A LECTURE NOTE ON

PRINCIPLE AND PRACTICES OF SEED SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

TN Bhusal
Assistant Professor
Department of Plant Science
IAAS, Lamjung
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Lecture: 1
INTRODUCTION AND DEFINITION
Seed and seed materials
Seed can be defined as a fertilized ovule consisting of intact embryo, stored food and seed coat which is
viable and has got the capacity to germinate. Botanically seed may be defined as a fertilized mature
ovule that posses an embryonic plant, stored food material covered by a protective coat or coats which
is viable and has got capacity to germinate under favorable environmental conditions. In crop
production, seed materials includes tubers, seedling, bulbs, rhizomes, roots and stem cuttings, all kinds
of grafts and vegetatively propagated new plants with exact characters of parents and are used for
raising new crops.,
In some crops, seeds may develop without fertilization or there is no fusion of gametes such process is
called apomixes. In such case the embryo is develop simply by division of a diploid cell of the ovule.
In seed technological term, the part of the plant used for sowing purpose to raise the crop is considered
as seed.
Difference between seed and grain
When the crop produces seed that can be used as seed or grain depending upon its planting value. The
following are the main differences between seed and grain, when they are used for sowing:
S. N. Seed Grain (used as seed)
1 Result of well planned seed programme, sound It is the part of commercial product and no
scientific knowledge, organized effort, such knowledge and efforts are used
investment on processing, storage and marketing
facilities.
2 Production and maintenance of quality is the In case of grain production, maximizing of
main aim of seed producer. It must be true to its yield is the main aim of producer. It may
type. During production effort is made to rogue not be true to type. The purity and health
out off-types, diseased plants, objectionable status may be inferior.
weeds and other crop plants at appropriate stage
of crop growth which ensures satisfactory seed
purity and health.
3 The history or pedigree of the seed is ensured. Varietals purity is unknown
4 Field inspection is done properly by the seed No any scientific inspection is done in the
inspector in seed producing plot in different growing period of crop.
stages of crop.
5 The seed is scientifically processed, treated and Processing and labeling is not scientific.
packed and labeled with proper lot identity.
6 Seed testing (germination test, purity, seed Routine seed testing is not done before
health and seed moisture) is done before planting.
planting.
7 The quality of seed is controlled by seed There is no quality control
certifying agency.
8 The standard quality is marked by the The quality is not descript and not known
certification tags on the seed container.
Fruit
A fruit is a mature ripened ovary of a flower that usually contains one or more ovules that have been
fertilized and develop into true seeds. For example, legume pod, peppers and cereal grains are fruits just
as apples, oranges and peaches. The fruits have exocarp, mesocarp and endocarp.

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Fruit type:
1. Simple fruit
a. Fleshy
b. Dry
i. Dehiscent: legumes
ii. Indehiscent: achene
2. Multiple: mulberry, pineapple
3. Aggregate: strawberry
Sometimes fruits may develop from ovary without fertilization and this phenomenon is called
parthenocarpy and the fruits are called parthenocarpic fruits. The resulting fruits are seed less and
therefore do not contribute to the reproduction of the plant e.g. banana, pineapple etc. Plant growth
substances may have a role in this phenomenon, which can be induced by auxins in the commercial
production of tomatoes and other fruits.
Seed technology
Feistritzer (1975) defined seed technology as the methods through which the genetic and physical
characteristics of seed could be improved. It involves such activities as variety development, evaluation
and release, seed production, processing, storage and certification.
The seed technology is essentially an interdisciplinary science which encompasses a broad range of
subjects. Seed technology comprises techniques of seed production, seed processing, seed storage, seed
testing, certification, marketing and distribution and their related research on these aspects. It is an
interdisciplinary science, which deals from varieties release to all aspect of seed handling. Plant breeder,
agronomist, botanist, pathologist, entomologist and physiologist can work together on the various
aspects of seed technology.
Role of seed technology
1. Seed – carrier of new technologies
2. Seed – a basic tool for secured food supply
3. Seed – the principle means to secure crop yield in less favourable production area
4. Seed – a medium for rapid rehabilitation of agriculture in cases of natural disaster
Goals of seed technology
1. Rapid multiplication
2. Timely supply
3. Assured high quality of seed
4. Reasonable price
Opportunities of seed technologist
1. Management of seed enterprise
2. Seed testing laboratories
3. Seed certification agencies
4. Seed law enforcement agencies
5. Training/extension centers (for seed growers)
6. Research institute (where seed technology research being done)
Scope of seed technology
1. Food supply
2. Income generation opportunity
3. Food security

