes became
popular and punch cards were widely used.

Examples are UNIVAC III, IBM 7070.

THIRD GENERATION:

These were introduced at about the year 1964. They made use of integrated circuit (IV) in
which all the elements of electronic circuits were contained in a small silicon chip. Those micro
electronic circuits were smaller and more reliable than the transistor circuits and greatly
increased the speed memory capacity and reduced the size of computers.

They made use of magnetic disks as their storage media. Usage and programming language
like Cobol, Fortran, basic were made possible. DEC as an example came as stream in 1965
(DEC = Digital Equipment Corporation).

FOURTH GENERATION COMPUTERS

They were manufactured at about the year 1970 and were very powerful, reliable and equally
more efficient than the earlier made computer. They made use of (LSI) Large-scale integrated
semi conductive circuits for both the logical and memory circuits. LSI actually led to the
development of micro computer in 1971 by M. E. HOFF of Intel cooperation for the processing
unit was placed in a single chip called” Micro processor”.

Examples are IBM 370 series.

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FIFTH GENERATION COMPUTER: The fifth generation computer was manufactured around
1980’s. The fifth generation computers are more powerful, reliable, fast, smaller and cost less.

It is characterized by advancements in artificial intelligence and parallel processing. This

generation focuses on developing machines capable of learning and problem-solving.

The technology behind the fifth generation of computers is AI. It allows computers to behave
like humans. It is often seen in programs like voice recognition, area of medicine, and
entertainment.

Some of the popular advanced technologies of the fifth generation include Artificial
intelligence, Quantum computation, Nanotechnology, Parallel processing, etc.

Generations of Computer 1st to 5th

# Computer Generations Timeline Hardware

1 First Generation of Computer 1940-1956 Vacuum Tubes

2 Second Generation of Computer 1956-1963 Transistor

3 Third Generation of Computer 1964-1971 Integrated Circuit (I.C.)

4 Fourth Generation of Computer 1971-1980 Microprocessor

5 Fifth Generation of Computer 1980- Till Now Artificial Intelligence

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 Unit 2
COMPONENT OF COMPUTER SYSTEM
By component we mean the elements of computer. They are those things that comes up
together to make a computer system.

Major component of computer system:

(1) . Hardware.
(2) . Software
(3) . Main Processor

(1). HARDWARE
Hardware is the tangible part of computer system. It is simply the parts that can be seen and
touched. All things connected to the central processing unit box are parts of the hardware.
For example, all the output and input devices.

What Are They?

Anything you see physically and touch and is attached or connected to the computer is knows
as Hardware. They are all knows as peripherals.

HARDWARE COMPONENTS
This is the physical components/parts of the computer that can be seen and touched. It can
be divided into two (2) parts namely:

(a) NON-CONFIGURATION HARDWARE

They are not part of the computer but they provide additional facilities to help the
computer. Some of there examples include the following:

i. Un-interrupted Power Supply (UPS)

It is used to store current so that in effect of power failure, they can supply current to
the computer for some time. This will prevent abnormal shutdown of computer
system.

ii. Air-conditionals
Provides cool atmosphere that is dust free to the computer system, this will prolong
the life span of the system.

iii. Chairs and Tables

They are used as support facilities in the computer room for sitting, placing computer
upon for convenience and easy use.

iv. CONFIGURATION HARDWARE

These are the physical components of the computer system. They are either used to
feed data into or retrieve information from the computer system.
1. Input devices
2. Output devices
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 3. Storage device and Back-store

Computer system component

C.P.U.

Input Device Memory Output Device

INPUT DEVICE:
These are the equipment for feeding or sending data and information program to be executed
into the computer’s main memory.

Examples are:
(a) Light pen: used to draw on the Visual Display Unit
(b) Mouse: used to input data for execution in the windows environment
(c) Keyboard: used to key in data into the computer’s main processor
(d) Joystick: used to play games in the computer environment
(e) Monitor (VDU): is also used for viewing document after which it can be sent to
the printer (Hard copy) or transfer to the backing storage media for later use.

OUTPUT DEVICE:
They are the devices that allow us to get back information or the result after the computer
has carried out processing activities on the input data/information.
Examples are:
a. Computer speakers
b. Headphones
c. Optical mark reader
d. Monitor
e. Printer

INPUT AND OUTPUT DEVICES

There are some devices which perform both input as well as output functions.
Examples are:
1. The Hard Disk is also known as Fixed Disk because it is fixed in the system unit. It can
store millions of characters.
2. The Floppy Disk or Diskette, this is because the Magnetic material is floppy.
3. The CD/DVD-ROM.
4. Flash Drive

(2). SOFTWARE:
Apart from those tangible and visible parts that make up the computer system, there are
other essential components of computer which cannot be seen nor whether can be touched

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and without which your computer would not be able to work at all. The components simply
called software.

Software is a set of instructions, data or programs used to operate computers and execute
specific tasks.

Software is a generic term used to refer to applications, scripts and programs that run on a
device. It can be thought of as the variable part of a computer, while hardware is the
invariable part.

Software Types
1. System Program:

System program/software is a program designed to run a computer's hardware and

applications and manage its resources, such as its memory, processors, and devices. System
Program/Software is the most important type of software required to administer the
resources of the computer system.

Systems software types, including Windows, Linux, MacOS X, BSD, etc.

Examples of System Program/Software

a. Operating System: Operating systems are the most important type of system software.
An operating system is a software that controls how your hardware works, which means it
manages the computer's memory, processor, and all of its software and hardware.

Examples are: Windows 8, 10, 11

b. Device Drivers: Device drivers are tiny programs that enable a computer to communicate
with its hardware devices, such as printers, scanners, and keyboards. Without device
drivers, the hardware you connect to your computer will not be working properly. For
example, without device drivers, your printer will not work properly. Device manufacturers
provide most device drivers, but Microsoft also provides some generic ones.

c. Firmware: Firmware is a type of software that is embedded in a hardware device. It

controls the device and performs its essential functions. Firmware is usually stored in read-
only memory (ROM), which means it cannot be modified or deleted. However, some devices
have firmware that can be updated. Firmware updates can be downloaded from the
manufacturer's website or installed from a CD or USB drive.

d. BIOS and UEFI: BIOS (basic input/output system) is a firmware code that is executed
when a computer is powered on. It performs a power-on self-test (POST) and initializes the
computer before loading the operating system. The BIOS is stored in a ROM (read-only
memory) chip on the motherboard.

UEFI (unified extensible firmware interface) is a newer type of firmware that offers more
features than BIOS. UEFI is designed to be platform-independent and can be used with a

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variety of operating systems. UEFI also supports a larger boot volume than BIOS and can boot
from devices with a 2TB or more capacity.

e. Programming Language Translator: Programming languages are like human languages in

that they are used to communicate instructions to a computer. However, unlike human
languages, programming languages are designed to be read and understood by computers,
not humans. That is where programming language translators come in.

