INTRODUCUTION TO DATA STRUCTURE AND ALGORITHM

What is Data Structure:

A data structure is a storage that is used to store and organize data. It is a way of arranging
data on a computer so that it can be accessed and updated efficiently.

A data structure is not only used for organizing the data. It is also used for processing,
retrieving, and storing data. There are different basic and advanced types of data
structures that are used in almost every program or software system that has been
developed. So we must have good knowledge of data structures.

Data structures are an integral part of computers used for the arrangement of data in
memory. They are essential and responsible for organizing, processing, accessing, and
storing data efficiently. But this is not all. Various types of data structures have their own
characteristics, features, applications, advantages, and disadvantages. So how do you
identify a data structure that is suitable for a particular task? What is meant by the term
‘Data Structure’? How many types of data structures are there and what are they used for?

This course covers everything about what data structure is, what are the types of data
structures, the classification of data structures, the applications of each data structure,
and so on.

How Data Structure varies from Data Type:

We already have learned about data structure. Many times, what happens is that people
get confused between data type and data structure. So let’s see a few differences between
data type and data structure to make it clear.

Data Type Data Structure

The data type is the form of a variable Data structure is a collection of different
to which a value can be assigned. It kinds of data. That entire data can be
defines that the particular variable will represented using an object and can be used

1
Data Type Data Structure

assign the values of the given data

throughout the program.
type only.

It can hold value but not data. It can hold multiple types of data within a
Therefore, it is dataless. single object.

The implementation of a data type is Data structure implementation is known as

known as abstract implementation. concrete implementation.

There is no time complexity in the case In data structure objects, time complexity
of data types. plays an important role.

While in the case of data structures, the data

In the case of data types, the value of
and its value acquire the space in the
data is not stored because it only
computer’s main memory. Also, a data
represents the type of data that can be
structure can hold different kinds and types
stored.
of data within one single object.

Data type examples are int, float, Data structure examples are stack, queue,
double, etc. tree, etc.

Data structures are an essential concept in computer science and programming. Here are
some reasons why they are important:

2
Importance of Data Structure
1. Efficient data processing: Data structures provide a way to organize and store data
in a way that allows for efficient retrieval, manipulation, and storage of data. For
example, using a hash table to store data can provide constant-time access to data.
2. Memory management: Proper use of data structures can help to reduce memory
usage and optimize the use of resources. For example, using dynamic arrays can
allow for more efficient use of memory than using static arrays.
3. Code reusability: Data structures can be used as building blocks in various
algorithms and programs, making it easier to reuse code.
4. Abstraction: Data structures provide a level of abstraction that allows programmers
to focus on the logical structure of the data and the operations that can be
performed on it, rather than on the details of how the data is stored and
manipulated.
5. Algorithm design: Many algorithms rely on specific data structures to operate
efficiently. Understanding data structures is crucial for designing and implementing
efficient algorithms.
6. Optimization of algorithms: Data structures help optimize algorithms by enabling
efficient data access and manipulation. For example, a binary search tree allows fast
searching and insertion of elements, making it ideal for implementing searching and
sorting algorithms.
7. Scalability: Data structures enable programs to handle large amounts of data
effectively. For example, a hash table can store large amounts of data while
providing fast access to elements based on their key.
Overall, data structures are essential for managing and manipulating data in an efficient
and effective way. They are a fundamental concept in computer science and are used
extensively in programming and software development.
The structure of the data and the synthesis of the algorithm are relative to each other.
Data presentation must be easy to understand so the developer, as well as the user, can
make an efficient implementation of the operation.

CLASSIFICATION/TYPES OF DATA STRUCTURES

Data structure has many different uses in our daily life. There are many different data
structures that are used to solve different mathematical and logical problems. By using
data structure, one can organize and process a very large amount of data in a relatively

3
short period. Let’s look at different data structures that are used in different situations.

Data structures can be classified into two main types: primitive data structures and non-
primitive data structures.
1. Primitive data structures: These are the most basic data structures and are usually
built into programming languages. Examples include; Integer, Float, Character,
Boolean, Double, Void.

