Chapter 2

Solid-State Electronics
Microelectronic Circuit Design
Richard C. Jaeger
Travis N. Blalock

Summarized by:
Assoc.Prof.Dr. Tayfun Nesimoglu

Chap 2 - 1
 Chapter Goals
• Explore semiconductors and discover how engineers control
semiconductor properties to build electronic devices.
• Characterize resistivity of insulators, semiconductors, and conductors.
• Develop covalent bond and energy band models for semiconductors.
• Understand band gap energy and intrinsic carrier concentration.
• Explore the behavior of electrons and holes in semiconductors.
• Discuss acceptor and donor impurities in semiconductors.
• Learn to control the electron and hole populations using impurity
doping.
• Understand drift and diffusion currents in semiconductors.
• Discuss the dependence of mobility on doping level.

Chap 2 - 2
The Inventors of the Integrated Circuit

Andy Grove, Robert Noyce, and

Jack Kilby
Gordon Moore with Intel 8080 layout.

Chap 2 - 3
Intel 8080 - Microprocessor

Produced: mid 1974

Manufacturer: Intel
Max CPU clock: 2 MHz
Chap 2 - 4
The Kilby Integrated Circuit -1958-TI

Active device Semiconductor die

Electrical contacts

Chap 2 - 5
 Solid-State Electronic Materials
• Electronic materials fall into three categories:
– Insulators 105 -cm < Resistivity () (Diamond 1016 -cm)
– Semiconductors 10-3 -cm <  < 105 -cm
– Conductors  < 10-3 -cm (Copper 3x10-6 -cm)
• The  can be controlled by adding impurity atoms to the semiconductor
crystal.
• Elemental semiconductors are formed from a single type of atom (column
IV of the periodic table)
• Compound semiconductors are formed from combinations of column III
and V elements or columns II and VI.
• Germanium was used in many early devices.
• Silicon quickly replaced Germanium due to its higher bandgap energy,
lower cost, and is easily oxidized to form silicon-dioxide insulating layers.
Si can be used at high temperature applications, an oxide layer (insulator)
can be developed on top; an important advantage in building ICs.

Chap 2 - 6
 Semiconductor Materials (cont.)
Bandgap
Semiconductor
Energy EG (eV)
Carbon (diamond) 5.47
Silicon 1.12
Germanium 0.66
Tin 0.082
Gallium arsenide 1.42
Gallium nitride 3.49
Indium phosphide 1.35
Boron nitride 7.50
Silicon carbide 3.26
Cadmium selenide 1.70

Chap 2 - 7
 Bonding

• Atoms bond together in amorphous,

polycrystalline or in single crystal forms.
• Amorphous bonding creates disordered materials
• Polycrystalline materials consist of a large number
of small crystallites.
• Single crystal materials are the most useful for
semiconductor electronics.
• Si has 4 electrons in the outer shell. Each Si atom
bonds with its 4 nearest neighbor and forms a
highly regular three dimensional array of atoms.
Chap 2 - 8
 Covalent Bond Model (3D)

Silicon diamond Corner of diamond View of crystal

lattice unit cell. lattice showing lattice along a
four nearest crystallographic axis.
neighbor bonding.

Chap 2 - 9
• At absolute zero (0 K), no electrons are free and
they are trapped between the bonds of the atoms,
thus Si behaves as an insulator.
• As the temperature increases, some bonds break,
electrons are freed, then Si becomes a conducting
(semi-conducting) material.

Chap 2 - 10
 Silicon Covalent Bond Model (2D)
(cont.)

Near absolute zero, all bonds are complete. Increasing temperature adds energy to the
Each Si atom contributes one electron to system and breaks bonds in the lattice,
each of the four bond pairs. generating electron-hole pairs.

Chap 2 - 11
 Intrinsic Carrier Density/Concentration
(ni (cm-3))
• The density of carriers (free electrons and holes) in a semiconductor as
a function of temperature and material properties is:
 EG 
n  BT exp  
2
i
3
 cm
-6

 kT 
• EG = semiconductor bandgap energy in eV (electron volts)
• k = Boltzmann’s constant, 8.62 x 10-5 eV/K
• T = absolute temperature, K
• B = material-dependent parameter, 1.08 x 1031 K-3 cm-6 for Si
• Bandgap energy is the minimum energy needed to free an electron by
breaking a covalent bond in the semiconductor crystal.

