Introduction to Mobile

Computing

1.1 Introduction to Mobile Computing , Te1ecommun1cat1on

• •
Generations, Cellular systems,
1.2 Electromagnetic Spectrum, Antenna, Signal Propagation, Signal Characteristics, Multiplexing, Spread Spectrum :
DSSS & FHSS

Introduction to mobile computing

Mobile Computing is a technology that allows transmission of data, voice and multimedia via any wireless enabled
device without having to be connected to a fixed physical link. This chapter basically introduces the reader with the basics
of mobile computing and communication. It also covers the journey of wireliss communication from 1G to SG and focuses
on fundamental aspects of wireless transmission at physical layer such as signals, antenna, modulation, multiplexing. Most
of today's wireless telecommunica tion systems are based on the concept of cellular systems. With billions of mobile
phones in use around the globe today, it is necessary to re-use the available frequencies many times over without mutual
interference of one cell phone to another.

1.1 Telecomm unication Generations

The following section discusses different mobile generations (1G, 2G, 3G,4G and SG).

First Generation (1 G) : 1980s

- Analog cellular systems were the first generation of mobile telephone communication systems.
- Th ey use ana I og f requency modulation and circuit switched techniques for voice transmission.
- The individual calls used different frequencies and shared the available spectrum through Frequency Division Multiple
Access (FDMA).
- 1G system provided only voice communication.
ween different network operators and countries.
1G was not supporting roam Ing b et
Examples of lG networks are :
o AMPS (Advanced Mobile Phone System) USA
0 NMT (Nordic Mobile Telephone) Sweden
19908
Second Generation (2G) - 2.5 Generation (2.SG) :
- The second generation (2G) of mobile cellular started In the early 1990s.
- It d Ill Time Division Multiple Access (TOMA) or Code Division Multlple Access
was completely digital and U!il! c 10r
(CDMA).

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 • Introducti on to Mobile ComptJti
• Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 1•2
. di It I cellular technolog y.
It provides Increased capacity and security due to the uses of g a

2G systems support Internatio nal roaming.

. , . hony but also a new range of low data rate
2G systems not only provide better voice quality using d1g1tal voice te 1ep
·
services such as mobile Fax, voice mail, short message service (SMS).
·· . . . . t lllt and wireless-l ocal area network (WI.AN)
In addition to d1g1tal voice telephony , Cordless, public mobile radio, sa e e
solutions began to emerge.

2.5G
Between 2G and 3G there was not much change in the technolog y hence an intermedi ary phase,
i.SG was intr(?duced
in the late 1990s.
2.SG is used to describe 2G-systems that have implemen ted a packet-sw itched domain in
addition to the circuit-
switched domain.
GPRS (General Packet Radio Service) is a 2G service, which delivers packet-sw itched data capabilitie
s to existing GSM
· networks . It allows users to send graphics-rich data as packets.
The importanc e of packet-switching increased with the rise of the Internet and the Internet
Protocol (IP).
Another example of 2.SG mobile technology is EDGE (Enhanced Data rates for GSM Evolution
). EDGE prov!des data
rate up to 384 kbps which is higher than GSM.

Advanta ges of 2G over 1 G

2G standards support roaming between different operators and countries.
In addition to circuit-sw itched voice services, 2G enabled the first wave of mobile data and
Internet services, now
widely adopted by users.
2.SG services enable high speed data transfer over upgraded existing 2G networks.
Some 2G standards are :
o GSM(TDMA-based)
o O-AMPS
o IS-95/CDMAone
o PDC(Personal Digital Cellular)
o PHS (Personal Handy Phone System)

0 HSCSD (High Speed Circuits Switched Data) (2.5)

0 GPRS (General Packet Radio Service) (2.5)

0 EDGE (Enhanced Data rates for Global Evolution)(2.S)

Third Generati on (3G) - 2000

The third generatio n (3G) systems started In 2000,
The 3G revolution allowed mobile telephone customers to use audl
0 , graphics
and vld
Over 3G It Is po~~ible to watch ~treamlng video and engage In vld eo applicatio ns.
eo telephony ,
They provide the ability to tramfcr :;lmultaneously both vol .1
ce uata (a teleph
download ing Informatio n, exchanging email and Instance messaglns). one call) and non-voice data (such as
3 G mobile technolog les ~upport greater nurnbllr or volco and .1 .
Incremen tal co5t t h an
2G
· uata custom' r
·

ors as Well as higher data rates at (owe . ·

j
... : ·, I

- - - - - - -- - - - -- - - - - ~ .l

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 . Mobile Communication & Co MU-Sem. 7-Com ) 1-3 ·
3G standards are :

o W-CDMA

o CDMA2000

o UWC-136

o TD- CDM A/ TD-SCOMA

o DECT

Fourth Generation (4G) - 2004

IP-b d. • _
The four th gen erat ion will be. fully ase integrated systems.
.
t . .
It will allo w accessing the Inte r ne anytime from anywh ere, gIobaI roammg,
. and wide r support for multimedia
applications .

r,
It will_ be netw ork of netw orks achi
eved th wireless networks as well as compute
. afte r e convergence of wired and
con sum er elec tron ic ral othe r convergences.
s, com mun icati on technology, and seve
.
'd' . lGbp s in indo or with end-to-end
These netw orks will. be capable of prov, mg 100 Mbps m outd oor environment and
. h
QoS an d h rg security.
4G stan dard s are :

o LTE (Long Term Evolution)

for Microwave Access)
o WiM AX (Wo rldw ide Inte rope rabi lity

Fifth Generation - SG (2018)

The system, however, will be
tech nolo gy, it is actu ally a com bination of several technologies in one.
SG is not just one
iency.
of which technology for maximum effic
a sma rt and kno w whe n to make use . That is
ps. It will provide 100% coverage area
will be muc h mor e fast er than 4G. It will provide data rate up t~ lOGb
SG
daries.
bett er coverage .even at the cell boun
the critical applications. like industry,
prov ide low netw ork laten cy (up to 1 msec) which will be helpful for
SG will also retail to education,
SG tech nolo gy aims to prov ide. wide range of futu re industries from
hea lthca re and medical.
smart homes to healthcare.
tran spo rtati on to ente rtain men t and
ile networks to industries-
ide ubiq uito us conn ectiv ity mea ns everything from vehicles to mob
SG tech nolo gy will prov
together.
to sma rt hom es will be connected re waves.
z to 30 GHz. These are called milli met
uency spectrum band between 3GH
SG will utiliz e Extr eme ly High freq
they cannot penetrate obstacles.
speed but covers short distance since
These wave can trav el at very high
l over long distance, SG will use a large
cellular base stations to transmit signa
Unlike 4G that requ ires high pow ered
ing roofs.
may be located on small towers or build
num ber of small cell stat ions that as
dards to make is 100 times faster
es the use of Mas sive MIM O (Mu ltiple Input MulUple Output) stan
SG mak for
100 antennas. Mult iple antennas allow
to stan dard MIM O. Mas sive MIM O makes the use of as much as
opposed
times more deyices In mar ket:
er and fast er data tran smis sion . The SG netw ork will come with 100
bett

5G standards this time; the market Is still

dard are still und er deve lopm ent. So, no firm standards is In place at
SG tech nolo gy stan
and functionalities.
figuring out the essentlal SG features (3GPP), the
3rd Generation Partnership Project
prim ary SG stan dard s bodi es Involved In these processes are the
- The ;
on Union (ITU). _
Eng inee ring Task Force (IETF ), and the International Telecommunlcatf
Inte rnet

.&.TtcHH.... . .
• PulllC ltlOn S

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 Introduction to Mobile .' . ·.