Programming language translators are programs that convert code written in one
programming language into another programming language. This translator can be helpful
when you want to take code written in one language and run it on a machine that only
understands another language. It converts code from an older language into a newer one,
making it easier to keep your code up-to-date.

2. Application Program:
An application program is a comprehensive, self-contained program that performs a
particular function directly for the user. It provides users with tools to accomplish a specific
task.

Examples of Application Program

1. A suite of Microsoft products such as MS Office, PowerPoint, MS Word, Excel, and Outlook.
2. Internet browsers like Google Chrome, Safari, Firefox, etc.
3. Graphics and design software such as Adobe Photoshop, CorelDraw, and AutoCAD.
4. Online communication tools like Skype, Hangouts, Google Meet, Zoom, and Whatsapp.
5. Multimedia and music streaming software such as MX Player, VLC Media Player, Spotify,
Pandora, etc.
6. Medical Management Softwares like EHR software (electronic health record software),
Hospital management software (HMS), Medical imaging software (such as MRI and CT scans
etc)

3. Utility Program:
The Utility Program is system software that helps to maintain the proper and smooth functioning
of a Computer System. It assists the Operating System to manage, organize, maintain, and
optimize the functioning of the computer system.

Utility Software performs certain tasks like virus detection, installation, and uninstallation, data
backup, deletion of unwanted files, etc. Some examples are antivirus software, file management
tools, compression tools, disk management tools, etc.

Types of Utility Software

1. Antivirus: A virus is a malicious software that enters the system along with a host
program. Moreover, it multiplies with time and makes several copies which in turn slows
down and corrupts the system. An antivirus is a utility software that helps to keep the

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computer virus-free. It notifies when any malicious file is detected and removes such files. In
addition, it scans any new device attached to the computer and discards any virus if there. It
also scans the system from time to time for any threats and disposes of them. Examples of
antivirus are McAfee Antivirus, Quickheal Antivirus, Windows Defender, etc.

2. File Management System: These utility software are used to manage files of the computer
system. Since files are an important part of the system as all the data is stored in the files.
Therefore, this utility software help to browse, search, arrange, find information, and quickly
preview the files of the system.

Windows Explorer is a default file management tool present in the system. Some other
examples of file management tools are Google Desktop, Double Commander, Directory
Opus, etc.

3. Compression Tools: An important part of a computer is storage space, it is very important

to maintain this storage. Therefore, we use certain utility software to compress big files and
decrease their size, these are compression tools. The format of the files changes while
compressing and we cannot access or edit them directly. In addition, we can easily
decompress the file and get the original file back. Examples of compression tools are WinZip,
WinRAR, WinAce, PeaZip, 7-Zip, etc.

4. Disk Management Tools: These utility software are used to manage data on disks.
Moreover, they perform functions like partitioning devices, manage drives, etc. Examples of
disk management tools are MiniTool Partition Wizard, Paragon Partition Manager, etc.

5. Disk Cleanup Tool: This utility software helps to free up the disk space. In addition, the
files which are no longer in use are removed from the disk. Examples are Razer Cortex,
Piriform CCleaner, etc.

6. Disk Defragmenter: This utility software helps to reduce the fragmentation and hence,
reduces the access speed. Defragmenting refers to rearranging files and storing them in
contiguous memory locations. Moreover, saves time in reading from files and writing files to
disk. Examples of disk defragmenters are Perfect disk, Deflaggler, etc.

7. Backup Utility: This utility software helps to back up the files, folders, databases, or
complete disks. Moreover, backup refers to duplicating the disk information so that the data
can be restored if any data loss happens.

(3). MAIN PROCESSOR

The Control Processing Unit consists of three (3) parts that take care of the various processing
activities of computer system.
(a) Memory: The main store is used for storing data, information and getting result of the
various processing tasks, information already stored in the system.
(b) A.L.U. This is the short for Arithmetic and Logical Unit, from the name; it takes care of
arithmetic operations, basic mathematical calculations like addition, subtraction,
division, multiplication, etc, to be carried out on the computer. It also takes care of
character manipulations involving alphabets, comparing letters and numbers called
logical comparison and special characters that are neither numbers nor alphabets
(arithmetic operators are included here), e.g. @, %, $, <, >, ?, |, \, /, +, *, =, etc.

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(c) Control: this part of CPU extracts instructions, performs execution, maintains and
directs operations of entire system. It sees to the normal working of the other
processing units of the control processor, i.e the memory and A.L.U.

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 Unit 3
COMPUTER FILES
A computer system consists of devices, memory, processors, etc. Along with this, there is
one of the important or core fundamental aspects which is computer files. These computer
files are used to store the data in digital format. Data that is to be stored can be images,
videos, audio, or text files.

What is a Computer File?

A computer file is defined as a medium used for saving and managing data in the computer
system. The data stored in the computer system is completely in digital format, although
there can be various types of files that help us to store the data.
Data can be in the form of text, image, video, multimedia files of some other documents, or
some other types.
Computer file allows us to store all these types of data without any problem or without
failure. There is a unique identifier associated with each file which helps users easily locate
the stored file, helps the user to access the stored data from the computer system.

A computer has three types of files: application files, data files, and system files.

How are files created?

A file is created using a computer program. For example, to create a text file, you would use
a text editor; to create an image file, you would use an image editor; and to create
a document, you would use a word processor.

Where are files stored?

Computer files are stored on a drive (e.g., the hard drive), disc (e.g., DVD (digital versatile
disc)), and a diskette (e.g., floppy disk), and may be in a folder (directory) on that medium.
• When saving a file to your computer, you are saving the file to the hard drive.
File Management/Arrangement

Microsoft Windows computer users can view, manage, and organize their files with Windows
Explorer, and Apple users can use the Finder. See our file system definition for further
information about file management.

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• How to list files in a directory or folder on the computer.
Show the files in a Windows folder

Microsoft Windows users who want to list files on the computer can open My
Computer or Windows Explorer and open the C: drive. Once in the C: drive,
all files and folders in the root directory of your primary hard drive are listed.
• In Windows, most of your programs are stored in the Program Files folder, and your
documents are frequently saved in the My Documents folder.
• How to copy files.

To copy computer documents, pictures, or other files from one place to another, follow these
instructions.

• When copying files, you are going to get more than one copy of the file on your
computer. If you want only one copy of the files, move them instead.

• A file name must be unique. If it's not, a number is appended to the end of a file name.
It may also have "- Copy" appended to the end of the file name, instead of a number.
Appending a number to the end of the copied file's name assures the copied file is
unique. For example, if the original file name is abc123.pdf and a copy is created in
the same directory or folder, the copied file name could be abc123(1).pdf or abc123 -
Copy.pdf.
1. Go to the files or folders you want to copy. If you need help locating the files, use
the Windows find feature.
2. Highlight the file or files you want to copy by clicking them once with the mouse. If you
need to highlight more than one file, hold down the Ctrl or Shift keys on your keyboard,
or drag a box around the files you want to copy.
3. Once highlighted, right-click one of the highlighted files and select Copy. Users may also
press the Ctrl+C keyboard shortcut, or in Windows Explorer, click Edit at the top of the
window and select Copy.
4. Open the destination folder, right-click an empty space in the folder, and select Paste. Or,
in the menu bar at the top, click File, choose Edit, then select Paste.

