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 FOREWORD

NASA experience has indicated a need for uniform criteria for the design of space vehicles.
Accordingly, criteria are being developed in the following areas of technology:

Environment
Structures
Guidance and Control
Chemical Propulsion

Individual components of this work will be issued as separate monographs as soon as they
are completed. This document, part of the series on Chemical Propulsion, is one such
monograph. A list of all monographs issued prior to this one can be found on the final pages
of this document.

These monographs are to be regarded as guides to design and not as NASA requirements,
except as may be specified in formal project specifications. It is expected, however, that
these documents, revised as experience may indicate to be desirable, eventually will provide
uniform design practices for NASA space vehicles.

This monograph, "Liquid Rocket Pressure Regulators, Relief Valves, Check Valves, Burst
Disks, and Explosive Valves", was prepared under the direction of Howard W. Douglass,
Chief, Design Criteria Office, Lewis Research Center, project management was by M. Murray
Bailey. The monograph was written by L. E. Tomlinson of Rocketdyne Division, North
American Rockwell Corporation, and was edited by Russell B. Keller, Jr. of Lewis. To
assure technical accuracy of this document, scientists and engineers throughout the
technical community participated in interviews, consultations, and critical review of the
text. In particular, James V. Smith of Aerojet Liquid Rocket Company; Frank L. Merritt of
TRW Systems, TRW, Inc.; and Eugene J. Fourney and Joseph M. Ladd of Lewis Research
Center collectively and individually reviewed the monograph in detail.

Comments concerning the technical content of this monograph will be welcomed by the
National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Lewis Research Center (Design Criteria
Office), Cleveland, Ohio 44135.

March 1973
For sale by the National ;i'echnical Information Service
Springfield, Virginia 22151
Price -- Domestic, $4.50; Foreign, $7.00
 GUIDE TO THE USE OF THIS MONOGRAPH

The purpose of this monograph is to organize and present, for effective use in design, the
significant experience and knowledge accumulated in development and operational
programs to date. It reviews and assesses current design practices, and from them establishes
firm guidance for achieving greater consistency in design, increased reliability in the end
product, and greater efficiency in the design effort. The monograph is organized into two
major sections that are preceded by a brief introduction and complemented by a set of
references.

The State of the Art, section 2, reviews and discusses the total design problem, and
identifies which design elements are involved in successful design. It describes succinctly the
current technology pertaining to these elements. When detailed information is required, the
best available references are cited. This section serves as a survey of the subject that provides
background material and prepares a proper technological base for the Design Criteria and
Recommended Practices.

The Design Criteria, shown in italics in section 3, state clearly and briefly wh__at rule, guide,
limitation, or standard must be imposed on each essential design element to assure
successful design. The Design Criteria can serve effectively as a checklist of rules for the
project manager to use in guiding a design or in assessing its adequacy.

The Recommended Practices, also in section 3, state how to satisfy each of the criteria.
Whenever possible, the best procedure is described; when this cannot be done concisely,
appropriate references are provided. The Recommended Practices, in conjunction with the
Design Criteria, provide positive guidance to the practicing designer on how to achieve
successful design.

Both sections have been organized into decimally numbered subsections so that the subjects
within similarly numbered subsections correspond from section to section. The format for
the Contents displays this continuity of subject in such a way that a particular aspect of
design can be followed through both sections as a discrete subject.

The design criteria monograph is not intended to be a design handbook, a set of

specifications, or a design manual. It is a summary and a systematic ordering of the large and
loosely organized body of existing successful design techniques and practices. Its value and
its merit should be judged on how effectively it makes that material available to and useful
to the designer.

111
 CONTENTS

Page

. INTRODUCTION ............................ 1

2. STATE OF THE ART .......................... 3

3. DESIGN CRITERIA and Recommended Practices ................ 72

REFERENCES ................................. 99

GLOSSARY ................................. 104

NASA Space Vehicle Design Criteria Monographs Issued to Date ............. 109

SUBJECT STATE OF THE ART DESIGN CRITERIA

REGULATORS 2.1 9 3.1 72

Assembly 2.1.1 9 3.1.1 72

Direct Acting 2.1.1.1 11 3.1.1.1 72

Dome Loaded 2.1.1.2 12 3.1.1.2 73
Piloted 2.1.1.3 13 3.1.1.3 75
Nonmodulating Regulation System 2.1.1.4 14 3.1.1.4 75

Inlet Valve 2.1.2 14 3.1.2 76

Size and Stroke 2.1.2.1 14 3.1.2.1 76

Flow Passages 2.1.2.2 15 3.1.2.2 76
Pressure Balancing 2.1.2.3 15 3.1.2.3 76

Actuator 2.1.3 17 3.1.3 77

Type 2.1.3.1 18 3.1.3.1 77

Size 2.1.3.2 19 3.1.3.2 77
Response 2.1.3.3 19 3.1.3.3 78
Bias Spring 2.1.3.4 19 3.1.3.4 78

V
 SUBJECT STATE OF THE ART DESIGN CRITERIA

Control Elements 2.1.4 20 3.1.4 78

Spring Reference Load 2.1.4.1 20 3.1.4.1 78

Pilot Valve Circuit 2.1.4.2 20 3.1.4.2 81
Orifice 2.1.4. 3 24 3.1.4.3 81
Thermal Compensator 2.1.4.4 25 3.1.4.4 81
Shut off Valve 2.1.4.5 25 3.1.4.5 82
Flow Limiter 2.1.4. 6 27 3.1.4.6 82

Operational Problems 2.1.5 27 3.1.5 82

Contamination 2.1.5.1 27 3.1.5.1 82

Lubricants 2.1.5.2 29 3.1.5.2 83
Vibration 2.1.5.3 29 3.1.5.3 83
Moisture in Reference Cavity 2.1.5.4 30 3.1.5.4 83
Stability 2.1.5.5 31 3.1.5.5 83

Leak Testing 2.1.6 32 3.1.6 84

RELIEF VALVES 2.2 32 3.2 86

Size 2.2.1 33 3.2.1 86

Assembly 2.2.2 33 3.2.2 86

Direct Operating 2.2.2.1 36 3.2.2.1 86

Inverted Operation 2.2.2.2 37 3.2.2.2 87
Pilot Operated 2.2.2.3 38 3.2.2.3 87

Inlet Valve 2.2.3 41 3.2.3 88

Poppet and Seat 2.2.3.1 41 3.2.3.1 88

Subassembly Construction 2.2.3.2 41 3.2.3.2 88

Actuator 2.2.4 42 3.2.4 88

Control Elements 2.2.5 44 3.2.5 88

Operational Problems 2.2. 6 44 3.2.6 88

vi
 DESIGN CRITERIA.
SUBJECT STATE OF THE ART

3:2.6.1 88
Moisture in the Actuator 2.2.6.1 44
3.2.6.2 89
Pilot Valve Pressure Sensing 2.2.6.2 44
3.2.6.3 89
Stability 2.2.6.3 46

3.3 90
CHECK VALVES 2.3 47

3.3.1 90
Poppet 2.3.1 49

3.3.1.1 90
Ball 2. 3.1.1 49
3.3.1.2 90
Guided Poppet 2.3.1.2 49

3.3.2 91
Flapper 2.3.2 50

3.3.3 91
Operational Problems 2.3.3 50

3.3.3.1 91
Installation 2. 3. 3.1 51
3.3.3.2 91
Chatter 2.3.3.2 51
3.3.3.3 92
Poppet Closing Time 2.3.3.3 52
3.3.3.4 92
C o ntamination 2. 3. 3. 4 53
3.3.3.5 93
Venting 2.3.3.5 53

3.4 93
BURST DISKS 2.4 53

3.4.1 93
Burst-Pressure Capability 2.4.1 58

3.4.2 94
Reverse-Pressure Capability 2.4.2 58

3.4.3 94
Size and Thickness 2.4.3 59

3.4.4 94
Coined-Gr0ove Pattern 2.4.4 59

3.4.4.1 94
Petal Retention 2.4.4.1 60

3.4.5 95
Material 2.4.5 60

3.4.5.1 95
Temperature Effects on Properties 2.4.5.1 61
3.4.5.2 95
Fatigue Strength 2.4.5.2 63

3.4.6 96
Installation 2.4.6 63

vii
 SUBJECT STATE OF THE ART DESIGN CRITERIA

EXPLOSIVE VALVES 2.5 64 3.5 96

Body 2.5.1 68 3.5.1 96

Actuator 2.5.2 68 3.5.2 97

2.5.3 68 3.5.3 97
Operational Problems

Connector Leakage 2.5.3.1 69 3.5.3.1 97

Leakage of Actuation Gas

into System 2.5.3.2 69 3.5.3.2 97
Seals 2.5.3.3 69 3.5.3.3 97
Escape of Debris 2.5.3.4 70 3.5.3.4 98
Shock 2.5.3.5 70 3.5.3.5 98
Accidental Operation 2.5.3.6 70 3.5.3.6 98
2.5.3. 7 71 3.5.3. 7 98
Temperature Effects

viii
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Title page

1 Factors in regulator complexity ....................... 11

2 Schematic of typical direct-acting regulator .................. 12

3 Schematic of typical dome-loaded regulator .................. 12

4 _ Schematic of typical pilot-operated regulator ................. 13

5 Methods of balancing inlet valves ...................... 16

6 Schematic of actuator for dome-loaded regulator ................ 17

7 Schematic of actuator for piloted regulator .................. 18

8 Pilot circuits with supply pressure as source of pilot pressure ........... 21

9 Pilot circuits with regulated pressure as source of pilot pressure, exhaust of bleed
flow to atmosphere ........................... 23

10 Types of thermal compensators ...................... 26

11 Types of flow limiters .......................... 28

12 Cover for atmospheric-pressure reference cavity cover .............. 31

13 Valve schematic and seating force-vs-pressure plot for direct-operating relief valves
(pressure unbalanced to open) ....................... 34

14 Valve schematic and seating force-vs-pressure plot for inverted-operation relief valve
(pressure unbalanced to close) ....................... 35

15 Valve schematic and seating force-vs-pressure plot for pilot-operated relief valve .... 35

16 Variation of relief valve parameters as a function of poppet stroke

(direct-operating valve) .......................... 36

17 Operating characteristics of inverted-operation relief valve ............ 39

18 Operating characteristics of pilot-operated relief valve .............. 40

19 Inlet valve subassembly construction .................... 42

ix
Figure Title _ Page
20 Schematic
of aregulator-relief
valveassembly ................. 46

21 Typesof checkvalves ........................ . . 48

22 Restrictorcheckvalve .......................... 50

23 Schematic
of engine
startsystem ...................... 51

24 Types of vent port check valve ........................ 54

25 Types of burst disks ............................. 55

26 Improved shear burst disk ......................... 56

27 Flat, coined-groove, welded-installation burst disk ............... 57

28 Coined-groove patterns .......................... 60

29 Variation of burst pressure with temperature ................. 62

30 Variation of material ultimate tensile strength with temperature .......... 62

31 Cup-type, welded-installation, coined-groove burst disk .............. 63

32 Normally closed reusable valve (before firing) ................. 65

33 Normally closed valve (after firing) ..................... 65

34 Normally open valve (before firing) ..................... 65

35 Dual-function explosive valve _ ....................... 66

36 Reusable explosive-operated valve ..................... 67

37 Regulation-error characteristics of a direct-acting regulator ............ 74

38 Reference-spring installation ........................ 79

39 Test fixture for checking squareness of spring ends ............... 80

40 Schematic of test setup for determining regulator leakage ............ 84

41 Check valve design to reduce chatter .................... 92

X
 LIST OF TABLES

Table Title Page

I Design Features of Representative Operational Pressure Regulators ..... . . . 4

II Design Features of Representative Operational Relief Valves .......... 6

III Design Features of Representative Operational Check Valves .......... 7

IV Design Features of Representative Operational Burst Disks ........... 8

xi
LIQUID ROCKET PRESSURE REGULATORS,
RELIEF VALVES, CHECK VALVES,
BURST DISKS, AND EXPLOSIVE VALVES

1. INTRODUCTION

Regulators, relief valves, check valves, burst disks, and explosive valves are used extensively
in liquid propellant rocket systems. These fluid-control devices are found in pressurizing
systems for propellant feed of reaction controls, in main-engine control systems, and in
vehicle tank pressurization systems. In the Saturn V vehicle, for example, there are 34
regulators, 62 relief valves, 286 check valves, and 64 burst disks, including explosive units.
Regulators reduce the pressure and control the flow of the gas to meet the demands of the
system. Relief valves protect the elements of both high- and low-pressure systems from
inadvertent overpressurization and failure. Check valves are unidirectional flow devices used
in control functions. Burst disks are passive flow-blocking members in a fluid-carrying line;
they initiate flow when ruptured by line pressure. Explosive valves are valving devices that
are actuated by a small explosive charge; they can be either normally open or normally
closed before actuation.

Many problems in the design and operation of these devices in space vehicles are created by
the stringent operational requirements and the severe service environments. High vibrational
loads have caused structural failures, loosened joints, and shifted operation beyond
acceptable limits. Low operational temperatures require that components be protected from
freezing moisture; special seals are required, and usable materials are limited. Other
operational problems have included unstable operation, slow response, regulated-pressure
overshoot and undershoot, fluid contamination, component/fluid compatibility, leakage,
failure to operate, and poor repeatability. The current proven reliability of these
components in liquid rocket systems demonstrates the benefits of careful investigation to
identify failure modes and extensive testing to prove the adequacy of the problem solution.

This monograph is based on a critical evaluation of the experiences and practices in the
design, test, and use of these control devices in operational space vehicles. The material in
the monograph is organized for natural and effective use by designers. Each of the five
devices is treated separately. The discussion on regulators includes selection of type of
assembly; detail problems with inlet valves, actuators, and control elements; and operational
problems. Relief valves contain many items similar to regulators, and therefore the
discussioncovers the same topics; in addition, because tank relief valvesfrequently are
combined with a tank venting function, some of the venting problems are included. The
check valve discussion covers the two basic types, poppet and flapper, and describes
problems resulting from the use of the check valve in spacevehicle systems.The various
problemsencountered in the designand application of burst disks are discussed.Explosive
valvesarespecializedunits with a limited sourceof manufacturerswho alsomakethe design;
most of the discussionof this componentthereforeis concernedwith operationalproblems.
For all of the units, the choice of optimum configuration is important, andguidesto aid in
configuration selectionareoutlined.

2
2. STATE OF THE ART

The technology for aerospace regulators, relief valves, and check valves originated in
commercial industry, where these units are used extensively; burst disks and explosive valves
have the same origin but are used on a limited scale. For aircraft applications, the rugged,
heavy commercial units were modified to reduce size and weight without loss of reliability
and long life. The early space vehicles and engines employed many of the aircraft
hydraulic-type controls modified for rapid response and operation in extreme vibration
environments. The requirements of cryogenic 1 oxidizers led to the development of new
sealing methods and the use of high-pressure stored helium or nitrogen for pressurization
and controls functions. In the upper stages of the Saturn vehicle, for example, the controls
and pressurization systems except for the hydraulic-controlled gimbaling system utilize
helium. The advent of storable propellants necessitated the development of control
components using materials compatible with these exotic fluids.

Regulators for space applications include single-stage, piloted, and series arranged units that
may have shutoff or lockup capabilities. Flow capacities have varied from very low flows
such as 0.002 lb/sec (0.91 x 10 -3 kg/sec) to very high flows such as 10.0 lb/sec (4.54 kg/sec)
with many types of gaseous media. Relief valves include direct-operated, inverted-operation,
and pilot-operated units; they may have redundant pilots, overrides to open and close, and
multiple cracking pressures. Flow capacities vary from 0.0065 lb/sec (2.95 x 10- 3 kg/sec) of
helium to 50.0 lb/sec (22.7 kg/sec) of gaseous oxygen. Check valves vary in size and type
and may be dual or quad arrangements for redundancy in critical application. Burst disks in
general are used for isolation or for zero-leakage applications. Explosive valves are used in
locations where fast, positive valve action is required. Tables I through IV list the
characteristics of some of the regulators, relief valves, check valves, and burst disks used in
space applications.

The basic design of space-type regulators and relief valves is essentially the same as that of
industrial types. The main differences are in the packaging and special features required to
maintain narrow-band regulation when input is changing rapidly and the unit is exposed to
environmental extremes. The interaction of components in complicated pneumatic control
systems is studied with simulators using actual components and with computerized
mathematical models. These tools are very useful in failure analysis and in solving stability
problems. To optimize the units, tradeoff studies are performed to select the configuration
that is best adapted to the system requirements and functional operation. The units in most
space applications are highly specialized and extensively tested to ensure reliable operation.
Components used in space applications are described in references 1 through 4; those for
commercial applications are treated in references 5 through 14.

ITerms, symbols, and materials are defined in the Glossary.

 Table 1. - Design Features of Re ,resentative Operational Pressure Regulators

Supply pressure
Flowrate Operating Temperature
Fluid (max./min.) Regulated pressure
Vehicle or F* K
psi MN/m 2 lbm/sec k_/sec
_ontrolled psi MN/m _
System Application

0.0109 -65 to+125 219 to 325

0.193 to 0.310 0.024
Guidance N2 3000/200 20.68/1.38 28 to 45
Jupiter

0.14 -65 to +125 219 to 325

2.07-+0.034 0.3
Roll control N2 3000/500 20.68/3.45 300-+5.0

0.454 -65 to +160 219 to 344

20.68/6.895 640-+25 4.41+0.17 1.0
N2 3000/1000
Thor Engine control

0.0118 -100 to+160 200to 344

24.13/4.83 25- + 1.5 0.17-+0.010 0.026
Fuel tank He 3500/700

pressurization

0.14 -65 to +160 219 to 344

20.68/6.895 790-+25 5.44- + 0.17 0.3
Mlas Engine control He 3000/1000

0.454 -65 to +450 219 to 506

He 21.37/0.758 64 to 67 0.44 to 0.46 1.0
Fuel tank 3100/110

pressurization

-65 to +450 219 to 506

0.16 to 0.25 1.0 0.454
Oxidizer tank He 3100/75 21.37/0.517 23 to 36

pressurization

0.0454 -260 to +290 I11 to 417

22.41 / 1.38 12.0-+0.5 0.083-+0.003 0.1
Titan 1 Fuel tank He 3250/200

pressurization
(1 st stage) 111 to 417
0.0499 -260 to +290
He 22.41/1.38 34.0-+0.5 0.234+_0.003 O. 11
Oxidizer tank 3250/200

pressurization

Agena Attitude control:

0.200 -90 to +200 206 to 367
3600/300 24.82/2.07 105+5 0.724_+.035 0.44
High mode Nz or CF4

4_ Low mode N2 or CF4 3200/50 22.06/0.345 4.5 to 6.0 0.031 to 0.041 0.018 0.00817 -90 to +200 206 to 367

228 to 344
2.07_+0.21 0.013 to 0.38 0.00590 to 0.172 -50 to +160
Attitude control N2 4000/375 27.58/2.59 3002--30
Delta

0.0381 -65 to +175 219 to 353

2.38_+0.069 0.084
He 4200/400 28.96/2.76 345- + 10
Tank pressurization

0.00113 -5 to +125 253 to 325

3.03 to 3.27 0.0025
Centaur Engine control He 3360/700 23.17/4.83 440 to 475

0.00113 -5 to +125 253 to 325

3.03/2.59 297 to 315 2.05 to 2.17 0.0025
H:O2 subsystem He 440/375

0.14 -65 to +160 219 to 344

20.68/6.895 750"2-25 5.17_+0.17 0.3
Saturn S-IC Control pressure He 3000/1000

and oxidizer" purge

144 to 333
2.76_+0.17 0.1 0.0454 -200 to + 140
He 3000/600 20.68/4.14 400-+25
S-II Engine control

1.09 to 2.04 -290 to +160 94 to 344

5.93 28.5 to 30.( 0.196 to 0.207 2.4 to 4.5
Fuel tank H: 860

pressurization

4.654 to 5.516 0.00167 0.0007575

He 3050/850 21.03/5.86 675 to 800
Control pressure,
fuel and oxidizer

2.04 to 4.763 .180 to +860 156 to 733

7.584 36.0 to 37.5 0.248 to 0.259 4.5 to 10.5
Oxidizer tank O_ 1100

pressurization

4.31 to 5.17 0.0083 0.00377

He 3050/1000 21.03/6.895 625 to 750
Helium injection,
fuel

0.0817 -423 to ÷ 160 21 to 344

1.72-+0.014 O. 18
S-IVB Fuel tank vent He 3100/400 21.37/2.76 250-+2

regulator

-125 to+165 186 to 347

21.37/4.14 475+25 3.28+0.17
He 3100/600
Control pressure,
fuel
 2_20 to + 1b0 !2 to 344
2.65-+0.17 0.45 0.204
20.68/3.45 385±25
Cold helium, He 3OOO/50O

oxidizer

Auxiliary power
system control: -65 to +110 21g to 317
1.35-+0.021 0.0033 0.00150
22.06/2.41 196-+3
Primary He 3200/350

0.00150 -65 to +110 '19 to 317

1.38-+0.021 0.0033
He 3200/350 22.06/2.41 20_3
Secondary

Lunar Modual Fuel and oxidizer He 1700/320 11.72/2.21 240 to 248 1.655 to 1.710 0.00867
0.0917
to 0.00393
0,0416
to

tank pressurization

Service Module Fuel tank

pressurization: -65 to +160 219 to 344

1.241 to 1.296 0.0242 0.0110
24.13/2.76 180 to 188
Primary He 3500/400

-65 to +160 219to344

1.282 to 1.338 0.0242 0.0110
He 3500/400 24.13/2.76 186 to 194
Secondary

Oxidizer tank

pressurization: -65 to +160 219to344

1.172 to 1.241 0.0242 0.0110
24.13/2.76 170 to 180
Primary He 3500/400

-65 to +160 219 to344

178 to 186 1.227 to 1.282 0.0242 0.0110
He 3500/400 24.13/2.76
Secondary

Command Reaction controls: 219 to 317

0.005 0.0023 -65 to+llO
291+_4 2.006+-0.028
He 4500/400 31,03/2.76
Module Primary

0.0023 -65 to+ll0 219 to 317

295_+4 2.034+-0.028 0.005
He 4500/400 31.03/2.76
Secondary

-60 to +200 222 to 367

0.241±0.014 0.0063 0.00286
26.89/1.38 35-+2
Attitude control N2 3900/200
Nimbus

-100 to -I-170 200 to 350

2.620-+0.138 5.1 2.31
33.10/3.45 38ff2-20
Freon #4 4800/500

Mercury -80 to +200 211 to 367

0.552-+0.069 0.004 0.0018
51.71/1.38 80_+10
02 7500/200
Gemini Life support
-150to+115 172 to 319
5.00-+0.14 0.009 0.0041
He 5200/820 35.85/5.65 725-+20
Fuel and oxidizer
Surveyor
pressurization

-100 to +160 200 to 344

0.0069-+0.0014 6.13 x 10 .7 2.78 x 10 'r
206.85/0.172 1.0-+0.2
Fuel cell H: 30,000/25

0.00028 -80 to +160 211 to 344

0.010-+0.0005 0.00061
34.48/1.38 1.5-+0.075
Electrorlics He 5000/200
NASA Reentry
pressurization

-10 to+160 250 to 344

0.10-+0.0069 0.0015 0.00068
27.58/1.03 15-+1
Cold gas attitude N2 4000/150
Ranger
control

-lO to+160 250 to 344

0.10_--0.0069 0.0015 0.00068
27.58/1.03 15-+1
Cold gas attitude N2 40001150
Mariner.
control

+14 to +167 263 to 34 z

2.12+-0.021 0.006 0.0027
24.82/2.76 308-+3
Fuel tank N2 3600/400

pressurization
-15 to +160 247 to 3_
O. 134-+0.069 0.0027" 0.0012
27,58/1.03 19.5-+10
Lunar Orbiter Cold gas attitude N2 4000/150

control

-65 to +125 219 to 322

1.24 to 1.38 0.0071 0.0032
26,34/4.48 180 to 200
N2 3820/650
Propellant tank
pressurization