• .
1-4
Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7.comP G nd 5G
G 3G, 4 8
2
a,etween 1G, ,
Table 1.1.1 : com_parlson

cted to roll out

dvanced , OMA
NOMA,WWWW
Technology w-coMA
AMPS D-AMPS,
coMA2000
15-95, GSM
uwc-136
ro-coMA oECT

Multiplexing FDMA TOMA/ coMA

CDMA All packet switching

Switching Packet switching

Circuit Circuit
type switching switching for
voice , packet
switching for
data >10 Gbps
100 mbps
Speed 2.4 kbps to 14.4 kbps 3.1 mbps
14.4 kbps
super fast internet access: Low
High speed
•Services Voice only Voice+ data Voice + data + latency network for mission
High quality
Multimedia, video critical applications, loT a~d .
calling and video voice over IP,
3D gamming, surveillance, autonomous
streaming driving and many more.
HD video
conferencing,
HD
multimedia
streaming

Bandwidth · Analog 25MHz 25 MHz 100 MHz 60GHz

Operating GSM: 2100 MHz 2600 MHz 3 To 90 GHz

800 MGHz
Features 900MHZ,
1800MHz
· CDMA:
800MHz
Band Narrow band Narrow Band Wide band Ultra Wide Extremely high frequency
(Frequency) band
Type

Hand over NA Horizontal Horizontal Horizontal/ Horizontal/ Vertical

Vertical
Advantages Simpler Multimedia High security, ,· : :. .
Speed, High Super fast internet, Low
features international speed network latency, Ubiquitous .,
(SMS, MMS), roaming handoffs, connectivity, Global cover~~e.
Internet
MIMO
access and
technology,
SIM
Global
introduced
mobility

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 Hard to Hard to Implement, Many of
capacity, not range, slow consumption, implement, · the old devices would not be
secure, poor data rates Low network complicated competent to SG, Developing
battery life,
co_verage, High . hardware infras~ructure needs high cost.
large ph.one
cost of spectrum required .
size, license
background
interference
Applications Voice Calls Voice calls, Video High speed Super High speed mobile
Short conferencing, applications, networks, Sm.art Vehicles, loT,
messages, mobile TV, GPS mobile TV, Virtual and Augme~ted Reality,
browsing Wearable Low latency mission critical
(partial) devices applications etc.

1.2 Cellular Systems

ss communication between the fixed part of the ·system
Cellular syS t ems are mobile systems for two-way wirele ed by
the system (mobile stations) which move in the ~rea cover
(transmitters or base stations) and the mobile part of
each base station. ·
Division
divided into 'cells' i.e. they implement SOM (Space
In a cellular system, the entire coverage area is More
n. Each cell has a size depending on the number of users.
Multiplexing). Each cell is served by a single base statio ·
the users, smaller the cell size.
in the
hundreds of meters in cities, up to tens of kilometers
Cell radii ranges from tens of meters in buildings, and
country side.
tions
ons actually, it depends on environment, on whether condi
- The shapes of cells are never perfect circles or hexag
..
etc. Hexagon shape cellularsystem is shown in Fig. 1.2.1

Flg. 1_2_1 : Diagrammatic cell Fig. 1.2.2 : Cellular System with seven cell cluster
vs. actual cell coverage

1.2.1 Frequency Re~se in Cellular Systems

transmitter sites within a geogr aphic

. f · the same radio frequencies on radio . .
Frequency reuse is the technique o using other. ·
. .1ent d'1stance t O cause minimal interference with each
area that are separated by suff1c

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 Introduction to Mobile Computi
• (MU-Sem . 7-C omp ) 1-6
Mobile Communication & Computing
pared to Its Immediate·,;
cell ular syst em, eac h cell use s a different set of frequencies as com
~o avoid Interference In interference.
ds, no two neig hbo rs use the sam e set of frequencies as there will be
neighbors. In other wor same frequency '
groupe d Into clus ters. Cell s within the same cluster do not use the '
A set of several cells are further ·
sets. ther cell uses
7 cell clus ter. In Fig 1.2. 3 (a) one cell in a cluster uses frequency fl , ano
Fig. 1.2. 3 shows 3 cell cluster and for another cluster. Fig. 1.2.3 (b) shows
a 7 cell cluster.
The sam e pat tern is rep eate d
f2 and the third cell uses f3.

t
1.2 .1( a) Fre qu en cy Reuse Concep

use.
S full duplex channels available for
Consider a cellular system which has ls (K<S).
ded into N num ber of cells and each cell is allocated a group of K channe
Assume that the S channels are divi
cell ls K = S/N.
Thus, total number of channels per
as S = KN
Therefore, the total number of
available channels can be expressed
complete set of available frequen
cies is called cluster.
The N cells which collectively use the
and is typically 4, 7 or 12.
The factor N is called the cluster size
cluster size i.e. 1/N.
system is given by reciprocal of the
Frequency reuse factor of a cellular

(b) 7 cel l cluster

(c) 3 cell clu ste r with 3 sec tor
(a) 3 cell clu ste r
pe r cell 3 sec tor antennas

Cluster and 3 cell cluster with sectorized ant enn as

Fig. 1;2.3 ; 3 cell cluster, 7 Cell
cover tha t particular
d whi le the cell size remains con stant, more clusters are required to
If the cluster size N is reduce
ieved.
area and hence more capacity is ach channel cells is small.
cates tha t tne ratio bet wee n eel/ radius and the distance between co
A large cluster size indi
a cellular System
Locating Co-channel cells in uency. This ·
sible to cluster cells so tha t no two adjacent cells use the same freq
it is pos
For a hexagonal cell structure, d from the relationsh!P
able for a certain cell -cluster sizes, which can be determine
is only achiev

N = i 2 + ij +j2 Where ij =0, 1,2,

3 etc.
ors of a particular cell
To find nearest co-channel neighb
ter of successive cells.
o Move i cells through the cen
se direction.
o Turn 60° in the counter clockwi
the center of successive cells.
o · Move j cells forward through
w
Y
Tec u... i-,i
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 . . . , . ·. .'. / -:·
, -Mobile Communication· & Co mputrng (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) -1-7 Com puting ·
. . . · Introduction to Mobrle
f •
- Frg. 1.2.4 shows the process 1ocatrng the nearest c · . : ·· : . · · . ,.
. o
. o-chan nel neighbors of cell f4 in cluster 1.
cell
We first move i=2 successive . And
. s rn downward direct·ron. From there we turn 60° in counterclock wise directio. n.
h thro ugh th
t en move J=l cell forward e centre of th_e ceII thus locating cell f4 in cluster 3. Similarl.y we can locate cell
f4 . . hb . g clusters - cluster a d • . - -
'" nerg orrn 2 n c1uster 4.

r system (h~re 1=2, J=1)

124 g co-channel cells In ·a cellula
Fig. · · : Method of locatln
to Cells
1.2.1{b) Assignment of Frequencies
e ways.
cells can be done in following thre
Assignment of frequencies to
A)
1. Fixed Channel Allocation (FC y
is easy to implem.ent but not ver
fixed set of frequencies to each cell or cluster. The scheme
- This scheme assigns
efficient if traffic load varies.
GSM system uses this scheme.
(BCA)
2. Borrowing Channel Allocation is
uencies from another neighboring cell which
heavy load then it can borrow freq
In this scheme, if a one cell has
having light load.
cies.
dynamically allotted more frequen
Here cells with more traffic are
(DCA)
3. Dynamic Channel Allocation borrowed from a ·neighboring
cell. In
sim ilar to BCA . As in BCA here also frequencies can be
- This scheme is cies can be assigned freely to cell
s.
that, the ass ignm ent of freq uencies is dynamic, that is frequen
addition to e with cells using the same
igne d dyn am ically to a cell, there is a chance of interferenc
Since frequencies are ass
frequencies. in the neighboring cells.
ed' frequencies can be blocked
To avoid interference the 'borrow

- This scheme is used in DECT.

Systems with Small Cells
1.2.2 Advantages of Cellular

1. Higher capacity the

y from another transmitter then
If one transmitter is far awa
uency reuse. number of users.
Implementing SOM allows freq w·ithout any interference. Thus smaller cells allow more
h f que ncy ·
• re
t ransmrtters can use t e same
WTICllMW !dli
1cat l11s
-,, ,ua1

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2. Less transmission power . . :-,11·1..i
,,,

If the transmitter Is far away from the receiver then It requires high power to transmit the signal. For mobile d~vices . ;f
power is the main constraint, so reduced cell size requires less transmission power.