• How to move files and folders on the computer.

In Windows, you can move files using several method. You can drag-and-drop, cut and paste,
or use the "Move to Folder" command. Below are the steps on how you can move files in
Windows. Choose the option that works best for you.
• You can also select multiple files and move multiple files at once using any of the steps
below. See: How to select or highlight multiple files and folders.

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Cut and Paste

To cut and paste a file, select the file you want to move, right-click the highlighted file, and
then select Cut. Browse to the folder you want to move the file to, right-click in the folder,
and select Paste.
Alternatively, click Edit from the file menu, select Cut to cut the files, browse to where you
want to move the files, then select Edit and Paste in the file menu.
Finally, you can also use keyboard shortcuts to cut and paste files. Select the files you want to
cut, then press the keyboard shortcut Ctrl+X to cut the files. "Cutting" the files is like cutting
text in a document: it moves the files to a temporary "clipboard" until you "paste" them
somewhere. Navigate to the destination folder and press the keyboard shortcut Ctrl+V to
paste the files. The files are now in your destination folder.
Drag-and-drop

Highlight the files you want to move, press and hold your right mouse button, and drag-and-
drop the files to where you want to move them. When you release the mouse button, a menu
appears, similar to the example shown in the picture. Select the Move here option to move
the files.
• For drag-and-drop to work, you'll need to be able to see the window of where you are
moving the files.

Use "Move to Folder"

To use the "Move to Folder" command, select the file by clicking the file name. Click
the Edit menu near the top-left of the window and select the Move to Folder option. In the
new window browse to the folder you want to move the file, then click the Move button to
move the file to that folder.
If you are using Windows 8, once the files are selected the Move to option is shown under the
Home tab.

• How to change or rename a file, folder, or directory.

• You must have write or modify permissions to a file, folder, or directory to rename it.
Sometimes, you may need administrator privileges in the operating system to rename.

Windows users can rename their files and directories using one of the following methods.
We've listed the following recommendations in what we believe to be the easiest methods of
renaming a file. These methods work for most types of files, including text, photos,
documents, and others.

• This also works for removing spaces in a file name.

• Renaming a folder containing files may cause problems if that folder contains files that
are required by a program. For example, if the program is looking for a folder named

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 "data" and you rename it to "other" the program would no longer know where data
files are located.

Method one

1. Highlight the file or folder.

2. Right-click the file with your mouse and select Rename from the menu.

• In Windows 11, select Show more options in the right-click menu to see
the Rename option.

Method two

1. Highlight the file or folder.

2. Press F2 on the keyboard.

Method three

1. Highlight the file or folder.

2. Click File at the top of the window and select Rename from the list of available
options.

• File Explorer in Windows 11 does not have a file menu like previous versions of

Windows. Instead, click the Rename icon in the menu bar at the top.

Method four

1. Highlight the file or folder.

2. Once highlighted, wait a few seconds and click the file name again. A box should
appear surrounding the file or folder name, and you can rename the file.

• If you don't wait long enough and click the file or folder too fast, it can open it rather
than allowing you to rename it.

Renaming multiple files or folders at once

1. Open Explorer.
2. In Explorer, select all the files you want to rename.

3. Once the files are selected, press F2 to edit the file name and type the new name for
the files. For example, typing "test" renames the files to test, test(1), test(2), test(3),
etc. If you have file extensions displayed, make sure to also type the name of the file
extension.

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• How to delete a file, directory, or folder.

Microsoft Windows users can delete an unwanted file or folder (directory) from a hard drive
or external disk drive using many different methods. Below are the more common methods
for deleting a file or folder in Microsoft Windows.

• To delete a hidden file in Windows, you first need to set hidden files to be visible.

• Users not familiar with Windows should realize that if you delete a folder or directory,
all files and folders in that folder or directory are deleted.

• The steps below are for deleting a single file or folder. However, the user can use the
same steps to delete multiple files or folders.

Delete key

Locate the item you want to delete, highlight it by left-clicking the file or folder with your
mouse once, and press Delete. You can browse the location of the file or folder using My
Computer or Windows Explorer.

• You can delete multiple files or folders by pressing Ctrl and clicking each file or folder
before pressing Delete.

• You can hold down Shift while pressing Delete to prevent files from going to the
Recycle Bin when deleted.

Delete file or folder by right-clicking

Open My Computer or Windows Explorer. We recommend you make sure the directory or
folder is empty before proceeding, unless you intend to delete everything in it. Locate the file
or folder you want to delete and right-click it. Choose the Delete option from the pop-up
menu.

How to delete from the local disk

• The local disk contains files and folders that are imperative for your computer to run
correctly. Unless you know what you are deleting, please do not delete any files from
this section.
Open My Computer or Windows Explorer. On the left side of the screen, click This PC. On the
right side of the screen, locate and double-click the local disk (usually C: or D:). Double-click
the folder containing the file you want to delete. Select the file or folder you want to delete,
click File in the top menu bar, and select Delete.

How to delete from an external drive

To delete from a USB (universal serial bus) flash drive, floppy drive, memory card, or external
hard drive, open My Computer or Windows Explorer. On the left side of the screen, click This
PC. On the right side of the screen, locate and double-click the drive, which is labeled as USB,

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flash drive, external hard drive, or the manufacturer's name. Select the file or folder you want
to delete, click File in the top menu bar, and select Delete.

Delete from the file menu

Open My Computer or Windows Explorer. Locate and select the file or folder you want to
delete, click File in the top menu bar, and select Delete.
If the File menu is not visible in My Computer or Windows Explorer, press Alt to make the
menu bar visible, including the file menu.

Problems during delete

Some documents and folders may be protected from deletion through encryption or
password protection. In this case, you may be asked for a password to decrypt or remove the
password protection.
A file may be set as read-only, meaning the user can only open it for viewing and not modify
or delete it. When trying to delete a read-only file, you get a message stating the file is write-
protected and cannot be deleted. You need to modify or write permissions to delete the file.
Some files may only be deleted with administrator permissions. To delete these files, you
would need to have administrator rights on the computer. If you are using a work computer,
the technical support staff often are the only users with administrator rights on the computer.
Another possible cause of problems with deleting a file or folder is
a virus or malware infection. Viruses and malware can prevent files or folders from being
modified or deleted. If this is the case, you need to remove the virus or malware infection to
delete the affected file or folder.

• How to find a file on a computer.

• If you've recently opened the file on your computer recently, it may be easier to find
the file in the recent documents feature.