-10to+160 250 to 34
0.34+-0.017 0.0022 0.0010
27.58/1.38 50-+2.5
N2 4000/200
Pioneer Cold gas attitude
control
 Table If. - Design Features of Representative Operational Relief Valves

Pressure
Vehicle or Fluid (full flow/reseat) Full flow Operating Temperature
System Application lbm/sec kg/sec °F K
[ Controlled psi I MN/m2 I
Thor Engine control N2 800/600 5.52/4.14 1.0 0.454 -65 to + 160 219 to 344

Fuel tank RP.1 38/32 0.26/0.22 1.33 0.603 -65 to + 160 219 to 344

Oxidizer tank 02 38/33 0.26/0.23 20.0 9.07 -310 to+160 83 to 344

Atlas Engine control N2 900/750 6.21/5.17 0.3 0.14 -65 to+160 219 to 344

Fuel tank He 71.7/68.5 0.494[0.472 0.5 0.23 -100 to +450 200 to 506

Oxidizer tank He 39.3/36.6 0.271/0.252 0.5 0.23 -100 to +450 200 to 506

Agena Attitude control N2 225/150 1.55/ 1.03 0.45 0.204 -90 to +200 205 to 367

CF4 225/150 1.55/1.03 0.t28 0.0581 -90 to +200 205 to 367

Centaur Engine control He 525/475 3.62[3.28 0.1 0.0454 -100 to +200 200 to 367

H2 02 subsystem He 354/320 2.44/2.21 0.1 0.0454 -100 to +200 200 to 367

Saturn S-IC Fuel tank He 35/30.5 3.0 1.36

0.24[0.21 -150 to +165 172 to 347

Oxidizer tank Oz 25.5/24.0 0.176/0.165 50.0 22.7 -320 to +450 78 to 506

S41 Engine conrol He 4000/3450 27.58/23.79 0.0065 0.0029 -200 to + 160 144 to 344

Fuel tank He 550/530 3.79/3.65 0.1 0.0454 -200 to +160 144 to 344

Fuel controls H2 29.5/27.5 0.203/0.190 5.5 2.49 -423 to +160 20 to 344

Oxidizer controls He 825/760 5.69/5.24 0.I 0.0454 -180 to+160 155 to 344

Oxidizer tank O: 42.0/39.0 0.290/0.269 18.0 8.16 -297 to + 160 90 to 344

S.IVB Fuel tank H2 34.0/31.0 0.23[0.21 1.5 0.680 -420 to + 160 22 to 344

Cold helium relief He 3500/3100 24.13[21.38 0.67 0.304 -420 to + 160 22 to 344

Auxiliary power He 375/325 2.59/2.24 0.104 0.0472 -40 to + 160 233 to 344
system control

Lunar Module Fuel and oxidizer He 275/254 1.90/1.75 0.167 0.0758

tank pressurizatior

Service Module Fuel and oxidizer He 250/225 1.7211.55 0.067 0.0304

tank pressurization
 Table III.- Design Features of Representaive Operational Check Valves

Fluid
Vehicle or Fluid flow- Cracking Pressure Loading
checked through psid MN/m 2 method Type
System Application
I
Lox He 10 0.069 Spring Poppet
Atlas Engine control

Lox Lox 2 0.014 Spring Flapper

RP-1 N2 10 0.069 Spring Poppet

Thor Engine control

Lox He 10 0.069 Spring Floating soft

Saturn Engine control
poppet

15 0.103 Spring Floating soft

H2 H2
poppet

RP-1 20 0.183 Spring Poppet

Glycol

Lox Lox 1 0.0069 Spring Flapper

 Table IV. - Design Features of Representative Operational Burst Disks

Vehicle or Fluid Burst Pressure Disk

System Application controlled psi MN/m 2 Material Type Installation
1

^^+25 2^_+0.172
Atlas Hypergol igniter TEAB, RP-1 6061-0 Coined Welded
300.70 •u/.0.483

Solid propellant Hot gas 650±50 4.48±0.345 3003-0 Coined Mechanically retained
gas generator

Titan Autogenous N2 04 vapor 300±30 2.07±0.207 1100-0 Coined Mechanically retained

pressurization
A-50 vapor 300±30 2.07±0.207 1100-0 Coined Mechanically retained

^^+25 ..+0.172
Saturn Hypergol igniter TEAB, RP-1 6061-0 Coined Welded
50u. 75 "_-0.517

^^+25 ^_+0.172
TEAB, RP-1 300.75 6061-0 Coined Welded
z'o/.0.517

Pump drain line 02 21±0.5 0.145±0.0034 1100-0 Coined Mechanically retained

.2.1 REGULATORS

The regulators in space applications are almost always special units designed specifically to
meet unique requirements. The rigid requirements, with particular emphasis on size, weight,
and efficient operation of the total system, have limited the use of readily available
commercial units. For example, when a commercial unit was used on an engine for the Atlas
vehicle, special procurement controls were necessary because product improvements or
material changes acceptable for most industrial usages could not be accepted for use in the
environment of the propulsion system. Once selected, a design configuration for space use
must not change in any way that is not planned or tested.

In large-engine control systems, the regulator maintains a constant-pressure source of gas to

operate engine control valves, main propellant valves, gas-generator valves, start systems, and
other control components. In systems using a pressurized, noncryogenic propellant for
hydraulic controls, the components are designed to operate at the variable pump output
pressure, and a pressure regulator is not required. In the pneumatic control systems,
variations of regulated pressure will affect valve timing and sequencing in engine start and
shutdown operation. On a Saturn engine, for example, a valve leaking high-pressure gas into
the helium control system resulted in an abnormally high control pressure that so altered
the shutdown timing that the engine was damaged seriously.

In reaction-control systems, the energy source for propellant feed is supplied by

high-pressure stored gas. The regulator maintains the desired pressurizing flow and pressure
to the propellant tanks as the stored-gas pressure decreases. The regulated-pressure tolerance
band is narrow and, in order to utilize as much of the stored gas as possible, the minimum
supply pressure approaches regulated pressure. If the regulator is required to lock up, i.e.,
shut off at a pressure above regulated pressure, the lockup pressure is established a minimum
above the maximum regulated pressure, and allowable leakage is kept small to limit gas loss
during vehicle coast time.

In large space vehicles, the propellant tanks are pressurized to provide a positive pump
suction head. For noncryogenic propellants, the high pressure of bottled gas is reduced by a
regulator to the level desired for pressurizing the tanks. Cryogenic propellant tanks are
pressurized by the propellant boiloff and, where necessary, by the addition of warm gaseous
propellant. This gaseous propellant is obtained by flowing high-pressure liquid propellant
through a heat exchanger, the pressure and flowrate being controlled with a regulator.

2.1.1 Assembly

Modulating pressure-reducing regulators are designed to maintain a constant pressure at a

chosen set point; they may be categorized as direct-acting, dome-loaded, or pilot-operated.
In the direct-acting regulator, the inlet valve is positioned by a sensor (or actuator) with a
reference load (usually a mechanical spring) for motion in one direction and a

9
regulated-pressureforce acting on the sensorfor motion in the opposite direction. In the
dome-loadedseries-arranged regulator, the referenceload to position the actuator and inlet
valve is a constant-pressurereferencethat may be suppliedfrom anexternal sourceor from
the regulator supply-pressuresourcereduced to the desired constant referencepressure.In
the piloted regulator, the force to position the actuator and inlet valve is a proportional
pressureforce controlled by a pilot valve that is positioned by a referenceload andsensed
variations in regulatedpressure.

Nonmodulating regulation systems are designed to maintain pressuresbetween chosen

limits; a signal from a pressureswitch that sensesvariations in tank pressure,for example,
opens and closesvalvesthat control the input of the pressurizinggas.The tank pressure
variesbetweenthe pressure-switchsettingsandthe additional pressurechangeresulting from
rate of changeof tank pressureandthe responsetime of the pressureswitch andvalve.Thus,
the tank pressurecontinually cycles betweenthe maximum andminimum pressurelevelsat
ratesproportional to the gasflowrate andpropellant flowrate.

As a first step in design, the designer selectsthe type of regulator best suited for the
application. All the design requirements, operational characteristics,and environmental
restraints must be establishedbefore the valve configuration is selected.The orientation,
acceleration loads, shock inputs, and vibrational levels of the vehicle in which the
component is used may be critical to the operation of the unit. Costly redesignshave
resulted from incompletely defined requirementsand a poor choice of configuration. When
there is insufficient time to redesign,a unit may be modified but still be marginal for the
application.

The choice of a modulating regulator assemblyis a progressiveprocedure. Although the

experienceddesignerintuitively may check only a limited approachto obtain a solution,
many considerationsareinvolved in selectingthe appropriate type of regulator.The designer
normally starts with the simplest type that could be used; if it fails to meet the design
requirementsor provesto be excessivelylarge for the system,he proceedsto the next level
of complexity. The effect of different factors on modulating regulator complexity is given
in figure 1. The direct-acting regulator is the simplest, with the fewest moving parts and
leakagepaths. The piloted regulator generally is the most complicated,with many moving
parts and leakagepaths. The simplestconfiguration will tend to havegreatestreliability and
lowest cost and weight. The system in which the regulator is to be used is reviewed
periodically to determine whether the desiredregulator performancecanbe relaxed. It may
be possible to use a less complicated designby changing the specified requirementsin a
manner that does not affect the system seriously. The final design representsthe best
availablecombination of performance,size,weight, and cost.

10
 Flowor supply-
pressurevariation

Pressure dropor
regulated-pressure
tolerance

Increasingcomplication_

Figure1. - Factorsin regulatorcomplexity.

2.1.1.1 DIRECT ACTING

A typical direct-acting regulator is shown in figure 2. After the inlet valve size, stroke, and
type have been established (sec. 2.1.2), the actuator (or sensor) size is determined. The
principal factor in sizing the actuator is the requirement to limit the regulated-pressure error
due to supply-pressure variation and flow demand (refs. 15 through 18). For steady-state
operating conditions, the regulated-pressure error per square inch of actuator area is
determined for the required supply-pressure variation and flow demand. The actuator and
its reference spring are sized to limit these errors _within the allowable regulated-pressure
tolerance. The resulting actuator and spring may be excessively large and the assembly may
be prone to malfunction when operating in vibration environments. When a given actuator
and reference spring become too large, a different type of regulator may be chosen in order
to reduce weight and improve operation.

As a general practice, the regulated-pressure error due to supply-pressure variation and flow
demand is limited to approximately 25 percent of the total allowable regulated-pressure
variation. Other sources of regulated-pressure errors include variation in temperature,
sustained acceleration, vibration, mechanical hysteresis, friction, and manufacturing
tolerances including spring-rate variation.

11
 l-_Actuator area, AA----_-_
I
I
w_////////////////.k///.
/ I
Actuator / _ ] _
(or sensor)-.. 5 _ _ j I_
\\ S, ,._,._..___ ! _ ,,,, Atmospheric pressure, PA

I
mpmg fluid / P g
volumeDa''
.... ___. References rln

Damping orifice J/i _ _ Regulated pressure. PR

:zSl_-__ I_. "--Inletvalve area, Ai

Supply pressure, PS,E,I_ __.
_. _-Inlet poppet
Bias spring -_ __, ' "

Figure 2. - Schematic of typical direct-acting regulator.

2.1.1.2 DOME LOADED

The dome-loaded configuration (fig. 3) uses a constant-pressure reference source and

actuator rather than the large reference spring to supply an actuation force for the inlet
valve. As the required flow demand increases, the corresponding inlet valve size increases,
and a large actuator is needed to limit the regulated-pressure error resulting from
supply-pressure variation and flow demand. An external reference source of
constant-pressure gas is not readily available in space applications, and a small-capacity
direct-acting pressure-unbalanced regulator (loader valve) is used to reduce the supply

Diaph ragm"7 /-- Actuator /-- 0 rifice

/ / i
Flow from = _\\\\\\\\\\\\\\,_qx\\\\

loader valve _"%\_,'_\\\\\\\\\\",3 _,,_'_N,_ I',\\\\\\\\\\\\\',! _"'_ To vent

Bias spring_/ 7////-//_///////_//_ t ormce

g _-///////////////. pressure

Supply press u re ,,,,1__

Reference sprln --J/

• g'--_"_/_/. \ ",__ Inlet poppet

Figure 3. - Schematic of typical dome-loadedregulator.

12
pressure to the desired reference pressure: With this arrangement, the errors of the small
loader valve are established such that reasonable sensor size and reference-load spring may
be used, and the main inlet valve actuator is sized to keep the total error of both regulators
within prescribed limits. This arrangement is adaptable to systems in which the small loader
valve either exhausts externally or locks up. Once again, if the springs_ sensor, and actuator
necessary to keep the regulated pressure within specified limits become large, a different
type of regulator must be considered.

2.1.1.3 PILOTED

In the piloted configuration (fig. 4), a relatively constant flow of control-pressure gas (bleed
flow) is supplied to the inlet valve actuator. The pilot valve or controller senses the regulated

Damping orifice-n _Control pressure

Bleed flow \
\
control orifice -1 _- Controller or pilot valve
/
Bleed flow /
/
pressure
regulator -_
,/- Reference
Reference _ spri ng

spring---_.... I_,
Sensor "_ _ /- Sensor
diaphragm

diaph ragm-., \_ _1_

_::
" _ Poppet
Poppet---.. -_....

vz-z, "" _ Diaphragm

/

"" _ Actuato r
Bias sl: _////

/////

Regulated
pressure

Supply
pressure "--- I nlet poppet

Figure 4. - Schematic of typical pilot-operated regulator.

pressure and varies the bleed flow out of the actuator, the resulting change in control
pressure being proportional to changes in regulated pressure. The inlet valve is positioned to
meet the regulator flow demand. The regulated-pressure error is a function of the gain in the
pilot circuit with its variables and the inlet valve errors. The control pressure may be

13
supplied by a bleed regulator that reduces the supply pressureto a relatively constant
pressure.The bleed-flow control orifice downstream of the bleed regulator controls the
quantity of bleed flow. Acceptableoperation of the pilot-operated regulator dependson the
correct sizing of the elements.

The configuration is analyzed at steady-state operating conditions to establish the

approximate sizes,strokes, and mechanicalcharacteristicsof the elements(refs. 19 and 20).
This steady-stateanalysis is followed by a dynamic analysis to verify that the response
characteristicsare satisfactory andthe operationis stable(refs. 21 and22).

2.1.1.4 NONMODULATING REGULATION SYSTEM

A nonmodulating pressure-regulating system, as used for pressurizing large tanks, consists

basically of a pressure switch for sensing tank pressure and an on-off valve for controlling
the pressurant flow. (A pressure transducer with an amplifying circuit may be substituted
for the pressure switch). When the tank pressure decreases, the electrical contacts of the
pressure switch close, and an electrical signal opens an electrically operated shutoff valve;
pressurant flows to the tank to increase the tank pressure. As the desired maximum tank
pressure is approached, the pressure-switch contacts open, the shutoff valve is deenergized,
and the pressurant flow stops. Thus the tank pressure varies between a maximum and
minimum with a cyclic period dependent upon the rate of change of tank pressure due to
tank fluid flowrate, pressurant flow, and operating time of the pressure switch and shutoff
valve. An analytical solution for the expected regulated-pressure variation of this type of
system is given in reference 23 ; the results of a series of tests of a nonmodulating system are
presented in reference 24. This system can be modified by providing several shutoff valves
that are connected in parallel and progressively opened to supply an increasing flow of
pressurizing gas as the tank ullage increases. The Centaur upper stage, for example, utilizes a
quadruple redundant switch arrangement that has been very effective.

A nonmodulating system requires an external source of energy. Failure of the power source
or any of its components can cause a failure of the pressurizing system. Regulated pressure
with a narrow tolerance band is difficult to achieve because it is dependent upon the
pressure-switch differential between open and close pressures. Some space vehicles have
employed this type of regulation for tank pressurization, but most vehicles have used
modulating regulators.

2.1.2 Inlet Valve

2.1.2.1 SIZE AND STROKE

The inlet valve of a regulator is positioned to control the fluid flow demand of a system and
to maintain the required regulated pressure of that system. It is essential that the flow area

14
be adequate but not oversize; the inlet valve actuator and control elements are
proportionally larger for an oversizeinlet valve and can increasethe size andweight of the
unit. The flow arearequired for the rated flow at the most adverseoperatingconditions is
determinedas an equivalent orifice size from the equation for isentropic compressibleflow
(ref. 25). The inlet valveseat diameter and stroke are sizedto provide this necessaryflow
area.Each type of valve- ball, cone, or flat poppet - requiresa different maximum stroke
and seat diameter. Stroke limitations of diaphragm-type actuators may determine the
maximum possiblestroke andinfluence the type of valveselected.

Regulator inlet valve design is determined by flow demand, pressure drop, leakage
requirements, type of fluid, temperature extremes, and the preference of the designer.
Successfuldesignshaveuseda ball poppet on a sharpcorner seat,a cone-shapedpoppet on a
cone-shapedseat, flat poppet and seat,trapped O-ring on a sharpcorner seat,anda rotating
disk and seat(butterfly). The poppets areguidedover their travel by pistonssliding in bores;
when balls are used, specialpiston-type followers retain the balls and slide in guiding bores.
Clearanceof the piston and bore, the normality of flat poppets or concentricity of conical
poppets, and the indexing of mating parts must be checked to ensure that the poppet
contacts the seatevenly andin alignment.The friction of thesepistons dampensmotion and
introduces hysteresisto valve operation. Butterfly valvesrequire sealson the rotating shaft;
thesesealscan introduce designproblems.Reference26 presentsdetails on valvepoppet and
seatcharacteristicsandgeneralvalvedesign.

2.1.2.2 FLOW PASSAGES

The type of inlet valve and its size and stroke are determined as described above. The flow
passages from the inlet to the outlet of the regulator are critical; the pressure drop in these
passages is held as small as possible so that a maximum amount of the allowable pressure
drop is available for regulation by the inlet valve. The effects of the pressure drop of an inlet
filter are considered. Pressure-flow characteristics of pneumatic valves are given in reference
27. If the passages downstream of the inlet valve are restricted and the flow of gas at the
downstream point is sonic, the inlet valve will not regulate the pressure as required; the
effects of restricted regulator outlets are described in references 28 and 29.

2.1.2.3 PRESSURE BALANCING

Pressure-balanced inlet valves are employed to decrease regulated-pressure errors and

actuator size; the best use is in applications requiring large flows with very accurate pressure
regulation (35.0+0.5 psig [241.3+-3.4 kN/m 2 ]). Four methods of balancing poppet-type
inlet valves are shown in figure 5. Although the dynamic seal (fig. 5(a)) is the simplest
arrangement, the inherent hysteresis and friction of the sliding seal limits the use of this
method of pressure balancing (ref. 30). The double-seated inlet valve (fig. 5(b)) is difficult
to design and expensive to manufacture because the two poppets must contact the seats
simultaneously for :sealing. Experience has demonstrated that the piloted closed-loop system
(fig. 5(c)) is basically unstable, i.e., the regulated pressure oscillat'es because of the high gain

15
 Regulated Regulated
p ressure pressure

t lnlet
_UttsluYre --_
ruttsluy
re _
poppet
Dynamic ._//_j_"_
m'ree
' Double-seated
ii nlet poppet
Atmospheric ././ press -- _'_---1
pressure-/ -,-.-.-.-.-.-.

(b) Double seated.

(a) Dynamic seal.

Regulated Regulated
pressure pressure

Supply _ A_x_x_]_N_x._-
_lnlet n,e,
pressure _\\\xx] [_X\NX,._ pressure _,_U_.__j/popp et
poppet
Controlled __,,_/._
Controlled _1_ _',,N'_I_,
cl eara nce _ _ _1_----_1_f_,,__1_.
clea rance_/_._._ _ //>
Balance- xj/_m\\\\_ lk\\\,,.-,],._ Balance- _/_/'_1_.._____ _/-_/.
pressure _//L E pressure _. _ I_
cavity J -_/_w/,_///////////))-,_////_ cavity _ _ -_.,Y./_/////P'.,_/
x_Pi lot Pi lot
poppet poppet

(d) Piloted open loop.

(c) Pi Ioted closed loop.

Figure 5. - Methods of balancing inlet valves.

of the system. For stable operation, Coulomb-damping rings are used on the inlet poppet to
reduce hunting of the poppet; the frictional drag of these rings reduces the accuracy of
regulation. The hunting also may be reduced by providing a large balance-pressure cavity.
Because this cavity is exposed to the high supply pressure, the size and weight of the
regulator is increased. In the piloted open-loop arrangement (fig. 5(d)), the initial pilot
motion bleeds down the balance pressure. Additional force must be provided to open the
inlet poppet, because the balance pressure exceeds the regulated pressure and the effective
areas upon which they act are essentially equal. The open-loop arrangement is stable, and
small flow demands are satisfied by the pilot valve stroke. When closed, both of the piloted
inlet valves are pressure-unbalanced for sealing. The design involves numerous details and
manufacturing difficulties including the controlled clearance of the inlet poppet in its
guiding bore; conseqtiently, there is limited use of piloted inlet valves. A butterfly-type inlet
valve is nearly pressure-balanced and is utilized where positive shutoff is not a requirement.

2.1.3 Actuator

In direct-acting regulators, the sensor with its reference-load source generally is used to
actuate the inlet valve. In dome-loaded units, a separate actuator is required; one type of
actuator used in dome-loaded regulators is controlled by the output pressure of the loader
valve as shown in figure 6. In a pilot-operated regulator, the actuator is positioned by the

Actuating press u re cavity--k f-- Actuator /-- 0 rift ce

/ /
\
FlOWfrom _\\\\\\\'_. \\\\_._'_ _\\_\_\\\\\\_',_\\\"_ Tr°veInIe_r
eg
loader
valve Ix\\\\\\\\\\ ._'_N. _ pressure

"//////"//)x \
N,.ua O
_ p ress u re
Diaphragm -__
" %/x/,>/,<///_'.//>".
Actuator stroke -/ /Zl_ "_, x_ Inlet-valve "--Bias spnng
actuation pin

Figure 6. - Schematic of actuator for dome-loaded regulator.

actuating pressure resulting from the pilot valve or controller varying the rate of flow out of
the actuating-pressure cavity into which a regulated-pressure flow is supplied, as shown in
figure 7. Details on actuator designs, characteristics, materials, and associated problems are
presented in reference 31.

17
 f-Orifice /- Actuator F- Actuating pressure cavity
/ I /
Flow from e,xternal :_\_\_\,/_\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\x,_ To
source or oleed _ _:_l.k\ _\\\\\\\\'_-'_ ,/ I_x_,,\\\\\\'-_,',,\\'x.3_L_\'_
.I controller

regulator
Diaphragm-J.. "'/j _///'///_ _.__///"
Damping-fluid -- ._. _ _/"//_
2-- ,,"ressure
_)_ Regulated

s h__ • ..
• • -- < _w----'--'--_///_._ , _,_. _ Damping orifice
Bias spring __i _ ____J./}_=_:__Z _./_
,
_1 _ [_ LActuator stroke

I nlet-valve actuation pin

Figu re 7. - Schematic of actuato r fo r pi Ioted reg u larDr.

2.1.3.1 TYPE

The actuator may be a piston, diaphragm, bellows, or bladder; the choice depends on the
application. Type of fluid, operating-temperature range, regulated-pressure tolerance,
vibration and acceleration loads, response requirements, and stable operation must be
evaluated in the design selection.

Pistons with O-ring dynamic seals may be used when temperature range and compatibility
with the fluid permit the use of elastomers. Metallic diaphragms and bellows generally are
used when the application involves exposure to extreme temperature or to corrosive fluids
and when low friction is desired. Bellows of corrosion resistant steel (CRES) or beryllium
copper are common; machined, welded, or brazed construction has been satisfactory.
Diaphragms of Mylar, fiberglass cloth backed with Teflon, rubber-coated nylon cloth, and
rubber have been used. The radius around which a diaphragm flexes is critical; normally this
radius is a minimum of 0.01 in. (0.254 mm), and is designed to blend smoothly with the
diaphragm clamping surface.