2. Non-primitive data structures: These are complex data structures that are built
using primitive data types. Non-primitive data structures can be further categorized
into the following types:
Arrays: A collection of elements of the same data type, stored in contiguous memory
locations.
Linked lists: A collection of elements that are connected by links or pointers.
Stacks: A collection of elements that follow the Last-In-First-Out (LIFO) principle.
Queues: A collection of elements that follow the First-In-First-Out (FIFO) principle.
Trees: A hierarchical data structure consisting of nodes connected by edges.
Graphs: A non-linear data structure consisting of nodes and edges.
Hash tables: A data structure that stores data in an associative manner using a
hash function.
Heaps: A specialized tree-based data structure that satisfies the heap property.
Tries: A tree-like data structure used to store associative arrays where the keys are
strings.
Sets: A collection of unique elements.
Maps: An abstract data type that stores key-value pairs.
The choice of data structure depends on the problem to be solved and the operations to be
performed on the data. Different data structures have different strengths and weaknesses
and are suitable for different scenarios. Understanding the different types of data
structures and their characteristics is important for efficient algorithm design and
implementation.
1. Linear Data Structure
2. Non-Linear Data Structure.
1. Linear Data Structure:

4
  A linear data structure is a type of data structure in which data elements are
arranged in a sequential order, and each element has a unique predecessor and
successor, except for the first and last elements. Linear data structures are one-
dimensional and can be traversed sequentially from the first to the last element.
 Elements are arranged in one dimension, also known as linear dimension.
 Example: lists, stack, queue, etc.
 Static data structure: Static data structure has a fixed memory size. It is
easier to access the elements in a static data structure.
An example of this data structure is an array.

 Dynamic data structure: In the dynamic data structure, the size is not fixed.
It can be randomly updated during the runtime which may be considered
efficient concerning the memory (space) complexity of the code.
Examples of this data structure are queue, stack, etc.

2. Non-Linear Data Structure

 A Non-linear data structure is a type of data structure in which data elements are
not arranged in a sequential order, and each element may have one or more
predecessors and successors. Non-linear data structures can represent complex
relationships between data elements, such as hierarchies, networks, and graphs.
 Elements are arranged in one-many, many-one and many-many dimensions.
 Example: tree, graph, table, etc.

5
Need Of Data Structure:

The structure of the data and the synthesis of the algorithm are relative to each other.
Data presentation must be easy to understand so the developer, as well as the user, can
make an efficient implementation of the operation.
Data structures provide an easy way of organizing, retrieving, managing, and storing data.
Here is a list of the needs for data.

1. Data structure modification is easy.

2. It requires less time.

3. Save storage memory space.

4. Data representation is easy.

6
 5. Easy access to the large database.

ARRAYS

An array is a linear data structure, and it is a collection of items stored at contiguous

memory locations. The idea is to store multiple items of the same type together in one
place. It allows the processing of a large amount of data in a relatively short period. The first
element of the array is indexed by a subscript of 0. There are different operations possible
in an array, like Searching, Sorting, Inserting, Traversing, Reversing, and Deleting.

Characteristics of an Array:

7
An array has various characteristics which are as follows:

 Arrays use an index-based data structure which helps to identify each of the
elements in an array easily using the index.

 If a user wants to store multiple values of the same data type, then the array can be
utilized efficiently.

 An array can also handle complex data structures by storing data in a two-
dimensional array.

 An array is also used to implement other data structures like Stacks, Queues, Heaps,
Hash tables, etc.

 The search process in an array can be done very easily.

Operations performed on array:

 Initialization: An array can be initialized with values at the time of declaration or

later using an assignment statement.

 Accessing elements: Elements in an array can be accessed by their index, which

starts from 0 and goes up to the size of the array minus one.

 Searching for elements: Arrays can be searched for a specific element using linear
search or binary search algorithms.

 Sorting elements: Elements in an array can be sorted in ascending or descending

order using algorithms like bubble sort, insertion sort, or quick sort.