Windows 11

1. Press the Windows key on your keyboard, then type part or all the file name (A) you
want to find.
2. In the search results, click the Apps, Documents, or Web section header (B) to view a
list of files that meet the search criteria. For more choices of search results, click
the More section header (C) and select an option from the drop-down menu.

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 3. Click the file name you want to open.

• You can use the arrow keys to arrow up or down to the app, file, document, or setting
you want to view and press Enter to open it.

Windows 10

Microsoft Windows provides an easy-to-use search feature that helps you find any file on your
computer, even if you don't know its full name. Whether you need to find a document,
spreadsheet, picture, or video, the Windows search feature helps you find it. Choose your
computer's Windows version from the list below and follow the steps to search for a file.
Search examples and tips are also available by clicking the search tips link below.
1. Press the Windows key on your keyboard, then type part or all the file name you want
to find.
2. In the search results, click the Documents, Music, Photos, or Videos section header
to view a list of files that meet the search criteria.

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 3. Click the file name you want to open.

• You can use the arrow keys to arrow up or down to the app, file, document, or setting
you want to view and press Enter to open it.

Windows 8

1. Press the Windows key to access the Windows Start screen.

2. Start typing part of the file name you want to find. As you type, results for your search
are shown. See the search tips section for tips on searching for files.
3. Click the drop-down list above the Search text field and select the Files option.
4. The search results are shown below the Search text field. Scroll down through the
search results list to find the file you are looking for, then click the file name to open
it.

Windows Vista and Windows 7

1. Click Start to open the Start menu.

2. In the Search text field at the bottom of the Start menu, type part or all the file
name you want to find. See the search tips section for tips on searching for files.
3. In the search results, click the Documents or Files section header to view a list of files
that meet the search criteria. You can also click the See more results link at the
bottom of the search results to see a complete list of files that meet the search criteria.
4. Double-click the file you want to open.

Windows XP

1. Click Start to open the Start menu.

2. In the Start menu, click the Search option.
3. In the Search Results window, fill out all or part of the file name field in the Search
Companion section. See the search tips section for tips on searching for files.
4. If the computer has more than one hard drive, or you want to search a USB (universal
serial bus) flash drive or CD/DVD, click the Look in the drop-down list and select the
appropriate drive.
5. Click the Search button to execute the search.
6. Files meeting the search criteria are shown in the Search Results window. Double-
click the file you want to open.

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 Unit 4
DATA COLLECTION AND CONTROL
In the field of Information and Communication Technology (ICT), data collection and control
are essential aspects of managing information efficiently and securely.

Here's how these processes are relevant in ICT:

Data Collection in ICT:

1. Source Variety: ICT systems collect data from diverse sources, including online
platforms, user interactions, sensors, databases, and connected devices. This wide
array of sources contributes to a comprehensive understanding of the digital
landscape.
2. Automated Data Collection: Many ICT systems automate data collection processes,
using technologies like sensors, log files, and analytics tools to gather information
continuously. Automation ensures real-time data updates and reduces manual efforts.
3. User Interactions: Data is collected from user interactions with websites, applications,
and communication channels. This information is valuable for user experience
optimization, personalization, and understanding user behavior.
4. Big Data Processing: ICT deals with large volumes of data, often referred to as "big
data." Technologies such as Hadoop and Spark enable the processing and analysis of
massive datasets to extract meaningful insights.
5. Data Mining and Analytics: ICT employs data mining and analytics tools to extract
patterns, trends, and valuable information from large datasets. This helps in making
informed decisions and predictions.
6. Quality Assurance: Focuses on ensuring the accuracy, completeness, and reliability of
collected data. Quality assurance measures may involve validation checks, cross-
referencing, and verification processes.

Data Control in ICT:

1. Access Control: ICT systems implement robust access control mechanisms to manage
user permissions and restrict unauthorized access to sensitive data. This involves user
authentication, authorization, and encryption.
2. Cybersecurity Measures: In ICT, data control includes comprehensive cybersecurity
measures to protect against cyber threats, including firewalls, intrusion detection
systems, antivirus software, and regular security audits.
3. Data Encryption: Encrypting sensitive data ensures that even if unauthorized access
occurs, the information remains secure and unreadable without the proper decryption
keys.
4. Data Integrity Checks: ICT systems implement data integrity checks to ensure that
data remains accurate and unaltered. Hash functions and checksums are commonly
used for verifying data integrity.

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 5. Compliance with Regulations: ICT professionals ensure that data management
practices adhere to legal and regulatory requirements, such as data protection laws,
privacy regulations, and industry-specific standards.
6. Disaster Recovery Planning: In ICT, data control includes planning for disaster
recovery, including regular backups, redundant systems, and procedures to restore
data in case of system failures or unexpected events.
7. Version Control: Especially relevant in software development within ICT, version
control systems are used to manage different versions of software code, ensuring
collaboration and tracking changes over time.

Data collection and control in ICT are critical for harnessing the potential of information while
safeguarding its integrity, confidentiality, and availability. These processes contribute to
effective decision-making, system reliability, and the overall security of digital ecosystems.

What Is Data Collection And Control In Nursing And Health System

In nursing and health systems, data collection and control are critical components that
contribute to the delivery of effective and efficient healthcare services.

These processes involve systematically gathering, managing, and ensuring the quality of
health-related data to support decision-making, improve patient outcomes, and enhance
overall healthcare delivery.

Here's an overview of data collection and control in nursing and health systems:

Data Collection in Nursing and Health Systems:

1. Patient Information:
o Collecting and recording patient demographics, medical history, medications,
allergies, and other relevant information is essential for providing personalized
and safe healthcare.
2. Clinical Assessments:
o Nurses conduct various clinical assessments, such as vital sign measurements,
pain assessments, and nursing diagnoses, to monitor and evaluate patients'
health status.
3. Electronic Health Records (EHRs):
o Transitioning from paper records to electronic health records facilitates
efficient data collection, storage, and retrieval. EHRs integrate patient
information, support clinical decision-making, and improve communication
among healthcare providers.
4. Diagnostic Test Results:
o Gathering and documenting results from diagnostic tests, laboratory work, and
imaging studies contribute to comprehensive patient profiles and aid in
diagnosis and treatment planning.
5. Surveys and Patient Feedback:

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 o Collecting patient feedback through surveys helps assess patient satisfaction,
identify areas for improvement, and enhance the overall quality of healthcare
services.
6. Public Health Data:
o Collecting epidemiological data on disease prevalence, community health
indicators, and healthcare utilization supports public health planning and
intervention strategies.