3. Local Interference only

With larger cells, the distance between the mobile station and the base station is more and hence there are chances
of more interference problems. With small cells, mobile stations and base stations only have to deal with 'local' ,
interference.

4. Robustness
Cellular systems are decentralized and so more robust against the failure of single components. If one antenna fails, it
only affects communication within a small area.

1.2;3 Disadvantages of Cellular System with Small Cells

1. ture
CC:)mplex infrastruc_
Cellular systems require a complex infrastructure to connect to all base stations .. If the cell size is small, then it
requires many antennas, switches, for call forwarding, location r~gisters to find a mobile station etc. This will make
the whole system expensive.

~ Hando~erneeded
When mobile station moves from one cell to another cell, the process called handover is carried .out. Dep~nding on
the cell size and the speed of movement, this can happen quite often.

3. Frequency Planning
Cellular system needs proper planning of frequency distribution to avoid interference between transmitters.

1.2.4 Why Hexagonal Pattern is Preferred for Cellular System ?

When considering geometric shapes, which cover an entire region without overlapping or leaving gaps and wlth equal
areas, there are three sensible choices.
1. Equilateral triangle
2. Square
3. Hexagon
The Table 1.2.1 describes the unit coverage area for each of the above mentioned shapes.

Table 1.2.1 : Unit coverage area for Triangle, square and Hexagon shapes

i~~~J;l~~!Kt!~!~l~i!~~~l
Triangle R 1.3 R2
Square Rv2

Hexagon Rv3 2.6 R2

A study of above table reveals the following points.
Area coverage of hexagon is twice that of triangular area.
2
To cover an area of three hexagonal cells I.e. 7.8 R , 6 triangular cells or 4 square cells are required.
2
In other words, if hexagonal area of 7.8 R requires three frequencies, the triangular cells require 6 frequencies and
square cells require 4 frequencies.

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•• . ~·
I • ••

uti
Co mputing (MU-Se C Introduction to Mobile Com
Mobile Communication & .
7
m. • omp) 1-9
. . ..
on pattern : . · ·
In general with the Hexag
·: . . •
The few est nu mber of cells can cover · ·. en geographlcal region .. .
1. a giv
. . ' ional base ~ation
2. We can clos~ly_approxim ate a clrcula
iation pattern which would occur for an omnic;1irect
· r rad
antenna.
sing Cell Capacity
1.2.~ Methods of Increa ·.
ways of increa . . . ar sys tem.
There are basically three sing capacity of cellul

1. Cell Splitting
2. Cell Sectorization
3. Microcell Zones

1. Cell Splitting more new c~II sites.

io cov era ge of a cel l in a cellular system into two or
s of dividing the rad
Cell splitting is the proces wit hin the region of the origin
al cell.
increa se the cap acity
ways to ies. However,
Cell splitting is one of the ed be tw een cells using the same frequenc
st be ma int ain
a certain distance mu
To minimize interference, cell reuse pattern.
ed without disturbing the n means more
this distance can be reduc be utilized in more cells, which in tur
qu enc ies can
reduced, the same fre
As the size of the cells are
modated on the system.
subscribers can be accom o or more smaller cells. ·
cellular op erator oft en splits an existing cell into tw
areas, the the signals to the
Particularly in congested itters are red uced in order to confine
of the tra nsm
ced and the ppwer
New transceivers are pla
newly created cells. cell having a 2 m
6 m cou ld be spl it int o three cells with each new
ginally had a radius of
For example, a cell that ori
radius.

Fig. 1.2.5 : Cell splitting

Cell Sectorization

60 °sectors/cells
120°sectors/cells
! 360°cells • Ttcl ... ... ..
atlon . .
i.
I
Fig. 1.2.6 : Cell Sectorlz • ,,11 11c at10 1 s
I
I
i
I

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 Introduction to Mobile Co
m
Another way to Increas
e cellular system 's capa h
three or more sector an city Is to replace t e omnldtrectlonal antenna at each ba
ten _. se station ..,;_
· na s. . .,.,
Use of directional secto
r antennas substantially rf am on . II
reduces the lnte erenc g co-channel ce s.
This allows denser frequ e_
ency reuse.
The base station can eit
her be located at the ce
nter of the original (large . .
Sectorization Is less expe ) cell, or th e corners of th
nsive than cell-splitting, · e original (large) cet r.
as It does not requ 1re th acquisition of new base sta
Using M ic ro cell zo e . tion sites.
ne
The disadvantage ~f cel
l sectoring concept is the
need for an Increased nu
The technique known as mber of ha nd offs.
microcell that uses zone· . f
As shown in Fig. 1.2 s instead o sectors to re d e the number of ha
.7 this technique em uc ndoffs.
ploys three antennas th
antennas are connected at provide coverag~ int th
to the same base station. o e micro cell. .All thr
ee
Microwave or ""\
fiber optic link ~

Fig. 1.2.7: Micr

o Cell Zone
The antenna with the be
st reception of the mobil
within a same micro cel e is used for both the up
l it uses the same channe link and the downlink.
l and there is no need for As the mobile travels
As the mobile moves
into another zone the ba hand off.
se station simply switche
s the channel to a diffe
1.2.6 C ellular System Usin rent zone.
g COM
In cellular systems using
COM users are separated
don't need complex fre through codes. One of
quency planning and co the advantages of thes
mplex channel allocation e systems is that they
But cell planning with schemes.
COM faces another prob
current load. lem . In CDM cell size
is not fixed. Rather siz
e of cell depends on the
Under a light load a cell
becomes larger while it
shrinks if the load increa
Mobile station further aw ses.
ay from the base statio
n may drop out of the
Fig. 1.2.8 shows a user cell.
transmitting a high bit
rate stream within CDM
Because of this addition cell.
al user, the cell shrinks
said to breathe. . As a result the two us
ers drop out of the cell.
COM cells are commonl_y

• Tt clb l...tlti
• Pub J lc1 tlO Rl

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 Moblle_Communicati~n & Computing (MU-Sem. ?-Comp) _
1 11 Introduction to Mobile Computing

.·' ,.

' . '.

Fig. 1.2.8 : Cell breathing depending on the current load

1.3 Electromagnetic Spectrum

MU- Ma 15, Dec. 15

For radio transmission, there are many frequency bands. Each frequency band has -some advantages and
disadvantages and can be used as per the application .

.:.. Fig. 1.3.1 illustrates the frequency spectrum for radio transmission. Fre~uencies start at 300Hz and go up to ·o ver ·
· 300THz.

Optical
Twisted
Coax cable : - transmission
pair

1 mm 10km 100 m 1m 10mm 100 ~•m 1 ~•m

30 Hz 300 kHz 3 MHz 300 MHz 30 GHz 3 THz 300 THz

VLF LF MF HF VHF UHF SHF EHF Infrared Visible UV

light

Fig. 1.3.1 : Frequency spectrum

The relation between frequency f and wavelength Ais given by the equation

A = cI f where, c ·= 3x I 08 mis (the speed of light in vacuum)

Frequency ranges for wired networks
Table 1.3.1 : Frequency ranges for wired networks

Twisted Pair 0-3.5 KHz

Co-axial cable 0- 500 MHz

Fiber Optics 186 • 370THz

Frequency ranges for radio transmission

Table 1.3.2 : Frequency ranges for radio transmission

VF(Voice 300 Hz-3KHz GW Used by telephone system for analog subscriber lines
Frequency)

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 ••: I :;_r:
, .:

-.·
. . . . ~

· Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp)

. Long-range navr·gat·,on·, submarine communication

LF (Low 30 KHZ - 300KHz GW Long-range nav ·,gation·, marine communication radt_o-'

Frequency) beacon
.. ,
I
MF(medium 300 KHz - 3 MHz GW and night Maritime radio; dire~ion fading; AM broadcasting
frequency) SW
HF(High 3 MHz-30MHz SW Amateur radio; international broadcasting; military
Frequency) communication;
Long distance aircraft and ship communication.