Chap 2 - 12
 Intrinsic Carrier Concentration (cont.)
• Electron density (free electrons) is
n (electrons/cm3) and ni for
intrinsic material n = ni.
• Intrinsic refers to properties of
pure materials.
• ni ≈ 1010 cm-3 for Si
Intrinsic carrier density (cm-3)

• Electron density is temperature

dependant.
• Calculate the value of ni in silicon
at room temperature (300 K) ?
– Ex.1

Chap 2 - 13
Chap 2 - 14
 Electron-hole concentrations

• A vacancy is left when a covalent bond is broken and an

electron leaves the bond (-q=-1.602x10-19 C).
• The vacancy is called a hole and it has a charge +q.
• A hole moves when the vacancy is filled by an electron from
a nearby broken bond (hole current).
• Hole density is represented by p.
• For intrinsic silicon, n = ni = p.
• The product of electron and hole concentrations is pn = ni2.
• The pn product above holds when a semiconductor is in
thermal equilibrium (not with an external voltage applied).
Material properties depend only on temperature.

Chap 2 - 15
 Drift Current
• Electrical resistivity  and its reciprocal, conductivity , characterize current
flow in a material when an electric field is applied.
• Charged particles move or drift under the influence of the applied field.
• The resulting current is called drift current.
• Drift current density is
j = Qv (C/cm3)(cm/s) = A/cm2
j = current density, (Coulomb charge in Coulombs moving through a unit area)
Q = charge density, (Charge in a unit volume)
v = velocity of charge in an electric field.

Note that “density” may mean area or volumetric density, depending on the
context.

Chap 2 - 16
 Mobility
• At low electric fields, carrier drift velocity v (cm/s) is proportional to
electric field E (V/cm). The resulting current flow is known as drift
current.
• The constant of proportionality between v and E is the mobility, :
vn = - nE and vp = pE , where
• vn and vp = electron and hole velocity (cm/s),
• n and p = electron and hole mobility (cm2/Vs)
• n=1350 cm2/Vs, p =500 cm2/Vs

• Hole mobility is less than electron since hole current is the result of
multiple covalent bond disruptions, while electrons can move freely
about the crystal.

Chap 2 - 17
 Intrinsic Silicon Resistivity

• Electron and hole drift current densities are jndrift and jpdrift.
Given drift current and mobility, we can calculate
resistivity: Qn and Qp are the
jndrift = Qnvn = (-qn)(- nE) = qn nE A/cm2 charge densities
(C/cm3) of electrons
jp = Qpvp = (+qp)(+pE) = qp pE A/cm
drift 2
and holes
respectively
jTdrift = jndrift + jpdrift = q(n n + p p)E = E
This defines electrical conductivity:
 = q(n n + p p) (cm)-1 (Eq.2.8)
Resistivity  is the reciprocal of conductivity:
 = 1/ (cm) (Eq.2.9)

Chap 2 - 18
  cm 2  V  6 cm
vn    n E    700  2500   1.75 x10
 V  s  cm  s
 cm 2  V  5 cm
v p    p E    250  2500   6.25 x10
 V  s  cm  s

 

jn   qnvn   1.60 x10 19 C 1017
1 
  1. 75 x10 6 cm 
  2.80 x10 4 A
 cm 3  s  cm 2

 

j p  qnv p  1.60 x10 19 C 10 3
1 
 6.25 x10 5 cm 
  1.00 x10 10 A
 cm 3  s  cm 2

Chap 2 - 19
 Example: Calculate the resistivity of
intrinsic silicon
Problem: Find the resistivity of intrinsic silicon at room temperature and
classify it as an insulator, semiconductor, or conductor.
Solution:
• Known Information and Given Data: The room temperature
mobilities for intrinsic silicon are n=1350 cm2/Vs, p =500 cm2/Vs.
For intrinsic silicon, the electron and hole densities are both equal to
ni=1010 cm-3.
• Unknowns: Resistivity  and classification.
• Approach: Use Eqs. 2.8 and 2.9. [ = q(n n + p p) (cm)-1]
• Assumptions: Temperature is unspecified; assume “room
temperature” T=300 K, with ni = 1010/cm3.
• Analysis: Next slide…