In Mylar actuator and sensor diaphragms, random failures attributable to rupture of the
material have occurred; extensive testing simulating actual operating conditions with a
variety of configurations has failed to indicate the basic cause. Mylar has mechanical
properties that make it attractive for use as a diaphragm material: relatively high strength,
ease of forming, low permeability factor, and a modulus that produces low spring rates; the
advantages of this material, however, must be carefully evaluated against the consequences
of random failure.

18
2.1.3.2 SIZE

The actuator size is a function of the regulated-pressure tolerance and the forces required to
operate the inlet valve. To arrive at the proper size, the designer evaluates the errors caused
by supply-pressure variation, inlet valve position, acceleration forces, mechanical hysteresis
and friction, thermal effects, flow forces on valves, and vibration effects. For piloted
regulators, the actuation-pressure variation is determined by the orifices controlling fluid
flow and by the characteristics of the pilot valve or controller that senses the
regulated-pressure variations. The gain of the overall system must be sufficient to result in
the desired regulation. Common practice is to evaluate known variables and then provide
additional actuating force for other second-order factors.

2.1.3.3 RESPONSE

Actuator response and stability of operation are functions of the relative volume of fluid
surrounding the actuator and of the characteristics of the pilot valve or controller, the
orifices that meter the flow of control fluid, and the bias spring. Two examples of
operational problems and solutions illustrate these interrelationships:

(1) In a direct-acting regulator used on an Atlas engine, a sustained audible

high-frequency instability was produced during high-flow operation. The volume
of damping fluid was small, and the damping orifice was large (fig. 2). The
damping-fluid volume and orifice size were changed to tune the circuit and
eliminate the instability. A method of analyzing this type of design is given in
references 32 (sec. 5.5), 33, and 34.

(2) In a piloted regulator used on a Saturn engine, the damping-fluid volume under
the actuator was large and the damping orifice was small (fig. 7). During initial
pressurization, the actuator response was slow; a high-pressure spike occurred in
the regulated pressure, and the controller sensing diaphragm ruptured. The
damping-fluid volume and orifice were changed to decrease the actuator response
time and reduce the pressure spike to tolerable limits.

Variations in actuator stroke and friction and changes in the gas or mixture of gases also
affect actuator response. A computer program with controlled arbitrary variations of these
factors (ref. 21) is used to study the dynamic operation of the regulator.

2.1.3.4 BIAS SPRING

A bias spring is used with a dome-loaded or pilot-controlled regulator actuator to position

the inlet valve to make the regulator normally open or normally closed. The actuators
shown in figures 6 and 7 are opposed by bias springs; in each, the inlet valve is closed, and
pressure from the loader valve or other source must exceed regulated pressure to open the

19
inlet valve. If the bias spring assisted the actuator, the inlet valve would be held open until
the pressure from the loader valve increased to a level approaching regulated pressure. The
characteristics of the bias spring thus can affect regulator operation.

In a reaction-control system, the propellant tank pressurization gas is supplied through a

pressure-reducing regulator from bottles initially at a high pressure. As the gas in the bottles
is used, the pressure at the regulator inlet decreases. The most effective use of the bottled
gas is made when the regulator maintains the regulated pressure at minimum inlet pressure.
In one instance, when a dome-loaded actuator of the type shown in figure 6 was operated
with a minimum inlet pressure and high flow demand, the regulated pressure decreased
below the required minimum. Then the actuation pressure _upplied to the actuator by the
loader valve was not sufficient to open the inlet valve fully. To compensate for this decrease
in opening force, a variable-rate Belleville spring was used to reduce the closing force of the
bias spring at the full-open position.

2.1.4 Control Elements

The regulator includes a variety of detail elements that are required to meet the specified
performance. All regulators have a reference load that is adjustable to the regulated-pressure
set point. Other control elements are pilot valves, controllers and bleed regulators, shutoff
valves, thermal compensators, control orifices, and absolute-pressure reference.

2.1.4.1 SPRING REFERENCE LOAD

The reference load is normally a coil spring or Belleville spring. When an absolute-pressure
reference is required, an evacuated bellows is used with or without a spring. The movements
of the reference load and its moving parts are made as frictionless as possible because this
source of regulated-pressure error may be amplified if there is gain in the system. The
springs are supported in a manner that avoids introducing side loads. When ordinary springs
create unacceptable side loads, springs with specially ground ends that are square with the
axis when the spring is compressed to the operational length often are used (ref. 35). The
theory of spring design is given in reference 36. Current practices for good spring design are
discussed in reference 31. A method for stacking Belleville springs is given in reference 37.

2.1.4.2 PILOT VALVE CIRCUIT

A variety of pilot circuits is available for use in piloted and dome-loaded regulators (ref. 38);
these circuits are shown in figures 8 and 9. (All terms used in figures 8 and 9 are defined in
the Glossary). At the start of a new design, the pilot circuits are reviewed and the most
suitable type is selected.

20
 Negative-gain Negative-gai
n Negative-gai n Negative-gain
noninterflow interflow restriction inlet restriction outlet
PS> PC> PR Ps>Pc>PR_ PR> PC> PA PR>Pc>PA _ _,_
Nobleed Bleeds

Locksup
Locksup

[-9 _//////////A

Zero-gain Zero-gain Zero-gain Zero--gain

noninterflow i nterflow restriction inlet restriction outlet
PS> PC> PR PS> PC> PR
Bleeds PBleedsR
> PC > PA _ PBleedsR
> PC > PA _///.///////_,

t-J

Nobleed

Positive-gain Positive_ain Positive-gai n Positive-gain

noni nterflow interflow restriction inletr////2/////////A
PS> PC> PR PS> PC> P'R F7_2_ PR> PC> PA _ PR > PC> PA
Locksup

Lo, u0 VA Pc_
Bleeds

restriction outlet_
Nobl_ F.////////////A

F_//////////////////_

(a) Exhaustof bleedflowto regulatedpressure

Figure8. - Pilot circuits with supplypressureas sourceof pilot pressure.

 Negative-<jain Negative-gain Negative--gain
Negative-gai n
restriction inlet restriction outlet noninterflow
Ps>Pc>P
PS> PC > PA
Bleeds Z_'//////////A Locksup Locksup

interflow _
PS> PC> PA _
_S b/eP_
V/Z/Z//////]

Zero-gain Zero-gain Zero-gain

Zero-gain
restriction i n let restriction outlet
PS> PC> PA PS > PC> PAF/_ _k_APA_
Ps>Pc>PA
Bleeds No bleed Bleeds

Ps>Pc>PA n°ninterfl°;_ interfl°w _/_/_ A

t,J Bleeds

Positive-gai n Positive-gai n Positive-gain Positive-gai n

restriction inlet noninterflow interflow
PS> PC> PA PS> PC> PA_/X_
PS> PC> PA No ble_
Bleeds Locks up __

Locksup restriction outle_

Ps>P >P_

(b) Exhaust of bleed flow to atmosphere

Figure 8. - Pilot circuits with supplypressure as source of pilot pressure. Concluded.

 Negative-gai n Negative-gain Negative-gai n Negative-gai n
restriction inlet restriction outlet F777777_ noninterflow interflow
PS> PC> PR PS> Pc>PR __IP'/j'_ PR> PC> PA PR> PC> PA
No bleed Locks up

Bleeds Locksup @

Zero-gain Zero-gai n Zero-gain Zero-gai n

restriction inlet restriction outlet noninterflow interflow V/j___
PS > PC > P RF_//////////]'_ PR > PC> PA PR> Pc>PA_ _p _/_
Bleeds Bleeds No bleed

t.aO PS > PC >

Bleeds __

r/////////////A

Positive-gain Positive-gain Positive-gain Positive-gai

n
restriction inlet noninterflow interflow
restriction outlet [7-/'-_E_
Ps>Pc>PR _J"/'_ __,A_ PR> PC> PA PR> PC> PA
No bleed Locksup

LP°S_sPuC>.
P_ Bleeds

"//////////////_

Figure 9. - Pilot circuits with regulated pressure as source of pilot pressure, exhaust of bleed flow to atmosphere.
The pilot circuits are divided into two classifications depending on the source of pressure to
the pilot: (1) circuits using the supply pressure as a pressure source and (2) circuits using
regulated pressure as a pressure source. Type (1) circuits may exhaust the pilot bleed flow to
the regulated pressure (fig. 8(a)) or to atmosphere (fig. 8(b)); type (2) circuits must exhaust
the pilot bleed flow to atmosphere (fig. 9). These latter circuits have limited application
because of the exhaust-to-atmosphere requirement, but do have an advantage of a relatively
constant source of pilot pressure.

Pilot circuits may have zero, negative, or positive gain. Zero-gain circuits generally are
utilized on dome-loaded regulators, in which the pilot sensor references the
inlet-valve-actuator control pressure and maintains the control pressure at the desired
relatively constant pressure. In general, negative-gain pilot circuits are used for
pressure-reducing regulators, and the positive-gain pilot circuits for back-pressure regulators.
Noninterflow pilot circuits are seldom used, because of a possible regulated-pressure band in
which the regulator does not control and the pressure may hunt between the pilot-valve
limits. The interflow pilot circuit is complicated but has the advantage of reducing the
recovery time when the regulated pressure overshoots or undershoots the allowable
regulated-pressure range.

The location of the flow-path restriction as inlet or outlet affects the transient response of
the regulator. With the restriction inlet, the regulator response time for a sudden
termination of flow demand will be less than that for a sudden increase of flow demand.
The restriction-outlet piloted regulator will have response characteristics opposite to those
of the restriction inlet. The choice between a pilot circuit that will bleed or lock up, or will
exhaust to atmosphere or to regulated pressure, depends on the requirements of the system
controlled by the regulator.

2.1.4.3 ORI FleE

Orifices are used in regulators to control flow or to provide damping. For effective control
by an orifice, the flow passages upstream and downstream of the orifice must be sufficiently
large that the orifice is the primary restriction. When the allowable variation in controlled
flow is nominal, the manufacture and inspection of sharp-edge orifices are controlled so that
the orifice may be used as manufactured. When the control of flow must be precise, each
orifice is flow-calibrated, and orifices not meeting calibration limits are reworked to
specification. The installation of the orifice is controlled to ensure that the flow direction is
correct. Orifice plates must be sealed adequately to prevent bypass flow. The control of
flow by an orifice that is eccentric to the flow passage is described in reference 39;
additional flow-control characteristics of orifices are given in references 40 through 44.

Sintered metal was used as a flow restrictor in early space vehicles. In cryogenic
applications, frozen moisture ("snow") is trapped in the pores of the sintered metal.
Complete failure of a regulator has occurred when the frozen moisture accumulated in the
sintered material and blocked the flow of control gas.

24
2.1.4.4 THERMAL COMPENSATOR

Accurate pressure regulation throughout a wide range of temperature requires provision for
thermal compensation; uncompensated regulators will shift pressure setting approximately 3
percent per 100°F (55.6K) change in temperature. The reference load of the sensor is the
critical item. When a coil spring is used, variations in the required reference load will occur
because of thermal expansion or contraction of the supporting structure and changes in
spring rate resulting from changes in modulus of rigidity (the major factor) and from
thermal expansion or contraction (ref. 45). When a regulator is adjusted at room
temperature and then cooled, the spring housing contracts, decreasing the installed length of
the spring and thereby increasing the reference load; in addition, the cooling of the spring
increases the spring rate. The resultant reference-spring load and regulator pressure setting is
the product of effective increased deflection of the spring and the increased spring rate.

The spring-supporting structure in temperature-compensated designs uses combinations of

materials to alter the installed spring length so that a constant refere_lc_ load is maintained
over the temperature range; Invar and CRES are preferred materials. The amount of
compensation varies with the relative lengths of the elementary details. A means of varying
the relative lengths of the metals is shown in figure 10(a); the location of the screws in the
Invar governs the effective length of the two materials. With this type of compensator, it is
possible to preclude almost completely a shift in regulated pressure setting as a result of
temperature change. In an attempt to gain a greater difference in coefficients of thermal
expansion, tests were made with Teflon, Kel-F, and nylon plugs; however, these materials
tended to cold flow during long storage periods and did not return to their original
dimensions when cycled through a wide variation in temperature.

Another thermal compensation arrangement is shown in figure 10(b). To minimize the

setting shift due to changes in spring rate, a spring material with the minimum change in
thermal expansion and modulus of rigidity is used; Ni-Span-C wire is a common choice. With
this type of thermal compensator the regulated-pressure setting will shift approximately 1
percent per 100°F (55.6K) change in temperature.

2.1.4.5 SHUTOFF VALVE

In some systems, a shutoff is required between the pressure source of bottled gas and the
pressurized system. The shutoff valve normally is electrically operated and, if
pressure-unbalanced-to-close for low leakage, will require a large, heavy actuator. To reduce
the actuator size and weight, the valve may be pressure-balanced, with added complication
and possible excessive leakage at high inlet pressures. With a normally closed regulator
arrangement as shown in figure 4, the pressure-unbalanced solenoid shutoff valve may be
used immediately downstream of the bleed-flow pressure regulator. In this location, the
shutoff-valve flow capacity and inlet pressure are low, and the valve is small and light. The
three leak paths- regulator inlet poppet, bleed-flow regulator poppet, and shutoff-valve

25
Effective length of CRES : jF-CRES cap
.if j
actual length of ;RES
...._ i _CRES gu,de"

minus
Actuallength
lengthA.--_ _._._,\\\\\
X\_"_ _NI ___--------_
_.,4 /"_ jj "
of _ . _ _ _._.---Invarsupport

_ _ ___ _ _;-_. n-Cspring

Effective length rut iner

of Invar _

(a) Adjustable thermal compensator.

//-ORES cap

" - //,4,
.- .///.

I nvar guide--.. "" _ V,t

//// p'//

"/'/z
__Ni-Span-C spring
(__ Y//
Y/l,

,///,

C RESretainer----
"//_/"

'-Diaphragm

(b) Fixed thermal compensator.

Figure 10. - Types of thermal compensators.

26
poppet - involve pressure-unbalanced-to-close poppets that have low leakage. A
low-capacity relief valve is added between the bleed-flow pressure regulator and the shutoff
pilot valve to limit overpressurizing the low-pressure control circuit by leakage from the
bleed-flow pressure regulator.

2.1.4.6 FLOWLIMITER

When a system having a small ullage and a normally open regulator is pressurized, the initial
pressure transient can exceed the maximum allowable regulated pressure. This transient can
be controlled or limited by restricting the flow to the regulator inlet. For example, in one
reaction-control system, an initial pressure surge caused the relief valve to relieve and
ruptured a burst disk. As the burst disk was installed in the system to limit external leakage
during long hold periods, its function was destroyed. A flow limiter was added to the
regulator inlet, and the regulator had time to close before an excess flow overpressurized the
system.

Two kinds of flow limiters are in use. In the step-type flow limiter shown in figure 1 l(a),
the initial high flow creates a pressure drop across the flow-restricting poppet. This drop
causes the poppet to move to the position where the flow-limiting orifice is the only flow
passage. When the high flow stops, the poppet shuttles to the open position where flow area
is sufficient for normal operation. A variable flow limiter, shown in figure 1 l(b), provides a
movable piston that determines the open position of a metering valve; this type of unit can
be designed to be effective over a range of the supply pressure. If either kind of flow limiter
should fail in its actuated position, the normal function of the regulator will be affected.
Because the flow limiter is a secondary device, the design must have high reliability.

2.1.5 Operational Problems

Regulators are subject to a variety of problems during operation. Redesign of the unit or
careful control of operating procedures may be necessary. Typical problems involve
contamination, lubricants, vibration, freezing of moisture in moving parts, and stability.

2.1.5.1 CONTAMINATION

The low-leakage requirements, Critical flow passages, and close clearance of moving parts
necessitate protecting the regulator from contaminated fluids. Metallic fragments from
rupture disks and explosive valves have seriously damaged seats and working parts of
regulators downstream from the disk or valve. In cryogenic applications, snow trapped in
valve seats has caused severe leakage. When orifices have been plugged by solid particles, the
regulator did not maintain the desired regulated pressure. When the regulated fluid is helium

27
Flow-limiting orifice-..

Inlet
To regulator _ I _ .,,_s_x-_-_-_

,_,_;;,_ ,

Combined normal flow area -/ _-- Flow-restricti ng poppet

(a) Step type.

Flow-limiting
actuation piston---

O0
I n let
o 0
• O

I
Outlet

(b) variable type.

Figure 11. - Types of flow limiters.

28
or hydrogen, particles may be moving at the velocity of sound. Traveling at this high
velocity, small particles have been known to puncture Mylar diaphragms; to prevent this, a
filter is provided at the inlet of the regulator. The filter should have a low pressure drop and
adequate contaminant handling capabilities; the pore size should be small enough to remove
the size particle that may cause failure. Special filters may be added to protect critical
orifices. Detailed information on filters is available in reference 46. Regulator internal
details are not protected by the filter, however, and cleaning, handling, and assembly
procedures must be established to prevent building contaminant into the assembly (ref. 47).

2.1.5.2 LUBRICANTS

In regulators with dynamic O-rings that are not lubricated by system fluids, a lubricant must
be used to reduce the breakout and running friction. The lubricant must be effective over
the operating temperature range and compatible with the fluid in the system being
pressurized (e.g., oxygen, RP-1). Reference 48_provides a guide to the selection of
lubricants. Regulators with lubricated O-rings have exhibited sustained pressure oscillation,
transient operation beyond allowable regulated pressure limits, and failure to operate in cold
environments. These malfunctions were caused, respectively, by excessive amounts of
lubricant, by lubricant that had dried out and become sticky during long periods of storage,
and by the use of an incorrect lubricant.

In cryogenic applications, O-rings are not used. A dry-film lubricant may be used to reduce
friction and wear. This was the case in a regulator where a sliding push rod galled and the
unit did not maintain allowable pressure regulation. The particles generated by the galling
damaged other parts of the regulator. A dry-film lubricant was added to the push rod, and
the failure was not repeated. The preferred dry-film lubricant is a type that is permanently
bonded to the surfaces. Reference 49 provides guides for the selection of dry-film
lubricants.

2.1.5.3 VIBRATION

In a piloted regulator with a continuous external bleed, the pilot valve controller varies the
rate of fluid flow from the inlet valve actuator cavity. Because the flow into the actuating
cavity is relatively constant, actuating pressure is a function of the exit flow through the
controller. For a steady-state operating condition, the flow through the controller is
constant, and the forces on the controller valve, sensor, and reference spring are balanced. In
vibration environments, the spring-loaded mass of the controller resonates. The resonating
controller valve varies the fluid flow from the actuator. Under these conditions, the
regulated pressure oscillates or shifts from its normal setting and may exceed the permissible
tolerance. With stops added to both ends of the controller valve travel, the flow variation is
limited and the controller valve oscillates between full-open and full-closed. Since the
nominal setting of the controller is mid-position for a steady-state condition, the
controller-valve strokes for the fully open and fully closed time are approximately equal
(average controller flow area unchanged), and the regulated pressure remains relatively

29
constant. Under transient flow conditions, the forces on the sensorareunbalanced,andthe
controller valve is either fully open or closedfor a longer period of time. As the fluid flow
through the controller valve changes,the pressureto the actuator changesand, asa result of
a new inlet valve position, the regulatedflow changes.At this new steady-statecondition,
the controller flow is constant, the controller-valve dwell-open period being longer or
shorter becauseof the new balanced-forcecondition of the controller. The shift in regulated
pressure producing the new balanced-force condition of the controller is the
regulated-pressureerror due to the new flow demand. A vibration-induced resonating
condition in a controller valve with stops thus limiting the poppet stroke as necessarywill
have a minimal effect on regulated-pressureerror. Shock mounting has been utilized to
eliminate induced vibration; however, this method generally is ineffective when metallic
lines areusedor when cryogenicfluids precludethe useof elastomericcompounds.

2.1.5.4 MOISTURE IN REFERENCE CAVITY

In most regulators, the sensors are exposed to the regulated pressure on the inner surface
and must reference atmospheric pressure on the outer surface. The atmospheric reference
normally contains the reference spring in a retaining closure or spring cavity with an opening
to atmosphere to permit breathing due to sensor motion. The spring cavity must be
protected from liquids, moist air, or other foreign matter that can enter through the
breather opening. Frozen liquids have stopped sensor stroking, closed motion clearances,
altered spring characteristics, damaged diaphragms, and resulted in regulator malfunctioh.
When regulators are used to blow down tanks, the regulator becomes chilled due to the
thermodynamic processes involved, and moisture condenses in the reference-spring cavity.
This condensed moisture must be removed between blowdown tests to avoid failures that
can occur if the moisture freezes, or the moisture must be prevented from reaching the
cavity.

One solution to the moisture problem is to provide a breather tube routed so that it will
restrict entrance of liquids into the spring cavity; however, the tube diameter must be
sufficiently large to prevent capillary action from drawing liquid into the cavity.

The cavity can be protected from the entrance of moisture by covering it. Covers of
different shapes may be used. The liquid deflector with multiple noninterconnecting airflow
passages shown in figure 12 has prevented liquids from entering spring cavities while the
regulator was exposed to simulated or actual rain for extended periods of time.

Another solution to the problem of preventing moisture in the reference cavity is the use of
a vent port check valve (sec. 2.3.3.5). However, the valve operation creates a variable back
pressure on the sensor, and these valves are not used when accurate regulation is required.

In general, however, regardless of the method used to protect the reference cavity, the
regulator moving parts that may be exposed to moisture or other contamination are less
susceptible to failure when the designer avoids close clearances with long overlaps.

30
 _- Noni nte rcon necting ai r
,.,_// vent passages

,'/,I t,.,., _.. .... .... \ .. v. , ./ I f- Lock nut --'_"" ,_ _,,._

/

urng
1
Drill

-- Reference spring cavity

Figure 12. - Cover for atmospheric-pressure reference cavity cover.

2.1.5.5 STABI LITY

Under actual operating conditions, a regulator can become unstable if flow dynamics reduce
to a relatively low level the forces available for damping. Location of the sensing passage
from the flowing section to the controller section is important for stability. If the sense
point is in an area of flow turbulence, unstable operation can result. If the sense point is
located in a region where cross-sectional flow area changes, an erroneous outlet pressure can
result. Remote sensing, i.e., sense point is located a significant distance downstream of the
regulator, introduces an inherent instability created by transmission lag and pressure drop
between the regulator and the sense point. Sustained flow rates higher than normal can also
result in regulator instability. For example, a direct-operated regulator pressurizing an
engine lubricating-oil tank performed satisfactorily under normal flow conditions. However,
when an empty tank was pressurized during engine checkout, the sustained abnormally high
gas flow produced oscillations that resulted in severe damage to the regulator actuator
mechanism. Considerable redesign effort was expended in making the regulator acceptable
for the checkout condition.

Regulators exhibiting extremely high gain (i.e., a small error signal results in a large
corrective action) are often unstable and require additional analysis to ensure stability. The
piloted closed-loop inlet valve described in section 2.1.2.3 is an example of a basically
unstable high-gain device. The inlet valve was utilized in an advanced-development regulator
(refl 19). A digital-computer program for analysis of the regulator had indicated that the
inlet valve would limit cycle. Because of the low amplitude and high frequency of the limit
cycling, there was no indication that regulated pressure would also limit cycle. When the

31
regulator was tested, the significanceof the limit cycling becameapparentwhen the inlet
valve was destroyed by unstableoperation. Coulomb-dampingrings wereaddedasa method
of stabilization. It should be noted that the digital computer program usedfor the analysis
was relatively unsophisticated in comparison with the capabilities of currently available
analyses(ref. 21). The program synthesizedonly the regulator, whereaspresentpractice is
to synthesizethe entire systemso that the interaction of all componentscanbe studied.

2.1.6 Leak Testing

When pneumatic regulators are required to lock up, it is desirable to determine the inlet
valve seat leakage in the lockup condition. Leakage testing methods for general use are
described in reference 50. In some missions, however, the vehicle may coast in space for
long periods of time, and leakage by the locked-up regulator functioning as a shutoff valve
could deplete the supply of bottled gas and result in mission failure. Further, the regulator
lockup leakage discharging into a closed system can cause an increase in initial actuation
pressure that changes valve operating times; normal engine starting can be affected by a
change in valve operating times. Most regulator functional tests check the inlet valve leakage
with supply pressure at the inlet and atmospheric pressure at the outlet. If the allowable
leakage is less than 10 cm 3/hr, flowmeters cannot be used. With supply pressure upstream
and regulated pressure downstream of the inlet valve, halogen or helium leak detectors
cannot be used. Thus, a special leak test (described fully in section 3.1.6), is used to verify
that the maximum allowable leakage will not be exceeded with the regulator in the lockup
condition.