VHF (Very High 30 MHz - 300 MHz LOS VHF television; FM broadcast and two~way radio, AM
F~equency) aircraft communication; aircraft navigational aids

UHF(Ultra High 300 MHz - 3GHz LOS UHF television; cellular telephone; radar; microwave links;
Frequency) personal communication systems
SHF(Super High 3 GHz - 30 GHz LOS satellite communication; radar; terrestrial microwave li~ks;
Frequency) wireless local loop
EHF 30GHZ-300GHz LOS Experimental; wireless local loop
Infrared 300GHz - 400THz LOS Infrared LANs; consumer electronic allocations
Visible l\ght 400 THz - 900 THz LOS Optical communication

Depending upon the frequency, the radio waves can exhibit following three types of behavior.
1. Ground Wave (<2 MHz) : Low frequency waves usually follow the Earth's surface and can propagate
long distance.
These waves are used for submarine communication or AM radio.
2. Sky wave (2-30 MHz) : These waves are reflected at the atmosphere and hence can bounce back and forth between
the ionosphere and the Earth's surface, traveling around the world. They are used for international broadcast.
3. Line-of-Sight (>30 MHz) : These waves follow a straight line of sight. They are used in Mobile phone
systems. Also,
Satellite systems, cordless telephones etc. use these waves.
Signal propagation

Transmitter
Earth

Ground wave propagation(< 2MHz)

(a)

Fig. 1.3.2 : Contd ...

',
. ::•:,;.:
·-;,,..._

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- · Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-S em. 7-Comp)
·
1-1 3 lntrodu~tion to Mobil~ Computin

lonosph'ere ·

Transmitter

Sky wave propagalion (2 • 30 MHz)

(b)
Signal propagation

Transmitter

Earth

line of sight (LOS) propagation (> 30 MHz)

(c)
agation
wave Propagation and Line -of-S ight prop
Fig. 1.3.2 : Ground Wave propagation, Sky
gation .
Fig. 1.3.2 shows all three types of signal propa

1.4 Antennas
MU- Dec. 14, Ma 17, Dec. 18

pattern.
· about types of antennas and their radiation
nae.
t _Is ah· antenna? Expla in different types of anten
:Z,' ... ,''
e ,,,,a 'short note on antenna.
,, .. ~· ..
',

s or
c radiation in space into electrical currents in conductor
- An antenna is a device that converts electromagneti
ly.
used for receiving or for transmitting, respective
vice-versa, depending on whether it is being
us directions from the
tion pattern of an antenna desc ribes the relative strength of the radiated field in vario
- The radia
antenna, at a constant distance.
patterns are a
nsional, but usually the measured radiation
In reality the radiation pattern is three-dime
s.
al pattern, in the horizontal or vertical plane
two-dimensional slice of the three-dimension
below.
- There are various types of antennas discussed

1.4.1 Isotropic Antenna

tions.
that radiates its power uniformly in all direc
- An isotropic antenna is a theoretical antenna
tion pattern. Radiation pattern
na has a perfect 360 degree spherical radia
- In other words, a theoretical isotropic anten
of isotropic antenna is shown in Fig. 1.4.1.
zero gain and zero loss.
in all directions and has a gain of 1 (O dB), i.e.
- It is an.ideal antenna which radiates equally
TtcHIIOwkq
. · • P11ill t
t'lllDl 5

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 Introduction to Mobile Co
1 14
lle Com munication & Computln MU- Sam . 7-Comp •
• Mob
tenna to the theoretical Isotropic antenna.
, pattern,
an
It Is used to compare the power level of a given f the real three dlmens1ona 1
Fig. 1.4.1 shows a two dimensional cross-sect
Ion ° ·
ctlonal and directional antennas.
Antennas can be broadly classified as omnl~lre
y z

nna
Fig. 1.4.1 : Radiation pattern of Isotropic ante

1.4.2 Omnidirectional Antennas 360 degrees in the

opic antennas, dipole antennas are real antennas . The dipole radiation pattern is
- Unlike isotr
in the vertical plane.
horizontal plane and approximately 75 degrees
direction.
- It is also called the "non-directional" ante
nna because it does not favor any particular
nna. The higher the gain
dB, which is In comparison to an isotropic ante
- Dipole antennas are said to have a gain of 2.14 ·
width is.
of the antennas, the smaller the vertical beam
listening for signals from
a signal to ·a11 points of the compass or when
- This type of antenna is useful for broadcasting
all points.
Dipoles
le.
- The most commonly used antenna is Hertzlan dipo
gap.
of equal length, separated by a small feeding
- The dipole consists of two collinear conductors
Aof the signal (for efficient radiation of ener
gy).
- The length of the dipole is half the wavelength
Fig. _1.4.2 shows a typical Hertzian dipole.

Fig. 1.4.2 : Hertzlan dipole

• .
e has a uniform or omn idire ction al radiation pattern in one nd pattern in ~he other
- A>../2 dipol plane a a figure eight
two planes. This is shown in Fig. 1.4.3.
ntain, valley etc.
- This type of antennas are used in area such as mou
mount on a roof top of a vehicle.
- Although this is a simple antenna, it is difficult to
y y

X z X

Side view (xy-plane) . Side view (zy-plane) .

Top view (xz-plane)
zlan dipo le
.Fig. 1.4.3 : Radiation patte~n of Hert

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 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) _
1 15 Introduction to Mobile Computing
'Monopoles
_ deal vertical monopole antenna.
shown In Fig. 1.4.4 is the i_
It has the length A/4 and ~lso known as Markonl antenna.
·
A monopole over an infinite ground PIane ·1s th eoretically the same as the dipole in free space.
I
The flat surface of a vehicle's trunk or roof can act as an adequate groun d pane.
.
_ This type_of antenna is efficient for mounting on a roof top of a car.

Fig. 1.4.4 : Monopole

Directional Antenna
in specific directions. ·
A directional antenna or beam antenna is an antenna which radiates or receives greater power
This allows increased performance and red,uced interference from unwanted sources.
transmitter or receiver.
Unlike omnidirectional antennas, directional antennas must be aimed in the direction of the
1.4.6 respectively.
Examples of directional antennas are parabolic and Yagi antenna shown in Fig. 1.4.5 and Fig.
of X-axis.
Fig. 1.4.7 shows the radiation pattern of a directional antenna with the main lobe in the direction

Fig. 1.4.5 : Parabolic antenna

l
r
Fig. 1.4.6 : Yagi antenna

• ,u•11c1t1on _s ·

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 •
Mobile Communication & Com utin (MU- 1-16 Introduction to Mobile Comp .~~II
• ;. •

1 -~
1 '

Sem. 7-Comp)
y y z i

z X

Side view (xy-plane) Side view (yz-plane) Top view (xz-plane)

Fig. 1.4.7: Radiation pattern of directional

antennas ·
Sec torlz ed Ante nna
Several directional antennas can be comb
ined on a single pole to construct a secto
rized ante nna.
They are wide ly used in cellular telephony • A cell can be sectorized into three or
infrastructure. For exampve,
A
•
sectors. Fig. 1.4.8 shows radiation patte rn six
of these sectorized antennas.
z z

X X

Top view, 3 sector Top view, 6 sector

Fig. 1.4.8 : Radiation pattern of sectorlzed
antennas
Ant enn a arra ys
An ante nna array is a configuration of mult
iple antennas (elements) arranged to achie
ve a give n radia tion pattern.
Mult iple antennas allow diffe rent diversity
schemes to impr ove the qual ity and relia
bility of a wire less link.
Ante nna dive rsity is especially effective
at mitig ati~g effects of mult ipath prop agat
ion.
This is because mult iple antennas allow
a receiver several observations of the sam
e sign_al.
Each ante nna will experience a diffe rent
inter feren ce envi ronm ent. if one ante nna
likel y that anot her has a su_fficient signa is expe rienc ing a deep fade, it is
l. Collectively such a system can prov ide
bett er link.
Diffe rent dive rsity schemes are possible.
One such scheme is selection diversity whe
re the rece iver always uses the ante nna
elem ent with the large st outp ut.
The othe r type of dive rsity is diversity
combining in whic h a com bina tion of pow
prod uce gain. er of an
the signals is taken to