Chap 2 - 20
 Example: Calculate the resistivity of
intrinsic silicon (cont.)
• Analysis: Charge density of electrons is Qn = -qni and for holes is Qp = +qni.
Substituting into Eq. 2.8:
 = (1.60 x 10-19)[(1010)(1350) + (1010)(500)] (C)(cm-3)(cm2/Vs)
= 2.96 x 10-6 (cm)-1 --->  = 1/ = 3.38 x 105 cm
From Table 2.1, intrinsic silicon is near the low end of the insulator
resistivity range
• Check of Results: Resistivity has been found, and intrinsic silicon is a poor
insulator.

• Electronic materials fall into three categories:

– Insulators 105 -cm < Resistivity () (Diamond 1016 -cm)
– Semiconductors 10-3 -cm <  < 105 -cm
– Conductors  < 10-3 -cm (Copper 3x10-6 -cm)

Chap 2 - 21
For intrinsic silicon,   q n ni   p ni  qni n   p 

  1000  cm  for a conductor

1

1000  cm 
1
 4.16x1019
ni   
qn   p  cm 2 cm 3
1.602x10 C 100  50
19

v  sec
1.73x1039  EG 
ni 
2
 BT 3
exp  with
 kT 
6
cm
B  1.08x1031 K 3cm 6 , k = 8.62x10 -5 eV/K and E G  1.12eV
This is a transcendental equation and must be solved numerically by iteration. Using a
spread sheet yields T = 2700 K. Note that this temperature is far above the melting
temperature of silicon.
Chap 2 - 22
Chap 2 - 23
Chapter 2

Part 2

Chap 2 - 24
 Semiconductor Doping
• Doping is the process of adding very small well controlled amounts of impurities
into a semiconductor.
• Doping enables the control of the resistivity and other properties over a wide
range of values.
• For silicon, impurities are from columns III and V of the periodic table.
• Most commonly used donor impurities for Silicon are Phosphorous, Arsenic and
Antimony.

Chap 2 - 25
 Donor Impurities in Silicon
• Phosphorous (or other column V
element) atom replaces silicon atom
in crystal lattice.
• Since phosphorous has five outer
shell electrons, there is now an
‘extra’ electron in the structure.
• Material is still charge neutral, but
very little energy is required to free
the electron for conduction since it
is not participating in a bond.
• The donor atom becomes ionized by
giving up an electron (-q) and it has
a net charge +q which is immobile.

Chap 2 - 26
 Acceptor Impurities in Silicon

• Boron (column III element) has

been added to silicon. It has one
less electron than Silicon
• There is now an incomplete
bond pair, creating a vacancy
for an electron.
• Little energy is required to
move a nearby electron into the
vacancy.
• As the ‘hole’ propagates,
charge is moved across the
silicon.

Chap 2 - 27
Acceptor Impurities in Silicon (cont.)

•Hole is propagating through the silicon as if it is a particle.

•The impurity atom that becomes ionized by accepting the +q has
a net charge –q and it is immobile.
Chap 2 - 28
 Doped Silicon Carrier Concentrations
• In doped material electron and hole concentrations are no longer equal.
• If n > p, the material is n-type.
If p > n, the material is p-type.
• The carrier with the largest concentration is the majority carrier, the
smaller is the minority carrier.
• In order to find the carrier concentrations, electron and hole densities
should be calculated:
• ND = donor impurity concentration atoms/cm3
NA = acceptor impurity concentration atoms/cm3
• Semiconductor material should be neutral; sum of the +ve and –ve
charge = 0. Ionized donors and holes are +ve, ionized acceptors and
electrons are –ve.
• Charge neutrality requires q(ND + p - NA - n) = 0 (Eq.2.10)
• Theoretically it can also be shown that pn = ni2, even for doped
semiconductors in thermal equilibrium.