Data Control in Nursing and Health Systems:

1. Quality Assurance:
o Implementing quality control measures ensures the accuracy, completeness,
and reliability of healthcare data. Regular audits and reviews help identify and
correct errors or discrepancies.
2. Compliance with Regulations:
o Health systems must adhere to regulatory standards and compliance
requirements, such as HIPAA (Health Insurance Portability and Accountability
Act) in the United States, to protect patient privacy and data security.
3. Data Security:
o Implementing robust data security measures safeguards patient information
against unauthorized access, ensuring confidentiality and integrity.
4. Standardization of Data:
o Standardizing data elements and coding systems enhances interoperability
and facilitates the exchange of information across different healthcare
settings, reducing errors and improving continuity of care.
5. Training and Education:
o Ensuring that healthcare professionals are adequately trained on data
collection protocols, privacy policies, and security measures promotes
consistent and accurate data management practices.
6. Data Governance:
o Establishing effective data governance frameworks helps define roles,
responsibilities, and processes related to data management. This includes
policies for data stewardship, data ownership, and data quality.
7. Continuous Improvement:
o Engaging in continuous quality improvement initiatives based on data analysis
helps identify opportunities for enhancing healthcare delivery, reducing
errors, and improving patient outcomes.

Data collection and control in nursing and health systems are integral for evidence-based
practice, promoting patient safety, and supporting healthcare providers in delivering high-
quality care. Effective management of health data contributes to better-informed decision-
making, improved patient outcomes, and the overall advancement of healthcare services.

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 STAGES OF DATA COLLECTION AND CONTROL

The stages of data collection and control involve data creation, transmission, and processing.
PowerPoint and Excel are versatile tools that can be utilized at different stages, especially in
data creation and presentation.

1. Data Creation:

• Definition: This stage involves generating and recording data based on the research
objectives. It includes designing instruments, such as surveys or questionnaires, and
collecting data through various methods.
• Tools: PowerPoint and Excel can be used for designing survey forms or questionnaires,
especially when the data collection involves visual elements or structured forms.

2. Data Transmission:

• Definition: After data creation, it may need to be transmitted from one location to
another, especially in cases where data is collected remotely or in the field.
• Tools: Data transmission can occur through various means, such as emails, cloud
storage, or specialized data transmission tools. PowerPoint and Excel files can be
attached to emails or shared through cloud platforms for collaborative work.

3. Data Processing:

• Definition: This stage involves transforming and analyzing the collected data to derive
meaningful insights. It includes cleaning, organizing, and manipulating data for
statistical or qualitative analysis.
• Tools: Excel is a powerful tool for data processing, offering features for sorting,
filtering, and performing various calculations. PowerPoint may be used to present
summarized or visualized data.

4. PowerPoint:

• Application: PowerPoint is a presentation software that can be used for creating

slideshows. While not a data processing tool, it is useful for presenting the results and
visualizations obtained during data analysis.
• Role: PowerPoint can be employed to communicate key findings, trends, or insights
to a non-technical audience in a visually engaging manner.

5. Excel:

• Application: Excel is a spreadsheet program that is widely used for data manipulation,
analysis, and visualization.
• Role: Excel plays a significant role in the data processing stage. It allows users to
perform calculations, create charts, and organize data in a tabular format, making it a
valuable tool for researchers and analysts.

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 DATA SECURITY

Data security refers to the protection of digital information, systems, and networks from
unauthorized access, disclosure, alteration, or destruction. It is a crucial aspect in maintaining
the confidentiality, integrity, and availability of sensitive data.

In the context of viruses and antivirus measures, data security is particularly vital to prevent
malicious attacks and unauthorized access to computer systems.

Viruses and Antivirus:

• Viruses:
o A computer virus is a type of malicious software designed to infect and spread
across computer systems. Viruses can damage data, disrupt system
functionality, and compromise the security of a computer or network.
• Antivirus:
o Antivirus software is a set of programs designed to detect, prevent, and
remove malicious software, including viruses, malware, spyware, and other
threats. Antivirus tools play a crucial role in safeguarding computers and
networks from cyber threats.

Prevention and Control of Viruses

Effective prevention and control of viruses involve a combination of proactive measures and
reactive responses. Here are key strategies:

1. Use Antivirus Software:

o Install reputable antivirus software on all computers and devices. Keep the
antivirus software up-to-date to ensure it can detect and mitigate the latest
threats.
2. Regular Updates and Patching:
o Keep operating systems, software applications, and antivirus programs
updated with the latest security patches. Regular updates address
vulnerabilities that could be exploited by viruses.
3. Firewalls:
o Enable and configure firewalls to monitor and control incoming and outgoing
network traffic. Firewalls act as a barrier between a trusted internal network
and untrusted external networks, helping to block malicious activities.
4. Email Security:
o Be cautious with email attachments and links. Avoid opening attachments or
clicking on links from unknown or suspicious sources, as they can be sources
of virus infections. Use email filtering systems to identify and block potential
threats.
5. Secure Web Browsing:
o Practice safe web browsing habits. Avoid visiting potentially harmful websites,
and be cautious when downloading files from the internet. Secure browsing
practices reduce the risk of encountering malicious content.

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 6. User Education and Training:
o Educate users about the risks associated with viruses and the importance of
safe computing practices. Training programs can empower users to recognize
potential threats and take appropriate precautions.
7. Regular Backups:
o Implement a regular data backup strategy to ensure that critical information is
not lost in the event of a virus attack. Store backups in a secure location and
test restoration procedures periodically.
8. Network Security:
o Secure network infrastructure with strong passwords, encryption, and access
controls. Monitor network traffic for unusual activities and implement
intrusion detection and prevention systems.
9. Incident Response Plan:
o Develop and implement an incident response plan to address virus outbreaks
promptly. This plan should outline steps to identify, contain, eradicate, and
recover from a virus incident.
o An Incident Response Plan (IRP) is a comprehensive strategy designed to guide
an organization's response to security incidents, including virus outbreaks and
other cybersecurity threats. It outlines the steps and procedures to be
followed when a security incident occurs, with the goal of minimizing damage,
reducing recovery time, and maintaining the integrity of systems and data.
10. Security Audits and Assessments:
o Conduct regular security audits and assessments to identify vulnerabilities and
weaknesses in the IT infrastructure. Address any findings to enhance overall
system security.

By adopting a comprehensive approach that combines preventive measures with proactive

monitoring and response strategies, organizations can strengthen their defenses against
viruses and enhance data security.

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 WHAT ARE THE ADVANTAGES OF ELECTRONIC DATA PROCESSING OVER MANUAL
PROCESSING?