Fig. 1.4.9 shows two such diffe rent sc;he

mes.
o In Fig. 1.4.9 (a) two 'A./4 antennas are arran
ged with a distance of 'A./2 betw een them
.
o In Fig. 1.4.9 (b) thre e standard 'A./2 dipoles are
com bine d with a dista nce of A/2 betw een
them .

l:...I
2 :
')J2
,! + - - - + !
')J2

Ground
plane -

(a)
(b)
Fig. 1.4.9 : Diversity antenna systems

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if., ........
~

Sem. 7-Comp) 1~
~Mobile Communication & Com utlng (MU- 17

-. 1~5 Signal Propagation

to detern,in~ the direction of

ia such as radio waves, the signal has no wires
- Since wireless netw orks use unguided med
ork only travel along the wi~e. .
propagation, whe re as signal_s in wired netw
ch as recei~ed pow er
ork, one can easil y dete rmin e the beha vior of a signal traveling along this wire su.
- In wired netw
depending on the length.
shown in Fig. 1.5.1 depending upon
le behavior is only ·valid in a vacuum. As
For wireless transmission, this predictab
d signarcan fall into the following ranges.
the distance from the sender, the transmitte
1. Transmission Range
e able to com ~uni cate .
signals ~ith a very low error rate and henc
Within this range the receiver receives the
2. Detection Range
er is large enough to diffe r signal
th~ transmission i.e. the transmitted pow
Within this range the receiver can detect
from background.

3. Interference Range
ground noise: The receiver will
with other transmissions by adding to back
Within this range, the s·e nder may interfere
l may disturb othe r signals.
not be able to dete ct the signal but the signa

Distance

and Interference of signals

Fig. 1.5.1 : Ranges for transmission, detection

1.5.1 Path Loss of Radio Signals

Free Space Loss

the sender and the receiver, it is
line. If such a straight line exists between
In free space, the signal follows a straight
called the line of sight (LOS).
iver. This is because the
rienc es free path loss even if no obje ct exists between the sender and the rece
- The sig~al expe d
l/d
2
• Here d Is the distance between
the sender and the receiver. Hence, as
rece iver pow er Pr is prop ortio nal to
.
increases, the received pow er Pr decreases

• TtcHH.....i
• PUIIII CltlOf tS

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 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 1-18

Other Parameters affe~tlng signal St~ength

Th·e received power also depends on the wavelength and the gain of the receiver and transmitter antenna. '
. For long distance communication,· most radio · transmission takes place th rough air, rain, snow, fog, .etc. > •
atmosphere heavily influences the quality of the signal. E.g. satellite transmission. ~
1.5.2 Additlonal Signal Propagation Effects
1· Bfocklng / Shadowing
The signals with higher frequ ency behave like a straight line.
These signals are blocked by even smaU obstacles like a wall, a car or a truck on a road. This phenome~on is·~lled
blocking or shadowing.
2. Reflection
When a signa.1 encounters a surface. that is large relative to the wavelength of the signal, a phenomenon ;lled
reflection occurs. ·
The reflected signal is not as strong as the original, as the object can absorb some of the signal's power.
3. Refraction
This effect occurs because the velocity of the electromagnetic waves depends on t·he density of the medium t.hrough ·
which it travels.
As shown in Fig. 1.5.2, waves that travel into a denser medium are bent towards the medium.
4. Scattering
If the object size is in the order of the wavelength o( the signal or less, then the signal can be scattered into many
small signals.
Scattered signals are weaker than the original signal.
5. Diffraction
Diffraction occurs at the edge of an impenetrable body that is large as compared to the wavelength of a radio wave.

Shadowing Reflection Refraction Scattering Diffraction

Fig. 1.5.2 : Blocking, reflection, refraction and diffraction of waves

1.5.3 Multi-path Propagation and Fading

1.5.3{a) Multi-path propagation

The wireless channel is a multipath propagation channel.

The radio waves that emanate from the transmitter do not reach the receiver only by a single path. The signal can tak.e
many different paths from the sender to the .receiver due to reflection, scattering and dif~raction. This effect is called
multi-path propagation.
Multi-path propagation is one of the most severe radio channel impairments.
Fig. 1.S.3·shows a sender on the left hand side and one possible receiver on the right hand side. .
A ~adio wave emitted by a sender can take the LOS path (i.e. travel in straight line), or it may be scattered at smal.l ···:_
obstacles or reflected at large buildings.

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n &Computing (MU- ·1:· . . Computi1ng
,-: Mobile Communicatio Sem. 7-C om p) . 1 9 · · Introduc tion
· ·· ·
lti
As a result, we have mu P1e copies of the same sl n I
b ent delays, different
and received with differ
g a elng transmitted
.
amplitudes and phases · . · ·
mu lti- path . . . . · d due to different
_ This effect caus ed by d
propagation 1s called e1ay spread 1.e. the original signal is.sp rea
·
sig na l.
delays of parts of the

, f;

Multipath .
pulses
LOS pulses

Signal at sender
Signal at receiver

mbol interleren~e · -~-

.3 : Multi-pa th propagation and Inter-sy
Fig. 1.5 As
veral weaker impulses.
red ou t into a bro ader impulse or into se
a short imp~lse will be
sm ea ol Interfere e
nc
As shown in Fig. 1.5.3, en t sy mb ol. This effect is called Inter symb
ills over the adjac
ded for one symbol sp
a result, energy inten
(ISi). s arrive ~t the receiver.
eiver. In rea l situation many weaker impulse
rec
the signal difficult. at the
ISi ·makes detection of we ak to be detected and appear as
noise.
pu lses are too
Some of the received

1.5.3(b) Fading ort

a radio signal over a sh
amplitudes, phases, or multipath delays of
the
s rapid fluctuations of
The terrri fading mean
distance.
period or short travel
mobility
Fading effect due to
of
. Following two types
1.
blem ca lled fading occurs due to mobility
er pro
ath propagation, anoth
In addition to multip
to mobility.
fading may occur due

(i) Short-term fading changes In the received

ers or bo th mo ve. It occurs due to the quick
or send
occurs when receivers
- Short term fading
power. nel characteristics.
sly adapt to the varying chan fast
has to try to C':)ntlnuou receiver cannot adapt
- The receiver now (e.g. drivin g on a hig hway through a city) ..
1.5.4
ges are too fast then fading Is shown in Fig.
- However, if such chan ssion Inc rea se s dra matically. Short term •r id !._..._. _
and the er ro r rate of the transmi 111' Pw t11 t,11 ons
enough

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 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 1-20 Introduction to Mobile ·

;,.·

Short term fading

Fig. 1.5.4 : Short term and long term fading

(ii) Long-term fading
The long term fading occurs when the sender is stationary and the distance of the receiver to the sender varies slowiy,
It occurs due to slow changes in the average power received. This is shown as the average power in Fig. 1.5.4.
Senders can compensate for long term fading by increasing/decreasing sending power so that ·the received signal .
always stays within certain limits. -
2. Fading Effects due to Multipath Time Delay Spread
(I) Flat Fading
Flat fading occurs when the bandwidth of the transmitted signal is less than the coherence bandwidth of the channel.
Equivalently, the fading is flat fading if ~he symbol period of the signal is more than the rms delay spread of the
channel.

(ii) Frequency Selective Fading

Frequency selective fading occurs when the signal bandwidth is more than the coherence bandwidth of the mobile
radio channel.
Equivalently the symbols duration of the signal is less than therms delay spread.

1.6 Signal Characteristics

Signals are the physical representation of data. Data in a communication system can be exchanged through the
signals. Signals are functions of time and location.
Signal parameters represent the data values. Signal parameters are the Amplitude (A), frequency (f) and phase shift
(4'). The most interesting type of signal for radio transmission is periodic signal (especially sine wave), used as carriers.
The general function of a sine wave is, s(t) = At sin(2 n ft t + cpt)
A[VJ -

t[sJ

I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I

'P
Fig. 1.6.1 : Time Domain representation of a signal (a sine wave without phase
shift and with a phase shift ,>

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 ..":' •..
. . .