Chap 2 - 29
 n-type Material (ND > NA)

• Substituting p = ni2/n into q(ND + p - NA - n) = 0

yields n2 - (ND - NA)n - ni2 = 0.
• Solving for n: (Eq.2.11)
(N D  N A )  (N D  N A ) 2  4n i2 n i2
n and p 
2 n
• If (ND - NA) >> 2ni, n  (ND - NA) .
• These should be used for ND > NA


Chap 2 - 30
 p-type Material (NA > ND)

• Similar to the approach used with n-type material we find

the following equations: (Eq.2.12)

(N A  N D )  (N A  N D ) 2  4n i2 n i2
p and n 
2 p
• We find the majority carrier concentration from charge
neutrality (Eq. 2.10) and find the minority carrier
concentration from the thermal equilibrium relationship
 (Eq. 2.3).
• For (NA - ND) >> 2ni, p  (NA - ND) .
• These should be used for NA > ND
Chap 2 - 31
Mobility and Resistivity in Doped
Semiconductors
Fig.2.8. Dependence of
electron and hole
mobility on total
impurity concentration
in silicon at 300 K.

Chap 2 - 32
 Practical Doping Levels

• Majority carrier concentrations are established at

manufacturing time by the engineers who select ND and NA
and are independent of temperature (over practical temp.
ranges).
• However, minority carrier concentrations are proportional
to ni2, a highly temperature dependent term.
• For practical doping levels, n  (ND - NA) for n-type and p
 (NA - ND) for p-type material.
• Typical doping ranges are 1014/cm3 to 1021/cm3.
1014/cm3 ≤ |NA-ND| ≤ 1021/cm3

Chap 2 - 33
• Minority carriers are small in number and
semiconductor resistivity is controlled by the
majority carrier concentration
• In FETs majority carrier population is the most
important
• However in diodes and BJTs minority carrier
population is also important.
• - Ex.2

Chap 2 - 34
Chap 2 - 35
 Mobility and Resistivity in
Doped Semiconductors
• Introduction of impurities (doping) into a
semiconductor degrades the mobility of the
carriers in the material.
• Impurity atoms have different sizes than silicon
and they represent regions of localized charge
• These cause the electrons and holes to scatter
irregularly as they move and thus reduces the
mobility of the carriers.

Chap 2 - 36
Mobility and Resistivity in
Doped Semiconductors
• The total impurity doping density:
NT=NA+ND
• As the doping increases the
mobility drops rapidly

Chap 2 - 37
 Mobility and Resistivity in
Doped Semiconductors
• Doping also determines whether the material is n- or p-type
• The conductivity of a doped semiconductor material can be
calculated for n- and p-types as before:
 = q(n n + p p) (cm)-1
But if:
n n   p p, then n  type ,   qn n  qn ( N D  N A )
 p p   n n, then p  type ,   q p p  q p ( N A  N D )
• Thus, there is a relationship between doping and resistivity
• - Ex.3

Chap 2 - 38
Chap 2 - 39
Chap 2 - 40
 1 1 8.32x1018
 | p p  
q p p 1


| p p 
19

1.602x10 C 0.75
1  cm  V  cm

 s 18
8.32x10
q p p  
1.602x1019C 0.75  cm  V  cm  s
AnAniterative
iterative solution
solution isisrequired.
required.Using
Using the equations
the equations in Fig.in2.8:
Fig. 2.8 or solving graphically:

 NA p p p

1016 406 4.06 x

1018
2 x 1016 363 7.26 x
1018
3 x 1016 333 1.00 x
1019
2.4 x 1016 350 8.40 x 1018

Chap 2 - 41
Chap 2 - 42
2.41
(a) For the 1 ohm-cm starting material:
1 1 6.25x1018
 | p p  pN A  
q p p  
1.602x1019C 1  cm  V  cm  s
An iterative solution is required. Using the equations in Fig. 2.8:

NA p p p

1016 406 4.1 x 1018

1.5 x 1016 383 5.7 x 1018
1.7 x 1016 374 6.4 x 1019

To change the resistivity to 0.25 ohm-cm:

