Observation Method: A type of Qualitative Research Method

Sanjana Singh
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Qualitative research is one of the many types of research methods that aim at gaining a deep
understanding of a specific organization or event, rather than a surface description of a large
sample of a population. Its goal is to provide an explicit rendering of the structure, order, and
broad patterns found among a group of participants. Observation is one such method of
collecting data for qualitative research.

The Observation Method is “a data collection method in which a person (usually trained)
observes subjects of phenomena and records information about characteristics of the
phenomena” (Sproull, 1988). Observation is used quite often in social sciences and is
supplemented by interviews and studies of records. It involves the investigation of watching the
subjects or research situation and forms a basic method of scientific research in behavioral
sciences. Specifically, it is useful in such fields as Developmental Psychology, Anthropology,
Behaviour Modification, Social Psychology, and Evaluation Research. This method of data
collection is one of the oldest methods and it can be treated as scientific only when the criteria
such as objectivity, free from bias, reliability, and systematization are followed. So, we can say
that observing means “watching attentively in a scientific manner”. In an observational study,
the current status of the phenomenon is determined not by asking but by observing (Ronald R
Powell, 1997).

FEATURES OF OBSERVATION:
1. Eye Observation - In an accurate sense, observation involves the use of the eyes rather than
the use of the ears and the voice. An experienced worker never believes in hearsay he only
trusts if he has observed that with his own eyes or if the report is firsthand evidence of his eyes.
So it can be said that observation done with the help of the eyes acts as a most trustworthy
medium for making an observation.

2. Aim - Observations that act on scientific grounds are brought into use by scientists or
researchers with some or the other aim to achieve something. Such scientists make their
observations in a very minute and detailed manner which helps them in achieving specific
goals. These goals can include the discovery of something, verification of the hypothesis, etc.

3. Planning - The value of an observation in an operation is only if it is done properly – in a

planned manner as, if it is done in a careless sense then the chance of making such an
observation again may come or not. Hence, observation should be carried out in a very phased
and planned manner in order to get an in-depth understanding of an activity.

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4. Recording - The various operations that we perform and the results that we obtain should be
remembered but a known fact is that memory is very deceptive in nature. With the passage of
time, things tend to get out of mind, so it is very important to keep a record of such activities.
One very common method to keep track of these activities is to write down the various
impressions, but nowadays, tape or in some cases a video camera is used for recording
purposes. One of the major advantages of recording done by a tape or a video camera is that the
chances of going wrong i.e. committing any mistake are very less or almost negative. In the
tape, actual words can be recorded which results in zero chance of committing an error.

5. Physical and mental activity - Sense organs have a very critical role to play in the
observation process. During the observation researcher or an investigator has to use his sense
organs for seeing and hearing things and then has to keep in mind the whole set of observations
for an in-depth analysis of the matter later on.

6. Exactness - Observation should be based on standardized tools of research which makes an

observation exact in its nature of work.

7. Direct study - Observation is a very vital scientific method that helps a lot in the collection
of primary information that is reliable in nature in which direct study of the situation is
involved.

TYPES OF OBSERVATIONS:
1. Casual vs. Formal Observation - Casual Observation often takes place during the initial
stages of a research project. The researcher goes to the situation looking to find the categories
and behaviors that will be used later in the formal observation stage. In the first stage, the
researcher may also be considering factors such as the best place to stand, or the least obtrusive
way to dress. When carrying out a Formal Observation, the researcher will have a clear idea of
what behaviors they are looking for, and how they will be recorded. It is common, especially in
laboratory situations, to record information on video, and then analyze it in more detail later.

2. Direct vs. Indirect Observation - Observation can also be either Direct or Indirect. Direct
Observation is when you watch interactions, processes, or behaviors as they occur. For
example, observing a teacher teaching a lesson from a Psychology curriculum to determine
whether they are delivering it with fidelity. Indirect Observation is when you watch the results
of interactions, processes, or behaviors. For example, observing the amount of plate waste left
by students in a school cafeteria to determine whether a new food is acceptable to them.