Mobile Communicatio n & Computing (MU-S em. 7-Comp) 1-21 Introduction to Mobile Computin
_ _ . ..

1.1 Multiplexing

. .
. . d
Multi plexi ng means the abilit y to send d
ata comi ng from multi ple sources, users or channels over a common share
. . · d' · . .
rf use of high-speed
transm1ss1on• me• 1um with minim u m .mt e erence and maximum utilization. To make efficient
• •
. .
communication 1mes, some form of mult'ipl exmg 1s used.
. · . .
Four types of multi plexi ng are comm~nly usedm communication systems.
r.-- ::-- -::- :-:- ~~. :.... .--- ---= ~=~
1. Space Division Multi plexi ng (SOM)
/ 2. Time Division Multi plexi ng (TOM)

3. Frequency Division Mult iplexing (FDM)

4. Code Division Multi plexi ng (COM)

1.7.1 Space Division Multiplexing (SOM)

s. For exchanging data,
n of transmission Is divided into multiple space
In space division multi plexi ng, the entire regio
nel.
each user Is allocated a communication chan
slons are codec, time t
three dimensional coordinate system. The dimen
Fig. 1.7.1 shows six channels k1 to k6 and a ed onto the three spaces
sented via circles. Channel k1 to k3 can be mapp
and frequ ency (f). It also shows space 51 repre ·
51 to S3 whic h clearly separates the channel.
a guard channel. For the
between each _channel. This space is called
It can be note d that there is some space
would be needed.
remaining channels, three additional spaces

Fig. 1.7.1 : Space Division Multlplexlng

· · · · · · (
n . say some
Application · d·f FM radio statio ns if a single FM station transmits m a given regio
· d the world witho ut
h b h d by differe~t radio stations aroun
This multi plexi ng scheme can be use or . . . •·· ·. ..
t en e s are
city) only. The same transmission ranges can
is assigned different .
h . are; is divided into different cells. Each cell
interference. ·
t e ser:'ice .
SOM is also used in cellular systems where 11 . . ---
frequency band such that there is no interferenc
e m adJacent ce s.
. ···Ttcl.........
p,1 11c1tl e t1s

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 • · Mobile Co~munication & Computing (MU-Sem.7-Comp} 1-22

Advantage
SOM is easy to implement.

Problem · . · everal radio stations wan~ to bro~d,cast-~\ .

If two or more channe·ls are established .m t he same .space (For examp 1e, s ,. · ..'I
,. .
· the same city}, then SOM al~ne cannot be used.
.
1.7.2 Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM} .
. . . multiple
In frequency d1v1s1on . t he en t·ire frequency range .is d'IvI'ded into frequency bands.
. xing,
Each channel gets a c_ . band of t he spec t rum for the whole time.
ertam
Different frequency bands are separated by guard spaces.

Fig. 1.7.2: Frequency Division Multlplexing

Application

This scheme is used for radio stations within the same region, where each
radio station uses its own frequency.
Advantages
No complex coordination between sender and receiver is required.
This scheme works for analog signals as well.
Disadvantages
The bandwidth is wasted if the traffic is distributed unevenly.
- The scheme is inflexible.

1.7.3 · Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)

In TOM, the entire spectrum is given to a particular channel for a certain

time interval.
As shown in Fig. 1. 7.3, a channel ki is given the whole bandwidth for a certain
amount of time.
Guard spaces are needed in TOM as well, which are now represented by
time gaps.
- Thus, in TOM all the channels use the same frequenc;y but a~ different time.

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 -Sem. 7-Comp) 1-23
. Mobile Communication & Computin (MU

~ . . _.

Fig.1.7.3: Time division multiplexing

Advantage
ut even if there are many users.
at any time which results in high throughp
There is only one carrier in the medium

Disadvantage
hannel interference may occur.
1. If two transmissions overlap in time~co-c
synchronized.
ired that different senders are precisely
2. To avoid co-channel interference, it is requ
Multiplexing
1.7.4 Frequency and Time Division
d.
and time division multiplexing are combine
- In this multiplexing scheme, frequency
unt o.f time. Now guard spaces are
certain frequency band for a certain amo
- As shown in Fig. 1.7.4, channel ki uses

••
required in both dimensions.
.
.

'•,--.

multiplexing
Fig. 1.7.4 : Frequency and time division

Application
em for Mobile Communication)
The scheme is used in GSM (Global Syst

Advantages
1. Offers better protection against tapping.
ctive Interference.
2. Provides protection against frequency sele • TtcU1t. . . .
• p 1 a11,a t1a1s

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 MU-Sem. 7-Com
1-24

, Disadvantage · .
: een different senders.
.,.,· Necessary coordination Is required betw

1.7.5 Code Division Multlplexlng (COM) 1 100 •

c at the same time for transm ss
In this scheme, all channels use the same frequen · y 1.8
Users are now separated using codes.

I'

Fig. 1.7.5: Code division multiplexing

1n·this, signals from multiple independent sources can be transmitted at the same time over the same frequency band.
This task can be achieved via spread spectrum technique in which special codes called as orthogonal codes are used to
spread each signal over a large, common frequency band.
So, in CDM, each channel is assigned a particular orthogonal code and this is how multiplexing is achieved.
Guard spaces are now required in the code dimension.
Advantages
1. It gives good protection against interference ·and tapping.
2. Bandwidth ut_illzatlon is very efficient.
3. No synchronization Is needed between the sender and the receiver.
Disadvantages
1. Varying user data rates.
2.
More complex signal regeneration and hence high complexity at the receiver.
3. It is implemented using spread spectrum technology.

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 . ··...
n & Com . . .
Mobile Communicatio Puting (MU-Sem.
7-Co
_. 1-25 ·.
· · . ,
tro du ction to M obile Co m~u tf '< -
mp) - · · . In . •..
A receiv er mu tb ·
sy nchro . d . t .. l . . . . . .. . -- . . . . . . . : -: _. .. ·. '~". ;i.- 1\
4. s e precisely n1ze with the trans
mitter
o app y decoding co
rrectly:· · -
w er co t . . . · sa m e- .
po l he
5. Precise . n rol. is required. Al signals should ach the receiver .with_more ·o r les. s 't . po w er
otherwise low po wer signals_could be drained b h"rgh power ones.
re · . . ., . . . ·• .. •· ·
. .. Y - .• . .
.
hniques .
1.8 read Spectrum .Tec
Sp_

dP/df
~ Usef signal .
enc~
i) If) Broadband interfer
ence
Narrowband interfer
Sender

dP /d f

iv) v) .
iii)

Receiver
ing
ing and despread
8.1 : Spread Spectrum: Spread send.
e signal user wants to
Fig. 1.
This is th
l trans m itted form a sender. coverei
Fig. 1.8.1 (i) shows
narrow ba nd signa
trans m it th e sig nal is equal to the area
(i) ergy required to
e po w er de ns ity of this signal. The en
(ii) dP/df is th t conv~rting a
by the signal. of sp re ad in g th e signal is nothing bu
ess ta.
sp re ad th e us er signal. The proc tiply ing a PN se qu ence with the use·r da
Second step is to achieved by m ul band
(iii)
na l in to br oa db an d signal. This can be
er level is m uch lo wer than the narrow
narrowband sig e, but the pow
qu ire d to trans m it the signal is sam
The energy re l (shown in
signal. in te rfe re nc e ge t added to the srgna
and broadband -· •
th e tra ns m iss ion, narrow band
(iv) During
Fig. 1.8.1 (iii)}. . 1.8.1 {iv)).
nals is received (shown in Fig
of interference an d user sig signal: This is
At the receiver sum re ad us er sig na l into ·a narrowband
(v) converts the sp using bandpass ·
iv er no w de sp re ads the signal Le: e PN se qu en ce us ed in step 2 and by
The rece l with the sam
(vi)
, achiev ed by m ultiply in g the received signa
the narrowband sig na l (sh ow ~- ~~i~_-l B.1
~ (v)). . _.__. _ _ _
·
cu t of f freq ue nc ies left and right of •r lC lr ..w ai
¥, ,u ua t1 11
1
filter to