 Inserting elements: Elements can be inserted into an array at a specific location, but
this operation can be time-consuming because it requires shifting existing elements
in the array.

 Deleting elements: Elements can be deleted from an array by shifting the elements
that come after it to fill the gap.

 Updating elements: Elements in an array can be updated or modified by assigning a

new value to a specific index.

8
  Traversing elements: The elements in an array can be traversed in order, visiting
each element once.

These are some of the most common operations performed on arrays. The specific
operations and algorithms used may vary based on the requirements of the problem and
the programming language used.

THE SEQUENTIAL SEARCH ALGORITHM

• The sequential search (also called the linear search) is the simplest search algorithm.

• It is also the least efficient.

• It simply examines each element sequentially, starting with the first element, until
it finds the key element, or it reaches the end of the array.

• If you were looking for someone on a moving passenger train, you would use a
sequential search.

Here is the sequential search algorithm:

(Postcondition: either the index i is returned where si = x, or –1 is returned.)

1. Repeat steps 2–3, for i = 0 to n – 1.

2. (Invariant: none of the elements in the subsequence {s0...si–1} is equal to x.)

3. If si = x, return i .

4. Return –1.

THE BINARY SEARCH ALGORITHM

The binary search is the standard algorithm for searching through a sorted sequence. It is
much more efficient than the sequential search, but it does require that the elements be in
order. It repeatedly divides the sequence in two, each time restricting the search to the half
that would contain the element. You might use the binary search to look up a word in a
dictionary.

Here is the binary search algorithm:

9
(Precondition: s = {s0, s1, . . ., sn–1} is a sorted sequence of n values of the same type as x.)

(Postcondition: either the index i is returned where si = x, or –1 is returned.)

1. Let ss be a subsequence of the sequence s, initially set equal to s.

2. If the subsequence ss is empty, return –1

3. (Invariant: If x is in the sequence s, then it must be in the subsequence ss.)

4. Let si be the middle element of ss.

5. If si = x, return its index i .

6. If si < x, repeat steps 2–7 on the subsequence that lies above si.

7. Repeat steps 2–7 on the subsequence of ss that lies below si.

Applications of Array:

Different applications of an array are as follows:

 An array is used in solving matrix problems.

 Database records are also implemented by an array.

 It helps in implementing a sorting algorithm.

 It is also used to implement other data structures like Stacks, Queues, Heaps, Hash
tables, etc.

 An array can be used for CPU scheduling.

 Can be applied as a lookup table in computers.

 Arrays can be used in speech processing where every speech signal is an array.

 The screen of the computer is also displayed by an array. Here we use a

multidimensional array.

 The array is used in many management systems like a library, students, parliament,
etc.

10
  The array is used in the online ticket booking system. Contacts on a cell phone are
displayed by this array.

 In games like online chess, where the player can store his past moves as well as
current moves. It indicates a hint of position.

 To save images in a specific dimension in the android Like 360*1200

Real-Life Applications of Array:

 An array is frequently used to store data for mathematical computations.

 It is used in image processing.

 It is also used in record management.

 Book pages are also real-life examples of an array.

 It is used in ordering boxes as well.

LINKED LIST

A linked list is a linear data structure in which elements are not stored at contiguous
memory locations. The elements in a linked list are linked using pointers as shown in the
below image:

Types of linked lists

 Singly-linked list

 Doubly linked list

 Circular linked list

 Doubly circular linked list

11
Linked List

Characteristics of a Linked list:

A linked list has various characteristics which are as follows:

 A linked list uses extra memory to store links.

 During the initialization of the linked list, there is no need to know the size of the
elements.

 Linked lists are used to implement stacks, queues, graphs, etc.

 The first node of the linked list is called the Head.

 The next pointer of the last node always points to NULL.

 In a linked list, insertion and deletion are possible easily.

 Each node of the linked list consists of a pointer/link which is the address of the
next node.

 Linked lists can shrink or grow at any point in time easily.

Operations performed on Linked list:

A linked list is a linear data structure where each node contains a value and a reference to
the next node. Here are some common operations performed on linked lists:

 Initialization: A linked list can be initialized by creating a head node with a reference
to the first node. Each subsequent node contains a value and a reference to the next
node.