Electronic Data Processing (EDP) offers several advantages over manual processing, making it
a preferred method for handling and managing data in various fields. Here are some key
advantages of electronic data processing compared to manual processing:

1. Speed and Efficiency:

o EDP: Electronic systems can process data at incredibly high speeds, performing
complex calculations and tasks in a fraction of the time it would take manually.
o Manual: Manual processing is inherently slower, as it relies on human effort
for tasks such as data entry, calculations, and information retrieval.
2. Accuracy:
o EDP: Electronic systems reduce the risk of human error. Automated processes
can perform calculations with precision and consistency, minimizing the
likelihood of mistakes.
o Manual: Manual processing is more prone to errors, as it relies on human input
and attention to detail, which can be affected by factors like fatigue and
distractions.
3. Volume Handling:
o EDP: Electronic systems can handle large volumes of data efficiently. They are
well-suited for processing and managing extensive databases, making them
ideal for businesses and organizations with substantial data requirements.
o Manual: Manual processing struggles to handle large volumes of data, leading
to inefficiencies, delays, and increased likelihood of errors.
4. Data Storage and Retrieval:
o EDP: Electronic systems facilitate efficient storage, retrieval, and organization
of data. Databases and file systems enable quick access to information,
supporting faster decision-making.
o Manual: Manual systems, such as paper-based records, can be cumbersome
and time-consuming when it comes to finding and retrieving specific pieces of
information.
5. Cost-Effectiveness:
o EDP: While the initial investment in electronic systems and infrastructure may
be significant, the long-term cost-effectiveness is notable due to increased
efficiency, reduced labor costs, and improved resource utilization.
o Manual: Manual processing often requires more personnel and time, leading
to higher operational costs and a greater likelihood of resource inefficiencies.
6. Data Security:
o EDP: Electronic systems offer better data security through encryption, access
controls, and backup mechanisms. Digital records can be protected against
unauthorized access and can be easily backed up for disaster recovery.
o Manual: Manual records may be more susceptible to physical damage, loss, or
unauthorized access. Ensuring the security of manual records is often more
challenging.

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 7. Automation and Integration:
o EDP: Electronic systems can automate repetitive tasks and integrate
seamlessly with other systems. This automation reduces the need for manual
intervention and promotes a more streamlined workflow.
o Manual: Manual processes often lack the ability to integrate with other
systems, leading to isolated data silos and inefficiencies in overall operations.
8. Real-Time Processing:
o EDP: Electronic systems can process and update data in real-time, providing
up-to-the-minute information. This real-time capability is crucial in dynamic
environments where timely decision-making is essential.
o Manual: Manual processing may involve delays in updating information,
leading to outdated or inaccurate data in certain situations.

Electronic data processing offers significant advantages in terms of speed, accuracy, volume
handling, cost-effectiveness, security, automation, and real-time processing when compared
to manual processing. These advantages contribute to the widespread adoption of electronic
systems in various industries and applications.

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 Unit 5
COMPUTER NETWORKING
Computer networking is the practice of connecting computers and other devices to share
resources and communicate with each other.

This can be anything from sharing files and printers to accessing the internet.

Here's a breakdown of some key aspects:

Here's a breakdown of what computer networking is all about:

1. Communication Protocols: These are the rules and conventions that govern how
devices communicate with each other over the network. Protocols define things like
how data is formatted, transmitted, received, and interpreted. Examples include
TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol), HTTP (Hypertext Transfer
Protocol), and FTP (File Transfer Protocol).
2. Networking Devices: Various hardware devices facilitate network communication.
These include routers, switches, hubs, modems, and access points. Each device serves
a specific purpose in managing, directing, or facilitating data transfer across the
network.
3. Networking Models: Networking models provide a conceptual framework for
understanding and standardizing network communication. The OSI (Open Systems
Interconnection) model and the TCP/IP model are two widely used models. They break
down network communication into layers, each handling specific functions like data
encapsulation, routing, and error detection.
4. IP Addressing: Every device connected to a network is identified by an IP (Internet
Protocol) address. IP addressing allows devices to locate and communicate with each
other across the network. IPv4 (Internet Protocol version 4) and IPv6 (Internet
Protocol version 6) are the two main versions of the IP protocol.
5. Network Security: Protecting data and ensuring the integrity of network
communication is crucial. Network security measures include encryption, firewalls,
intrusion detection systems (IDS), virtual private networks (VPNs), and access control
mechanisms.
6. Wireless Networking: Wireless networks enable devices to connect and communicate
without physical cables. Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, and cellular networks are examples of
wireless technologies. They provide flexibility and mobility but require additional
security measures to protect against unauthorized access.
7. Internet: The Internet is a global network of interconnected devices and networks. It
allows users to access a vast array of resources and services, including websites, email,
file sharing, and streaming media. The Internet operates based on standardized
protocols and relies on a decentralized architecture.
8. Network Types: Networks can be categorized in various ways based on their size,
reach, and purpose. Common network types include local area networks (LANs) that
connect devices in a small area like a home or office, and wide area networks (WANs)
that span larger geographical distances, like connecting offices across different cities.

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Overall, computer networking enables the exchange of data and resources between devices,
facilitating communication, collaboration, and the sharing of information across local and
global scales.

LOCAL ACCESS NETWORK (LAN)

A Local Access Network (LAN) is a type of computer network that connects devices within a
limited geographical area such as a home, office building, school, or campus. LANs are
designed to facilitate communication and resource sharing among devices that are in close
proximity to each other.

A LAN includes various network components, such as cables, switches, routers, firewalls, load
balancers and wireless access points (WAPs). It can be connected to a wide range of network
devices, such as game consoles, servers, desktop and laptop computers, printers and internet
of things (IoT) devices.

Differences between wired LAN and wireless LAN

A LAN can be configured as wired or wireless.

Wired LAN

A wired LAN uses switches and Ethernet cabling to connect endpoints, servers and IoT devices
to the corporate network. For small businesses with only a handful of devices, a wired LAN
can consist of a single unmanaged LAN switch with enough Ethernet ports to interconnect all
devices.

Wireless LAN

A wireless LAN (WLAN) enables devices to connect to the network without the need for
physical cables. Wireless LANs send data over radio waves using wireless network technology.
This type of LAN is frequently seen in homes, workplaces, shops and restaurants where
mobility is crucial. WLANs enable networked devices, such as computers, cellphones and
tablets, to connect to the internet or other shared resources.

In many situations, a WLAN is preferable to a wired LAN connection because of its flexibility
and cost savings, as it isn't necessary to run cabling throughout a building.

Key characteristics of LANs include:

1. Limited Geographic Area: LANs typically cover a small area, such as a single building
or a group of buildings. They are not intended to span large distances like wide area
networks (WANs).

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 2. High Data Transfer Rates: LANs often provide high-speed data transfer rates, allowing
devices to communicate with each other quickly and efficiently. This is important for
applications that require real-time communication or large file transfers.
3. Shared Resources: Devices connected to a LAN can share resources such as printers,
files, and internet connections. This sharing promotes collaboration and increases
efficiency within the local network environment.
4. Common Technologies: LANs can be implemented using various technologies,
including Ethernet, Wi-Fi (Wireless LAN), and Token Ring. Ethernet, with its wired
connections, is one of the most commonly used technologies for LANs, while Wi-Fi
enables wireless connectivity within the LAN.
5. Private Ownership and Control: LANs are typically owned, operated, and controlled
by a single organization or individual. This allows the network administrator to
implement security measures and configure the network according to the
organization's requirements.
6. Scalability: LANs can be easily expanded or modified to accommodate changes in the
network environment, such as adding new devices or upgrading existing
infrastructure. This scalability makes LANs suitable for both small and large
organizations.