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Lecture: 2
SEED SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN NEPAL
Importance of seed science and technology in Nepal
Nepalese economy is dependent on agriculture and cereal crops dominate agriculture. The contribution
of agricultural sector to the total GDP in fiscal year 2008/09 constitutes 32.35% (MOAC, 2009).
Quality seed is a basic input and is a primary requisite for successful food grain and vegetable
production. All other inputs like fertilizer, irrigation, weed control; plant protection will be useless if
seed does not germinate. Seed holds the key to the success of our endeavors in boosting the agricultural
production. The use of good planting seed is one of the most important requirements for successful
agriculture, which contributes greatly in stabilizing country’s economy. A good quality seed leads to
“Green Revolution”.
It has been found that use of quality seed increased the productivity of crops by 10-30%. Thus quality
seed plays a vital role in reducing food deficit by increasing production. Good seeds are both the
symbol and foundation of good agriculture and our life and health is also dependent on seed and their
products. The improved seeds can erase “the begging bowl” image of the country. By the evolution and
introduction of high yielding varieties and hybrids, the productivity of any crop can be increased by the
farmers.
The organized seed production program in Nepal has first been initiated in 1973 in farmer’s field.
Initially it had been started with the multiplication of wheat seed. Now this program is being
implemented in other crops too. Large-scale demand of seed is the scope of the development of seed
industry in Nepal. Nepal has high potentials to grow wide varieties of vegetables and other crop seeds
due to availability of suitable agro-climatic conditions ranging from tropical to temperate.
In order to meet the demand of the seed, several hectares of land are to be brought under seed
production. Under such condition thousands of seed technologists, seed traders and farmers will be
employed for achieving modernization of Nepalese agriculture. Comparatively cheaper farm labor is
another factor, which makes this labor intensive crop seed production more attractive and economical.
Due to climatic variability and seed production potentiality it offers greater scope to establish seed
export business in Nepal. With the establishment of National Seed Board of Nepal, the atmosphere is
now more favorable for developing a responsive seed program in the country.
However, the amount of good seed used by farmers in Nepal is very small. Maximum areas of popular
varieties of self-pollinated crops are covered by the seed dissemination from farmers to farmers or saved
by them. The quality of these seeds is undeniably inferior. The production potentials of improved seed
need to be demonstrated to farmers by the extension personnel so that they could be convinced and
motivated to use good seed on larger area. Hence, stronger the seed program, the better we prepare in
transforming agriculture from subsistence to self-sufficiency in food.
Improved seed sales in Nepal (NSCL)
Type Seed sales (Mt)
1998/99 2005/06 2008/09
Paddy 308 643.68 931.147
Wheat 1443 2859.24 2989.79
Maize 43 10.69 0.25
Vegetable 16 2.77 5.053
Lentil 55 21.90 5.628
Jute 37 5.25 2.746
Other (mustard) 3 7.52 1.546
Total 1905 3551 3936
Constraints in seed production
1. Climatic constraints
Nepal falls in subtropical climatic range (i.e 26022’’-30027’’ N)
Characterized by high temperature (mean daily temp 27-28 0C) during summer and low temperature
(mean daily temp 17-180C) during winter season, 750-2250 mm mean annual rainfall, 60-8848m
altitude

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 Rainfall amount and characteristics

 Primary source of agriculture water
 1200-2250 mm rainfall in hills; 1000-1500 mm over most of the country; higher rain in eastern
part and lower in western part
 Large inter-annual variability of rainfall :- results in climatic hazards particularly flooding and
droughts with devastating effects on seed production
 Frequent occurrence of drought occasioned by erratic rainfall distribution and/or cessation of
rain during growing season
 Mostly one peak duration referred to as unimodal rainfall distribution pattern
 Temperature/Solar radiation
 High solar radiation accompany by uniformly high air temperature with moderate drop in
November/December
 Affects crop production by controlling the rate of physiochemical reaction and that of
evaporation of water from crops and soil surfaces
 Affect the rate at which the products of photosynthates used for growth, respiration and food
reserves
 Require specific photoperiods for optimum yield
2. Edaphic constraints
Remoteness and predominance of fragile ecosystem and low inherited soil fertility
Declining fertility because of soil nutrients mining
Population pressures force farmers to grow crops after crop ‘mining’ or depleting the soil
nutrients while giving nothing back to the soil
Low organic matter content of soil where bulk of cereals are produced as a result of high rate of
chemical and biological actions
3. Weed constraints
Lead to 100% yield drop by uncontrolled weed in agronomic farm as they compete with plants
for nutrients, light, space and moisture
Also increase production cost in most agronomical fields and often drastically reduced yield as a
result of delay weeding due to competition for labour at early crop growth stages
Chances of mixing with agronomical crops so reduces quality of harvested products
Table: Major weeds of cereal crops
Crops Major weeds Estimated yield lost (%)

Rice Echinochloa colonum, E. crusgalli, Cyperus rotundus, etc 15-90%

Wheat Chenopodium album, Phalaris minor, Vicia hirsuta, etc 20-40%

Maize Eclipta alba, E. colonum, Elusine indica, etc 40-60%

Barley P. minor, Avena fatua, C. album, etc ………..

4. Market and trade condition
Fluctuation in price of seeds or instability of price
Encroachment of Indian seed
Poor demand discourage the seed producers
On the other hand,
 Adopt economic liberalization and privatization policy

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 Member of WTO: threat to local producers

5. Migration
Devastating effect on labour force in agronomical seed production due to migration of young
and vibrant people
Dependency of resource poor farmers entirely on family labour and it is their young and vibrant
migrant group that constitute such labour
Need to pay higher wages for available labour so that increases the cost of production
6. Agronomical constraints
Seed availability: insufficient foundation seeds or source seeds, untimely supply, high price
Seed treatment: no or low practice at farmers level
Inadequate knowledge on seed production package of different crops: sown delay than optimum
time, unknown about the isolation distance, low care during weeding, unknown about the
rouging, sub-optimal skill on identification of off-types, etc
Irrigation facility: insufficient in the area potential for seed production
Improper fertilization: hardly use of complete balance fertilizer, broadcasting rather than row
placement, insufficient application of organic manures, no or negligible management of
biofertilizer like Azolla
7. Socioeconomic consideration and government policy
Hinder maximum return to local producers by inconsistent government policy, devalued
currencies and price instability
Free trade policy…..easy to enter seeds in domestic market from developed countries and add
threats to local producers adopting labour-intensive technology
Need to formulate complementary seed policies particularly in the development of production
infrastructures and input supply- eg.
 Permanent banning of import of seeds
 Stability of agronomical crop price
 Consistent subsidy of agricultural inputs
 Provision of infrastructures like road and water to farming communities
Low yield of seeds ascribe to –
 Increase cost of production
 Lack of fertilizers
 Non-maintenance of irrigation facilities
 Lack of labour (demand in transplanting, weeding, harvesting, etc.)
 Low farm level input use efficiency among poor resource farmers
Hardly enough to support agriculture sector through the provided development plans and annual
budget (5.90 billion i.e. 2.5% of total budget of 2008/09)
Poor adaptation of available technology in local biophysical and institutional condition
Very low ratio of extension workers to farmers that lead to reduction of farmers participation in
technology transfer and adoption process
Farmer’s perception of new technology is vital for their adoption
Necessary to identify the key characteristics of each technology and challenges it can target for
improvement……extension worker that will make this possible
Need for all organs of the government to support and empower agricultural extension workers in
order to enhance the dissemination of new technologies to the producers