1 1 2.5x1019
 | p p  pN A  
q p p  
1.602x1019C 0.25  cm  V  cm  s

NA p p p

6 x 1016 276 1.7 x 1019

8 x 1016 233 2.3 x 1019
1.1 x 1017 225 2.5 x 1019
17 16 16 3
Additional acceptor concentration = 1.1x10 - 1.7x10 = 9.3 x 10 /cm
Chap 2 - 43
(b) If donors are added:

ND ND + NA n ND - NA nn

2 x 1016 3.7 x 1016 1060 3 x 1015 3.2 x 1018

1 x 1017 1.2 x 1017 757 8.3 x 1016 6.3 x 1019
8 x 1016 9.7 x 1016 811 6.3 x 1016 5.1 x 1019
4.1 x 1016 5.8 x 1016 950 2.4 x 1016 2.3 x 1019

16 3
So ND = 4.1 x 10 /cm must be added to change achieve a resistivity of 0.25 ohm-cm. The
silicon is converted to n-type material.

Chap 2 - 44
 Diffusion Current

• In practical semiconductors, it is quite useful to create

carrier concentration gradients by varying the dopant
concentration and/or the dopant type across a region of
semiconductor.
• This gives rise to a diffusion current resulting from the
natural tendency of carriers to move from high
concentration regions to low concentration regions.
• Diffusion current is analogous to a gas moving across a
room to evenly distribute itself across the volume.

Chap 2 - 45
 Diffusion Current

Low dopand concentration High dopand concentration

Carrier direction

Chap 2 - 46
 Diffusion Current (cont.)

• Carriers move toward regions of

lower concentration, so diffusion
current densities are proportional
to the negative of the carrier
gradient.
 p  p
j pdiff  ( q) D p     qD p A/cm 2
 x  x
 n  n
jndiff  (q) Dn      qDn A/cm 2
 x  x Diffusion currents in the
presence of a concentration
Diffusion current density equations gradient.

Chap 2 - 47
 Diffusion Current (cont.)

• Dp and Dn are the hole and electron diffusivities (constant

coefficients) with units cm2/s. Diffusivity and mobility are
related by Einstein's relationship:
Dn kT D p
   VT  Thermal voltage
n q p
Dn   n VT , D p   p VT

• The thermal voltage, VT = kT/q, is approximately 25 mV

at room temperature. We will encounter VT throughout
thiscourse.
• Diffusion coefficients: for electrons; Dn=2-to-35 cm2/s
for holes; Dp=1-to-15 cm2/s
Chap 2 - 48
 Total Current in a Semiconductor
• Total electron and hole current density is the sum of drift
and diffusion current densities:
T n
j n  q n nE  qDn
x
p
j Tp  q p pE  qD p
x
Rewriting using Einstein’s relationship (Dp = pVT),
 1 n 
jn  q n n E 
T
VT  In the following chapters, we will =Permittivity (F/cm)
 n x  use these equations, combined E=Electric Field
with Gauss’ law, (E)=Q, to Q=Charge density
 1 p 
j p  q p p E  VT
T
 calculate currents in a variety of =del operator, divergence
 p x  semiconductor devices.

Chap 2 - 49
2.47
dp  1 dp  1 dp
j p  q p pE  qD p  q p pE  VT  0  E  VT
dx  p dx  p dx

E  VT
1 dN A
 0.025 14

1022 exp 10 4 x 
N A dx 10  1018 exp 10 4 x  
1022
E 0 0.025 14
V
 250
10  1018 cm
22
exp 5
 
4
10 V
E 5x10 cm  0.025 14  246
10  1018 exp 5 cm

Chap 2 - 50
Chap 2 - 51
Chapter 2

Part 3

Chap 2 - 52
 Semiconductor Energy Band Model
• Conduction and Valence Bands represent the
allowed energy states for electrons. Bandgap
Semiconductor
Energy EG (eV)
• EV: Top edge of the Valence band, i.e. highest
Carbon (diamond) 5.47
permissible energy for a valence electron.
• EC: Bottom-edge of the conduction band, i.e. Silicon 1.12
Lowest available energy in the conduction band Germanium 0.66
• Electrons are either in C-band or in V-band, the Tin 0.082
difference EC and EV is the bandgap energy EG. Gallium arsenide 1.42
Gallium nitride 3.49
Indium phosphide 1.35
Boron nitride 7.50
Silicon carbide 3.26
Cadmium selenide 1.70