Overall, LANs play a crucial role in facilitating local communication, resource sharing, and
collaboration among devices within a confined geographic area. They form the foundation of
many modern networked environments, enabling businesses, educational institutions, and
individuals to connect and interact effectively.

WHAT IS INTERNET

The Internet is a global network of interconnected computer networks that allows billions of
devices worldwide to communicate with each other. It's essentially a massive network of
networks, comprising millions of private, public, academic, business, and government
networks.

Some key aspects of the Internet:

1. Global Reach: The Internet spans the entire globe, connecting devices and networks
across countries, continents, and oceans. This global reach enables communication
and data exchange between users worldwide.
2. Decentralized Architecture: The Internet operates on a decentralized architecture,
meaning there is no central authority or single point of control. Instead, it relies on a
distributed system of interconnected routers, servers, and other devices to transmit
data between users.
3. Standardized Protocols: Internet communication is governed by a set of standardized
protocols, most notably the TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol)
suite. These protocols define rules and conventions for data transmission, addressing,
routing, and other aspects of network communication.
4. Services and Applications: The Internet provides a wide range of services and
applications, including email, web browsing, social media, online gaming, video

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 streaming, file sharing, and more. These services are accessible through various
devices such as computers, smartphones, tablets, and IoT (Internet of Things) devices.
5. World Wide Web (WWW): The World Wide Web is a system of interconnected
webpages and websites accessible via the Internet. It allows users to access and
navigate multimedia content, hyperlinked documents, and other resources using web
browsers such as Chrome, Firefox, Safari, and Edge.
6. Search Engines: Search engines like Google, Bing, and Yahoo enable users to find
information on the Internet by indexing and organizing web content. Users can enter
keywords or phrases to retrieve relevant web pages, documents, images, videos, and
other resources.
7. E-commerce and Online Transactions: The Internet facilitates e-commerce by
enabling businesses and consumers to buy and sell goods and services online.
Payment gateways, digital wallets, and secure protocols ensure the security and
integrity of online transactions.
8. Security and Privacy: Internet security is a major concern due to the potential risks of
cyber attacks, data breaches, malware, and other threats. Various security measures
such as encryption, firewalls, antivirus software, and secure authentication
mechanisms help protect users' data and privacy online.

Overall, the Internet has revolutionized communication, commerce, education,

entertainment, and virtually every aspect of modern life. It serves as a vast and dynamic
platform for information exchange, collaboration, innovation, and connectivity on a global
scale.

Importance And Benefits Of Internet?

The Internet plays a pivotal role in modern society, offering numerous benefits and
contributing to various aspects of daily life.

Some of the key importance and benefits of the Internet:

1. Access to Information: The Internet provides instant access to a vast amount of

information on virtually any topic imaginable. Users can find educational resources,
news articles, research papers, tutorials, and more with just a few clicks.
2. Communication: The Internet enables fast and convenient communication through
email, instant messaging, social media platforms, video conferencing, and Voice over
Internet Protocol (VoIP) services. It connects people across the globe, facilitating
collaboration, networking, and social interactions.
3. E-commerce and Online Shopping: The Internet has revolutionized commerce by
making it possible to buy and sell goods and services online. E-commerce platforms
allow businesses to reach a global audience, while consumers enjoy the convenience
of shopping from the comfort of their homes.
4. Education and Learning: The Internet has transformed education by providing access
to online courses, tutorials, educational videos, interactive learning platforms, and
digital libraries. Students and lifelong learners can acquire new skills, pursue degrees,
and expand their knowledge without geographical limitations.

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 5. Entertainment and Media: The Internet offers a wealth of entertainment options,
including streaming services for movies, TV shows, music, podcasts, and online
gaming. Users can access a diverse range of content on-demand, tailored to their
preferences and interests.
6. Remote Work and Telecommuting: The Internet facilitates remote work
arrangements by enabling employees to collaborate and communicate with
colleagues from anywhere in the world. Video conferencing, cloud-based productivity
tools, and virtual office platforms support seamless remote collaboration.
7. Social Connection: Social media platforms like Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, and
LinkedIn allow users to connect, share, and interact with friends, family, colleagues,
and communities. These platforms foster social connections, facilitate information
sharing, and provide a platform for self-expression.
8. Research and Innovation: The Internet serves as a hub for research and innovation,
enabling collaboration among scientists, researchers, engineers, and innovators
worldwide. Online repositories, forums, and collaborative platforms support
knowledge exchange and interdisciplinary collaboration.
9. Global Connectivity: The Internet breaks down geographical barriers, connecting
people from diverse cultures, backgrounds, and locations. It promotes cultural
exchange, global awareness, and cross-cultural understanding by facilitating
communication and interaction across borders.
10. Empowerment and Empowerment: The Internet empowers individuals and
communities by providing access to information, resources, opportunities, and
platforms for expression. It democratizes access to knowledge, amplifies voices, and
enables grassroots activism and social change.

E-MAIL

Email, short for electronic mail, is a digital communication method that allows individuals and
organizations to exchange messages over the Internet. It has become one of the most widely
used forms of communication, offering several benefits including:

1. Speed: Emails are delivered almost instantly, allowing for quick communication
between parties regardless of their location.
2. Convenience: Email can be accessed from various devices, including computers,
smartphones, and tablets, making it convenient for users to stay connected wherever
they are.
3. Cost-effectiveness: Sending emails is typically much cheaper than traditional mail, as
it doesn't require paper, envelopes, or postage fees.
4. Global Reach: Email enables communication with people around the world, breaking
down geographical barriers and facilitating international collaboration.
5. Documentation: Emails provide a record of communication, making it easy to track
conversations, reference previous messages, and maintain a history of interactions.
6. Attachments: Emails allow users to attach files such as documents, images, videos,
and presentations, making it easy to share information and collaborate on projects.

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 7. Personalization: Users can customize their email messages with formatting options,
signatures, and personalized greetings, adding a personal touch to their
communication.
8. Automation: Email software often includes features for automating tasks such as
sending automated replies, scheduling emails to be sent at a later time, and organizing
incoming messages into folders.
9. Security: While email security is a concern, especially with the risk of phishing attacks
and spam, encryption technologies and authentication mechanisms help protect
sensitive information transmitted via email.

Email remains a fundamental tool for communication in both personal and professional
settings, offering speed, convenience, and versatility for exchanging messages and
collaborating with others.