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 Introduction to Mobile Co
Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sam. 7-Comp)
1-26

Advantages of Spread Spectrum Techniques ncy is subject to catastrophi •

. . . nal with narrow freque c
1. Good protection against narrowband rnterference · A sig . h . t rference . . Spread spectrum technique·
· I f the duration oft d e rn e . h' .·
interference that can wipe out narrow ban d signa s or . t achieve resistance against t 1s narrow
. .
.into a broad ban d signa I using a special co e o . .. -:
spreads the narrow band signal

band interference. · _ . d is therefore not well suited to

2. . . • I easy to intercept, an
I ·s
Resistance to interception : A constant-frequency s,gna technique the signal ls.spread using a
fid ntial In spread spectrum ' -
applications in which information must be kept con e I · . a receiver must know how to de-
. • I d to intercept the signa 1
' ·
specific, but complicated mathematical function. n or er

spread the signal. . . d' b d by their presence and

. : . st ms without being istur e
3. Spread Spectrum systems can co-exist with other radio sy e . ' d 'thout the need for license.
. terns may be operate w1. .
without disturbing their activity. Thus the spread spectrum sys
4. Spread spectrum techniques can resist multi-path fading.

Disadvantages of Spread Spectrum Techniques

1. Complexity of receiver is increased.
2. Large frequency band is needed for spreading the signal.
. h · ·ons and appear as noise.
3. Spread signals with low strength may interfere with ot er transmissi
4. Precise power control is needed.

Spreading the spectrum can be achieved in two different ways

1. Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS)
2. Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS)

1.8.1 Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS)

Fig. 1.8.2 shows the transmitter of DSSS.
Transmit
Spread signal ·
signal ....... . ..-... .~ .,
•: ' ..
~ Moduiator \
( .. . .;..:~.--- ..::.,., . ,·_.
,

PN
sequence Radio carrier

Fig. 1.8.2 : DSSS Transmitter

1. DSSS Transmitter
DSSS transmitter involves two major steps.

Step 1 : Spreading the signal

Spreading in Direct Sequence modulation is achieved by modulating the carrier signal (user data) with a digital code
sequence which has a bit rate much higher than that of the message to be sent.

This digital code sequence is typically a pseudorandom binary code. It is also known as PN ("pseudo-noise") sequence
or chipping sequence.

Spreading can be done by simply XORing user bit stream with chipping sequence.

The time period of a single bit in the PN code is termed a chip, and the bit rate of the PN code is termed the chip rate . . •:
The spreading process is shown iri Fig. 1.8.3.

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 1-2? Introduction to Mobile Computfn
ng (MU-Sem. 7-Comp)
· Mobile Communication & Computi

I I I
--r-+-t-+----Jl-+____.- --+ --H '-+ ~
i-----;--+--+--·...!-1 _1I----I--· iUsqr data
/
1

~- - - -- ---1-- - - - - -1-1~~
j Ch)ppipg

9 J1 o1 1 0 1j 1 ! 0 / ,o 1 0 1 0

Fig. 1.8.3 : Spreading with DSSS

as 0110101.
Consider the chipping seq lience
lf.
Ring is the chipping sequence itse
If the user bit is Othe result of XO
complement of chipping sequence.
If the user bit is 1 the result is the uence is 1:c, then the spreading fact
or
atio n of user data is tb and the duration of one chip in chipping seq
If the bit dur
of a signal.
s = tb/tc determines the bandwidth
w) bandwidth.
w then the resulting signal needs (s.
If the original signal has bandwidth

Step 2 : Radio modulation

ed with a radio carrier.
The spread signal is now modulat
to the carrier frequency.
The radio carrier shifts this signal
This signal is then transmitted.

2. DSSS Receiver
steps :
The DSSS receiver involves three

(i) Demodulation

(ii) Cor relation

(iii) Decision Making
Received Correlator
signal Lowpass

f~i1;~:1 :~ -_,;-., ;.,-~-,.·--·:'.-,.;

-~--;~ ·1 .........,,.
~~.; ...;.; .;'-+ f,.,.,.,.
l
,+1~1~H ~'.P 1 118 ==.:;;:. :
:1--_ .;..- .... I
I
~= -"= =
L-----
PN
Radio carrier sequence

Data

Fig. 1.8. 4: DSSS Receiver

• TIICllall!Wli
• P ■ -IIC ■ tl t RS

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 Mobile Communication & Computin (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 1-28

(I) Demodulator

Demodulation of the received signal Is achieved by using the same carrier as the transmitter, reversing the modulation
process. Bandwidth of the resultant signal Is approximately same as that of the original spread spectrum signal.

(11) Correlator

Here the receiver uses the same pseudo random sequence (Chip sequence) as the transmitter. Pseudo random '
sequences at the sender a~d the receiv~r have to be precisely synchronized because the receiver calculates the
product of a chip (XOR operation) with the incoming signal. During a bit period an integrator adds all these products.

(Ill) Decision Unit

Finally the decision unit decides if the sum represents binary O or 1, based on the sum generated by the integrator_:
duri~g each bit period.

DSSS and M_
ultipath fading
We know that in multipath propagation there exist several paths with different delays between a transmitter and a
receiver. As a result the receiver may receive multiple copies of the signal, each with different delays.

Rake receivers can be used to mitigate the effect of multipath propagatio~.

A rake receiver uses n correlators called fingers for n strongest paths.
Each correlator is synchronized to the transmitter plus the delay on that specific path .

.As soon as the receiver detects a new path w~ich is stronger than the currently weakest path, it assigns this new path
to the correlator with the weakest path.

The outputs of the correlators are then combined and fed into the decision .unit.

m (t)
signal w i t h - - - -
multipath L--"'-''-----'-'==
I
J.
I

m'(t)

Fig. 1.8.5 : Rake receivers

Example of DSSS
User Data : 01

Chip : 10110111000 (11-chip Barker code)

XOR of bit Owith chip: 10110111000

XOR of bit 1 with chip: 01001000111

Spread signal : 1011011100001001000111

Received signal : 1011011100001001000111

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t ·Mobile Commun! cati on & Computing (MU-S
XOR of r · •
7
em. -comg) 1·29
8
ece,ved signal with chip: . Introduction to Mobil
(101101110001 . 0110111000) XOR (10110111 . ·... '.' . Computing
Result of Integrator-• 0 ' 11 .
00001001000111 ) = (000000000001111 1111111).

Result of
. De cIs
· 1on unit: 0 < 4 so bit· is 0 ·
11 > 7 so bit is 1
Decoded data: 0l
Even if erro r occurs during
. transmission received si ·
F_or e.g. fourth, fifth seventh a d f ' gnal can still be decoded correctly. . .
' .
n ourteenth b' · . ' n e received signal would
· be
1010110100001101000111 ,t ,n received signal is changed the th . .

Now XOR of received signal with chip:

(1011011100010110111000)XOR(10101101000011010 . . .
Result of Integrator: 3, 10 00111) =(00011010000 11011111111)

Result of Decision unit: 3 < 4 so bit is 0

10 > 7 so bit is 1

Advantages of OSSS .
1. . Resistance to narrow band interference and anti-jamming effects.

2. Resistance to Interception. .
3. Resistance to Fading (Multipath Eff~cts).

Disadvantages of OSSS
1. Precise power control necessary.
2. Overall system is complex.
3. Is required between the sender and the receiver.

Applications
The DSSSofCommunication
OSSS s are widely used today for Military, Industrial Scientific, and Civil uses. The applications

include the following : ·

1, CDMA radios
It is useful In multiple access communications wherein many users communicat~ over a shared channel.

For example, CDMA.