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8. Pest and diseases

Seriously affect agronomical production by disease and pest infestation
Major pests: Termites, stem borer, corn borer, white grub, bugs, plant hopper, birds, mammals
like rats , etc.
Major diseases: Blast, rusts, leaf blight, smut (panicle disease), root rot, downy mildew, bacterial
diseases (Xanthomonas spp), etc.
Yield lost: upto 80% by downy mildew in maize
Improve yield and quality of seed definitely by effective management of pest and diseases
Table: Major insects and diseases of cereal crops
Crops Major insects Major diseases
Rice Rice bug, Rice hispa, Yellow stem borer, Bacterial blight (Xanthomonas oryzae)
Stripped stem borer, Rice gall midge, Blast (Pyricularia oryzae)
Mole cricket, Plant hopper, etc False smut (Ustilaginoides virens)
Brown leaf spot (Helminthosporium oryzae)
Tungro (Tungro virus)
Wheat Armyworms, Cut worms, Shoot fly, Stem Leaf spots (Helminthosporium spp)
borer, Termites, etc Rusts (P. recondita)
Leaf streak (Xanthomonas campestris)
Loose smut (Ustilago nuda)
Maize Stalk borer, Shoot flies, Cut worms, Rust (Puccinia polysora)
Jassids, Armyworms, etc Leaf blight (Helminthosporium maydis)
Smut (Specealothica reliana)
Barley Green bug, Corn swafly, Fruitfly, Wheat Barley yellow dwarf virus
bulb fly, etc Powdery mildew (Erysiphe graminis sp. hordii)
Net blotch (Helminthosporium sativum)
9. Other factors
Illiteracy
 Adult literacy rate (ages ≥ 15): 49% (WDR 2008)
 Majority of farmers can’t read and write which impede their ability to adopt new technologies
that could enhance production of seeds
Tools
 Carry out farm operations from land clearing to crop harvesting and processing using simple
tools like hoe, sickle, axe, spades, plough and other local farm implements by majority of
farmers
 Enhance seed production by using modern farm implements like tractor, harvester, thresher, etc.
that reduce drudgery associated with simple tools
 Provide credit facility and subsidy in modern agricultural tools to empower rural farmers
Finance
 Inadequate capital in farmers hand for purchasing costly inputs such as farm machinery,
foundation seeds, fertilizers, herbicides, pesticides which contribute to low seed production
 Inadequate financial mechanism to resource poor farmers
Storage facilities
 Poor storage facilities enforce farmers to sell their produce at cheaper price during harvest
season than the appreciable price during off season
 Selling price just cover the production cost which discourage farmer to grow seed in the
subsequent growing season

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Scope of seed production in Nepal

There is more scope for the seed production of any crops in Nepal. Some of the points, which support
the scope of seed production in Nepal, are briefly explained as below:
1. Climatic variability
We have tremendous variation in climate from tropical to temperate regions. These varieties of climate
permit us to grow different crops in different locations for seed production For example, in tropical
areas wheat, rice, in subtropical areas maize and some vegetables and in high hill areas barley, oat,
sugarbeet and Cole crops etc. can be grown for seed production.
2. More demand and less supply of seed and seed materials
The use of quality seed by the farmers is very low in Nepal. Their demand has been increasing day by
day. But the supply is not satisfactory and millions of rupees have been expended to purchase seeds and
seed materials from India and other third country annually. If these products are produced within
country millions rupees will be saved in the country.
3. Development of road and infrastructures day by day
Development of high way, agricultural roads for transportation, telephone for communication,
television and radios for advertisement and good marketing facilities etc increases the scope of seed
production of vegetables and other field crops in Nepal.
4. Irrigation facilities
To meet the water requirements of different crops, a number of irrigation projects like Kankai irrigation
project, Koshi irrigation project and other minor irrigation projects have been undertaken. Drip
irrigation, sprinkler irrigation programmes have also been conducted through different projects. Upon
completion of different irrigation projects, seed production of different crops in any season can be done
effectively.
5. Development of seed enterprises
Now the private seed enterprises are mainly concentrated in accessible areas both for production and
distribution and are heavily dependent upon the import of seed from India. If the seed production of
different crops is increased in different areas of the country seed enterprises will automatically be
established and operate for seed production and distribution.
6. Employment opportunity
By the development of seed production program in the country, a large number of peoples will be
involved in different activities like seed production, processing, marketing etc.
7. Seed exporting opportunity
Due to climatic variability in the country, a number of vegetables and other food crops can be grown
and produced the seeds. These seeds can be export to India, China, Japan, Bangladesh and other
American and European countries. When we export a large amount of seed from the country, we can
earn millions rupees from the foreign country.
8. Increase the productivity of any crop
It has been experienced that there is a considerable gap between the experimental yields and the actual
yields obtained by the farmers due to production constraints mostly due to the lack of availability of
good quality seed. The use of good planting seed is one of the most important requirements for
successful increase in crop production, thereby realizing higher production per unit area to contribute
greatly in stabilizing country’s economy, which is agricultural based.

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Lecture: 3
MODE OF REPRODUCTION
Sexual reproduction
Sexual reproduction is first marked by the formation of a flower. Because of the production of flowers
and seeds is energy intensive, most plants must first develop an adequate vegetative structure before
flowering can occur. Once the plant has developed sufficient vegetative structure, exposure to
appropriate flowering stimuli such as light or temperature creates a change from a vegetative to a
reproductive meristem. Fortunately, this event is regulated and synchronous. Without flowers appearing
simultaneously, the act of sexual reproduction would be difficult. For example, in corn if the male tassel
flower and female silk flower did not appear together, the process known as nicking, fertilization would
not be possible.
A typical flower consists of four main parts: sepals (collectively the calyx), petals (collectively the
corolla), stamens (the male reproductive structures) and pistil (s) (the female reproductive structure (s)).
When all four of these parts are present on one flower, the flower is complete. If any of these four parts
are missing, the flower is incomplete. A perfect flower has both stamens and pistil (s) but may lack
sepals, petals or both. An imperfect flower lacks either stamens or pistil (s). In addition, some plants
produce staminate and pistillate flowers on the same plant and are monoecious (e.g., corn). The
reproductive structures of a flower are the stamens and pistil (s).