The special lockup leak test is based on measured changes in pressure and temperature of
the regulated pressure of a locked-up regulator over an extended period of time. The
regulator outlet is connected to a known volume. With a constant supply pressure, the
changes in pressure and temperature for a time period are noted. These values are
substituted in equation (4) (sec. 3.1.6); the solution indicates the leakage. The equation
includes terms for the gas characteristics and the system physical variables. The numerical
values of the variables are chosen to reflect the most adverse conditions. Therefore, the
leakage calculated will never be less than actual leakage.

2.2 RELIEF VALVES

Relief valves protect fluid-system components from overpressurization. Overpressurization

typically results from thermal changes or from leaking valves. For low flows, simple,
direct-operating relief valves are used; for high flows such as those on large-vehicle tanks,
pilot-operated relief units are used. Relief valves differ from most valves in that their
operation creates a high pressure drop during flow; other valves are designed for minimal
pressure drop.

32
To selecta configuration, a tradeoff study to evaluateall the designrequirementsis made.
Sufficient analysis is performed to provide a basis for comparing the operational
characteristicsof the various candidatearrangements.The chief factors consideredinclude
flow, full-flow and reseatpressures,temperature range,response,vibration, acceleration,
overrides,possibledual-pilot operation, and the location of the unit in the vehicle. In some
cases,the valvemay be requiredto relievea mixture of gasesor propellant vapors.The detail
design must consider allowable leakage,use of dynamic seals,and selection of materials
compatible with the fluids handled. When performance is equal, the choice between
alternate arrangementsis determined by secondaryfeaturessuch as number of leak paths,
easeof assembly,adjustment of set point, locking devices,size, weight, maintainability,
reliability, and cost.

A specializedversion of the relief valveis usedon vehicle tanks.During the filling of a tank,
the main poppet of the relief valveis held open by an actuator and the unit acts asa vent
valve with a low pressuredrop. A device that performs both of these functions is called a
vent-and-relief valve. These units may have position indicators, solenoid valves for
controlling the venting actuator, and dual pilots: one for normal operation, and the other
for proof-testing the vehicle tank. The "normal" pilot is isolated during use of the "test"
pilot. The designmust be reviewedcarefully to ensurethat the normal relieving function of
the valvecannot be blocked inadvertently.

2.2.1 Size

The first step in choosing a relief valve is to determine the area necessary to handle the
required flow. The relieving flow area is determined for the maximum flow of gas at
maximum allowable relieving pressure. The equation for isentropic compressible flow
through orifices (ref. 25) is used in this calculation. The relieving flow area must be
adequate to prevent system overpressurization under all operating conditions. If the relief
valve is protecting a system with a regulator, the relief valve must be capable of flowing the
discharge of a regulator that has failed in the fully open position (a "runaway" regulator).

2.2.2 Assembly

Relief valves may be direct-operating, inverted-operation, or pilot-operated. The

direct-operating and inverted-operation relief valves are basic arrangements; typical
schematics are shown in figures 13 and 14. The accompanying graphs of seating force vs
pressure indicate the anticipated leakage characteristics of these arrangements. As leakage
tends to be a function of the force holding the poppet on the seat, the seating force shown
is the force resulting from the application of the reference-spring closing force and a varying
opening or closing force due to the increasing system pressure acting on the
pressure-unbalanced area of the poppet. At cracking pressure, the force holding the poppet
on the seat is zero.

33
 Cracking pressure_
\
\

Nominal operating \
pressure --,
\
_- Reference spring \
\
\ \
\
\ \\
\

,u,, .... _//_ t = !_/_Se_a/i

ou,,e
diamete r
(J
o
u_
t

c_.
o
c_.

Pressure

Valve schematic Seating force vs pressure

(a) Modulating.

Cracking pressure- l
Nominal operating /
/
Belleville _-Open-position stop pressure_ /
reference
spring_ W Pressure-balance
\ _ _\ passage
\

x I t
oo =
0., "$
,,o_

P°ppe*--_ ..... "/_"_

t E .....7/_
In
Pressure

Valve schematic Seating force vs pressure

(b) Nonmodulating.

Figure 13. - Valve schematic and seating force-vs-pressure plot for direct-operating relief valves (pressure unbalanced to open).

34
 Cracking pressure -k
\

Normal operating pressure--..... \

Diaphragm
effective area

Reference 1_ Ad--_
spring-_. U/_ "./////////_JJJz

_-___
(d//_/

_._----/ Vent
1 I
I
_ _/--Diaphragm

Hanger ---_. -_ ._'_... _______-Poppat ,o_

• . _l/-1_l_7A_r I 41,=,In

B,asspnng_ /_.

--_ _--Unbalanced seat

Pressure---,_
area, As

Valve schematic Seating force vs pressure

Figure 14. - Valve schematic and seating force-vs-pressure plot for inverted-operation relief valve (pressure unbalanced to close).

Pi lot valve
reference
spring-\ /-Bias spring
\ /
\ /
Actuator control \ / Cracking pressure-_.
\ yCap / 7Main poppet "1
pressure----..... \ _ diaphragm Nominal operating
pressure_

Push rod__ Inlet pressure

kX,l:///] _//..3 ldAxXl t Main valve--""-_l "_

Housing-- _.r_ _PilOt valve poppet

=-a w

Pil°t valve fl°w "_,-L__I_1-'--- Pilot valve flow

i I
Mai n poppet_
\ • \',
\\'-Pi lot valve diaphragm
F .......... "+.: /
x-Pi lot valve actuator Press u re-_,--

(a) Valve schematic. (b) Seating force vs pressure.

Figure 15. - Valve schematic and seating force-vs -pressure plot for pilot-operated relief valve.

The pilot-operated assembly (fig. 15) is a combination of the direct-operating and the
inverted-operation basic arrangements. Additional control features are added to the
large-tank relief valves as described previously.

35
2.2.2.1 DIRECT OPERATING

In the direct-operating relief valve shown in figure 13(a), the reference-spring load is applied
at all times. The force of the poppet on the seat is the difference between the spring closing
force and the pressure opening force. At the cracking pressure _ , these forces are balanced,
and the poppet seating force is zero. As shown, the force of the poppet on the seat decreases
with increasing pressure, and at nominal operating pressure a relatively small force is
available for sealing against leakage.

The values for relief valve seat diameter and poppet stroke are established so that the flow
area is equal to the required relieving flow area. Since an infinite number of combinations of
seat diameter and poppet stroke exists, a method for selecting the best combination is
needed. The graph shown in figure 16 illustrates the variation of relief valve parameters as a

,-Seat diameter, d
I

!//r__ifl _ n_celSePf
iirl gn
ienSsllirliendg
Ir_atd
e

!!TI
Minimum
_\_ ////-- spring weight

\ _k,,_z Stroke limit,

_ .... d/4

•r_ "E "E

I I I I I I
Full-flow stroke

Figure 16. - Variation of relief valve parameters as a function of poppet stroke (direct-operating valve).

function of poppet stroke for full-flow conditions. As the full-flow stroke increases, the
required seat diameter decreases. Since the reference-spring installed load is a function of
the cracking pressure (a constant) and the seat diameter, the reference-spring installed load
also will decrease as the full-flow stroke increases. The reference-spring rate is a function of
the pressure differential between cracking and full-flow pressure (a constant), the seat

1Theoretically, cracking and reseat pressure are identical. In actual practice, reseat pressure usually is defined as the
pressure at which a maximum allowable leakage will not be exceeded. This pressure usually is the upper limit of the
nominal operating pressure.

36
diameter (varies directly), and the full-flow stroke (varies indirectly); thus the
reference-springrate decreaseswith full-flow stroke. If the reference-springload and rate for
any given full-flow stroke are known, it is possibleto selecta spring for that condition that
will havea minimum weight. The minimum springweight decreaseswith increasingfull-flow
stroke. The curvesin figure 16 thus indicate that, within the full-flow stroke limitations, the
seat diameter should be as small as possible.For maximum effective area, the full-flow
stroke for a flat-poppet-and-seatconfiguration should not exceed one-fourth the seat
diameter.

A variation of the direct-operatingunit is shown in figure 13(b). In this unit, the reference
spring is a Belleville spring with load-deflection characteristicsthat include a decreasing
spring force with increasing stroke. The Belleville spring is installed to operate in this
negative-rateportion of the load-deflection curve. The seating-force/pressure characteristics
from zero to the cracking pressure are the same as those shown in figure 13(a). With
additional increasein pressure,the poppet startsto stroke, the closingforce of the reference
spring decreases,and the poppet travels to the open-position stop. The poppet will remain
on the open-position stop until the pressuredecreases below crackingpressureand then will
stroke to the closed position. This type of unit will not modulate; it has been usedwhere
excessiveleakageis inducedby vibration andwhere the relievingflowrate is low and a single
Belleville springcan supply the referenceforce.

For high flows and high pressures,the helical referencespring of the direct-operatingunits
becomestoo large and heavy for use in spacevehicles.StackedBelleville springsare used
when the hysteresisdoesnot result in operation outside of the acceptablerelieving-pressure
range.

2.2.2.2 INVERTED OPERATION

In the inverted-operation relief unit, the force holding the poppet on the seat increases with
increasing pressure (fig. 14). It is possible to size the various elements of the unit to achieve
maximum poppet-on-seat force at nominal operating pressure. The diaphragm senses the
increasing pressure and at some pressure level will stroke the hanger that contacts the
poppet and reduces the closing force. When the forces applied to the poppet are equal, the
valve is at the cracking pressure. The bias spring applies a load to the poppet for initial
positioning and low-pressure sealing. Figure 17(a) illustrates the relationship of hanger
stroke to valve operation as inlet pressure varies.

For a maximum force to hold the poppet on the seat at a specified pressure Pt below the
cracking pressure Per, the diaphragm effective area A a is larger than the unbalanced seat
area A s by a factor given by

Aa__ [ Per ] As (1)

LP:,-P d

37
 Full-flow stroke _'1
I /_ Full-flow press u re

.,--Cracking pressure

T ,.---Pressure at which hanger

contacts poppetto start
decrease in seating force

Hanger st roke------,_

(a) Inlet pressure vs hanger stroke.

FReference-spring installed load

Seat diameter, d_ / mReference-spring rate
/ /
/ / / r-Minimum spring weight
/ / /

r _ _ ,--Diahramdiameter

¢-
\\\ "N _-.... _troke limit, d/4

(b) Seat, spring, and diaphragm parameters vs full-flow stroke.

Figure 17. - Operating characteristics of inverted-operation relief valve.

38
The diaphragm effective diameter will be increasingly larger than the seat diameter as the
maximum poppet-to-seat force occurs at a pressure closer to the cracking pressure. The
graph in figure 17(b) illustrates variation of the inverted-operation relief valve parameters as
a function of poppet stroke for full-flow conditions. These curves are based on a maximum
poppet-to-seat force occurring at a pressure equal to 90 percent of cracking pressure. The
characteristics of these curves are similar to those for the direct-acting relief valve, and the
same selection criteria will be effective. The inverted-operation relief valve requies a greater
number of parts and a more complicated construction. Each application should be evaluated
to determine whether the improved leakage characteristics justify the additional parts and
cost of the indirect-operating type.

2.2.2.3 PILOT OPERATED

Pilot-operated units normally are used in systems where it may be necessary to relieve large
flows. A typical pilot-operated relief valve is shown in figure 15(a). The main valve has the
poppet-to-seat force-vs-pressure characteristics of inverted operation as shown in figure
14(b); to minimize leakage, the maximum poppet-to-seat force occurs at approximately
normal operating pressure. The pilot valve has the poppet-to-seat force-vs-pressure
characteristics of direct operation (fig. 13(a)). In the nonrelieving condition, the actuator
control pressure is at inlet pressure, and the force resulting from the main-poppet
pressure/area relationship holds the main poppet closed. When inlet pressure increases to
cracking pressure, the pilot valve partially strokes, the actuator control pressure is ported to
the outlet cavity, the pressure in the actuator control-pressure cavity is reduced to the
extent that the force resulting from main-poppet pressure/area relationship is zero, and the
main poppet is ready to open. As inlet pressure continues to increase, the pilot valve stroke
increases, the pressure in the control-pressure cavity decreases, and the resulting force opens
the main poppet. The amount the main poppet strokes is dependent upon the pilot valve
stroke, which is proportional to inlet pressure. The response of the valve to changes in inlet
pressure is a function of pilot valve flow capacity, actuator control-pressure-cavity volume,
pilot valve sensing, characteristics of the reference spring, and characteristics of the fluid. If
the relief valve has remote sensing, the size, length, and configuration of the sensing line is
critical. In cryogenic applications, the possibility of mixed-phase flow in the sensing line is
avoided by locating the sensing point in the tank where the ullage does not contain liquids.

The curves shown in figure 18 provide a basis for evaluating a piloted relief valve
configuration. Figure 18(a) shows the variation of the control pressure with pilot valve
stroke as inlet pressure increases; the pilot stroke at which the control pressure equals the
valve cracking pressure is thus established. Figure 18(b) indicates the reference-spring load
and rate as the pressure difference between pilot valve cracking pressure and main valve
cracking pressure varies. The curve in figure 18(c) gives an indication of possible vane
leakage as the poppet-to-seat load of the pilot valve decreases with increasing inlet pressure
and reduces the force resisting leakages. In a large valve, this leakage will be of secondary

39
 Main valve cracks at
Control pressure_ - Selected pressure
difference
Pilot stroke----, -_\:
\ /-Load
Inlet pressure_ \J /
__ /
i
_ " I\ rContro, °E "_=

o
-___ press u re
o

-I I I '1 I'X',J -I_ I I I I

Pilot valve stroke-------,,.- Difference between pilot valve and

main valve cracking pressure

(a) Pilot valve stroke vs inlet and control pressure. (b) Reference-spring load and rate variation with cracking pressure difference.

Nominal system
operating pressu re-_
_ "J
I

Main I

T _ valve-x\ : I/.,_

I
Inlet pressure _

(c) Poppet-to-seat load variation with inlet pressure.

Figure 18. - Operating characteristics of pilot-operated relief valve.

4O
importance as the main poppet that is the source of large leakage has a large poppet-to-seat
force. A steady-state analysis is conducted to determine the size and characteristics of the
valve (refs. 51 and 52).

2.2.3 Inlet Valve

The inlet valve is the primary relieving flow path of the relief valve. As the relief valve is a
high-pressure-drop device, the inlet valve design is selected for its sealing capabilities and
repeatability of its cracking and reseat characteristics. These attributes are functions of
poppet and seat design and, to some extent, subassembly construction.

2.2.3.1 POPPET AND SEAT

The primary problem in the design of the inlet valve is achieving low leakage without
affecting the relieving-pressure repeatability. In direct- or inverted-operation units or pilot
valves of pilot-operated relief valves, a change in the poppet-to-seat effective area will cause
a shift in the pressure setting. If the relieving pressure shifts downward, the relief valve may
be open in the normal range of regulator outlet pressure; if so, the stored gas intended to
power a control system would be depleted, and the entire system would fail. During cycling,
soft materials used for either the poppet or seat or both will wear, and the effective area will
change. (The main poppet or seat of pilot-operated units may use soft materials, such as
Kel-F lip seals, since a change in the effective area will not result in a shift of the pressure
setting.) Leakage is a direct function of the seat loading stress, the surface finish (assuming a
continuous contact between the poppet and seat over the sealing surface), and the fluid. For
an applied load and seat diameter, the seat stress is controlled by the sealing surface width
(ref. 53). Sealing surface widths and finishes can be controlled and inspected for various
configurations such as ball and cone-shaped poppet on sharp-corner seats and flat poppets
on narrow annular raised seats; the latter combination generally is less expensive to
manufacture and inspect. Additional details on the design of poppets and seats can be found
in reference 26.

2.2.3.2 SUBASSEMBLY CONSTRUCTION

A subassembly is an assembly of parts that operates as a unit in the valve. In the design and
construction of a subassembly, special care must be directed to preventing any component
from unlocking, disengaging, or shifting position relative to the other parts. For example, in
one application of a design using the inverted-operation, pressure-unbalanced-to-close
arrangement shown in figure 14, the hanger stroked with increasing pressure and lifted the
poppet off the seat. The hanger had been constructed in two pieces so that the spring and
poppet could be assembled within the hanger (fig. 19(a)); a threaded connection joined the

41
 /- Subassembly
/
Retainer-u I /f-Reference springs
I / I

_F-Diaph racjm

Hanger upper I ¢_'_//_-'_ 1

segment --_. L__=-'-'-'-_\\\NV//_\\"_'-'7-', .,-.J

R°IIIoPwI2r
P_jSSTnt--_ _ F_ Hous, ng

Clearance that permitted _'S_////_[ I_-4

cracki ng pressu re shift----_,_]( + Inlet

Hanger lower segment_ ___.._

0ut,et It
"'---Cap
\
_---
Overridepush pin

(a) Failed construction.

Figure 19. - Inlet valve subassemblyconstruction.

two pieces. During vibration, the two pieces uhscrewed, and the cracking pressure of the
valve increased. The amount the pieces could unscrew and thereby increase the cracking
pressure was limited by a pin pressed in one part that extended into a turned groove in the
other part. However, even this limited shift in relief pressure was not acceptable, because the
resulting higher gas pressure in the engine turbine-spin bottle would result in a high-energy
engine start and possible engine malfunction. A positive locking method was required.
Nylon-pellet locks could not be used because interference was lost as a result of differential
contraction at cryogenic temperatures; pressing a pin through a hole drilled through the
threaded area after assembly made disassembly and reassembly difficult. A single-piece
construction was devised in which the poppet was inserted in a slot in the lower portion of
the hanger, rotated into position, and held in place with the bias spring (fig. 19(b)).

2.2.4 Actuator

Actuators in relief valve assemblies position the main inlet valve or the pilot valve poppet.
The actuator types in use and the practices for the selection of actuators for relief valves are
the same as discussed in section 2.1.3 for regulator actuators. The problems with regulators
described in sections 2.1.5.2 and 2.1.5.4 also have occurred in relief valve operation.

42
 .r-One-piece hanger

/ _-Bias sprina

_--Spring retainer
A

_-- Slot'for installing

poppet; poppet in-
serted on edge and
rotated to desi red
position

Vi ewA-A

t /_Retaining sleeve

rHolders inserted from

// both sides through
Poppet being _/ holes in hanger after
inserted --_ compressing spring

Fixture for holding spring

while installing poppet

(b) Successful construction.

Figure 19. - Inlet valve subassemblyconstruction. Coni:luded.

43
 2.2.5 Control Elements

The relief valve may include a variety of control elements, the number and type depending
on the complexity required to meet the specified performance. All relief valves have a spring
reference load that is adjustable to the relieving pressure range; thermal compensation for
the spring may be provided. Orifices are used to restrict the flow of fluids used in pilot
circuits and venting control. The problems with the reference load spring, thermal
compensator, and orifices are similar to those discussed in section 2.1.4. Some of the tank
relief valves are large, and operation of the unit can be affected by duct size and length and
by interaction of the control elements. A computerized mathematical model of the system
may be used to evaluate transient conditions and indicate possible solutions (ref. 54).

2.2.6 Operational Problems

Relief valves are subject to the kinds of operational problems discussed for regulators in
section 2.1.5; in general the solutions given for regulators apply equally well to relief valves.
Additional problems with relief valves involve moisture in the actuator, pilot valve pressure
sensing, and operational stability.

2.2.6.1 MOISTURE IN THE ACTUATOR

In many tank relief valves, an actuator controlled by a separate pneumatic pressure source
opens the main inlet valve to vent the tank. A hydrogen-tank relief valve had low leakage
under normal conditions but leaked excessively when exposed to cryogenic conditions; the
failure was random. After careful investigation, the failures were attributed to moisture in
the clearance between the actuator and its deactuated stop. In initial chilldown of the unit,
the moisture froze and held the actuator pushrod in contact with the inlet valve. With
continued chilldown, the differential contraction of the parts lifted the inlet poppet from
the seat and caused the excessive leakage. Procedures were established to ensure that the
helium control fluid for the override actuator was dry. Also, new units were vacuum-dried at
elevated temperatures for minimum periods of time and stored in dry sealed polyethylene
bags.

2.2.6.2 PI LOT VALVE PRESSURE SENSING

The relief valve pressure sensor is a pressure-actuated device that creates a force opposing
that of the reference spring. In the direct-operating valve, the inlet poppet senses the
pressure, and the reference spring opposes its motion. In the inverted-operation valve, a
piston, bellows, or diaphragm senses the pressure, and the reference spring opposes its

44
motion; this piston, bellows, or diaphragmis the actuator of the inlet valve.The pilot valve
sensorusually is the pilot poppet actuator, and the referencespring opposesits motion.

2.2.6.2.1 Sensor Location

In a piloted, large-tank relief valve where the pressure is sensed within the valve, the location
of the source or pressure to the pilot can affect the operation and response of the valve.
Where the pilot valve exhausts into the outlet, its exit port location is important. For
example, in a vent-and-relief valve for a liquid-oxygen tank, the pilot sensed pressure in a
low-flow area in the body; it exhausted into the outlet where dynamic ram pressures during
relieving created back pressure on the pressure-unbalanced pilot. The response of the unit
was slow, and allowable relieving-pressure limits were exceeded. The pressure measured at
the pilot sensing diaphragm differed from tank pressure. The pilot exhaust was changed to
eliminate back pressure on the pilot, and valve operation and response were greatly
improved_ The optimum location for pilot valve inlet pressure sensing under flowing
conditions was determined by scanning the entire inlet port area with a total-pressure
pickup. Where the pickup sensed the total pressure, the pressure measured at the pilot
sensing diaphragm very closely reflected static tank pressure; the pilot valve sensor was
relocated at this point. With these changes, the operation of the relief valve met the
specified performance (ref. 55).

2.2.6.2.2 Sensor Material

In many relief valve applications, the external joints are sealed by welding to ensure
near-zero external leakage. Metal diaphragms are used because they may be welded and are
not damaged by exposure to temperatures resulting from valve closure welds. The metal
selected must be compatible with the fluid with which it is in contact. In one instance, a
hydrogen-tank vent-and-relief valve used a thin, annealed 17-7 PH stainless steel sheet
diaphragm that apparently operated successfully during extensive static engine testing, when
the gaseous hydrogen sensed by the valve was supplied by the facility. When a new series of
static engine tests was conducted, and the tank was refilled from the engine liquid-hydrogen
supply, the valve diaphragm ruptured. Several such failures led to an investigation of the
effects of the application and environment on the diaphragm. The test results indicated that
exposure of thin sheet 17-7 PH material to hydrogen under simulated-use conditions
gradually increased the hydrogen content until failure occurred as a result of hydrogen
embrittlement (ref. 56). Test exposures of annealed Inconel 718 diaphragms to similar
conditions indicated that, even though the hydrogen content also increased, the Inconel 718
is not embrittled under the same conditions as the 17-7 PH stainless steel. The diaphragms
fabricated from Inconel 718 operated successfully in subsequent engine tests and during
Saturn S-IVB orbital coast.

45
2.2.6.3 STABI LITY

A control system must be dynamically stable throughout its entire range of operation. A
system can become dynamically unstable when the pressure and flow fluctuate in a
sustained oscillation. When two pilot-operated devices are in series, their interactions can be
180 ° out of phase and thereby produce dynamic instability. For example, a pneumatic
regulator and relief valve were developed for use in a large-engine operational control
system; the regulator was a normally closed unit. The system pressurization was initiated by
energizing a pilot solenoid valve that supplied pressure to the inlet valve actuator opening
volume to open the inlet valve rapidly. A resulting pressure ramp in the regulated pressure
would rupture the regulator controller diaphragm unless the relief valve prevented the
overpressurization. The regulator and relief valve were combined into one housing to save
weight, plumbing, and possible leakage paths. When the combined unit was tested, a
sustained unstable interaction of the units prevented the buildup of system pressure.