 Inserting elements: Elements can be inserted at the head, tail, or at a specific

position in the linked list.

 Deleting elements: Elements can be deleted from the linked list by updating the
reference of the previous node to point to the next node, effectively removing the
current node from the list.

 Searching for elements: Linked lists can be searched for a specific element by

12
 starting from the head node and following the references to the next nodes until the
desired element is found.

 Updating elements: Elements in a linked list can be updated by modifying the value
of a specific node.

 Traversing elements: The elements in a linked list can be traversed by starting from
the head node and following the references to the next nodes until the end of the list
is reached.

 Reversing a linked list: The linked list can be reversed by updating the references of
each node so that they point to the previous node instead of the next node.

These are some of the most common operations performed on linked lists. The specific
operations and algorithms used may vary based on the requirements of the problem and
the programming language used.

Applications of the Linked list:

Different applications of linked lists are as follows:

 Linked lists are used to implement stacks, queues, graphs, etc.

 Linked lists are used to perform arithmetic operations on long integers.

 It is used for the representation of sparse matrices.

 It is used in the linked allocation of files.

 It helps in memory management.

 It is used in the representation of Polynomial Manipulation where each polynomial

term represents a node in the linked list.

 Linked lists are used to display image containers. Users can visit past, current, and
next images.

 They are used to store the history of the visited page.

 They are used to perform undo operations.

13
  Linked are used in software development where they indicate the correct syntax of a
tag.

 Linked lists are used to display social media feeds.

Real-Life Applications of a Linked list:

 A linked list is used in Round-Robin scheduling to keep track of the turn in

multiplayer games.

 It is used in image viewer. The previous and next images are linked, and hence can be
accessed by the previous and next buttons.

 In a music playlist, songs are linked to the previous and next songs.

STACK

Stack is a linear data structure that follows a particular order in which the operations are
performed. The order is LIFO(Last in first out). Entering and retrieving data is possible from
only one end. The entering and retrieving of data is also called push and pop operation in a
stack. There are different operations possible in a stack like reversing a stack using
recursion, Sorting, Deleting the middle element of a stack, etc.

14
Characteristics of a Stack:

Stack has various different characteristics which are as follows:

 Stack is used in many different algorithms like Tower of Hanoi, tree traversal,
recursion, etc.

 Stack is implemented through an array or linked list.

 It follows the Last In First Out operation i.e., an element that is inserted first will pop
in last and vice versa.

 The insertion and deletion are performed at one end i.e. from the top of the stack.

 In stack, if the allocated space for the stack is full, and still anyone attempts to add
more elements, it will lead to stack overflow.

Applications of Stack:

Different applications of Stack are as follows:

 The stack data structure is used in the evaluation and conversion of arithmetic
expressions.

 Stack is used in Recursion.

 It is used for parenthesis checking.

 While reversing a string, the stack is used as well.

 Stack is used in memory management.

 It is also used for processing function calls.

 The stack is used to convert expressions from infix to postfix.

 The stack is used to perform undo as well as redo operations in word processors.

 The stack is used in virtual machines like JVM.

 The stack is used in the media players. Useful to play the next and previous song.

15
  The stack is used in recursion operations.

Operation performed on stack ;

A stack is a linear data structure that implements the Last-In-First-Out (LIFO) principle.
Here are some common operations performed on stacks:

 Push: Elements can be pushed onto the top of the stack, adding a new element to
the top of the stack.

 Pop: The top element can be removed from the stack by performing a pop operation,
effectively removing the last element that was pushed onto the stack.

 Peek: The top element can be inspected without removing it from the stack using a
peek operation.

 IsEmpty: A check can be made to determine if the stack is empty.

 Size: The number of elements in the stack can be determined using a size operation.

These are some of the most common operations performed on stacks. The specific
operations and algorithms used may vary based on the requirements of the problem and
the programming language used. Stacks are commonly used in applications such as
evaluating expressions, implementing function call stacks in computer programs, and many
others.