Fig: A complete flower

Development of pollen or male gametophyte
Structure of anther
Each anther is a bilobed structure with each lobe containing two pollen sacs. In total, there are four
pollen sacs in which pollen grains are produced. The two lobes of anther are joined by a connective that
contains the vascular bundle from filament which carries the nourishment.
Structure of pollen sac
Each pollen sac is termed as a microsporangium and is filled with number of large sized cells called
sporogenous cells or microsporocytes. A microsporocyte has abundant cytoplasm and a prominent
nucleus. Each microsporocyte undergoes mitotic divisions and produces number of microspore mother
cells, also called as spore mother cells.
Development of spore mother cell
Each spore or pollen mother cell is diploid in nature. It undergoes meiotic divisions and produces four
haploid microspores. The microspores are seen in tetrads as they have a common wall. Each microspore
develops into a pollen grain. The process of formation of haploid microspore from diploid pollen or
spore mother cell through meiotic division is known as microsporogenesis.
On further development, each microspore gets separated and forms a thick outer wall or exine which is
specific to a species. Its nucleus divides by mitosis forming two nuclei, the large one is known as
vegetative nucleus and the smaller one as generative nucleus. This structure is known as pollen grain
and is regarded as an equivalent of a male gametophyte because later two male gametes are formed as a
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result of mitotic division of the generative nucleus. The pollen is generally released in the binucleate
stage. The process of formation of microgametophyte from haploid microspore is known as
microgametogenesis.
As the pollen grains are formed, at about the same time, the anther ripens and the wall between the
paired pollen sac disintegrates. The anther splits open along the two lines of weakness and the pollen
grains are released.

Fig: Development of the pollen or male gametophyte

Structure of a pollen grain
Each grain is covered by a thick wall having two layers.
Exine: It is outer, thick and sculptured structure. It is made up of a complex substance sporopollenin
which is supposed to be one of the most resistant biological materials, which enables the pollen
grains to survive in unfavourable conditions for a long time, may be millions of years. The
regions where exine is thin or absent are known as germ pores. A pollen tube emerges from
these germ pores at the time of pollen germination.
Intine: It is the structure inner to exine, thin and smooth. It being thin and equivalent to cellulose wall,
gives rise to pollen tube at the time of pollen germination.

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Fig: Structure of pollen grain or pollen germination

Development of ovule and embryosac or female gametophyte
Formation of ovule
Ovule development occurs within the ovary, which provides a location for nurture and development of
the female gametophyte, a site for its sexual fusion with the male gametophyte and ultimately a package
for embryo development, survival and eventual re-growth. Ovule growth begins as a small outgrowth
(tiny knob) within the nucellus. Nucellus is the multilayered main body of ovule which is enclosed in
one or two protective layers called integuments except for a small pore at one end. As
megasporogenesis and megagametogenesis continue, the region of the nucellus which is to become the
ovule enlarges and differentiates into definite morphological characteristics. Secondary outgrowths or
collars (integuments) soon appear around the periphery of the nucellar outgrowths and envelop it. These
usually consist of the inner and outer integuments and ultimately become the testa (seed coat) of the
mature ovule.
The developing ovule is commonly attached to the placenta by the funiculus. The scar on the ovule
made where the funiculus detaches at maturity is known as the hilum. The point where the integuments
meet at the nucellar apex is the micropyle and the region of integumentary origin and attachment,
usually opposite the micropyle, is the chalaza. The micropyle is generally at the lower end of the ovule
and serves as a passage for the entry of the pollen tube. Between the chalaza and the hilum of many
species is an area known as the raphe.
Development of megaspore mother cell
The seeds of angiosperm originate form meristematic tissue of the ovary wall called ovule primordia. In
species with simple ovaries, these primordia are usually located near the suture of the ovary wall where
the carpel is fused. In species with more than one carpel, or with polycarpellate ovaries, the seeds form
at the fusion of the carpels or along the septa, or central carpel axes, depending on the type of
placentation.
Within the nucellus or specialized tissue of the carpel, one cell, known as the archesporial cell, develops
special characteristics that distinguish it from adjacent cells. As this cell increases in size, its nucleus

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becomes larger and the cytoplasms grow denser in preparation for cell division. The first division
results in a megaspore mother cell and a parietal cell. Usually the parietal cell remains undivided and
soon deteriorates, however, in some species, it undergoes further division and contributes to seed
formation. The diploid megaspore mother cell undergo a two step cell division known as meiosis and
give rise to four haploid cells or megaspores. One cell develops into haploid megaspore and remaining
three degenerates. This process of formation of megaspore is known as megasporogenesis.
Development of an embryosac
The development of the female gametophyte or embryo sac from the functional megaspore is known as
megagametogenesis, which is a process of successive nuclear division within an enlarging cell which
becomes the embryo sac. As the functional haploid megaspore grows, its nucleus undergoes three
successive mitotic divisions and produces eight haploid nuclei. Soon these nuclei arrange themselves
within the enlarging embryo sac and formation of cell walls occurs. Each end has four nuclei and one
nuclei from each group of four moves towards the center. These nuclei are known as polar nuclei which
fuse to form a single diploid (2N) secondary nucleus ultimately. A group of three nuclei is present at
micropylar end and other group of three at opposite or chalazal end. Thin cell walls form and isolate all
these six nuclei. Out of three cells at micropyle end, one cell enlarges and becomes the egg cell or
female gamete. The cells on its either side are called as synergids. The three cells at the chalazal end are
antipodals. Thus a seven-celled structure form which is known as mature female gametophyte or
megagametophyte.