Figure 20 shows a cutaway of the regulator-relief valve assembly and indicates the flow

Relief valve actuator

closing volume .... _ ,rBias spring
./

/J

Damping rings-_.

i.,.I

zll

Relief valve pilot_. Pilot valve

_ vent
///

Relief valve poppets-_

///
///

Regulator inlet , ,_""

Inlet
Regulator actuator _.//._ ,x'_/'/_ ¢//_

closing volume_ _

X-Regulator actuator
opening volume

Figure 20. - Schematic of a regulator-relief valve assembly.

passages within the unit. An assembly was modified to add pressure taps in the critical
control volumes. A series of tests was conducted, pressures were recorded, and valve

46
behavior was observed.The data were analyzedby analogand digital computer programs.
The analysesindicated three possiblesolutions:

(1) Reduce the actuator closing volume and increasethe regulated-pressuresensing

passage (fig. 20) of the regulator to decrease the magnitude of the
regulated-pressuresurgeduring the starting transient.

(2) Enlarge the relief valve inlet volume to tune the circuit and eliminate the
out-of-phasepressuresurgein the actuator volumes.

(3) Increase the rate of pressure rise in the relief valve actuator volume by increasing
the pilot valve seat diameter; delay the opening of the relief valve main poppet by
increasing the bias-to-close spring force; add damping rings to the relief vane
poppet and reduce the stroke of the relief valve poppet.

The changes outlined in the third solution were implemented. The effect of varying the
damping-ring friction was studied to determine the minimum amount that would give the
desired stability. The regulator operation was stable. During the start transient, the relief
valve opened several times to prevent the overpressurization of the regulator controller
diaphragm and then closed. At the time of the implemented changes to the unit, a large
accumulator was added to the system pressurized by the regulator. Additional computer
runs, as well as system tests, indicated that the damping rings could be eliminated from the
main poppet. The damping rings were retained, however, as an added stabilizing feature.

2.3 CHECK VALVES

The primary function of a check vane is to allow flow in one direction only. Check valves
are divided into two basic types: poppet and flapper; both types are shown in figure 21. In
poppet-type units, the moving parts travel axially; springs are coil-type compression; and the
poppet may be a ball or a guided poppet with a spherical, conical, or flat nose to contact the
seat for sealing. In flapper-type units, moving members rotate; springs are torsion type; and
the flapper may be a single unit that pivots from the side or a split unit that pivots across
the center of the flow path.

In the checked-flow direction, a good check valve will have low leakage over the entire
pressure range of operation. Check valves are pressure-unbalanced and, under high-pressure
conditions, high unit seat loadings are possible. Most leakage problems occur at low
pressures where the primary seating force is exerted by the spring. The spring force is small
to allow low cracking pressure; therefore, low leakage rates are achieved by the design of the
seat. Recommended practices for design of poppets and seats are given in reference 26.

47
 _////////////////////_
L
Flow Flow

Ball Cone

.......................
_.,..,,ow
k.......................
lk_,-
_ .....

Floating ring

(a) PoppeL

r- Pivot _Pivot

Tor,,oo
,pr,
ng_.._/J_ \

",,
,k.A
_.
"N _ Flow _',4=== Flow

Torsion spring -j

Split flapper Swing flapper

(b) Flapper.

Figure 21. -Types of check valves.

48
2.3.1 Poppet

Poppet check valves (fig. 21(a)) are used in applications requiring low leakage in the
checked-flow direction and reasonably low pressure drop in the free-flow direction. The
cracking pressure is low (3 to 15 psid [21 to 103 kN/m 2 ] ) and the full-flow pressure is as
close to the cracking pressure as possible. The cracking pressure of a poppet-type check
valve can be increased by increasing the return-spring installed load. Under these conditions,
the unit functions as a relief valve or a back-pressure regulator.

2.3.1.1 BALL

Ball check valves are simple devices that are relatively inexpensive to manufacture, as the
seat is the only costly detail. The ball check valve is used in low-flow applications where the
stroke is short and the ball will self-guide into the seat. This type of valve generally is not
used for large flows because the long stroke allows misalignment and the ball, when closing,
may impact the side of the seat; the seat and ball will be damaged by repeated impact and
will leak excessively. The addition of a moving part to guide the ball into the seat
complicates the valve and makes it equivalent to other guided-poppet-type valves. Ball-type
check valves are prone to chatter.

2.3.1.2 GUIDED POPPET

The purpose in guiding a poppet is to align the poppet so that contact with the seat will be
continuous and even. With flat-nose poppets, the clearance with the bore and the normality
of the flat nose must be controlled carefully for a continuous and even contact with the
seat. The normality problem is eased by using the floating seal ring shown in figure 21(a).
The cone of the cone-type poppet must be controlled carefully to obtain a seat contact line
that is round and in the plane of the seat. For adequate guiding, the clearance must be small.
Although the surfaces of poppet and bore may be lightly loaded, they must be hard enough
to resist wear and fretting. If flow rate is high over long periods, the fluid flow is directed
around the return spring and not through it. In an engine-conditioning check valve on the
J-2 engine, flow directed through the return spring caused spring flutter that resulted in
excessive valve wear.

The restrictor check valve (fig. 22) is a specialized use of the checking function. An orifice is
provided in the poppet to permit a controlled flow in the check direction. Leakage past the
poppet seat is critical if the reverse flow must be controlled within narrow limits.

49
 Free-flow Reverse-flow

/
z_ Reverse-flow control orifice

Figure 22. - Restrictor check valve.

2.3.2 Flapper

Flapper check valves (fig. 21(b)) are used in systems requiring low pressure drop with large
flows. These units tend to be smaller and lighter than the poppet-type check valves.
However, in high-pressure systems, the flappers may become excessively heavy.

Full-flow area is achieved by the swing-flapper check valve when the flapper swings or pivots
out of the flow passage. The low installed load and spring rate of the torsion spring permit a
low cracking pressure and pressure drop. With sufficient clearance in the pivot, the flat
flapper and seat have good sealing characteristics at elevated pressures.

One cause of failure of flapper check valves is chatter of the unit, which occurs when the
flow is low. Extensive damage to the flapper and seat also can result from large impact
forces if angular travel is excessive; and failure of the torsion spring can result in a loss of the
check function. The flapper is subject to "hang up" because the spring forces are low.

Split-flapper check valves are used when the envelope dimension is critical and low pressure
drop is required for large flows. When leakage is not critical, each flapper seals on half of a
common seat, and leakage between the flappers is controlled by the clearance. When leakage
is critical, a special seat for sealing each flapper individually is provided by a land across the
flow passage, in line with the pivot of the flappers (ref. 57 and fig. 21(b)). The upstream
side of this land is streamlined for minimum pressure drop. Split-flapper valves also chatter
at low flow and in general are subject to the same kinds of potential failure as the swing
type.

2.3.3 Operational Problems

The application of the check valve is a source of possible pLoblems. Incorrect installation,
chatter, and slow closing can adversely affect the system in which the valve operates.
Contamination and moisture also have caused failures.

50
2.3.3.1 INSTALLATION

Check valves frequently are used to provide single-direction flow in systems like that in
figure 23. During engine start, the start-tank check valve permits flow to the turbine-drive

Vehicle oxidizer tank

Oxidizer
( ;_t tank ?
Start tank
check valve_

=. Pump outlet
\
\
\
generator X-Pump check valve

Figure 23. - Schematic of engine start system.

gas generator, while during mainstage the pump check valve permits flow from the main
tanks to the gas generator.

A basic problem with check valves is the possibility of system failure resulting from
wrong-way installation. As an example, prior to one vehicle launch, the pump check valve
was removed for an inspection check and reinstalled backward. When the launch was
attempted, the gas generator fired until the start tank was exhausted; then the engine shut
down. The mission was aborted and the launch facility was damaged.

To prevent this type of failure, check valves are permanently marked with an arrow showing
the direction of flow; however, in order to install the unit correctly, the direction of flow in
the system must be known. To ensure a truly "goof-proof" installation, the ends of the
check valve are made different in size or construction.

2.3.3.2 CHATTER

Poppet check valves will chatter when opened by a low flow that does not fully stroke and
hold the poppet in the full-open position; low-flow purges may cause a poppet to chatter for
many hours. Series redundant check valves accentuate the tendency to chatter because of
valve interaction. The repeated actuation in a chattering valve can exceed the normal
operating life and so damage the seat and sliding surfaces that the unit will fail. Wear and
fretting of the sliding surfaces by excessive actuation have generated contamination that

51
 causedfailure of other units downstreamfrom the checkvalve.The tendencyto chatter has
been lessenedor eliminated in some designsby incorporating a restriction in the flow
passages around the poppet; the resultingpressuredifferential applied to a sufficiently large
opening areaholds the poppet off the seat during low flows (ref. 58). If chatter cannot be
eliminated entirely, it is possibleto increasethe check valve toleranceto withstand chatter
damageby providing very hard bearing surfaces;hard anodize, properly controlled and
finished, is an effective wear-resistantsurface.

Chatter at low flow and under other operating conditions is a common problem with
flapper-type check valves.Two examplesillustrate designsolutions for chattering flappers:

In one application, the flapper pivoted into a recessout of the flow passage;
however, the dynamic forces on the flapper produced by the flowing fluid were
insufficient to hold the flapper in the recess.The rattling flapper failed at the
pivot and permitted high-pressurefluid to bypassinto the return system.A stop
was added to hold the flapper in the fluid stream; the increasein pressuredrop
wasnegligible,and the flapper did not chatter.

A split flapper was exposed to flowing high-temperaturecombustion products;

becauseof the high temperature,the torsion spring relaxed and would not close
the flappers. Leakage was high until the dynamic flow forces in the check
direction closed the valve; this leakage exposed components to a high temperature
and contamination for which they were not designed. The spring was redesigned
to improve its yield characteristics and maintain the desired load at high
temperature; in addition, a shield was added to protect the spring from flowing
hot gas.

2.3.3.3 POPPET CLOSING TIME

When propellant tanks are pressurized from a single source of gas, check valves are used to
prevent backflow of the propellants into the common pneumatic pressurizing system. Under
normal operating conditions when tanks are refilled from a turbopump, the pressure of the
fuel tank exceeds the pressure of the oxidizer tank. It is important therefore that the check
valves close as soon as the tanks are pressurized and refill starts. Delay in closing will result
in crossflow of propellants and the potentially disastrous introduction of fuel in the oxidizer
tank. For example, in the Atlas vehicle, when the poppet of the check valve in the fuel
system stroked to the open position, a seal was effected between the poppet and stop, and a
low-pressure condition existed in the reference-spring cavity of the check valve. When
closing flow started, the valve stayed open for a period of 5 to 20 seconds until leakage of
fluid into the spring cavity equalized the pressures and the poppet closed. When engine start
was attempted, an explosion occurred in the oxidizer tank and connecting line to the gas
generator and caused extensive damage. Addition of a hole in the web isolating the
reference-spring cavity from the downstream area eliminated the slow closing of the poppet.

52
 2.3.3.4 CONTAMINATION

Poppet check valves with close-clearance guides are subject to failure if the flowing fluids are
contaminated. Solid-particle contaminants cause friction in the sliding surfaces, and the
poppet may stick in the open position because the small actuation force of the spring is not
sufficient to release the poppet. Contaminant particles may damage the poppet and seat, or
hold the poppet off the seat and cause excessive leakage. Contamination in the system can
be kept from the valve by the addition of a filter upstream of the check valve inlet; the
capacity of the filter is such that there is no excessive pressure drop (ref. 47).

2.3.3.5 VENTING

In pneumatic systems, the gases used to pressurize valve actuators are exhausted to
atmosphere as the valve opens and closes. Cavities of valves that contain actuator linkages
have vent ports to exhaust possible actuator piston seal leakage. These vent ports are capped
with a check valve (vent port check valve) to prevent moisture and contaminants from
entering the critical areas of the valves. Small amounts of frozen moisture or other solids in
the close clearances of actuation mechanisms located in these cavities have prevented main
propellant valves from closing. Failure of these valves to close on shutdown signal resulted in
extensive engine damage.

The design of the vent port check valve is critical. The checking poppet is an external
member that prevents contamination of the moving parts of the check valve. In cryogenic
applications, ice builds up on the external surface of the poppet where it contacts the valve
body. The motion of the poppet is designed to create tension stresses in the ice. If the ice
must fail in shear to permit the poppet to open, the cracking pressure will be undesirably
high.

The construction of the unit is rugged to prevent damage to sealing areas. Vent port check
valves are subject to rapid opening with high impact loads on the open-position stop. The
open-position stop is designed for high impact loads, and threaded fasteners are provided
with positive locking devices.

Successful designs for high- and low-capacity vent port check valves are shown in figures
24(a) and 24(b). The molded Teflon plug type shown in figure 24(c) was used in early space
vehicles. The sealing surface of the boss and plug was damaged easily, and the units
frequently leaked.

2.4 BURST DISKS

Burst disks, also known as rupture, frangible, and safety disks (or diaphragms), have been
used extensively as safety devices in the chemical and petroleum industries. These disks

53
 _Guide
/

_ .////_/-Spring

Exhaust area free

of liquid traps--_ //--Poppet

\\\t

_Trapped O-ring seat

• _, _-.Body

v_

Inlet

(a) High-capacity assembly (acceptable).

, _ r Poppet
rubber seat
Exhaust area free j_:_, _ _ -- Molded
of liquid trapsJ//-/_,,,_-_ [_,
_--Spring

Bodyj/" __"_

I nlet

(b) Low-capacity assembly (acceptable).

,..__rMolde6 Teflon plug

Sealing su rface J.x_.x__'%_
_-Vent port boss

(c) Low-capacity plug (unacceptable).

Figure 24. - Types of vent port check valve.

54
usually are the prebulged type (fig. 25(a)) and fail in tension without the use of local
weakening such as coined or machined grooves to initiate and control the bursting. A
considerable amount of theoretical and experimental work (refs. 59 through 61) has been
done on prebulged burst disks. Even though a theoretical analysis is possible, the results are
only approximate, and it is necessary to arrive at the final design by actual test; the
manufacture then is controlled by sampling. Variations on the prebulged type of burst disk
include disks that reverse form and buckle onto a knife edge (fig. 25(b)), thus bursting at a
lower pressure.

/ f-Prebulged burst disk

/
/ /

Burst pressure

(a) Prebulged burst disk.

I
A.q I

burst disk
":_///I-- Prebulged
I \ l_r'- I

_--__ / -- Burst pressure

I / t-

_@_ _------Knifeedged_

'._l'
A
Section A-A

(b) Reverse-action knife-blade burst disk;

I
r.Hub

####//

_j f-Burst disk

I
(c) Integral-hub shear burst disk.

Figure 25. - lypes of burst disks.

55
Shear-type burst disks also have been utilized in the chemical industry (ref. 62). Shear disks
however, generally are considered to be less precise than the prebulged type; they do not fail
in pure shear but have some bending stress present because the clearance between the holder
and central hub stiffens the center of the disk against bending. Also, the shear disk is more
costly because it must be turned out of thicker material so that the thick hub can be left in
the center (fig. 25(c)). The inertia of the disk is high. Some of the objections to the
shear-type burst disk are overcome in the design shown in figure 26 (ref. 63). This design
pressure-loads the disk on a shearing cutter by the use of a Belleville spring that is

Burst disk--..... __._----Belleville spring

Burst pressure _ _--Circular cutter

(a) Disk prior to rupture.

_---Belleville spring

Burst pressure _ __PSheared disk

(b) Disk after rupture.

Figure 26. - I mprovedshear burst disk (ref. 63).

compressed into the negative-spring-rate region of the spring stroke. The Belleville spring
supports a portion of the pressure load on the burst disk up to the desired burst pressure, as
shown in figure 26(a). When the burst pressure is exceeded, the spring washer starts to
stroke, its supporting force decreases rapidly, and the pressure force causes the disk to be
sheared by the sharp circular cutter (fig 26(b)). A catch screen may be required to keep the
cut disk from traveling downstream.

56
The burst pressurecan be presetby replacing the cutter with a flat plug and adjusting the
Belleville spring washer until the desired burst pressureis indicated by the motion of the
burst disk. The burst pressurecan be set within a narrow tolerance. It is not necessaryto
burst a controlled sample,becausethe Belleville spring load compensatesfor variablesin
disk materials.Problemscan arise,however. For example, in one application of this design,
the disk was corroded and weakenedby residual cleaning solvent trapped in the unit; a
changeof disk material eliminated this difficulty.

The development of fluid systemsfor spacevehicles resulted in the application of burst

disks in many areas,including rocket enginehypergolic-startcartridges,repeat-startturbine
spinner assemblies,pump-seal drain lines, and some instrumentation. The emphasisalso
changed from using burst disks as safety devices to using them in various functional
applications(e.g.,sealinga cavity againstdownstreampressureor temperature,or containing
a liquid until a rise in pressureto a desiredlevel ruptures the burst disk). The usein space
systemsalsoresulted in increasingthe severityof the designrequirementsby introducing the
need for compactness and lightness, extending the temperature range to cryogenic
temperatures, and minimizing the allowable tolerance range. The result has been the
development of the improved shear disk shown in figure 26 and the flat, coined-groove,
welded-installation disk in figure 27. (The chamfered notch and locally enlargedopening
shownin fig. 27 arediscussedlater.)

"_ _ _-_h_mf_r_ notch

/ \
/ \
/ \
/
P ressure / \
/ \
/

= I
Figure 27. - Flat, coined-groove, welded-installation burst disk.

57
2.4.1 Burst-Pressure Capability

The burst pressure is the primary element in the design of a burst disk. The burst pressure
must be high enough that the burst disk will remain intact under all conditions of storage,
handling, and use until the system pressure rises to the point at which it is desired to have
the disk burst. At this point, the disk must burst within the allowable tolerance. The
requirements of the balance of the system usually define the burst pressure, which may
range from 1 to 10,000 psid (6.895 to 68,950 kN/m2).

Some burst disks are designed to burst at as low a pressure as possible so that they effect a
function at a low system-pressure level. This would be the case in a cartridge containing an
ignition aid for a rocket thrust chamber where it would be desirable to burst the cartridge
disks, release the ignition aid, and establish ignition as soon as possible in order to minimize
starting shocks and unburned propellant. Ignition pops and rough-combustion starts can
cause extensive thrust-chamber damage. The burst pressure must not be so low as to result
in premature failure due to vapor pressure, thermal expansion of the propellant, or handling
loads.

On the other hand, when a burst disk is used to ensure rapid, repeatable ignition of a
pyrotechnic device, it is desirable to set the pressure as high as possible so long as the
burning rate of the charge does not become excessive and the pressure level remains below
the allowable operating pressure of the container. The rate of pressure rise can affect the
burst pressure; when burst disks are tested on a percentage basis, the rate of rise of applied
pressure is made the same as in the actual application.

In cases where shock is important because of its effect on the rest of the system, the burst
pressure may have to be low so that initial flows occur at low levels of pressure and hence at
low velocity.

2.4.2 Reverse-Pressure Capability

The reverse-pressure capability of a burst disk is as important in some applications as the

burst-pressure capability. In the case of the prebulged disk, the disk resistance to reverse
pressure is very much lower than its resistance to the burst pressure. This characteristic is
used to lower the burst pressure for a given disk by reversing the pressure and buckling the
disk onto knife blades as shown in figure 25(b). The flat coined-groove disk has a much
greater capability to resist buckling by reverse pressure, because it is a thick flat member
with local thinning at the grooves and is not a uniformly thin dome.

The ability to resist reverse pressure is important in disks that protect vacuum jackets
around a high-pressure system against leakage from the system. Also, in the case of solid
propellantcharges used for repeat starting of rocket engines, the unused charges must be

58
protected from the hot high-pressuregasesby burst disksthat will resistreversepressurebut
will burst when the solid chargeis ignited. These dual requirementssometimesare difficult
to meet. One solution is to support the burst disk againstreversepressurewith a structure
that is ejectedor doesnot seriouslyimpede flow when the disk is burst.

2.4.3 Size and Thickness

The diameter of the burst disk normally is large enough that no significant pressure drop is
imposed when the disk is open. This may require that the downstream line into which the
disk opens be enlarged locally as shown in figure 27. There is a requirement for increased
disk diameter that often is overlooked in an effort to minimize the envelope; namely, that in
the coined-groove disk the force required to rupture the disk is a function of the area lying
inside the coined groove, while the disk resistance to rupture is a function of the length of
the coined groove plus some bending at the hinge. Thus, for a given thickness of material
and depth of coined groove, the larger the disk the lower the burst pressure. Similarly, for a
fixed burst pressure, if the disk can be enlarged, the thickness of the disk itself and the
thickness of material remaining after coining can be made greater and less sensitive to a
given tolerance variation. The required tolerance on the burst pressure decreases as the
diameter increases, while the range of material thickness that can be used increases; closer
tolerance can be held, but only with extra care, scrappage, and cost. The same principles
hold for the prebulged type of burst disk.

Best results in sizing the disk are obtained when burst disk is included in the original system
design and sufficient space provided to yield the best burst disk characteristics. The addition
of a burst disk late in a program may limit the size of unit that can be used. The material
thickness is determined largely by the disk diameter and (desired) burst pressure and thus
cannot be specified as an independent parameter. An increase in thickness results in greater
margin for corrosion or accidental damage, in easier fabrication and handling, and in relaxed
tolerances. For coined groove disks in common use, the thickness remaining under the
groove ranges from 0.002 to 0.125 in. (0.05 to 3.18 mm).

2.4.4 Coined-Groove Pattern

In the coined-groove burst disk, the material is weakened locally by grooves that are
stamped into the metal. Three groove patterns are in common use: radial, single hinge, and
double hinge (fig. 28). The radial type (fig. 28(a)) has radial grooves converging in the center
at a small circular groove that is interrupted at one sector for retention of the center after
burst. This type of ruptured disk produces less flow disturbance because the flow is
centered, but has a higher pressure drop because the disk does not open fully. The higher
pressure drop is suited for pyrotechnic applications because the initial, restricted opening
aids in maintaining a back pressure that ensures quicker, more consistent, reliable ignition.

59
 \ \

(a) Radial. (b) Single hinge. (c) Double hinge.

Figure 28. - Coined-groove patterns (ref. 04).

The subsequent burning off of the petals opens the disk fully; the effect of this debris on
the downstream system must be considered in the design.

The single hinge (fig. 28(b)) is better able to resist reverse pressure but concentrates the flow
disturbance on the side of the open petal. The double hinge (fig. 28(c)) has the lowest
tolerance on burst pressure and divides the flow disturbance.

2.4.4.1 PETAL RETENTION

The function of the hinges in the coined-groove pattern is to retain the petals after bursting.
Petals that have broken loose and, at high velocities, impacted downstream components
such as filters have caused considerable damage. Failure of valves can be caused by petals
wedging in moving parts. The hinge must be wide enough to retain the petal at burst and
during subsequent flow through the disk; if shock waves can occur, the possibility of flutter
and fatigue of the hinge must be considered. As the width of the hinge increases, however,
the curvature of the line into which the petal breaks puts the edges of the hinge into
increasing tension and causes cracks; then it becomes necessary to add a chamfered notch
under the hinge (fig. 27) to provide a smooth transition surface and thereby reduce bending
stress on the hinge. Petal flutter also can fatigue the hinge when a line discharges into an
enlarged cavity containing the opened disk, and high-velocity gas does not impinge on the
petals. A conical downstream cavity (fig. 27) that closes down in the direction of flow has
been used to hold down the petals. Better petal retention is obtained with the coined groove
facing upstream, since this position puts the torn edge of the hinge in compression.

2.4.5 Material

Burst disks have been made from aluminum alloys including 1100-0, 6061-0, and 5052-0,
mild steel, stainless steel (usually the 300 series), nickel, Monel, Inconel, copper, silver, gold,

60
and platinum. Aluminum is desirablebecauseits relatively low physicalproperties result in
greaterthicknessof material and increasedthicknessremainingunder the coinedgroove,and
therefore lesssensitivity to a given tolerance;forming and machiningcharacteristicsalsoare
good. However, the material properties vary widely with temperature, and the upper
temperaturelimit is only about 250°F (394 K).