2. Wireless LAN widely use spread spectrum communications. IEEE 802.11 is a standard that Is developed tor mobile
WLAN
communication, and widely implemented throughout the world. The standard defines three types of Physical
Layer communications- These are Infrared (IR) Communications, Direct Sequence Spread SpectrUm
Communications, FrequenCV Hopping Spread Spectrum communications.

3. several manufacturers
Cordless Phones implement Spread Spectrum In Cordless phones due to their advantages like security,

• immunity to noise and longer range.

_., .-

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• Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) , 1-30
Introduction to Mobile Co

1.8.2 Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS)

FHSS implements TDM plus FDM.
In this scheme total available bandwidth is split into many channels of smaller bandwidth. . .. ,
Transmitter and receiver stay on one of these channels for some predefined time and then hop to another channel. .·
The pattern of channel uses {frequency pattern) is called the hopping sequence.
· Time spent on a channel with certain frequency is called the d~ell time.
There are two variants of FHSS called slow and fast hopping.

1. Slow hopping
Transmitter uses one frequency for several bit periods. Fig. 1.8.6 shows six user bits with a period tb • Transmitter uses
frequency f 2 for transmitting the first three bits and takes dwell time tci. Then transmitter hops to the next ·
frequency f 3•
Slow hopping is cheaper and has relaxed tolerance.
It is less immune to narrowband interference.

2. Fast hopping
Transmitter changes frequency several times during a bit period. In Fig. 1.8.6 the transmitter hops three ti,:nes during
a bit period.

' .
''
'
''
"-----+-----!-------.L----4------!-----4-- t
0 0 0

~
'
f3 ---------!-------- -, -----. --~---------~---------~---------~-
f2 ---------~--------~---------~---------~---------~---------!-
~--· I I I s~
' , , hopping ·
f1 ~-------+----~-- -+--------~---------~-- ------+--- ----+
I I I I I I
(3 bits/hop)
L---L---;,---7"""--7--"""7---!---...,i_- t
''
I
I I t I I I
I I I I I I

f3 -------=-=-~-------.:..J;,,;.-------~~-------J---------~----=-=---!-
1 I t 1- I J Fast
f2 --=-----~-------+-------=.=.~-------::"~----:.:,---i==---------1 hopping
I I . I - I I :
f 1 - -- - - --- -~ - - -~ - -- -:- - --.:.:-- - ~- --- -- - ---{--- --- -~1-- --- -. ::-t- (3 bits/hop)
: ! I I I :

Fig. 1.8.6 : Slow and fast frequency hopping

Fast frequency hopping systems are more complex to implement because transmitter and receiver should staY
synchronized.
These systems have better resistance against narrowband interference and frequency selective fading.
FHSS Transmitter
Fig. 1.8.7 shows simplified block diagram of FHSS transmitter. .,.
Step 1: Modul~te user data using digital-to-analog modulation such as FSK or BPSK. For example, frequency 0 is ·used:}; f
for a binary Oand f 1 is used for binary 1. · · · .:,.,,:::;:.
•.. ,, -l..\

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 utln
(M U-S em . 7-C omp) 1-31 Introduction to Mobile Comp
Co mp uting
Mobile Communication &
fed into a frequericy
ng hop ping seq uen ce. The hopping sequence is
by usi
Step 2: Frequency hopping is performed
rating the carrier frequency f I. new .
synthesizer gene frequency to. generate a
use s· mo dulate d na rro wband signal and carrier
Step 3: Seco nd modulati on is done.' it f • + f for a bit 1.
cy of f1+ f0 for a bit oand 1 1
spread signal with frequen

Narrow
band signal
User data
(binary)

Hopping
sequence

tter
Fig. 1.8.7 : FHSS transmi

FHSS Receiver
ct user data.
erse functions to reconstru
FHSS receiver performs rev band signal.
hopping sequen ~e and convert signal into narrow
eived data by usi ng
Step 1 : ·Demodulate rec
onstruct user data.
o-digital modulation to rec
Step 2: Perform analog-t
Received
signal

Fig. 1.8.8 : FHSS receiver

ho pp ing
Slo w ho pp ing Vs. Fast
Vs. Fast Hopping
Table 1.8.1 : Slow hopping

ng several different
d using a One bit is transmitted usi
Several bits are transmitte
Main Idea frequencies.
same frequency. band interference
to Better resistance to narrow
d Provides lesser resistance and frequency _selective fad
ing.
Resistance to narrowban ce.
narrowband interferen is transmitted using. ·
interference
ed to fast More secured since one bit
Lower security as compar s.
Security several different frequencie
hopping. ed to slow hopping.
t as More complex as compar
Less complex to implemen
Complexity ping.
compared to fast hop

Applications of FHSS the channel capacity..

to avoid co-cha nne l interference and to increase
ency hopping
1. GSM uses slow freq~
h 1600 hops/sec.
It uses 79 frequencies wit ns. These are'
2. · Bluetooth uses FHSS. ee types of Physical Layer communicatio
def ine thr
Wireless LAN standards ncy Hopping Spread
3. WLAN : Most of the Sp rea d Sp ectrum Communications, Freque
ions, Direct Seque nce
Infrared (IR) Communicat
Spectrum communications.
• TtcHIII.... ..S
• Pu• 11c1 tlD"

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 .
!.
!'- •• •
r
. •

Mobile Communication & Computin MU-Sem. 7-Com ) 1-32

1.8.3 Comparison between DSSS and FHSS

Table 1.8.2 : Difference between DSSS and FHSS

Spreading and dispreading Is simple. It requires a complex frequency synthesizer

In order to generate the hops.
Bandwidth Always uses total bandwidth. Use only a portion of total bandwidth at a
utilization time.
'
Resistance to DSSS works best for large data packets in a low to FHSS works best for small data packets in
interference medium interference environment. high interference environment.
..
Effect of DSSS systems operate over wider bands, FHSS systems operate with narrow band
multipath fading · transmitting their signal over a group of frequencies signals located around different carrier
simultaneously. As long as the average level of the frequencies. If at a specific moment, the
received signal is high enough, the DSSS receiver will . FHSS system is using a carrier frequency
be able to detect the radio signal. significantly faded as a result C?f multipath,
the FHSS receiver could not get enough
energy to detect the radio signal.

Effect of delay In DSSS systems, the chipping process generates a FHSS systems have better chances to be
spread high rate transmitted signal. The symbols of this undisturbed by the presence of multipath
transmitted signal are much shorter/ narrower (in effects (delay spread).
time) than the symbols generated by an FHSS
system transmitting the same data rate. These
narrow pulses are more sensitive to delays than a
wider pulse used in FHSS systems.

Power control Near far problem exists in DSSS and therefore It is not much affected by near far problem
precise power control is required. as in DSSS hence power control is not a
problem

Acquisition Time Due to long PN codes it requires long acquisition It has relatively short acquisition time
time because the chip rate is considerably less in
the frequency hopping system.

Q. 1 What types of mobile and wireless devices are available In the market ?

Q. 2 Explain the needs of mobile communication with Its applications.

Q. 3 Explain multi-patry propagation and Different types of path losses and signal propagation effects in wireless ·
transmission.

Q. 4 Explain various wideband modulatlon techniques employed in cellular I mobile technologies.

Q. 5 Draw the block diagram of FHSS transmitter and receiver. Differentiate between slow hopping and fast hopping.

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! MobUe Commun\ca\\on & Computing {MU•Sem, 7•Comp) 1·33 lntrodootjon to Mobile eomputlng
Q. 6 Explain what \s spread spectrum? How spreading can be achieved? What are the merlta. of ·spread spectrum
technique?

Q. 7 Explain dltferent methods to Increase the capacity of an onolog cellular system and without increasing number
of
antennas.

Q. 8 What are the advantages of cellular System? Explain cellular system In detail also explain frequency reuse concept
In
cellular system.

a. 9 What do you mean by frequency reuse concept? Explain.

a. 1o What is CDMA? How does It suit to mobile cellular systems ?

a. 11 Discuss different multiplexing techniques.

□□□

,.
. ' ' . .

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