Fig: Development of an ovule and embryosac

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Fig: L.S of a mature ovule

Pollination
It is the transfer of pollen grains from an anther to the stigma. After the pollen grains are shed from the
anthers, they can reach stigma by number of means. The flower could be self pollinated or cross
pollinated.
1. Self pollination: It is when the pollen is transferred from an anther to a stigma in the same flower or
to a stigma of another flower on the same plant. It is generally not dependent on any external agency
for pollination but may result in less vigorous off-springs. The self pollination could be of two types:
i. Autogamy: Self pollination in the same flower in the plants having bisexual flower. Example:
rice, wheat, pea, etc.
ii. Geitonogamy: It is a kind of self pollination where flowers could be bisexual or unisexual but
are borne by the same parent plant. The pollens from one flower are deposited on the stigma of
another flower borne on the same plant. It may need an external agency like wind or insects.
Example: maize
2. Cross pollination: It is the transfer of pollen from the anther of one plant to the stigma of another
plant. It involves two separate plants and outside agencies like wind, water, bird, insects, etc. The
agencies could be biotic or abiotic.
Agencies for cross pollination
i. Wind pollination or anemophily: Maize, Oats, Coconut palm, Cannabis etc
ii. Water pollination or hydrophily: Hydrilla, Zostera marina, etc
iii. Insect pollination or entomophily: Mustard
iv. Bird pollination or ornithophily: Red silk cotton, Bottle brush, etc
v. Bat pollination or chiropterophily: Adansonia
Growth of pollen tube and fertilization
Growth of pollen tube
After pollination, the main events that lead to fertilization are as follows.
 As the pollen grain lands on the stigma, if the stigma is unripe or pollen is of different species,
no further development takes place.
 If stigma is ripe and of same species, the pollen begins to germinate on the stimulus of a sucrose
solution secreted by epidermal cells of stigma.
 The intine along with its content emerges out in the form of pollen tube.
 Each pollen tube grows through the stigma and style to the ovary.
 Each pollen tube has two nuclei- the vegetative or tube nucleus or a generative nucleus.
 The tube nucleus is at the growing tip of the pollen tube.
 The pollen tube is directed towards the ovary by chemicals and hence is called positively
chemotropic and is negatively aerotropic.

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 As the tube grows, the generative nucleus divides mitotically to produce two male nuclei also
known as male gametes.
 The tube grows and passes through the micropyle into the ovule
 The tube nucleus degenerates and the tube bursts releasing two male gametes into the embryo
sac of the ovule
Fertilization
One of the two male nuclei unites with the egg cell. This is known as fertilization and produces
fertilized egg or a diploid zygote. The other male nucleus fuses with the secondary diploid nucleus
(made up of two polar nuclei) and forms a tiploid nuleus or primary endosperm nucleus. This is known
as triple fusion.
Since the process of fertilization occurs twice in the embryo sac, it is called as double fertilization. It is
unique to flowering plants.
Results of double fertilization are:
i. A diploid zygote (2N) that divides mitotically to form the embryo plant.
ii. A triploid nucleus (3N) or primary endosperm nucleus that gives rise to a mass of tissues that
develops into the endosperm of the seed. It provides nourishment to the growing embryo plant.

Fig: Changes in the pistil and embryosac during fertilization

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Lecture: 4
SEED FORMATION AND DEVELOPMENT
Endosperm development
The endosperm serves as the principal nutritive support for the embryo of many species (especially
monocotyledons) during both seed development and germination. In angiosperms, endosperm
development is initiated by fusion of one sperm nucleus with two polar nuclei resulting in a triploid
(3N) endosperm. In gymnosperm seeds (eg. pine), the endosperm is 1N, being derived exclusively from
maternal tissue without fertilization. After double fertilization, the endosperm begins its development
before the embryo. It acquires the energy for growth by the production of filamentous outgrowths or
haustoria that penetrate into the adjacent maternal nucellar tissue to enhance nutrient absorption as well
as by direct absorption of nutrient through diffusion from surrounding tissue, especially the nucellus.
The endosperm can develop in a variety of ways. The most common way is for the endosperm nuclei to
divide initially without the formation of cell walls. After considerable nuclear division, cell wall
formation begins at the periphery of the embryo sac and culminates in a completely cellular endosperm.
Well known examples of this type of endosperm formation are the watery blister stage in corn and milk
(nuclear) and meat (cellular) of a coconut seed. In some species (eg. tobacco), cellular endosperm is
initiated following each nuclear division. Other species such as some grasses only possesses a nuclear
endosperm in which cell walls never form. The outermost layer of the endosperm develops into the
aleurone layer which possesses high quantities of proteins and has an important role in the synthesis of
enzymes that degrade the endosperm during germination. The aleurone is a well developed tissue in
cereal grasses and lettuce but is less prominent in most other seeds.
In some species, the endosperm ceases development early and the nucellus, which is 2N maternal tissue,
becomes filled with food reserves not digested by the endosperm. This energy rich tissue serves as a
primary energy source during germination in species such as sugar beet, spinach and other members of
the Chenopodiaceae and Amaranthaceae. At the time of seed maturation, the remaining nucellus tissue
is known as the perisperm.
Seeds lacking or possessing minimal endosperm or perisperm are called non-endospermic or
exalbuminous and such seeds typically possess large embryos in relation to the whole seed. This is true
for members of the Fabaceae, Cucurbitaceae and Asteraceae. In Orchidaceae, triple fusion occurs, but
the products soon degenerate after one or two cell divisions. In most dicotyledonous species the
endosperm is formed but is almost completely consumed during seed development so that the mature
seed is composed almost entirely of embryo. Seeds with endosperm or perisperm are called
endospermic or albuminous. In these seeds, the embryo varies in size in relation to the storage tissues.
Most monocotyledons have endospermic seeds.
One of the principal endosperm functions is to provide nutrition for the developing embryo; therefore,
its composition is compatible with the embryo’s needs. But the endosperm must also draw its nutritive
support from the embryo sac and surrounding tissues. The net effect is to surround the embryo with rich
nutritive tissues from which it can draw for development and growth. The endosperm is typically
characterized by large quantities of energy-rich compounds such as starch. To some lesser extent,
however, storage proteins are also found in the endosperm and in some species, such as castor bean,
groundnut, the endosperm can contain large quantities of oil.
Types of endosperm development
Endosperm development may be one of the three types, depending on the sequence of nuclear division
and cell wall formation.
A. Nuclear endosperm
This endosperm type is characterized by nuclear divisions unaccompanied by cell wall formation. The
nuclei may remain free or may later be separated by cell walls that form in one of three ways:
1. One to three layers of cell wall may form around the periphery, with free nuclei inside
2. A cell wall may form in the micropylar area, with the rest remaining in a free-cell stage
3. The entire endosperm may be filled with walled cells.