Real-Life Applications of Stack:

 Real life example of a stack is the layer of eating plates arranged one above the
other. When you remove a plate from the pile, you can take the plate to the top of
the pile. But this is exactly the plate that was added most recently to the pile. If you
want the plate at the bottom of the pile, you must remove all the plates on top of it
to reach it.

 Browsers use stack data structures to keep track of previously visited sites.

 Call log in mobile also uses stack data structure.

16
QUEUE

Queue is a linear data structure that follows a particular order in which the operations are
performed. The order is First In First Out(FIFO) i.e. the data item stored first will be
accessed first. In this, entering and retrieving data is not done from only one end. An
example of a queue is any queue of consumers for a resource where the consumer that
came first is served first. Different operations are performed on a Queue like Reversing a
Queue (with or without using recursion), Reversing the first K elements of a Queue, etc. A
few basic operations performed In Queue are enqueue, dequeue, front, rear, etc.

Characteristics of a Queue:

The queue has various different characteristics which are as follows:

 The queue is a FIFO (First In First Out) structure.

 To remove the last element of the Queue, all the elements inserted before the new
element in the queue must be removed.

 A queue is an ordered list of elements of similar data types.

Applications of Queue:

17
Different applications of Queue are as follows:

 Queue is used for handling website traffic.

 It helps to maintain the playlist in media players.

 Queue is used in operating systems for handling interrupts.

 It helps in serving requests on a single shared resource, like a printer, CPU task
scheduling, etc.

 It is used in the asynchronous transfer of data e.g. pipes, file IO, and sockets.

 Queues are used for job scheduling in the operating system.

 In social media to upload multiple photos or videos queue is used.

 To send an e-mail queue data structure is used.

 To handle website traffic at a time queues are used.

 In Windows operating system, to switch multiple applications.

Operation performed on queue:

A queue is a linear data structure that implements the First-In-First-Out (FIFO) principle.
Here are some common operations performed on queues:

 Enqueue: Elements can be added to the back of the queue, adding a new element to
the end of the queue.

 Dequeue: The front element can be removed from the queue by performing a
dequeue operation, effectively removing the first element that was added to the
queue.

 Peek: The front element can be inspected without removing it from the queue using
a peek operation.

 IsEmpty: A check can be made to determine if the queue is empty.

 Size: The number of elements in the queue can be determined using a size operation.

18
These are some of the most common operations performed on queues. The specific
operations and algorithms used may vary based on the requirements of the problem and
the programming language used. Queues are commonly used in applications such as
scheduling tasks, managing communication between processes, and many others.

Real-Life Applications of Queue:

 A real-world example of a queue is a single-lane one-way road, where the vehicle that
enters first will exit first.

 A more real-world example can be seen in the queue at the ticket windows.

 A cashier line in a store is also an example of a queue.

 People on an escalator

TREE

A tree is a non-linear and hierarchal data structure where the elements are arranged in a
tree-like structure. In a tree, the topmost node is called the root node. Each node contains
some data, and data can be of any type. It consists of a central node, structural nodes, and
sub-nodes which are connected via edges. Different tree data structures allow quicker and
easier access to the data as it is a non-linear data structure. A tree has various
terminologies like Node, Root, Edge, Height of a tree, Degree of a tree, etc.

There are different types of Tree-like

 Binary Tree

 Binary Search Tree

 AVL Tree

 B-Tree, etc

19
Tree

Characteristics of a Tree:

The tree has various characteristics which are as follows:

 A tree is also known as a Recursive data structure.

 In a tree, the Height of the root can be defined as the longest path from the root
node to the leaf node.

 In a tree, one can also calculate the depth from the top to any node. The root node
has a depth of 0.

Applications of Tree:

Different applications of Tree are as follows:

20
  Heap is a tree data structure that is implemented using arrays and used to
implement priority queues.

 B-Tree and B+ Tree are used to implement indexing in databases.

 Syntax Tree helps in scanning, parsing, generation of code, and evaluation of

arithmetic expressions in Compiler design.