Chap 2 - 53
 Semiconductor Energy Band Model

Semiconductor energy Electron participating in a T>0 K. Thermal energy breaks

band model. EC and EV covalent bond is in a lower covalent bonds and moves the
are energy levels at the energy state in the valence electrons up into the
edge of the conduction band. This diagram conduction band. This creates
and valence bands. represents 0 K. Electrons are holes in the V-band. Electron-
in V-band and there are no hole pair generation.
holes. No conduction occurs.
Chap 2 - 54
Chap 2 - 55
 Energy Band Model for a Doped
Semiconductor

Semiconductor with donor or n-type Semiconductor with acceptor or p-

dopants. The donor atoms have free type dopants. The donor atoms have
electrons with donor energy level, ED. unfilled covalent bonds with acceptor
Since ED is close to EC, (about 0.045 energy level, EA. Since EA is close to
eV for phosphorous), it is easy for EV, (about 0.044 eV for boron), it is
electrons in an n-type material to easy for electrons in the valence band
move up into the conduction band. to move up into the acceptor sites and
complete covalent bond pairs.

Chap 2 - 56
Chap 2 - 57
 Energy Band Model for
Compensated Semiconductor

The combination of the

covalent bond model and
the energy band models
A compensated semiconductor has are complementary and
both n-type and p-type dopants. If ND
help us visualize the hole
> NA, there are more ND donor levels.
The donor electrons fill the acceptor and electron conduction
sites. The remaining ND-NA electrons processes.
are available for promotion to the
conduction band.

Chap 2 - 58
Chapter 2

Part 4

Chap 2 - 59
Integrated Circuit Fabrication Overview

• Oxidation: Silicon Dioxide layers (1 m) are formed by

heating Si wafers (500 m) to 1000-1200 C in the presence
of pure oxygen or water vapor.
• Evaporation: Thin layers of metal films are deposited by
heating the metal to its melting point in vacuum.
• Sputtering: bombards the wafer surface with metal (or
insulator) ions and deposits metal (or insulator) films on
the wafer surface.
• Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD): It precipitates
(deposits by condensation) Silicon dioxide, polysilicon and
silicon nitride from a gaseous mixture on the surface of the
wafer.
Chap 2 - 60
Integrated Circuit Fabrication Overview

• Ion implantation: Bombards the wafer with n-type

(or p-type) donor (or acceptor) impurity atoms at a
high energy (up to 1 MeV) that are accelerated by
a particle accelerator.
• Diffusion: Also deposits impurity layers by
heating the wafer to 1200 C.
• Epitaxial growth: It forms thin high-quality layers
of crystalline silicon on the wafer and forms a
substrate.

Chap 2 - 61
 Integrated Circuit Fabrication Overview

• Masks: These are protective layers that contain window

patters and are used to locate the areas that will be etched.
• Photolithography: This is the process of transferring the
masks on the wafer surface by using high resolution
optical photographic techniques.
• Etching: This process cuts the windows through the
protective layers defined by the masks by using chemicals
(acids, wet-etching) or by dry plasma etching.

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Integrated Circuit Fabrication Overview

Top view of an integrated pn diode.

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 Integrated Circuit Fabrication (cont.)

(a) First mask exposure and photolithography after oxidation (b) post-exposure and
development of photoresist, (c) after SiO2 etch, and (d) after ion
implantation/diffusion of acceptor dopant.
Chap 2 - 64
 Integrated Circuit Fabrication (cont.)

(e) Exposure of contact opening mask, (f) after resist development and etching of contact
openings, (g) exposure of metal mask, and (h) After etching of aluminum and resist removal.

Chap 2 - 65
https://www.computerhistory.org/revolution/digital-
logic/12/288/2220

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=35jWSQXku74

End of Chapter 2

Chap 2 - 66