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All three endosperm conditions may exist in the same family. Example: cotton, maize, coconut (milk),
etc.

Fig: Development of nuclear endosperm

B. Cellular endosperm
In this type of endosperm, each nuclear division is accompanied by cell wall formation. Example:
petunia

Fig: Development of cellular endosperm

C. Helobial endosperm
The helobial endosperm is intermediate between the nuclear and cellular types. Free nuclear divisions
occur, but cell wall formation accompanies nuclear division in some parts of the endosperm as well.
Example: members of order helobiales (monocots)

Fig: Development of helobial endosperm

Embryo development (Embryogeny)
After the polar nuclei are fertilized, fertilization of the egg cells occurs to form the zygote, which
ultimately develops into the embryo. Initially, cell division in the zygote does not begin until at least a
small amount of endosperm has formed. The first cellular division of the zygote is not symmetrical. Of
the first two cells formed, the one adjacent to the micropyle is elongated and more prominent than the
other terminal cell. This large cell undergoes a series of mitotic divisions to form a multicellular tissue
known as the suspensor and the next one is embryo proper. In most species, the suspensor does not
become a part of the embryo. In some instances, however (eg. lettuce), the suspensor does contribute
cells to the radicle. The size of the suspensor varies. Generally, it is short with the tip cell swollen and
polyploidy as in mustard and garden bean. In soybean, it consists of only three to four cells. In garden
pea, chickpea and other legume, however, it is massive in size. Initially, it was thought that the function
of the suspensor was to push the developing proembryo into the endosperm to enable easy access and
ready digestion of this energy rich tissue. More recent studies indicate that its primary role is to secrete
hydrolytic enzymes that digest the endosperm absorb the nutrients and transfer them to the developing
embryo. By the time the embryo is mature, the suspensor has become an inconspicuous tissue.
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The terminal cell of the first division ultimately develops into the embryo. The few celled stage of the
embryo is known as proembryo. Depending on ht pattern of subsequent divisions, proembryos are
classified as crucifer, astered, solanad, chenopodiad or pipered.
1. The first division of zygote is transverse.
A. Terminal cell of proembryo divides by a longitudinal wall.
a. Crucifer: basal cell plays only a minor role (or none) in embryo development
b. Asterad: both the basal and terminal cells contribute to embryo development
B. Terminal cell of the proembryo divides by a transverse wall
a. Solanad: basal cell plays only minor part (or none) in the development of the embryo
b. Caryophyllad: basal cell undergoes no further division, and the suspensor, if present, is
always derived from the terminal cell
c. Chenopodiad: basal cell and terminal cell both contribute to embryo development
2. The first wall of the zygote is longitudinal or nearly so – pipered
Proembryo development of dicot seed typically undergoes four discrete stages:
Globular: This stage is characterized by the numerous mitotic divisions that produce a globe of
apparently undifferentiated cells.
Heart: This stage is marked by the formation of two lateral, multicellular extensions that
become the cotyledons.
Torpedo: This stage is so named because the embryonic axis (hypocotyls/radicle axis) is
initiated and elongates in conjunction with the developing cotyledons to produce a
proembryo that resembles a torpedo. By this stage, vascular differentiation in the
proembryo is apparent.
Mature: Further development of proembryo leads to the formation of epicotyls in some species
(e.g., pea and soybean) whereas in others, the epicotyls is lacking. The shape of mature
embryo also varies. In some crops (e.g., lettuce), it is straight whereas in others (e.g.,
cotton and tomato), it is coiled or folded.
Monocots also undergo the development of a globular embryonic stage. However, since only one
cotyledon is formed, they do not exhibit the remaining stages characteristic of dicots. Instead, monocot
embryos begin development lateral to the axis of the seed as growth of proembryo continues beyond the
globular stage. The cotyledons of many dicot seeds vary in shape. Endospermic seeds tend to have thin,
delicate, leaflike cotyledons while non-endospermic seeds such as pea, cowpea and bean possess
cotyledons that are bulky and represent as much as 90% of the seed’s dry weight. Generally, cotyledons
that remain below ground (hypogeal) during germination are more massive than those that move above
ground (epigeal). Epigeal seed cotyledons are often leaflike and, in some cases, photosynthetically
active. The overall shape of cotyledons is also diverse. Some, such as radish, are deeply divided; others,
such as cotton, possess many convolutions and still others, such as castor bean, are leaflike.

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Fig: Stages in the development of an embryo

Law of embryogeny
Four laws of embryony (embryogeny) have been proposed by Soueges and Johansen to describe
embryo development
1. Law of parsimony: No more cells are produced than are absolutely necessary.
2. Law of origin: In any species the sequence of cell formation is established in such a way and
with such regularity that the origin of any cell can be specified in term of, or related to, the
earlier units of the sequence.
3. Law or numbers: The number of cells produced by different cell generations varies with the
species and depends on the rapidity of the segmentation in the cells of the same generations.
4. Law of destination: In the course of normal embryonic development, the cells are constituted
by divisions in clearly determined directions and most appear to occupy positions in accordance
with the role they must play.
Overall seed development
Seed development can be illustrated by the changes occurring in wheat, which is typical of most grasses
and cereal grains. Endosperm development of wheat is of the cellular type, where the first few divisions
of the primary endosperm nucleus give free nuclei. Cell walls form about two days after fertilization,
beginning at the periphery of the endosperm, which later becomes the aleurone. During early endosperm
growth, the proembryo also begins to grow and differentiate; however, its contribution to the gross seed
morphology is overshadowed by that of the endosperm.
Cell organelles – plastids, mitochondria, ribosomes and golgi complexes – become recognizable
immediately after initial cell formation, followed by the endoplasmic reticulum. After about three
weeks, starch and protein granules completely dominate endosperm composition.