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3. Unstructured Observation - The purpose of Unstructured Observation is to provide a

“richer” and more direct account of the behavioral phenomenon under study. In these methods,
attempts are made to analyze the true complexities of social situations rather than impose any
structure over them. If required, in light of the new knowledge, the definition of the problem
can also be changed. The unstructured methods seek to generate rather than test the hypotheses.
These are flexible in nature.

4. Structured Observation - Structured Observation is a set of formal techniques which seek

to provide a sympatric description of behavior and test causal hypotheses. As the researcher
already understands “what” is relevant for research purposes, he is in a better position to evolve
a specific plan beforehand for making and recording Observations. In these observational
techniques, there is a focus on specified aspects of behavior that takes place both in the field as
well as the laboratory.

5. Participant Observation - It is one of the most common methods for qualitative data
collection. It is also one of the most demanding techniques of observation. It requires that the
researcher become a participant in the culture or context being observed. Participant
Observation incorporates how to enter the context, the role of the researcher as a participant,
the collection and storage of field notes, and the analysis of field data. Participant observation
often requires months or years of intensive work because the researcher needs to become
accepted as a natural part of the culture in order to assure that the observations are of a natural
phenomenon.

Although Participant Observation is marked by varying extents of contact and involvement

with the participants, the observer attempts to maintain a face-to-face relationship with them
throughout the period of observation. He may be relatively passive (i.e. uninvolved and
detached) as well as active (i.e. share experiences). However, this hampers objectivity as the
observer may be emotionally involved in the group. Therefore, it is desirable that the researcher
starts only with a tentative hypothesis which can be subsequently modified. Unlike other
methods, Participant Observation combines both the data collection and analysis phases of
research. The observer can synthesize them while taking field notes.

6. Non-participant Observation - In non-participant observation, the observer takes a vintage

position, from where he can observe in detail the behavior of the subjects, with the least
disturbance to a group. When the observer is observing in such a manner that his presence may

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be unknown to the people he is observing, such observation is described as disguised

observation.

ADVANTAGES OF OBSERVATION AS A RESEARCH TOOL:

1. Observation allows the researcher to study people in their natural setting/s without their
behavior being influenced by the presence of a researcher.

2. Observation data usually consists of detailed information about particular groups or

situations. This kind of data can fill out’ and provide a deeper, richer, understanding than
survey work which tends to produce less detailed information about a large number of people.

3. A lot of what people do, they “take for granted’; they do it ‘naturally’, they aren’t aware of
it.

4. Some methods only allows for the study of one individual at a time. Observation enables the
research to study groups of people together, that is, it allows for the study of interaction
between the members of a group.

5. An interview, for instance, only show a person’s views at one time. Observation involves the
study of groups or situations over time, thus, revealing changes.

6. Some groups of peoples, such a school truants, may not agree to cooperate with methods of
research such as interviews. Sometimes Observation is the only way of finding out about such
groups.

7. Collect data where and when an event or activity is occurring.

8. Does not rely on people’s willingness or ability to provide information.

9. Allows you to directly see what people do rather than relying on what people say they did.

DISADVANTAGES OF OBSERVATION AS A RESEARCH TOOL:

1. Susceptible to observer bias and observer inference. Susceptible to the “Hawthorne Effect,”
that is, people usually perform better when they know they are being observed, although
indirect Observation may decrease this problem.

2. Can be expensive and time-consuming as compared to other data collection methods.

3. Does not increase your understanding of why people behave as they do.

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4. Not all Occurrences Lend Themselves to Observational Study. Most of the social phenomenon is
abstract in nature. For example, love, affection, feeling and emotion of parents towards their
children are not open to our senses and also cannot be quantified by observational techniques.
The researcher may employ other methods like case study; interview etc. to study such
phenomena.

5. Not an independent research method. According to P.V. Young, “the full answers cannot be collected
by observation alone”. Therefore many suggested that observation must be supplemented by other
methods also.