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 Unit 6
ICT IN HEALTH CARE
Information and Communication Technology (ICT) plays a crucial role in transforming
healthcare delivery, improving patient outcomes, and enhancing efficiency in the healthcare
industry. Here are some key ways ICT is utilized in healthcare:

1. Electronic Health Records (EHR): EHR systems digitize patient health records,
including medical history, test results, medications, and treatment plans. EHRs
improve access to patient information, enable better coordination of care among
healthcare providers, and reduce the risk of medical errors.
2. Telemedicine and Telehealth: Telemedicine utilizes ICT to deliver healthcare services
remotely, allowing patients to consult with healthcare providers via video
conferencing, phone calls, or secure messaging platforms. Telehealth encompasses a
broader range of remote healthcare services, including remote monitoring,
teleconsultation, and telepsychiatry.
3. Mobile Health (mHealth): Mobile health applications and devices leverage
smartphones, tablets, and wearable technology to empower patients to monitor their
health, track medical data, and manage chronic conditions. mHealth solutions support
remote patient monitoring, medication adherence, and lifestyle management.
4. Health Information Exchange (HIE): HIE systems facilitate the secure exchange of
patient health information between different healthcare organizations, such as
hospitals, clinics, laboratories, and pharmacies. HIE promotes interoperability,
continuity of care, and collaboration among healthcare providers.
5. Clinical Decision Support Systems (CDSS): CDSS utilize ICT to provide clinicians with
evidence-based guidelines, alerts, and recommendations at the point of care. CDSS
help healthcare providers make informed decisions, improve diagnostic accuracy, and
enhance patient safety.
6. Healthcare Analytics: Healthcare analytics platforms analyze large volumes of
healthcare data to extract actionable insights, identify trends, and support evidence-
based decision-making. Analytics tools enable healthcare organizations to improve
operational efficiency, optimize resource allocation, and enhance quality of care.
7. Remote Monitoring and Wearable Devices: Remote monitoring technologies and
wearable devices allow healthcare providers to monitor patients' vital signs, activity
levels, and other health metrics remotely. These devices enable early detection of
health issues, proactive intervention, and personalized care management.
8. Health Information Systems: Comprehensive health information systems integrate
various ICT components to manage clinical, administrative, and financial aspects of
healthcare delivery. These systems support functions such as scheduling, billing,
inventory management, and reporting.
9. Health Education and Patient Engagement: ICT tools facilitate health education and
patient engagement by providing access to online resources, interactive educational
materials, and virtual support communities. Patient engagement platforms empower
individuals to take an active role in managing their health and making informed
healthcare decisions.

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ICT plays a transformative role in modern healthcare delivery, enabling greater accessibility,
efficiency, and quality of care while promoting patient-centered approaches and empowering
individuals to participate in their own health management.

How ICT is utilized in various aspects of healthcare, specifically focusing on electronic/digital

devices, telemedicine, information search, and its impact on nursing care quality:

1. Electronic/Digital Devices:
o Diagnostic Devices: ICT has facilitated the development of advanced
diagnostic imaging technologies such as ultrasound, CT scan, MRI, fluoroscopy,
and mammography. These devices enable healthcare professionals to visualize
internal structures, detect abnormalities, and diagnose medical conditions
accurately.
o Monitoring Devices: ICT-based monitoring devices such as oximeters, cardiac
monitors, glucose monitors, and wearable sensors allow continuous
monitoring of patients' vital signs, physiological parameters, and health
metrics. These devices support remote patient monitoring, early detection of
health issues, and timely intervention.
o Treatment Devices: ICT plays a crucial role in treatment modalities across
various medical disciplines. For example, in radiotherapy, ICT is used to plan
and deliver precise radiation doses to target cancer cells while minimizing
damage to surrounding tissues. Similarly, in physiotherapy, surgery,
chemotherapy, and other treatment modalities, ICT-based devices enhance
precision, efficiency, and patient safety.
2. Telemedicine:
o Telemedicine leverages ICT to provide remote healthcare services, enabling
patients to consult with healthcare providers, receive medical advice, and
access healthcare resources without the need for in-person visits.
Telemedicine encompasses teleconsultation, telemonitoring, telepsychiatry,
and other remote healthcare modalities, improving access to care, especially
in underserved or remote areas.
3. Information Search:
o ICT facilitates information search and retrieval, empowering healthcare
professionals to access a wealth of medical literature, research studies,
evidence-based guidelines, and clinical decision support tools. Online
databases, medical journals, electronic textbooks, and healthcare information
systems enable healthcare providers to stay updated on the latest medical
advancements, best practices, and treatment guidelines.
4. Effect of ICT on Quality Nursing Care:
The integration of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) has had
a profound impact on nursing care quality, revolutionizing how nurses deliver
care, communicate with patients and colleagues, manage information, and
make clinical decisions.

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Ways In Which ICT Influences The Quality Of Nursing Care:

1. Enhanced Communication: ICT tools such as email, messaging platforms, and

teleconferencing enable nurses to communicate effectively with patients, families,
and other members of the healthcare team. Improved communication facilitates
timely information exchange, collaboration, and coordination of care, leading to
better patient outcomes.
2. Access to Information: Electronic health records (EHRs) and clinical decision support
systems (CDSS) provide nurses with instant access to comprehensive patient
information, including medical history, medications, test results, and care plans.
Having access to timely and accurate information enables nurses to make informed
clinical decisions, monitor patient progress, and ensure continuity of care.
3. Clinical Decision Support: CDSS utilize ICT to provide nurses with evidence-based
guidelines, alerts, and recommendations at the point of care. These systems assist
nurses in identifying potential risks, preventing errors, and adhering to best practices,
ultimately improving patient safety and quality of care.
4. Remote Monitoring and Telehealth: ICT-based remote monitoring devices and
telehealth platforms enable nurses to monitor patients' vital signs, symptoms, and
adherence to treatment plans remotely. Telehealth consultations allow nurses to
provide timely interventions, assess patient conditions, and offer education and
support, particularly for patients in remote or underserved areas.
5. Patient Education and Engagement: ICT tools facilitate patient education and
engagement by providing access to educational resources, multimedia materials, and
interactive platforms. Nurses can use technology to educate patients about their
health conditions, medications, self-care practices, and lifestyle modifications,
empowering them to actively participate in their care and make informed decisions.
6. Workflow Efficiency: ICT streamlines nursing workflows by automating routine tasks,
reducing paperwork, and eliminating redundant processes. Electronic documentation,
barcode scanning, and medication administration systems improve efficiency,
accuracy, and documentation completeness, freeing up time for nurses to focus on
direct patient care activities.
7. Data Analysis and Quality Improvement: Nursing informatics tools enable nurses to
analyze healthcare data, identify trends, and evaluate outcomes to drive quality
improvement initiatives. By leveraging ICT, nurses can monitor key performance
indicators, benchmark performance against standards, and implement evidence-
based practices to enhance care delivery processes and patient outcomes.

ICT plays a critical role in modern healthcare, enhancing diagnosis, treatment, monitoring,
research, and nursing care quality. By leveraging electronic/digital devices, telemedicine,
information search tools, and nursing informatics, healthcare providers can deliver high-
quality, accessible, and patient-centered care, ultimately improving patient outcomes and
healthcare delivery efficiency.

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