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Changes in weight:
After sexual fusion, the developing seed begins to increase in weight as a result of nutrient and water
intake associated with rapidly accelerating cell division and elongation. Typical of monocots, the
developing endosperm accounts for most of the weight increase, with the testa-pericarp being somewhat
less, and the embryo almost negligible. The developing wheat seed undergoes a sharp increase in dry
weight until about thirty-five to forty days after fertilization. Immediately after fertilization, most of the
dry weight is in the seed coat, however, after about eight days, its weight is surpassed by the
endosperm, which later becomes the major seed component.
Chemical changes:
In monocotyledonous seeds, the major carbohydrate in the endosperm and the entire seed is starch. The
carbohydrate content increases rapidly as the endosperm develops, somewhat at the expense of the testa-
pericarp tissue, where it decreases slightly. Sucrose and reducing sugars, initially at high levels in the
young endosperm, decrease rapidly as the starch content rises. However, both sucrose and recuing
sugars increase in the testa-pericarp during early seed development and then decrease rather sharply as
the seed matures.
Immediately after fertilization, the endosperm nitrogen of the wheat seed is about fifty percent protein
in form. As development proceeds, the protein nitrogen increases rapidly for about twenty days, after
which it remains constant. Amide form of nitrogen increases slightly, so its relative proportion in the
endosperm remains constant. The testa-pericarp nitrogen content follows a similar trend although at a
slower rate since the total growth rate of these tissues is slower.
Negligible change in DNA and RNA of the testa-pericarp occurs during seed development, since they
are nucleotides of the nucleus and cytoplasm and any marked increase in their occurrence is a reflection
of cell division. In contrast, DNA and RNA increase rapidly with increased cell division during early
embryo and endosperm growth but level off with increased cell expansion.
Nitrogen is also found in the developing seed in the form of amino acids and protein bound phosphorus.
The endosperm amino acid content increases rapidly during the first two or three weeks of seed
development. This period corresponds to the time when the endosperm is high in RNA content, which
directs amino acids synthesis.

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Lecture: 5
FACTORS AFFECTING SEED DEVELOPMENT AND ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
Factors affecting seed development
Seed development depends on the environment experienced by the mother plant. Warm, dry conditions
favour the production of some species; moderately cool conditions favour other species. A knowledge
of the environmental influence on the seed development and quality is important in understanding seed
production. Some of environmental factors that influence seed development include –
1. Mineral nutrition
Among the most important environmental conditions under direct control of seed producers is mineral
nutrition of the soil. Many soils are deficient in certain essential elements and absence of these elements
can adversely affect the quality of the seed.
For example;
 Pea and other large-seeded legumes grown in manganese deficient soils produce seeds with
brown, necrotic areas on the inside surfaces of the cotyledons. This symptom is known as marsh
spot.
 Peanut plants grown in calcium deficient soils produce seeds that exhibit a hypocotyls necrosis
when germination and seedling emergence is initiated.
In most cases, however, soils that are deficient in certain elements tend to produce plants that yield less
but have little or no effect on the elemental composition of the seed or its quality. Thus remedial fertility
steps should be expected to have their greatest benefit in yield enhancement, not seed quality
improvement. When deficiencies do occur, three corrective approaches can be considered.
 First, fertilizers can be applied directly to the soil. This is particularly effective for the major
elements nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium.
 A second approach is to apply nutrients through foliar applications. This technique permits
greater timing of application and incorporation into the plant and is particularly successful for
minor elements.
 A final approach has been to apply certain elements directly to the seed in a coating or pellet.
The element is then incorporated directly into the seed during imbibition and subsequent
germination.
The timing of fertilization is also important.
 Application of nitrogen fertilizers to crops during seed fill often results in seeds with lower
germination when crops are harvested late.
 Plants grown under high nitrogen fertility regimes produce seeds with higher protein levels and
greater overall quality than those grown under low nitrogen fertility regimes.
2. Soil moisture and rainfall
Soil moisture status has a marked effect on seed quality because of its role in determining the solubility
of essential elements necessary for growth of the mother plant. Typically, this environmental factor has
been dependent on the amount and frequency of rainfall. However, with the movement of seed
production to hot and dry locations, water is provided to the plants through more controlled irrigation
regimes. In either case, the protein nitrogen content of seeds is lower and the phosphorus, potassium,
calcium and magnesium content higher in years of abundant rainfall or under irrigated conditions. This
has been attributed to the ready leaching and denitrification of nitrogen and enhanced solubility and loss
of the other elements through the groundwater.
The rainfall also influences both seed yield and quality. For example, high rainfall during flowering
impairs pollination and seed set in onion and other crops. Conversely, drought conditions increase the
number of abnormal and sterile pollen grains in many cereals, thus, reducing seed set. High rainfall
during the later stages of seed maturation influence seed quality as well. Often it results in increased
seed respiration and reduced seed weight and quality. When rains are severe, preharvest sprouting or
precocious germination often becomes a problem.