Mild steel also is good if suitably protected from corrosion; the material cost is low, and
formability is good. Stainlesssteel is difficult to tool, as is Inconel; the latter is best for
service over a wide range of temperature. The noble metals resist corrosion and have
consistentmaterial properties.

The method of attachment entersinto the choice of material in that mechanicalattachment

allows a wide choice, whereaswelding limits the choice.The material selectionmust also
consider the fluid in contact with the burst disk, becausecorrosion of the burst disk by the
fluid or decomposition of the contained medium by the disk must be avoided.Corrosion
cannot be tolerated, becausethe thin sectionsof the burst disk haveno margin for lossof
material and the burst pressurewould be reduced(ref. 65). Decompositionof the contained
medium could result in a pressurebuildup that would causepremature rupture of the burst
disk.

2.4.5.1 TEMPERATURE EFFECTS ON PROPERTIES

Most mechanical properties of a metal usually are reduced by an increase in temperature;

the reverse occurs when temperature is decreased. Because the properties affect the burst
pressure, it becomes necessary to determine the operating temperature accurately and to
adjust the ambient burst pressure to reflect the change in properties with temperature (ref.
66).

Inconel is a desirable material for service at high temperatures because the reduction of
burst pressure with increasing temperature is less than that for materials such as aluminum
or stainless steel (fig. 29). Although data for burst disks at low temperatures are not
available, the variation in burst pressure should parallel the variation in tensile strength
shown in figure 30 (ref. 66). The strengths of aluminum, stainless steel, and Inconel decrease
by factors of 6.8, 2.6, and 1.5, respectively, between -300°F (89K) and 500°F (533K). If
aluminum is used because burst pressure is low or diameter is small, then a lower
temperature limit and greater variation in the burst pressure must be accepted. At low
temperatures, regions of brittleness may exist with some materials (e.g., low-carbon steel).
At high temperatures, the creep of the material becomes important and may dictate
lowering the operating pressure to widen the margin between operating and rupture
pressures.

61
 ps_ MN/m 2
.5OO -- m
3. 45

4.5O 3. 10
_ _
4O0 2. 76

3.5O 2. 41

3O0 2.O7
72 2O0 400 600 oF
296 367 478 589 K

Figure 29. - Variation of burst pressure with temperature.

MN/m 2

300x103 -- 2. 07x103

2O0 1.38

hard

"'- Inconel, hot-rolled

E 100 O.69

1100Aluminum, half-hard
I I I
-400 -200 0 +200 +400 OF
33 144 256 367 478 K

Temperature

Figure 30. - Variation of material ultimate tensile strength with temperature (ref. 66).

62
2.4.5.2 FATIGUE STRENGTH

The linear cumulative damage rule (ref. 67) is used to estimate the life fraction consumed
when a material is cycled through a known stress or strain range. This cumulative effect is of
concern when burst disks are used for purposes of relieving excess pressure but is not
applicable when only one operation and not repeated cyclic service is required. In any case,
any application and removal of pressure or fluctuation in pressure is evaluated for possible
fatigue effects. The usual precaution is to raise the burst pressure with respect to the
operating pressure.

2.4.6 Installation

The installation of prebulged burst disks is a simple matter if the manufacturer's instructions
are followed and if good practices are used, because such disks usually are attached
mechanically. To ensure correlation of burst pressure with test results, the test fixtures must
duplicate the clamping means actually used on the vehicle. When the disk is attached by
welding, as is the case with most flat coined-groove disks, the thermal stresses set up by
welding can prestress the coined section of the burst disk and lower the burst pressure. In
addition, the thin burst disk tends to become oYerheated before the heavier body is heated,
and this difference intensifies the thermal stresses. One successful method of welding the
burst disk is shown in figure 31.

,=-_A

/-Weld
/
/

Coined _
g roove

- Pressure

/rDistance between
./ coined groove and
weld: aluminum,
0. 25-in. min.;
Section A-A stainless steel,
0. B-in. min. L-._A

Figure 31. - Cup-type, welded-installation, coined-groove burst disk (ref. 64).

63
Because burst disks are somewhat specialized elements with the unusual requirements that
they bend and break in order to function, their design is not as amenable to analysis as one
where the part must not break and can therefore be provided with a margin of safety. A
burst disk with a margin of safety would not be useful. Consequently, many more variables
come into play- the effect of work hardening during forming, stresses set up by
installation, and temperature effects on material properties- all in a dynamic situation
where the form and dimensions of the disk are changing as it functions. Very early
coordination and cooperation with the supplier are essential to the efficient, timely design
of burst disks. Burst disks arbitrarily designed into existing spaces and parts without
allowing the supplier to influence the design have a tendency to be costly and troublesome;
for example, with a welded-in coined-groove disk, a lack of adequate space can cause the
distance between the groove and weld to be too small, or it can make the welding difficult
because of angle or position.

Burst disks may be installed in locations where they are subject to denting or other
mechanical damage due to dropped or flying objects. This installation may be the final one
or may occur during assembly or servicing. The disk can be damaged SUfficiently to affect
the burst pressure, especially if the disk is thin. An outlet line with a "dogleg" that points
down prevents most kinds of mechanical damage.

2.5 EXPLOSIVE VALVES

Explosive valves, also known as squib valves, have been used primarily in space applications.
Their generally nonreusable nature makes these valves undesirable for commercial
applications, whereas their zero leakage, small size, light weight, rapid response, and
self-contained actuation requiring only a small pulse of electrical energy make them most
useful for one-shot space requirements. In deep-space vehicles, a system must be stored or
isolated for long periods of time without leakage. With normally closed and open valves in
series, it is possible to activate and deactivate a guidance system for a short period of time
by energizing first the normally closed valve and then the normally open valve. A series of
sequences can be performed by combinations of valves within a small envelope and weight.
A variety of configurations such as normally open, normally closed, three-way, four-way,
and combinations of two normally closed valves in a single body or normally open and
closed valves in a single body are available. Examples of several commonly used
configurations are presented in figures 32 through 35.

Figure 32 shows a normally closed valve that opens when the explosive charge actuates a pin
(ram) that shears the end from the inlet fitting and retains it in a recess in the body. This
unit is made reusable by replacing the explosive charge and inlet fitting; reusable units must
be cleaned immediately after firing. Another normally closed valve is shown in figure 33 as
it appears after firing. A diaphragm is sheared from the body by the ram and is clamped by
the ram to retain it within the body; this unit is not reusable.

64
 ,--End of inlet line

_6.\\",_"/_/--Recess for inlet end

Explosive charge J
"--- Inlet fitti ng

!
Figure 32. - Normally closed reusable valve (before fi ring).

/-Diaphragm position
Diaphragm position before fi ri ng--_\ after fi ri ng
| /I

.os,ve<.a.,e
\\ I \

,-Plug stop

-- 0 - ring
Press-fit ram--"

!
Figure 33. - Normally closed valve (after firing).

Explosive charge--, _-
\
Ram

/
/

Seal J
t
Figure 34. - Normally open valve (before firing).

65
Fi re 1 _Fire 2
explosive ch I /explosive charge
I
\ __.

\
•.. . .
// F//_/, "--0 nhce hole
//

z_Body x Spool

(a) Normally closed valve before firing.

Fire 1 pressure-_\

!
• . , I/$/
Interference shdmg ht _jj/ _

(b) Normally closed valve after firing 1st cartridge to open valve.

7 Fire 2 press u re

___--:--:::_.

(c) Normally closed valve after fi ring 2nd cartridge to reclose valve.

Figure 35. - Dual-function explosive valve (ref. 68).

66
A normally open valve is shown in figure 34. In this unit, the explosive charge actuates the
ram, which shears through the flow passage and wedges between the openings to seal the
flow passage.

A dual-function valve is shown in figure 35 (ref. 68). This valve normally is closed, is opened
by firing the first explosive charge, and is reclosed by firing the second explosive charge.
Sealing is achieved by interference sliding fits between the lands on the spool and body. A
hole is provided to equalize the actuation pressure on each end of the spool subsequent to
spool travel.

These examples are typical of some of the explosive-valve configurations. Manufacturers of

these valves adapt the style of valve operation to match the system requirements. The usual
explosive valve is limited to small line sizes (<1 in. [2.54 cm]); however, by using the
energy of the fluid to open and close the valve, with the ram serving only as a latch as shown
in figure 36 (ref. 69), larger sizes can be used. The explosive valve is a highly reliable

/- Replaceable
f _,_._ /" explosive

O-ring,-_x_ _Z_ "

katch-x%'_

I nlet
_ilili!i!i!l!i!

Outlet

Figure 36. - Reusable explosive-operated Valve (ref. 69).

component when properly applied. In critical applications, redundant explosive charges have
been used. To increase reliability, the redundancy is applied throughout, with parallel power
circuits and parallel rams.

Explosive charges and initiators are vital to the design and proper operation of explosive
valves, but discussion of these complex components is outside the scope of this monograph.
The treatment of explosive valves herein is restricted to consideration of the valve body,
valve actuator mechanisms, and operational problems.

67
 2.5.1 Body

The body of the valve has passages that connect to the inlet and outlet and provide
geometry suitable for the operation of the valve. A problem can arise in maintaining a
sufficiently low pressure drop through these passages. In some valves, these passages are
straight through with minimum change in section, as in figure 34, whereas other valves have
right-angle turns, changes in passage size, and impediments to flow such as the ram in figure
33. In some instances, the installation of several valves in a single body with drilled
connections has resulted in excessive pressure drop because of discontinuities, sharp-angle
turns, and the production of vortices. Opening the passages, blending the intersections, and
joining passages so that the centerlines intersect reduces the pressure drop. The ultimate
solution is to use a straight-through valve, with attention to the manifolding to preserve the
benefits gained from use of this valve.

Some bodies have a critical diaphragm area, as shown in figure 33. The diaphragm must be
strong enough to resist burst-pressure forces but not so strong that the explosive charge has
to be increased. The material must be compatible with the fluids of the system.

2.5.2 Actuator

The energy source for actuation is provided by an explosive charge or solid propellant
housed in a cartridge. Upon firing with an electrical charge, the expanding gases apply force
to an actuating ram.

There are two forms of actuation, which differ in the manner in which pressure is
developed. In one, the ram that performs the function of opening or closing the valve is
actuated by gas pressure from the burning of a solid propellant cartridge that is sealed by an
O-ring or similar seal on the ram (fig. 36). In the other, the ram is press-fitted into the valve
and an explosive charge is detonated to cause the ram to move (fig. 35(b)). Some leakage of
gas can be expected with the O-ring seal before the seal is pressurized and seated.

2.5.3 Operational Problems

The explosive valve, because of the nature of the actuator and the method of opening and
closing the valve, presents some problems that are peculiar to this type of valve. These
problems include leakage at the connector pins, leakage of actuator gas, seal failure, escape
of debris, excessive shock levels, accidental operation of the valve, and effects of ambient
temperature.

68
2.5.3.1 CONNECTOR LEAKAGE

The pyrotechnic charge that moves the ram may develop pressures as high as 60,000 psig
(414 MN/m 2). A potential weak spot exists when connector pins are insulated from the
body by glass or ceramic seals (potting material). The seals may be glass for low pressure or
fused-ceramic for high pressure. Failures to actuate completely have occurred because leaks
around the pins or pins that were blown out allowed all the gas to escape without actuating
the ram. The problem usually results from a failure to make certain that the coefficients of
thermal expansion between the pin and the glass or ceramic potting material are such as to
maintain the glass or ceramic in compression; such brittle materials fail very easily if loaded
in tension. Epoxy potting material often is used because of its high strength. Stainless steel
pins are not used with glass or ceramic seals; one of the high-nickel-iron alloys is used to
prevent thermal expansion problems.

2.5.3.2 LEAKAGE OF ACTUATION GAS INTO SYSTEM

The explosive charge of solid propellant cartridge that actuates an explosive valve produces
high-pressure gas very rapidly; this gas must be sealed behind the moving ram. When
pressure-loaded seals such as O-rings are used, a time interval exists before the seal deflects
under the pressure load and establishes a tight seal; during this interval gas can bypass the
seal and enter the system. With very reactive propellants such as storable oxidizers, this gas
may initiate a reaction; in a hydraulic system, the gas may degrade the stiffness of the
system. The use of a press-fit on the ram, as shown in figures 32, 33, and 35, eliminates this
problem by providing a highly preloaded seal independent of pressure loading by the gas.
Valves without this feature may use a taper on the ram that engages a taper in the body at
the end of the stroke (fig. 34).as a means to reduce this leakage.

2.5.3.3 SEALS

Most explosive valves have seals that come in contact with the controlled fluid. These seals
may be on the explosive charge (fig. 33), on the inlet fitting (fig. 32), or on the ram (fig.
35). Such seals must be compatible with the controlled fluid. For some propellants, this
requirement may be difficult to satisfy; chlorine trifluoride, for example, reacts with all
organic materials including Teflon in dynamic situations. This reactivity has resulted in
external leakage, destruction of wiring, and fires.

Leakage of fuel and oxidizer together is also hazardous. One solution is the use of
pressure-loaded metal seals with a soft metal cladding to adapt to surface irregularities. In
this case, the metallic seal materials also must be compatible with the fluid. Another
solution is the use of press-fits and welding to replace seals. For example, in the design in
figure 33, if the charge container with an already assembled ram were welded into the body
and the plug stop were welded in place, the press-fit of the ram in the charge container

69
remains as the only seal.The valve shownin figure 35 is designedwith press-fitsasthe only
fluid seals.

2.5.3.4 ESCAPE OF DEBRIS

Many explosive valves have elements that must be broken to open or close the valve. The
element parts must be trapped or retained as shown in figures 32 through 34 to prevent
plugging of downstream passages. However, trapping of the gross portion of the failed
element does not guarantee that small debris will not be carried downstream. In some
instances, regulating valves with a stroke of 0.020 in. (0.51 mm) have been held open by
such particulate matter. One solution is a filter that will remove any particulate matter that
cannot pass through the valve. Another is the use of a valve configuration that depends on a
press-fit for sealing (e.g., the valve in fig. 35) or on an O-ring seal as shown in figure 36.

2.5.3.5 SHOCK

The explosive charge or solid propellant cartridge that actuates an explosive valve produces
gas very rapidly, and a very high pressure is reached quickly. In the ignition of an explosive
charge, an actual detonation occurs and produces large accelerations and decelerations that
may result in high surge pressures. Shock levels of 100 g to 300 g have been measured on
structures adjacent to explosive valves at the time of actuation; shocks of this magnitude
have damaged sensitive guidance and communication equipment. To avoid excessive shock
to the vehicle, the magnitude of the shocks resulting from the operation of an explosive
valve must be reduced or the valve must be isolated.

The magnitude of the shock can be reduced by using slower burning charges or less massive
rams. Detailed information on the shock levels to be expected with a given valve are not
available, since these levels depend greatly on both the mounting and the associated vehicle;
testing in the vehicle may be the only way to determine the shock levels. Isolation devices
installed between the valve and the sensitive equipment are another way of reducing shock if
a particular valve must be used and the shock level is too high.

2.5.3.6 ACCIDENTAL OPERATION

Explosive valves carry their own source of energy in an explosive charge or solid propellant
cartridge and hence need only a small amount of electrical energy supplied to the initiator in
order to be actuated. Their rapid and predictable response depends on this characteristic.
Consequently, explosive valves are vulnerable to stray voltages in the system that may be
internally generated by accident, induced by radiation from adjacent equipment, or
naturally produced as static charges. High-voltage static charges have been produced by the
removal of the valve from a non-conducting plastic bag. The charges can perforate through
materials normally considered as insulators and can fire the explosive by the
bridgewire-to-case route.

70
The consequencesof accidental operation of an explosivevalve depend entirely on the
system and can range from a nuisanceto an extreme hazard.The solution to the problem
lies in a realistic evaluation of the expectedoperating conditions, good designpracticesto
ensure that equipment is suitable for the intended use, and adequatespecifications for
assembling,inspecting,handling, testing, andusing suchequipment.

Guidesfor the designof electro-explosivedevicesare presentedin references70 through 72.

Guides for the exploding bridgewire firing unit are given in references73 through 75. A
guide to safe practices is presentedin reference 76. A recent development in protecting
electro-explosive devices from static discharge, presented in reference 77, consists of
establishingpreferential path circuitry in parallel with the bridgewire, using a small neon
lamp and a resistorin series.

2.5.3.7 TEMPERATURE EFFECTS

Ambient temperature can effect the response of explosive actuated valves. Over the normal
temperature range (-30°F to +130°F [239 K to 328 K]) only minor effects are noted.
However, at temperature extremes (e.g., cryogenic) a major effect on response may occur as
a result of a change in ignition rate or burn time of the solid propellant making up the
explosive charge. The use of explosive actuated valves may not be precluded by these
effects, but the effects must be considered.

71
 3. DESIGN CRITERIA and

Recommended Practices

3.1 REGULATORS

3.1.1 Assembly

The regulator configuration shall be as simple as possible consistent with the

system requirements.

Use the graph in figure 1 as a guide in evaluating types of regulators. It should be noted that,
as the constraints of the system increase, the complexity of the regulator increases. When
the system in which the regulator is to be used is not seriously affected by a change to a
simpler system, negotiate the specified requirement that will make possible the use of a less
complicated assembly.

3.1.1.1 DIRECT ACTING

In a direct-acting regulator, the size of the inlet valve and the characteristics of the
reference spring shall maintain the regulated-pressure error within the allowable
limits.

Size the inlet valve by the methods described in section 3.1.2. To determine the
regulated-pressure error due to variation in supply pressure and flow demand, write the
steady-state force-balance equation for the inlet valve, its actuator, and its springs, assuming
a direct-acting pressure-unbalanced inlet valve. For the arrangement shown in figure 2, the
force balance equation is

PA AA + L- YX- PR AA + PR Ai- B- ZX- Ps Ai = O (2)

where

AA = actuator area

Ai = inlet valve area

Ps = supply pressure

PR = regulated pressure

PA = atmospheric pressure

72
 X = inlet valvestroke

L = reference-springinstalled load

Y = reference-springrate

B = bias-springinstalled load

Z = bias-springrate

Writing this equation in differential form, the regulated-pressureerror APR may be

expressedas
APs Ai AX(Y+Z)
APR = -- (3)
AA-A i A A -A i

where the atmospheric pressure PA is zero.

The first term on the right side of equation (3) is the error due to supply-pressure variation,
and the second term is the error due to valve position or flow demand. Determine both
errors per unit actuator area as a function of supply-pressure variation. A typical plot is
shown in figure 37(a), with the sum of the two shown in figure 37(b) (note that the
regulated-pressure change in these figures is negative). Size the actuator and spring to
limit AP R to approximately 25 percent of total regulated-pressure tolerance. Select a
spring rate that will result in the minimum net change of total error as shown in figure 37(b)
(ref. 15).

It should be noted that the error due to supply-pressure variation will decrease with
decreasing inlet valve area and will be minimum at the minimum possible inlet valve area.
However, the inlet valve stroke will increase as the inlet valve area decreases. The greater
valve-position error resulting from this stroke increase can be reduced by a decrease in spring
rate. When the inlet valve area exceeds the minimum possible area, the design should be
studied for possible improvements. Adjust the regulated-pressure set point with the supply
pressure at midpoint of the range.

3.1.1.2 DOME LOADED

In a dome-loaded regulator, the size of the loader valve and the characteristics of
its reference spring and the size of the inlet valve and the characteristics of its bias
spring shall maintain the regulated-pressure error within allowable limits.

Size the inlet valve by the method in section 3.1.2; then follow the procedure described in
section 3.1.1.1 to determine the regulated-pressure error of the loader valve due to
supply-pressure variation and required loader flow. Because the loader valve seat, actuator,
and reference spring are relatively small, the regulated-pressure error will be small.

73
 Supply-pressure
variation error-,
t- \
\

p- Position error

" --- Increasing spring rate

Supplypressure

(a) Individual regulation errors.

Total error
Increasing spring rate
t--
tu

\ , "_ Netchange

__

Supplypressure

(b) Combinedregulationerrors.

Figure 37. - Regulation-errorcharacteristicsof a direct-acting regulator.

?4
Using the error characteristics of the main inlet valve, size the main inlet valve actuator and
bias spring to hold the regulated-pressure error to a minimum. Add the two results to
determine the total regulated-pressure error due to supply-pressure variation and flow
demand. Apply the same limitations to the total error, and adjust the set point as described
in section 3.1.1.1.

3.1.1.3 PILOTED

In a piloted regulator, the response of the pilot circuit and the size of the inlet
valve actuator and the characteristics of its spring shall maintain the
regulated-pressure error within allowable limits.

Using the methods described in section 3.1.1.1, size the actuator to minimize the
regulated-pressure error due to supply-pressure variation and flow demand. In a similar
manner, size the pilot valve; in this case the supply pressure is the pressure supplied to the
pilot (i.e., control pressure), and the flow demand is the bleed flow through the pilot valve.
Conduct a steady-state analysis (refs. 19 and 20) to size the various elements of the
regulator.

Conduct a dynamic analysis (refs. 21 and 22) to demonstrate satisfactory operation.

Consider the following factors that affect operation: sustained acceleration, temperature
variation, vibration, mechanical hysteresis, and friction. Evaluate the effect on response of
variations in flow orifices and sensed-pressure variables. The bleed flowrate can be an
important factor in stable operation in vibration environments; in particular, therefore,
study the effects of varying the bleed flowrate.

3.1.1.4 NONMODULATING REGULATION SYSTEM

The pressure-control elements in a nonmodulating regulation system shall have

the response time and reliability necessary to maintain the regulated pressure
within the allowable limits.

Establish all the design parameters of the regulated-pressure system. Establish the operating
characteristics of the pressure-sensing element or pressure switch. Size the shutoff valve to
provide the required flow of pressurizing gas. If the response time of a single shutoff valve is
too great to meet the required pressure-regulation tolerance, use multiple smaller valves with
decreased response time. For increased reliability, use redundant pressure switches in a
voting circuit in which two of three pressure switches must actuate to signal valve operation.
Perform a dynamic analysis of the total system in its operating environment to prove its
adequacy (ref. 23). Consider any tendency for the pressure switches to change setting with
usage.

75
3.1.2 Inlet Valve

3.1.2.1 SIZE AND STROKE

The inlet valve size and stroke shall provide flow area adequate for all operating
conditions.

Determine the equivalent orifice size of the inlet valve from the equations for isentropic
compressible flow for orifices and nozzles (ref. 25). Base the calculation on the required
flowrate, minimum absolute supply pressure, maximum absolute regulated pressure, and
maximum operating temperature; use an orifice discharge coefficient of 0.6 unless a
different value is known to be appropriate. If the most adverse conditions do not all occur
simultaneously, size the valve for the worst combination of actual operating conditions. In
preliminary analysis where the final configuration has not been selected, use a flow area 10
percent greater than calculated to include possible added inlet valve losses. For poppet
valves, determine the seat diameter and stroke to give an equivalent flow area exclusive of
the actuation means. When this method of sizing is used, make the inlet valve the principal
flow restriction. For butterfly valves, size the opening to give the net required flow area.

3.1.2.2 FLOW PASSAGES

The flow passages of the inlet valve shall provide the desired flow characteristics.

Size the flow passages and possible inlet filter for as small a pressure drop as possible. Size
the flow passage downstream of the inlet valve to ensure subsonic flow for all operating
conditions. Make the inlet valve the principal flow restriction.

3.1.2.3 PRESSURE BALANCING

A pressure-balanced inlet valve shall provide narrow-band regulation and stable

operation.

Choose the type of pressure-balanced inlet valve suitable for the applicatiOn according to the
following guidelines:

(1) Use a dynamic seal on the balancing piston of the inlet valve when (a) the seal and
its lubricant, if required, are effective over the operating temperature range and
(b) the regulated-pressure error resulting from the hysteresis and friction caused
by the seal does not exceed 25 percent of the allowable regulated-pressure
tolerance.

76
 (2) Use a double-seatedinlet poppet or butterfly when positive shutoff is not
required. Sizethe double-seatedpoppet with one-half the flow going through each
seat.