ETHICAL ISSUES IN OBSERVATION METHOD:

Many observation situations carry the risk of bias (e.g., Wilkinson 2000: 228; Moyles 2002:
179; Robson 2002: 324–5; Shaughnessy et al. 2003: 116–17), for example by:

i) Selective Attention of the Observer: what we see is a function of where we look, what we
look at, how we look, when we look, what we think we see, whom we look at, what is in our
minds at the time of observation; what are our own interests and experiences.

ii) Reactivity: participants may change their behavior if they know that they are being
observed, e.g., they may try harder in class, they may feel more anxious, they may behave
much better or much worse than normal, they may behave in ways in which they think the
researcher wishes or in ways for which the researcher tacitly signals approval: ‘demand
characteristics’ (Shaughnessy et al. 2003: 113).

iii) Attention Deficit: what if the observer is distracted, or looks away and misses an event?

iv) Validity of Constructs: decisions have to take on what counts as valid evidence for a
judgment. For example, is a smile a relaxed smile, a nervous smile, a friendly smile, a hostile
smile? Does looking at a person’s non-verbal gestures count as a valid indicator of
interaction? Are the labels and indicators used to describe the behavior of interest valid
indicators of that behavior?

v) Selective Data Entry: what we record is sometimes affected by our personal judgement
rather than the phenomenon itself; we sometimes interpret the situation and then record our
interpretation rather than the phenomenon.

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vi) Selective Memory: if we write up our observations after the event our memory neglects
and selects data, sometimes overlooking the need to record the contextual details of the
observation; notes should be written either during or immediately after the observation.

vii) Interpersonal Matters and Counter-Transference: our interpretations are affected by our
judgements and preferences – what we like and what we don’t like about people and their
behavior, together with the relationships that we may have developed with those being
observed and the context of the situation; researchers have to deliberately distance
themselves from the situation and address reflexivity.

viii) Expectancy Effects: the observer knows the hypotheses to be tested, or the findings of
similar studies, or has expectations of finding certain behaviors, and these may influence
her/his observations.

ix) Decisions on How to Record: the same person in a group under observation may be
demonstrating the behavior repeatedly, but nobody else in the group may be
demonstrating that behavior: there is a need to record how many different people show the
behavior.

x) Number of Observers: different observers of the same situation may be looking in

different directions, and so there may be inconsistency in the results. Therefore, there is a need
for training, for consistency, for clear definition of what constitutes the behavior, of
entry/judgement, and for kinds of recording.

xi) The problem of Inference: observations can record only what happens, and it may be
dangerous, without any other evidence, e.g., triangulation to infer the reasons, intentions
and causes and purposes that lie behind actors’ behaviors. One cannot always judge intention
from observation: for example, a child may intend to be friendly, but it may be construed by an
inexperienced observer as selfishness; a teacher may wish to be helpful but the researcher may
interpret it as threatening. It is dangerous to infer a stimulus from a response, an intention from
an observation.

According to Dunkin, M.J. and Biddle, B.J. (1974) “The issues here concern validity and
reliability. With regard to the validity of the observation, researchers have to ensure that the
indicators of the construct under investigation are fair and operationalized”. for example, so
that there is agreement on what counts as constituting qualities such as ‘friendly’,
‘happy’, ‘aggressive’, ‘sociable’ and ‘unapproachable’. The matter of what to observe is

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problematic. For example, do you focus only on certain people rather than the whole group, on
certain events and at certain times rather than others, on molar or molecular units? Do you
provide a close-grained, close-up observation or a holistic, wider-focused and wide-ranging
observation, i.e., do you use a zoom lens and obtain high definition of a limited scope, or a
wide-angle lens and obtain a full field but lacking in detail, or somewhere between the two?
Expectancy effects can be overcome by ensuring that the observers do not know the purpose of
the research, the ‘double-blind’ approach.

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References:

- Adler, P.A. & Adler, P. (1994). Observational Technique. In N.K. Denzin & Y S. Lincoin
(Eds.)
- Bhandarkar, P.L. and Wilkinson (1998). Methodology and Techniques of Social
Research. Mumbai: Himalaya.
- Kerlinger, Fred, N. 1979, Founded of Behavioural Research, New York, : H 107,
Rinehart and Winstem Inc.
- Kumar. R (2006) Research Methodology. New Delhi: Dorling Kingsley
- Oaks, CA. Handbook of Qualitative Research (pp. 377-392). Sage Publications.