 K-D Tree is a space partitioning tree used to organize points in K-dimensional space.

 Spanning trees are used in routers in computer networks.

Operation performed on tree:

A tree is a non-linear data structure that consists of nodes connected by edges. Here are
some common operations performed on trees:

 Insertion: New nodes can be added to the tree to create a new branch or to increase
the height of the tree.

 Deletion: Nodes can be removed from the tree by updating the references of the
parent node to remove the reference to the current node.

 Search: Elements can be searched for in a tree by starting from the root node and
traversing the tree based on the value of the current node until the desired node is
found.

 Traversal: The elements in a tree can be traversed in several different ways,

including in-order, pre-order, and post-order traversal.

 Height: The height of the tree can be determined by counting the number of edges
from the root node to the furthest leaf node.

 Depth: The depth of a node can be determined by counting the number of edges
from the root node to the current node.

 Balancing: The tree can be balanced to ensure that the height of the tree is
minimized and the distribution of nodes is as even as possible.

These are some of the most common operations performed on trees. The specific operations

21
and algorithms used may vary based on the requirements of the problem and the
programming language used. Trees are commonly used in applications such as searching,
sorting, and storing hierarchical data.

Real-Life Applications of Tree:

 In real life, tree data structure helps in Game Development.

 It also helps in indexing in databases.

 A Decision Tree is an efficient machine-learning tool, commonly used in decision

analysis. It has a flowchart-like structure that helps to understand data.

 Domain Name Server also uses a tree data structure.

 The most common use case of a tree is any social networking site.

GRAPH

A graph is a non-linear data structure that consists of vertices (or nodes) and edges. It
consists of a finite set of vertices and set of edges that connect a pair of nodes. The graph
is used to solve the most challenging and complex programming problems. It has different
terminologies which are Path, Degree, Adjacent vertices, Connected components, etc.

Characteristics of Graph:

22
The graph has various different characteristics which are as follows:

 The maximum distance from a vertex to all the other vertices is considered the
Eccentricity of that vertex.

 The vertex having minimum Eccentricity is considered the central point of the graph.

 The minimum value of Eccentricity from all vertices is considered the radius of a
connected graph.

Applications of Graph:

Different applications of Graphs are as follows:

 The graph is used to represent the flow of computation.

 It is used in modeling graphs.

 The operating system uses Resource Allocation Graph.

 Also used in the World Wide Web where the web pages represent the nodes.

Operation performed on Graph:

A graph is a non-linear data structure consisting of nodes and edges. Here are some
common operations performed on graphs:

 Add Vertex: New vertices can be added to the graph to represent a new node.

 Add Edge: Edges can be added between vertices to represent a relationship between
nodes.

 Remove Vertex: Vertices can be removed from the graph by updating the references
of adjacent vertices to remove the reference to the current vertex.

 Remove Edge: Edges can be removed by updating the references of the adjacent
vertices to remove the reference to the current edge.

 Depth-First Search (DFS): A graph can be traversed using a depth-first search by

visiting the vertices in a depth-first manner.

 Breadth-First Search (BFS): A graph can be traversed using a breadth-first search by

23
 visiting the vertices in a breadth-first manner.

 Shortest Path: The shortest path between two vertices can be determined using
algorithms such as Dijkstra’s algorithm or A* algorithm.

 Connected Components: The connected components of a graph can be determined

by finding sets of vertices that are connected to each other but not to any other
vertices in the graph.

 Cycle Detection: Cycles in a graph can be detected by checking for back edges
during a depth-first search.

These are some of the most common operations performed on graphs. The specific
operations and algorithms used may vary based on the requirements of the problem and
the programming language used. Graphs are commonly used in applications such as
computer networks, social networks, and routing problems.

Real-Life Applications of Graph:

 One of the most common real-world examples of a graph is Google Maps where cities
are located as vertices and paths connecting those vertices are located as edges of
the graph.

 A social network is also one real-world example of a graph where every person on the
network is a node, and all of their friendships on the network are the edges of the
graph.

 A graph is also used to study molecules in physics and chemistry.

24