(3) Usea piloted inlet valvewhen (a) a positive shutoff is required, (b) the permissible
error due to supply-pressurevariation and flow demand is small, and (c) the
regulator size may be reduced appreciably. For stable operation, the piloted
open-loop pressure-balancedinlet valve is preferred over the closed-loopinlet
valve.

3.1.3 Actuator

Complete details on recommended design practices for actuators may be found in

reference 31. The following criteria and practices are specific to actuators for
regulators.

3.1.3.1 TYPE

The actuator type shall be suitable for the application and shall satisfy the
regulation requirements.

Use pistons with dynamic O-ring seals where the operating temperature range is limited to
-65 ° to +160°F (219 to 344 K), the fluids are compatible, and the operation will not be
affected adversely by friction. Use diaphragms where strokes are relatively short and
diameters are large, temperature variations are extreme, compatibility with fluids is critical,
and friction will affect operation adversely. Use metallic diaphragms such as Inconel 718 or
beryllium copper wherever possible for critical applications when control of a material
properties is important. Limit the use of Mylar, Teflon, elastomeric materials, nylon, and
fiberglass to non-critical applications. Use bellows where the inlet valve requires a large
stroke.

3.1.3.2 SIZE

The actuator shall provide sufficient force to operate the inlet valve as required to
control the regulated pressure within allowable limits.

Establish the actuation-pressure variations that will permit operation within the allowable
regulated-pressure tolerance, response time, bleed flow, and controller operation. Determine
required force output of the actuator. Determine actuator size (ref. 19). use a
pressure-balanced inlet valve to reduce actuator size if the valve does not degrade overall
regulator operation.

77
3.1.3.3 RESPONSE

The actuator response to pressure variations shall not induce sustained instability
or out-of-tolerance operation.

Using computer techniques (refs. 21 and 32), perform a dynamic analysis of the effects of
variations in the damping-fluid volumes around the actuator and in the orifices metering the
flow of the damping fluid into these volumes. Select the combination of volumes and
orifices that optimizes operation. Modify the orifices as necessary for different gases or
mixtures of gases.

To correct for high-frequency noise, increase volumes and decrease orifice sizes. To correct
for transient overshoot or undershoot of regulated pressure, decrease volumes and increase
orifice sizes.

3.1.3.4 BIAS SPRING

When a dome-loaded regulator is operated at minimum supply pressure and

maximum flow demand, the closing force of the actuator bias spring shall allow
the inlet valve to open sufficiently to maintain minimum regulated pressure.

Use a variable-rate bias spring. Use the portion of the load-vs-stroke curve where the spring
force decreases with increasing stroke. A Bellev_lle spring has this characteristic; a Belleville
bias spring and actuator are shown in figure 3.

3.1.4 Control Elements

3.1.4.1 SPRING REFERENCE LOAD

The regulated-pressure error resulting from the spring reference load shall be as
small as possible.

Use a spring support that provides a degree of freedom to reduce side loads on the actuating
mechanism; mechanical arrangements should have as little friction as possible. Spring
supports should be similar to those shown in figure 38. When the squareness of the
reference-spring end is critical, check the spring in the loaded condition in a fixture similar
to the one shown in figure 39. Rotate the spring to determine the deviation from normal to
axis of rotation. Grind the spring ends until the desired squareness under load is obtained.

78
 t _Screw

/-Washer

_ _Chempac

_ Ni Clamp

_-Oiaphragm

(a) Spring support, diaphragm sensor.

r- Reference spring
/

/ ..rL°ck nut

/
///

Ball poppet-p Adjustment screw

PistonJ

(b) Spring support, piston sensor.

Figure 38. - Reference-spring installation.

79
Squareness disks to locate
axis of spring on centerline
of fixture within O.O03-in.
(0. 076-ram) TI R ---

Compressed spring
length (ref.)

/
/
/

Location on O. D.-J"
I
I

/
Dial i ndicators /
Centerline of fixture
readi ng O.001 i nv/' (as established by
(0.0254 ram)_/ tooling balls)

Figure 39. -Test fixture for checking squareness of spring ends.

8O
3.1.4.2 PILOT VALVE CIRCUIT

The pilot circuit shaft supply the desired control to the regulator and adapt to the
physical arrangement of the regulator.

List the performance characteristics that the piloted regulator assembly must meet. To meet
these requirements, select the best pilot circuit from the schematics shown in figures 8 and
9. Use zero-gain pilot circuits for dome-loaded regulators, positive-gain pilot circuits for
back-pressure regulators, and negative-gain pilot circuits for pressure-reducing regulators. If a
regulator must lock up, select a pilot circuit that locks up and has a restriction inlet. If a
regulator permits a continuous external bleed, choose a pilot circuit that bleeds and has a
restriction inlet or a pilot circuit that locks up or bleeds with a restriction outlet. If a
regulated system is critical to a regulated-pressure increase that occurs when flow is
terminated suddenly, provide a restriction inlet. If a regulated system is critical to a
regulated-pressure decrease that occurs when there is a sudden increase of flow demand,
provide a restriction outlet. When several pilot circuits are satisfactory, select the circuit that
adapts best to the regulator configuration.

3.1.4.30RI FICE

Orifice geometry and installation shall provide effective flow control.

Size the orifice from the equation for isentropic compressible flow for orifices (ref. 25).
Determine the orifice diameter for the desired flow at the anticipated operating conditions;
use an orifice flow coefficient consistent with a sharp-edge hole flowing the specified gas.
Use sharp edges with 0.001-in. (0.025 mm) break or less. If an orifice plate is used, make the
thickness of the plate less than 1/8 of the orifice diameter or 1/30 of the flow-passage
diameter, whichever is smaller. Make both sides of the plate identical so that it may be
installed either way. If both sides of the orifice cannot be made sufficiently identical for
flow in either direction, design the orifice plate to prev.ent backward installation. For
extremely accurate flow control, flow-calibrate the orifice and rework it, if necessary, to
meet the required flow capacity. Provide special filter screens for critical small-diameter
orifices. Seal orifice plates in flow passages to prevent bypass flow or leakage. Do not use
sintered metal for flow control.

3.1.4.4 THERMAL COMPENSATOR

The regulated-pressure set point shaft not shift when the regulator is exposed to
temperature variations.

Use Ni-Span-C wire for the reference-spring material. Use a combination of Invar and CRES
to limit the variation of reference-spring load resulting from thermal expansion or
contraction of the supporting structure. Teflon, Kel-F, or nylon should not be used in

81
thermal compensators.Satisfactory designsfor thermal compensatorsare shown in figure
10. Protect the Invar from corrosion; if the Invar is plated with electrolessnickel, ensure
that possibleflaking of the nickel will not contribute to a malfunction of the assembly.

3.1.4.5 SHUTOFF VALVE

A piloted regulator used as a supply-pressure shutoff shall maintain the inlet valve
in the closed position.

Use the main inlet valve of the regulator as the primary system shutoff and use an
electrically operated shutoff pilot valve in the low-pressure control circuit. In the
deenergized position of the shutoff pilot valve, ensure that the regulator inlet valve is closed.
If the system downstream from the regulator is dead-ended without leakage, use a three-way
shutoff pilot valve with a vent port to exhaust leakage occurring in the normally deenergized
position. Provide a low-flow-capacity relief valve upstream of the shutoff pilot valve to
prevent overpressurization of the low-pressure control circuit of the regulator.

3.1.4.6 FLOW LIMITER

The regulator shall not permit a rate of flow that results in overpressurization of
the regulated system.

Add a flow limiter to any regulator that permits a high flowrate and system
overpressurization. Use a design with demonstrated high reliability, e.g., one of those shown
in figure 11.

3.1.5 Operational Problems

3.1.5.1 CONTAMINATION

The regulator shall not contain contaminant that can damage critical surfaces or
cause malfunction.

Provide a filter in the inlet of the regulator. Size the filter for minimal pressure drop, with
no increase in pressure drop when the filter area is 25-percent clogged with the contaminant
to be removed. Choose the degree of filtration (pore size)to protect critical elements. In
cryogenic systems where "snow" is a problem, use a filter having an absolute rating of
10/am. Establish procedures to ensure the cleanliness of detail parts and assemblies during
fabrication, assembly, and storage.

82
3.1.5.2 LUBRICANTS

Lubrication of the moving elements of a regulator shall not induce erratic

operation.

Avoid the use of lubricants in regulators for cryogenic service. When galling due to high
loads occurs, use a dry-film lubricant selected on the basis of the guidelines in reference 49.
In regulators with dynamic O-rings, lubricate with silicone grease such as Dow Corning
DC-55 or FS 1281 ; but do not use FS 1281 at temperatures below 0°F (256 K), Establish
procedures to control the amount of lubricant and method of application. Reference 48
provides guides for the selection of liquid lubricants.

3.1.5.3 VIBRATION

In a bleed-type pilot-operated regulator, the regulation error produced bY

vibration-induced motion of the controller valve shall be as small as possible.

Provide stops on both extremes of the controller valve travel. Determine the controller-valve
full-open flow at the required controller inlet and outlet pressures. Adjust the bleed flow to
one-half the measured controller valve full-open flow. This adjustment will position the
controller valve at midposition between the open and closed position stops at nominal
steady-state operation and will minimize the regulated-pressure error caused by vibration.

3.1.5.4 MOISTURE IN REFERENCE CAVITY

The regulator design shall preclude any form of liquid in the atmospheric-pressure
reference cavity.

Use a cover that has a series of flow paths arranged in such a manner that fluid entering an
opening in the cover will flow out another opening in the cover and not into the reference
cavity. A proven design is shown in figure 12. Sliding fits within the reference cavity should
have a minimum overlap to reduce the susceptibility to malfunction due to freezing.
Establish methods of packaging and procedures for drying that ensure that cavities are kept
free of moisture during storage and during periods between operation in the space vehicle.

3.1.5.5 STABI LITY

A regulator shall not exhibit any form of instability caused by flow dynamics or
interaction with other system components.

Locate the internal controller sense point where flow turbulence is at a minimum. External
sensing should be located as close to the regulator as possible; avoid long transmission lines.

83
To ensure stable operation of the regulator and all other components,conduct a system
dynamic analysis by meansof a digital computer program. Analysis should be performed
only by highly qualified personnelfamiliar with regulator operation.

3.1.6 Leak Testing

Tests shall verify that the leakage of a regulator in a lockup mode of operation
does not exceed the allowable limit.

Use the following procedure for ensuring that a regulator in a lockup mode is not leaking to
the downstream system more than the specified allowable amount:

(1) Check the test setup shown in figure 40 for external leakage. The leakage should
be zero when checked with non-corrosive leak-test compound.

Supply pressu re

/_ gage
Air or gaseous
rlO-pm (absolute) filter
N2 source --.. /

/// temperature

Regulator being _--

tested.....
/_
t
..--Regulator

Diaphragm retainer --_/ lin.

(2. 54 cm)
(min)

Notes-
1. The regulator being tested must be
mounted in the position shown.
2. The 1-in. dimension is the minimum
vertical distance between the diaphragm
G
Regulated
gage

and the top of gage. pressu re

Figure 40. - Schematic of test setup for determining regulator leakage.

(2) Fill the regulated-pressure gage and system to diaphragm installation surface with
hydraulic oil. This portion of the system should be completely void of entrapped
gas.

(3) Install an isolation diaphragm in the diaphragm retainer. Complete test setup.

84
 (4) Pressurize the air or gaseous nitrogen to the maximum supply-pressure
requirement of the regulator.

(5) Record the initial temperature and pressureof the system downstream of the
regulator. This pressurelevel shall be within the allowable lockup-pressurerange
of the regulator.

(6) Hold for the designatedtime period of the test (usually a number of hours).

(7) Record the final temperatureand pressure.

(8) Substitute the initial and final temperaturesandpressuresin the equation

Leakage-CT,+T e [ P2-P1
t (Pl
\T,+T+P2_4 QT2 -Tt]
t (4)

where

T1 = initial temperature

T2 = final temperature

P1 = initial pressure

P2 = final pressure

t = length of test

C = 2___V_V
")'GF

V = volume of gas downstream of regulator inlet valve

_' = ratio of gas specific heat at constant pressure to specific heat at constant
volume

G = specific gas constant

F = conversion factor for weight flow to volume flow

(9) Repeat the test with the pressure applied to the regulator equal to the minimum
supply-pressure requirement of the regulator.

85
Determine the constant C from equation 4(a), using the maximum anticipated volume V
and the minimum values for specific heat ratio 3' and specific gas constant G for gas used in
the test. Modify the constant C for pressure- and temperature-measuring instrument errors,
using the combination that results in the largest leakage value.

3.2 RELIEF VALVES

3.2.1 Size

The relief valve shaft provide adequate flow area under all operating conditions.

Using the equation for isentropic compressible flow through an orifice (ref. 25), determine
the orifice size equivalent to the required relieving flow area. In the calculation, use the
full-flow rate, the absolute inlet pressure at full flow, the maximum operating temperature,
and an orifice discharge coefficient of 0.6. Size the valve for this equivalent orifice area. If
the relief valve discharges into ducting and a back pressure exists at the valve outlet, use the
absolute outlet pressure when determining the equivalent orifice size for conditions of
subsonic flow. If a regulator is in the system protected by the relief valve, verify that this
flow area is adequate to handle the discharge of a runaway regulator at the most adverse
conditions.

3.2.2 Assembly

3.2.2.1 DIRECT OPERATING

The direct-operating relief valve shall have adequate seat size and stroke with a
spring as small as possible.

To evaluate the acceptability of a direct-operating (pressure-unbalanced-to-open) valve,

prepare characteristic curves similar to those shown in figure 16. From the flow area of the
equivalent orifice, determine the seat diameter, reference-spring installed load and rate, and
the minimum spring weight as a function of full-flow stroke. In pneumatic flow, limit the
curves to the region where the full-flow stroke is less than one-fourth the seat diameter. The
curves indicate that the most efficient design (lightweight and small size) is one using the
maximum allowable stroke. In actual practice, use a stroke less than the maximum
allowable. Units sized to operate in the high-spring-rate region are difficult to adjust to meet
the relief-pressure operating range. In designs where the full-flow stroke is limited, consider
an approach other than the direct-operating, unbalanced-to-open type. When flow
requirements are large and the spring becomes excessively large, consider the use of a
piloted-type valve.

86
For the nonmodulating relief valve shownin figure 13(b), selecta seatdiameterand poppet
stroke for which a Belleville spring may be sizedwith the desiredreferenceload andstroke
in the negative-spring-raterange of the Bellev.illeload-stroke curve. Useas short a stroke as
possible, becausethe Belleville spring has a short stroke; provide an open-positionstop to
limit the stroke. Provide a pressure-balance passageto maintain equalpressureon both sides
of the Belleville spring to preventan actuator-typeforce beingapplied to the poppet.

3.2.2.2 INVERTED OPERATION

The inverted-operation relief valve shall meet flow requirements and at reseat
pressure shall provide a poppet-to-seat load as large as possible.

To evaluate the inverted-operation, pressure-unbalanced-to-close Valve, prepare characteristic

curves similar to those shown in figure 17. In this valve, the pressure at which the hanger
contacts the poppet and starts to lower the pressure-unbalanced closing forces should equal
the nominal operating pressure or the defined reseat pressure. The reference-spring installed
load will vary with the pressure-unbalanced-to-open force resulting from the effective
diaphragm area. Using the flow area of the equivalent orifice, determine the seat diameter,
diaphragm diameter, reference-spring installed load and rate, and the minimum spring
weight as a function of full-flow stroke. In pneumatic flow, limit the curves to the region
where the full-flow stroke is less than one-fourth the seat diameter. Although the curves
indicate that the most efficient design is at the maximum allowable stroke, use a stroke less
than the maximum allowable. When flow requirements are large and relieving pressures are
high, the spring becomes excessively large; consider the use of a piloted-type valve.

3.2.2.3 PILOT OPERATED

The pilot-operated relief valve shall satisfy full-flow and reseat requirements and
shall be as small as possible.

To select a piloted-type relief valve, prepare schematics of various configurations. Perform

steady-state analysis of these configurations (ref. 51). Use the arrangement that will meet
the operational requirements and fit the allowable envelope. To aid in the selection of valve
operating characteristics, prepare curves similar to those shown in figure 18. Use a plot like
that in figure 18(a) to select the stroke of the pilot valve at which the actuator control
pressure permits the main poppet to start to open. Use the difference between the cracking
pressures of the pilot valve and main valve to determine the reference-spring characteristics
as shown in figure 18(b). The seat loadings of the pilot poppet and main poppet are
established as shown in figure 18(c). Conduct a dynamic analysis to demonstrate response
and stability characteristics. Modify valve sizing as necessary.

87
3.2.3 Inlet Valve

3.2.3.1 POPPET AND SEAT

The inlet valve poppet and seat shall prevent leakage and have repeatable relieving
characteristics.

For direct- or inverted-operating relief valves or pilot valves of pilot-controlled relief valves,
use poppet and seat material that is hard metal-to-metal (heat-treated 440 C or equivalent)
with a 1-/a in. (0.0254 gm) AA surface finish in the sealing areas and a minimum seat
loading stress of 1000 psi (6.895 MN/mZ). Soft materials may be used for sealing the main
inlet valve of pilot-controlled relief valves. To achieve lower costs for manufacture and
inspection, use fiat poppets and seats.

3.2.3.2 SUBASSEMBLY CONSTRUCTION

The subassembly shaft withstand forces that cause changes in cracking pressure.

Use single-piece construction and avoid joints that may separate. A recommended design is
shown in figure 19(b). Establish assembly procedures and tooling to prevent injury to
personnel performing assembly operation.

3.2.4 Actuator

All the design criteria and recommended practices in section 3.1.3 are applicable.

3.2.5 Control Elements

All the design criteria and recommended practices in sections 3.1.4.1, 3.1.4.3, and
3.1.4.4 are applicable.

3.2.6 Operational Problems

3.2.6.1 MOISTURE IN THE ACTUATOR

The actuator shall be moisture-free, and moisture shall not be introduced by the
actuation gas.

88
 Before storage or use, dry the unit for 30 minutes minimum in a chamber at an absolute
pressureof 1.0 in. Hg (3.38 kN/m2) maximum and a temperatureof 120° to 130°F (322 to
328 K), Provide a procedureto verify andensurea dewpoint for the actuatinggasof-79°F
(212 K) at 14.7 psia(101 kN/m2).

3.2.6.2 PILOT VALVE PRESSURE SENSING

• 3.2.6.2.1 Sensor Location

The portions of the pilot valve that are intended to respond to reference pressures
shah be exposed to pressures that vary in a known way with the reference
pressures.

Locate the p.lot valve sensing inlet at a position in the valve that is at the total pressure.
Locate the exhaust of the pilot valve in a position where static pressure approximates
atmospheric pressure. This location should not be exposed to pressure ram effects resulting
from change in direction of flow.

3.2.6.2.2 Sensor Material

The sensor material shah be compatible with the fluid and the operating
conditions to which it is exposed.

When thin sheet material is exposed to hydrogen at elevated pressures and cryogenic
temperatures, use Inconel 718. Do not use 17-7 PH stainless in any application that exposes
it to hydrogen.

3.2.6.3 STABI LITY

The interaction of coupled pneumatic components shall not generate sustained

pressure and flow oscillations.

When a combination of pneumatic units is unstable or considered potentially unstable,

prepare a computerized mathematical model of the units. The model should represent as
closely as possible the volumes, spring forces, valve strokes and size, actuator areas and
masses, friction, and pressure transients in the various volumes. Determine the features of
the design that contribute to the instability. Vary each feature or combination of features in
a series of computer runs to determine the best solution. In particular, check the effects of
the following variations in parameters:

• Changes in volume.

• Changes in spring installed load and rate.

89
 • Changesin massof moving parts.

• Changesin friction of slidingparts.

• Changesin flow capacityof valves,flow passages,

andorifices.

Verify the computer solution by tests on a modified unit or on the first unit built. On the
basisof values for the parametersmeasuredin the tests,modify the mathematicalmodel to
reflect accurately componentbehavior,in casefuture problemsmay need analysis.

3.3 CHECK VALVES

3.3.1 Poppet

3.3.1.1 BALL

The ball and seat in a ball check valve shall withstand the closing impact without
allowing excessive leakage.

Limit the use of ball check valves to low-flow applications where the stroke is short and the
ball cannot misalign and damage the seat when stroking closed. Do not use ball check valves
in applications where the valve may chatter.

3.3.1.2 GUIDED POPPET

The guided poppet shall contact the seat with a continuous and uniform contact.

Establish the guide clearances, length of guiding surface, and normality of the sealing area of
the poppet such that the poppet contacts the seat without gaps. Control the width of the
sealing area of the poppet and seat to give the desired seat loads. Use hard surfaces on the
poppet guide and in the guiding bore; use only hard anodize on aluminum alloysl
Leading-edge radius of the guide should blend in tangent with the diameter

3.3.1.2.1 Restrictor

The restrictor check valve shall limit flow in the check direction.

Provide an orifice in the poppet (fig. 22) to limit the flow in the check direction. Provide a
means to seal off the orifice while measuring the poppet-to-seat leakage. Provide a filter in
the poppet to protect small-diameter orifices from being plugged by contaminants.

90
3.3.2 Flapper

The flapper check valve shall withstand operating temperatures and fluid flow
forces, and the pressure drop in the valve shall be as small as possible.

Protect the torsion spring from the flowing fluids. Size the torsion spring for operation at a
low level of unit stress at the highest operating temperature. Stress the flappers to resist the
high impact loads that occur when the flappers strike the open-position stops. Control the
open position of the flappers to prevent rattling. Use split-flapper check valves when the
envelope is limited.

3.3.3 Operational Problems

3.3.3.1 INSTALLATION

The check valve design shall preclude incorrect installation.

Identify the direction of flow on the valve body with a permanently marked, easily seen
arrow with the note "DIRECTION OF FLOW." Make the connectors on each end of the
check valve different to ensure a single mode of installation with the correct direction of
flow. Do not use check valves with identical end connectors.

3.3.3.2 CHATTER

Exposure to low-flow conditions shall not result in check valve chatter or

repeated actuation that may exceed the normal actuated life.

When the poppet check valve is sized, provide a flow-induced opening force that will hold
the poppet off the seat during low-flow modes of operation. Use a return spring with a low
spring rate. Figure 41 illustrates a design with minimal tendency to chatter. If it is not
possible to design for chatter-free operation, limit the operating time at the chatter
conditions to less than the normal operating life. of the valve. Use hard bearing surfaces on
the sliding members. Hard anodize the aluminum bearing surfaces.

If a flapper valve chatters, analyze the operating condition inducing the chatter. Revise the
design accordingly, as illustrated in section 2.3.3.2. When a design revision is not feasible,
limit the exposure time at the chatter conditions as noted above.

91
 Housi ng -_ /- Cap /-- Poppet
\ / /
\ / /
\ / r- Spring
\ / / 1
\ / / / N

7 _ N_ _ IXX/ b
v

-_-_ _- _ __ _...,_ I// 1

_ L\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\_

_- Flow restriction to create

opening pressure differential
du ring low-flow operation

Figure 41. - Check valve design to reduce chatter.

3.3.3.3 POPPET CLOSING TIME

The check valve poppet shall close rapidly enough to prevent reverse flow.

Review the check valve design for any operational feature that could retard the motion of
the checking element. A feature that may allow a seal between the poppet and the
open-position stop is particularly undesirable.

3.3.3.4 CONTAMINATION

Contaminants in the system fluid shall not impair operation of the check valve.

To minimize the effect of contaminants in the flowing fluid, provide filters upstream of the
inlet to the check valve. (Do not provide filtration to both ports of the valve, as
assembly-introduced or self-generated contaminants will be trapped in the valve and
accelerate the damage resulting from contamination). Size the filter so that the anticipated
clogging from contaminant particles (including snow) will not increase the filter pressure
drop even with 25 percent of the filter surface area blocked.

Provide dual check valves installed in series in critical applications where check valve failure
could cause engine system or component damage and result in mission failure. Design a
poppet and seat construction that will withstand maximum anticipated impact loads.

92
3.3.3.5 VENTING

Check valves installed to vent a cavity and prevent entrance of elements of an

adverse environment shall not malfunction when exposed to that environment.

Make sliding or moving parts of the check valve internal to the poppet seal. Use an external
poppet configuration that will minimize the increase of cracking pressure that results from
moisture freezing on the outside of the assembly. A configuration that loads frozen
moisture in tension is recommended. Avoid using poppets enclosed in recessed cavities.
Rubber compounds compatible with the system fluids sherff[_t be used for seats, poppets,
and seals. These compounds will seal adequately at relatively low temperatures and prevent
the entrance of snow. Control the flatness and finish of the rubber surface to ensure sealing
when the rubber is hard. Attempt to achieve a sealing surface approaching that of hard
metal-to-metal poppets and seats. To protect assemblies, install the valves in areas where
they are shielded from handling damage. Use a rugged construction in the sealing area. Use
figures 24(a) and (b) as guides to acceptable design.

3.4 BURST DISKS

3.4.1 Burst-Pressure Capability

The burst disk shall rupture reliably at the required pressure.

Use a disk with a burst pressure that will permit initiation of system operation at the lowest
acceptable pressure level, yet will not rupture prematurely as a result of expansion of fluid
or changes in vapor pressure, tolerances, or physical properties of materials with
temperature and time. When burst disks are used in a pressure-sequence system, use a burst
pressure that will permit all necessary prior operations to be complete before the disk
ruptures. In the burst-pressure sample testing, test at the same rate of pressure rise as in the
application.

Use a shear-type burst disk as shown in figure 26 for applications in which the burst pressure
must be set within a narrow tolerance band. Set the Belleville load to compensate for
temperature and material variations. Load the Belleville spring in the negative-spring-rate
region of the stroke. Select materials that will not deteriorate with time. Protect
downstream components by providing a catch screen for the sheared disk.

93
3.4.2 Reverse-Pressure Capability

The disk shall withstand reverse pressure without rupture.

In the case of prebulged disks that are exposed to vacuum on the upstream side and
atmospheric pressure on the downstream side, support the disk if the burst pressure is less
than 1000 psid (6.895 MN/m 2 ). Support the flat coined-groove disk if the reverse pressure is
greater than 50 percent of the rated burst pressure, unless the reverse-pressure capability is
known accurately. Design the support structure so that it does not impede the flow when
the disk ruptures.

3.4.3 Size and Thickness

The size and thickness of the burst disk shall ease the criticality of other design
parameters. ,

The decision to use a burst disk in a fluid system should be made early in the system design,
so that maximum freedom in the choice of diameter and thickness of the disk is provided.
Then make the disk large enough to (1) avoid close manufacturing tolerances and (2)
minimize pressure drop after rupture. Keep in mind that diameter and thickness are
interrelated and are functions of material properties (sec. 3.4.5). In general, when possible,
use aluminum alloys; these materials allow more latitude in choice of size and thickness than
can be achieved with other materials.

3.4.4 Coined-Groove Pattern

The coined-groove pattern shall satisfy the requirements for pressure drop, flow
disturbance, and reverse-pressure capability.

Use the radial coined-groove burst disk when a relatively high pressure drop is allowable, as
in pyrotechnic applications. Use the single-hinge type when the maximum ratio of reverse
pressure to burst pressure is desired. Use the double-hinge type when the lowest tolerance
on burst pressure is desired. Make the thickness remaining under the coined groove
approximately 10 percent of the material thickness.

3.4.4.1 PETAL RETENTION

The petals shall be retained after bursting unless their passage downstream can be
tolerated.

94
Make the hinge sufficiently wide to resist failure due to flow forces and temperature
variations. When necessary,provide a chamfered notch (fig. 27) to prevent tearing of the
hinge. If possible, face the coined groove upstream. When the petal cannot be retained,
provide a catch screen.

3.4.5 Material

The burst disk material shall be suitable for the application.

Use weaker materials, such as aluminum, for relatively low burst pressures and small disks.
Limit the use of aluminum to operating temperatures less than 250°F (394 K). Choose
stronger materials such as Inconel for high burst pressures and large diameters. Where zero
external leakage is required, select materials that may be welded to the holder so that the
strength of the burst disk is not lowered. Use materials that will not corrode in the
contained fluid and that will not react chemically with the contained medium (e.g., avoid
aluminum with hydrazine-based monopropellants). When the burst disk is clamped, choose
materials that do not promote galvanic corrosion (ref. 78). Use nonmetallic coatings such as
Teflon and Kel-F for corrosion protection, provided that the temperature is less than 450°F
(506 K) and 350°F (450 K), respectively. Limit the use of metal linings to the upstream side
of the burst disk.

3.4.5.1 TEMPERATURE EFFECTS ON PROPERTIES

The physical properties of the burst disk material over the range of operating
temperatures shall be adequate to meet the burst pressure and service life
requirements.

Aluminum and copper should not be used above 250°F (394 K), stainless steel above 600°F
(589 K), nickel above 750°F (672 K). Inconel, however, can be used at 1000°F (811 K).

3.4.5.2 FATIGUE STRENGTH

The burst disk shall withstand the operating pressure and pressure oscillations of
the application without failure by fatigue.

Prebulged disks may be operated at pressures as high as 90 percent of burst pressure, but
this requires a static type of service. In general, restrict operating pressures to 70 percent of
burst pressure.

95
The flat, coined-groovedisk hasbeenusedmuch more in functional applicationswhere long
serviceis not required, and equivalent data are not available; however, the presenceof a
groove that would causestressconcentrationsprobably would reduce the abovepressure
values.

3.4.6 Installation

The burst disk installation shall not result in failure to meet the specified burst
pressure.

Establish the need for the burst disk as early as possible in the system definition stage.
Obtain recommendations from suppliers before the design is finalized.

In assemblies where the burst disk is welded in place, have the supplier of the burst disk do
the welding. Avoid thick-to-thin weld sections closer than 0.13 in. (3.3 mm) to the groove
of the coined-groove burst disk. In a formed-cup coined-groove burst disk, use the welded
assembly shown in figure 31. For minimum burst tolerances, install the flat coined-groove
disk so that the groove faces downstream and is on the same side as the weld. In
burst-pressure sample testing of mechanically clamped disks, use clamping means for the test
fixture identical to those used in the application.

The burst disk should not be exposed to any condition that might result in damage. Protect
the burst disk from physical damage during assembly, test, storage, and use.

3.5 EXPLOSIVE VALVES

3.5.1 Body

The body configuration shall have low pressure drop and a shutoff capability
requiring as small an actuator as possible.

Avoid discontinuities in flow passages. Intersect drill passages on centerlines with

penetration to the point where full diameters blend. Use as few right-angle bends as possible.
Provide a diaphragm thickness (fig. 33) adequate for the applied pressures but requiring as
small a diameter actuator rod as possible. Use materials compatible with the fluids.

96
3.5.2 Actuator

The actuator shall generate an adequate force, with minimum loss of combustion
gases.

Determine the amount of solid propellant necessary to shear the sealing membrane and
actuate the valve to the open position. Make the housing, electrical connector, and seals
strong enough for extremes of combustion energy. Limit storage temperature to less than
+250°F (394 K).

3.5.3 Operational Problems

3.5.3.1 CONNECTOR LEAKAGE

The insulation material of the connector pins shall withstand explosive charge
pressures without cracking or leaking.

Use epoxy resin for pin insulation because of its high strength and thermal properties. Avoid
using glass or ceramic insulating material on detonating explosive charges. Use pin material
with a thermal expansion coefficient as close as possible to that of the insulating material.
For glass or ceramic insulating material, choose a high-nickel-iron alloy.

3.5.3.2 LEAKAGE OF ACTUATION GAS INTO SYSTEM

Actuation of the valve shall not introduce an excess amount of actuation gas into
the valved system.

If actuation gas cannot be tolerated in the valved system, use the press-fit type of ram
actuator. Use O-ring type of dynamic seals on the ram actuator only in applications where
leakage of the actuation gas into the system can be tolerated.

3.5.3.3 SEALS

The valve seal shall be compatible with the fluid.

Use seals that will not deteriorate in the fluid, react with the fluid, take a permanent set, or
cause corrosion. If necessary, establish compatibility by test under simulated use conditions.
Use metal seals or welded joints when available elastomers are incompatible with the service
fluid.

97
3.5.3.4 ESCAPE OF DEBRIS

Escaped debris shall not exceed allowable amounts.

Contain gross contaminants such as an end of a fitting or a diaphragm within the valve body.
Use a filter in the downstream section of the valve body to remove debris that may be
harmful to other components; use deflectors around filters to protect them from
high-velocity particles. For systems that cannot tolerate debris, select valve configurations
that do not generate debris (e.g., those shown in figures 33 and 36).

3.5.3.5 SHOCK

The explosive valve shall not transmit excessive shock to the vehicle.

Determine the magnitude of the shock created by operation of the explosive valve.
Determine the effect of the shock forces on adjacent equipment in the valve application.
Provide shock mounts as required.

3.5.3.6 ACCIDENTAL OPERATION

The electroexplosive device for initiating the valve operation shall be safe to store,
handle, and use under the conditions of service.

The unit should not fire or be dudded by application of 1 ampere-1 watt for a specified
period or by discharge of 25,000 volts from a 500-picofarad capacitor applied between
bridgewire and case. Use the guidelines given in reference 73.

Use the specifications given in references 70, 71, 72, 74, and 75 to ensure a reliable
explosive charge that may be assembled, inspected, handled, tested, and used safely.

3.5.3.7 TEMPERATURE EFFECTS

Valve response shall not be adversely effected by ambient-temperature extremes.

Determine the effects of ambient-temperature extremes on valve response and verify that
system response requirements will be met under all conditions. If necessary, revise the
design or select materials whose behavior is acceptable over the desired range.

98
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75. Schreiber, O. W.: Exploding Bridgewire Systems for Spacecraft Application. L/S U-676 (Contract
NAS w-6, Subcontract 950139), Jet Propulsion Lab., Cal. Inst. Tech. (Pasadena, CA), Nov. 1961.

76. Anon.: General Requirement for Preclusion of Hazards from Electromagnetic Discharge. Mil. Spec.
MIL-P-24014, Jan. 1964.

77. Pierson, E. G.: Experiments in the Protection of EED's from Electro-Static Discharge. Session 3,
Paper 6, Sixth Franklin Institute Symposium (Philadelphia, PA), July 1969.

78. Anon.: Definition of Dissimilar Materials. Mil. Spec. MS 33586, Rev, A, Dec. 1958.

103
 GLOSSARY

Term Definition
i

actuator device that converts control energy into mechanical motion:to operate
a valving element.

Belleville spring truncated conical metal spring washer that can be designed to provide a
negative mechanical spring rate.

bias spring spring used to maintain a valve detail part in a preferred position while
assembly is nonoperating.

bleed continuous flow of gas through pilot (figs. 8, 9).

chatter
uncontrolled rapid seating and unseating of a valving unit, usually at
low-flow conditions.

coined groove narrow channel or depression stamped in a burst disk to provide

localized thinning of material in a desired pattern.

Coulomb damping dry friction damping; friction force is constant in magnitude but always
directed opposite to the velocity.

cryogenic fluids or conditions at low temperatures, usually at or below -150°C

(123 K).

diaphragm thin membrane that can be used as a seal to prevent fluid leakage and as
an actuator to transform an applied pressure to linear force.

galling progressive surface damage of mating surfaces resulting in increased

friction and possible seizure.

hard anodize production of a protective oxide film on a light metal (usually

aluminum) by electrochemical means.

interflow inlet and discharge of gas from the control-pressure region are
controlled by a pressure-sensor-positioned 3-way valve that permits
flow into and out of the control pressure region simultaneously.
Relative values of Ps, Pc, PR imply that gas flows from the larger
parameter. (e.g., Ps > Pc, gas flows from Ps to Pc) (figs. 8 and 9).

lockup all flow of gas stops when the regulated pressure exceeds the specified
regulated value. In the pilot circuit, a sufficient increase in PR can cause
flow of gas through the pilot to cease (figs. 8 and 9).

104
Term Definition

modulating flow, pressure, or position is proportional to a sensed parameter and is

infinitely variable within the regulated range.

negative gain an increase in PR causes an amplified decrease in Pc (figs. 8 and 9).

no bleed under steady-state conditions, there is no flow of gas through pilot

(figs. 8 and 9).

noninterflow inlet and discharge of gas from the control-pressure region are
controlled by a pressure-sensor-positioned 3-way valve that does not
permit flow into and out of the control-pressure region simultaneously
(figs. 8 and 9).

nonmodulating the controlled variable (flow, pressure, etc.) cycles between limits.

pilot circuit the flow-control elements (orifices, diaphragms, springs, etc) that, in
combination with a pilot valve, control the operation of a larger valve.

pilot valve a low-capacity valve that amplifies a low-power control signal to

operate a larger valve.

positive gain an increase in PR causes an amplified increase in Pc (figs. 8 and 9).

reference load a relative constant force that is used to modulate a valve within a
desired value.

response the capability of a valve to achieve 63 percent of a signaled position

with minimum time delay.

restriction inlet a flow path of reduced cross section or an orifice through which gas
flows into the control-pressure region; gas is discharged through a
throttling valve positioned by the pressure sensor (figs. 8 and 9).

restriction outlet a flow path of reduced cross section or an orifice through which gas is
discharged from the control-pressure region; gas flows into the
control-pressure region through a throttling valve positioned by the
pressure sensor (figs. 8 and 9).

shut off a mechanism that stops the flow of fluid, or a condition of zero flow.

spring rate change in spring force per unit change in length.

storable propellant a propellant with a vapor pressure such that the propellant can be
stored in a specified environment (earth or space) at moderate ullage
pressures without significant loss over a specified period of time.

TIR abbreviation for total indicated runout.

105
Term Definition

ullage amount that a container lacks of being full.

zero gain Pc is held constant (figs. 8 and 9).

Symbol Definition
i i i

AA actuator area

Ad diaphragm effective area

Ai inlet area

As unbalanced seat area

B bias-spring installed load

C leakage constant = 2..._V

3'GF

F conversion factor for weight flow to volume flow

G specific gas constant

g acceleration due to gravity

L reference spring load

atmospheric pressure

Pc control pressure

Pcr cracking pressure

PR regulated pressure

PS supply pressure

Pt specified pressure

Pl initial pressure

P2 final pressure

TI initial temperature

T2 final temperature

t length of test

106
Symbol Definition

V volume of gas downstream of regulator

x inlet valve stroke

Y reference spring rate

Z bias spring rate

7 specific heat ratio

MATERIALS 1

Designation Identification

A-50, Aerozine-50 storable liquid propellant: a 50-50 mixture of unsymmetrical

dimethylhydrazine (UDMH) and hydrazine per MIL-P-27402.

ceramic an inorganic composition fired at high temperature to obtain a

polycrystalline form.

Chempac graphite-impregnated asbestos material manufactured by J ohns Manville

Corp.

CRES corrosion resistant steel.

DC 55 silicone grease manufactured by Dow Corning Co.

elastomer polymeric material that at room temperature can be stretched to twice

its length and return quickly to its original length.

electroless nickel nickel plate applied by nonelectrical means (chemical reduction

process).

epoxy resin class of thermosetting resins characterized by an epoxy group; widely

used for adhesives, potting compounds, coatings, and laminated
products.

FS 1281 flurosilicone grease manufactured by Dow Corning Co.

He helium, pressurant per MIL-P-27407.

Inconel 718 International Nickel Co. designation for an austenitic nickel-base alloy.

Invar International Nickel Co. designation for a nickel alloy with very low
coefficient of thermal expansion.

IAdditional information on metallic materials listed herein can be found in the 1972 SAE Handbook, Society of
Automotive Engineers, Inc., Two Pennsylvania Plaza, New York, NY 10001.

107
Designation Identification

Kel-F trademark for a polymer of chlorotrifluoruoethylene manufactured by

3M Company.

LH2 liquid hydrogen, propellant grade per MIL-P-27201A.

L02 liquid oxygen, propellant grade per MIL.P-25508D.

Monel International Nickel Co. designation for a nickel-dopper alloy_

Mylar trademark for polyethylene terephthalate film manufactured by the E.

I. duPont C0.

Nylon thermoplastic polyamide,

Ni-Span-C tradename of International Nickel Co. for an iron-nickel-chromium

alloy that can be heat treated to produce an essentially constant
modulus over a wide temperature range.

RP-1 high-energy kerosene, propellant grade per MIL-P-25576.

rubber an elastomer, either a synthetic or a natural compound obtained from

the hevea brasiliensis tree.

TEAB a pyrophoric mixture of triethylaluminum and triethylborane.

Teflon trademark for polymerized tetrafluoroethylene manufactured by the E.

I. duPont Co.

17-7 PH semi-austenitic precipitation-hardening stainless steel per MIL-S-25043.

300 series austenitic stainless steels per QQ-S-763.

440 C martensitic stainless steel per QQ-S-763°

110-0 wrought aluminum alloys of soft temper.

3003-0
5052-0
6061-0

108
 NASA SPACE VEHICLE DESIGN CRITERIA
MONOGRAPHS ISSUED TO DATE
ENVIRONMENT

SP-8005 Solar Electromagnetic Radiation, Revised May 1971

SP-8010 Models of Mars Atmosphere (1967), May 1968

SP-8011 Models of Venus Atmosphere (1972), Revised September 1972

SP-8013 Meteoroid Environment Model-1969 (Near Earth to Lunar Surface),

March 1969

SP-8017 Magnetic Fields-Earth and Extraterrestrial, March 1969

SP-8020 Mars Surface Models (1968), May 1969

SP-8021 Models of Earth's Atmosphere (90 to 2500 kin), Revised March 1973

SP.8023 Lunar Surface Models, May 1969

SP-8037 Assessment and Control of Spacecraft Magnetic Fields, September 1970

Meteoroid Environment Model-1970 (Interplanetary and Planetary),

SP-8038
October 1970

SP-8049 The Earth's Ionosphere, March 1971

SP-8067 Earth Albedo and Emitted Radiation, July 1971

SP-8069 The Planet Jupiter (1970), December 1971

SP-8084 Surface Atmospheric Extremes (Launch and Transportation Areas),

May 1972

SP-8085 The Planet Mercury (1971), March 1972

SP-8091 The Planet Saturn (1970), June 1972

SP-8092 Assessment and Control of Spacecraft Electromagnetic Interference,

June 1972

SP-8103 The Planets Uranus, Neptune, and Pluto (1971), November 1972

STRUCTURES

SP-8001 Buffeting During Atmospheric Ascent, Revised November 1970

109
SP-8002 Flight-Loads Measurements During Launch and Exit, December 1964

SP-8003 Flutter, Buzz, and Divergence, July 1964

SP-8004 Panel Flutter, Revised June 1972

SP-8006 Local Steady Aerodynamic Loads During Launch and Exit, May 1965
J •

SP-8007 Buckling of Thin-Walled Circular Cylinders, Revised August 1968

SP-8008 Prelaunch Ground Wind Loads, November 1965

SP-8009 Propellant Slosh Loads, August 1968

SP-8012 Natural Vibration Modal Analysis, September 1968

SP-8014 Entry Thermal Protection, August 1968

SP-8019 Buckling of Thin-Walled Truncated Cones, September 1968

SP-8022 Staging Loads, February 1969

SP-8029 Aerodynamic and Rocket-Exhaust Heating During Launch and Ascent

May 1969

SP-8030 Transient Loads From Thrust Excitation, February 1969

SP-8031 Slosh Suppression, May 1969

SP-8032 Buckling of Thin-Walled Doubly Curved Shells, August 1969

SP-8035 Wind Loads During Ascent, June 1970

SP-8040 Fracture Control of Metallic Pressure Vessels, May 1970

SP-8042 Meteoroid Damage Assessment, May 1970

SP-8043 Design-Development Testing, May 1970

SP-8044 Qualification Testing, May 1970

SP-8045 Acceptance Testing, April 1970

SP-8046 Landing Impact Attenuation for Non-Surface-Planing Landers, April

1970

SP-8050 Structural Vibration Prediction, June 1970

SP-8053 Nuclear and Space Radiation Effects on Materials, June 1970

110
 SP-8054 Space
RadiationProtection,
June1970

SP-8055 Prevention
of CoupledStructure-Propulsion
Instability(Pogo),October
1970

SP-8056 FlightSeparation
Mechanisms,
October1970

SP-8057 StructuralDesignCriteriaApplicableto aSpace

Shuttle,Revised
March
1972

SP-8060 Compartment
Venting,November
1970

SP-8061 InteractionwithUmbilicalsandLaunchStand,August1970

SP-8062 EntryGasdynamic
Heating,January1971

SP-8063 Lubrication,Friction,andWear,June1971

SP-8066 Deployable
Aerodynamic
Deceleration
Systems,
June1971

SP-8068 BucklingStrengthof StructuralPlates,June1971

SP-8072 AcousticLoadsGenerated
by thePropulsion
System,
June1971

SP-8077 Transportation
andHandlingLoads,September
1971

SP-8079 StructuralInteraction
withControlSystems,
November
1971

SP-8082 Stress-Corrosion
Cracking
in Metals,August1971

SP-8083 Discontinuity
Stresses
in MetallicPressure
Vessels,
November
1971

SP-8095 PreliminaryCriteria for the FractureControl of SpaceShuttle

Structures,
June1971

SP-8099 Combining
AscentLoads,May1972

SP.8104 StructuralInteractionWith Transportationand HandlingSystems,

January1973

GUIDANCE AND CONTROL

SP.8015 Guidance and Navigation for Entry Vehicles, November 1968

SP-8016 Effects of Structural Flexibility on Spacecraft Control Systems, April

1969

SP-8018 Spacecraft Magnetic Torques, March 1969

111
 SP-8024 Spacecraft
Gravitational
Torques,
May1969
SP-8026 Spacecraft
StarTrackers,
July1970
SP-8027 Spacecraft
RadiationTorques,
October1969
SP-8028 EntryVehicleControl,November
1969
SP-8033 Spacecraft
EarthHorizonSensors,
December
1969
SP-8034 Spacecraft
MassExpulsion
Torques,
December.
1969
SP-8036 Effectsof StructuralFlexibilityon LaunchVehicleControlSystems,
February1970
SP-8047 Spacecraft
SunSensors,
June1970
SP-8058 Spacecraft
Aerodynamic
Torques,
January1971
SP-8059 SpacecraftAttitude Control DuringThrustingManeuvers,
February
1971

SP-8065 TubularSpacecraft
Booms(Extendible,
ReelStored),February1971
SP-8070 Spaceborne
DigitalComputerSystems,
March1971
SP-8071 Passive
Gravity-Gradient
LibrationDampers,
February1971
SP-8074 Spacecraft
SolarCellArrays,May1971
SP-8078 Spaceborne
ElectronicImagingSystems,
June1971
SP-8086 Space
VehicleDisplays
Design
Criteria,March1972
SP-8096 Space
VehicleGyroscope
Sensor
Applications,
October1972
SP-8098 Effectsof StructuralFlexibility on Entry VehicleControlSystems,
June1972
SP-8102 Space
VehicleAccelerometer
Applications,
December
1972

CHEMICAL
PROPULSION

SP-8087 LiquidRocketEngineFluid-Cooled
Combustion
Chambers,
April 1972
SP-8081 LiquidPropellant
GasGenerators,
March1972
SP-8052 LiquidRocketEngineTurbopump
Inducers,
May1971

112
 SP-8048 LiquidRocketEngineTurbopump
Bearings,
March1971

SP-8101 Liquid RocketEngineTurbopumpShaftsandCouplings,

September
1972

SP-8064 SolidPropellant
Selection
andCharacterization,
June1971

SP-8075 SolidPropellantProcessing
Factorsin RocketMotorDesign,October
1971

SP-8076 SolidPropellant
GrainDesignandInternalBallistics,
March1972

SP-8039 SolidRocketMotorPerformance
AnalysisandPrediction,
May1971

SP-8051 SolidRocketMotorIgniters,March1971

SP-8025 SolidRocketMotorMetalCases,
April 1970

SP-8041 Captive-Fired
Testingof SolidRocketMotors,March1971

113
¢rU.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1973-739-153/50