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3. Temperature
The exposure of seeds to varying temperatures during seed maturation influences seed quality. Studies
have shown that oil content is enhanced in soybean and rape seeds when the temperatures are above
average during the last five weeks of maturation. In contrast, oil content is greater in flax and sunflower
seeds when plants are exposed to low temperatures (13-18 0C). Conversely, high temperatures and
delayed harvest due to wet weather may cause increased free fatty acid levels in certain oilseeds (eg.
rapeseed) which lowers overall seed quality. High night temperatures enhance seed development in rice
by increasing the size of the aleurone and bran layers. Temperature during seed development also has an
important role in the expression of seed dormancy. High temperatures are generally associated with
increased hardseededness and dormancy in a number of crops. High temperatures during the early
stages of ripening of wheat seeds reduce the susceptibility of seeds to preharvest sprouting.
4. Light
The intensity of dormancy in some species is regulated by light. Some Brassica crops exposed to long
photoperiods produce seeds that require greater light intensity for germination. Hardseededness in
legumes has also been associated with photoperiod. Seeds matured under long-day conditions remain in
the pod longer and develop thicker and more impermeable seed coats.
5. Wind
It is the source for supply of CO2 and O2. If high wind velocity during growing period, more
transpiration, flowers dropping and desiccation take place. So, gentle wind is better for pollination, seed
setting and seed development.
Asexual reproduction
In asexual reproduction, the fusion of male and female gametes does not involve. The new plants may
develop either from vegetative parts of plant (vegetative reproduction) or they may arise from embryos
that develop without fertilization (apomixis).
A. Vegetative reproduction: In nature, a new plat develops from a portion of the body of the parent
plant. This may occurs through modified underground and sub-aerial stems and through bulbils.
a. Underground stems: The underground modifications of stem generally serve as storage organs
and conation many buds. These buds develop into shoots and produce plants after rooting.
Examples:
Tuber: Potato
Bulb: Onion, Garlic
Rhizome: Ginger, Turmeric
Corm: Gladiolus, Colocasia
b. Sub-aerial stems: The modifications include runner, stolon, sucker, etc. Example: Mint, Date
palm, etc.
c. Bulbils: They are modified flowers that develop into plants directly without formation of seed.
These are vegetative bodies as their development does not involve fertilization and seed
formation. Example: Garlic
d. Artificial vegetative reproduction: It is commonly used for the propagation of many crop
species, although it may not occur naturally in those species.
Stem cuttings: Sugarcane, Grapes, Rose, etc
Layering: Litchee
Budding: Rose
Grafting: Mango
B. Apomixis
In apomixis, seeds are formed but the embryos develop without fertilization. Consequently, the plants
resulting from them are identical in genotypes to the parent plant. In apomictic species, sexual
reproduction is either suppressed or absent. When sexual reproduction also occurs, the apomixes is

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termed as facultative. But when sexual reproduction is absent, it is referred to as obligate apomixes.
When embryos arise from haploid cells, apomixes is termed as nonrecurent because the progeny so
obtained can’t be maintained further. But when embryos arise from diploid cells, apomixis is called
recurrent as the progeny so obtained can be perpetuated indefinitely. Apomixis has been reported in
over 300 species belonging to over 30 families.
Classification
1. Adventitious embryony: Embryo develops directly from vegetative cells of ovule such as
nucellus, integument, chalaza and it does not involve production of embryo sac. Example:
Mango, Citrus, Orchids, etc.
2. Gametophytic apomixis: The embryo develops without fertilization from egg cell or other cells
of embryo sac. In recurrent apomixis, unreduced embryo sac are produced by a process of
apomeiosis, which is a collective term signifying the various substitutes for meiosis that give rise
to unreduced gametophyte. Apomeiosis is of two types:
a. Apospory: Some vegetative cells of ovule develop into unreduced embryo sac through a series
of mitotic division and without meiosis. Embryo may develop from egg cell or some other cell
of such an embryo sac. Example: Orchids, Malus, Ranunculus, etc.
b. Diplospory: Embryo sac produced from megaspore which may be haploid or more generally
diploid. In apomictic species, the meiosis is so modified that the megaspore remains diploid. In
all such cases either meiosis is omitted altogether or restitution of unreduced chromosome
number occurs during or after the first meiotic division. Restitution after the second meiotic
division apparently does not occur in naturally apomicitc species. The embryo in such embryo
sac may arise by either
i. Parthenogenesis: The embryo develops from the embryo sac without pollination. It is of
following two types:
 Gonial parthenogenesis: embryos develop from egg cell
 Somatic parthenogenesis: embryo arise from some cell of the embryo sac other than the
egg cell
ii. Pseudogamy: Pollination is necessary in such cases for embryo development, but fertilization of
the egg cell does not take place. Fertilization of secondary nucleus, however, does occur and is
necessary for endosperm development. It is also of two types:
 Gonial pseudogamy: embryos develop from egg cell
 Somatic pseudogamy: embryo arise from some other cells of embryo sac other than egg
cells

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Lecture: 6
SEED DORMANCY
Seeds of most agricultural plants usually germinate promptly if given access to moisture and air, if
provided with a suitable range of temperature and in some instances if exposed to a proper sequence of
light and dark. However, in some plants seeds do not germinate even though they are placed under
favourable condition of temperature, air, moisture and light. Germination may delay for days, weeks or
even month. The seeds of such plants are said to be in a dormant condition. It is not unique to seeds but
is also found in other plant organ such as buds of woody and herbaceous plants as well as buds of tuber,
rhizome and bulbs. So dormancy is defined as an arrest in the development of rudimentary embryo, bud
or spores on a condition otherwise suitable for growth.
The dormant condition appear to serve a common purpose as
 it enables to endure (bear hardship) periods of unfavourable environmental condition thereby
providing the mechanism of survive.
 it protects seeds from sprouting on panicles before harvesting.
 it offers provision for dispersal afforded by various modifications of seed covering.
However it offers frustration to plant breeders who would like to grow plant germination in quick
succession. It also impedes the seed testing work, as the result of germination can’t be finalized quickly
in case of such cultivars.
Types of dormancy
The dormancy can be classified as
1. Physiological dormancy: It may be due to presence of immature embryo, need for after
ripening, specific light and temperature requirement or the presence of germination inhibitors.
2. Physical dormancy: It may be due to presence of impermeable or mechanically resist seed coat.
It can also be classified as
1. Innate dormancy: seed born dormant
It is present immediately the new embryo ceases to grow when it is still on parent plant. It
prevents the seed from germinating viviparously and also useful sometimes after the ripe seed is
shed or harvested. It is genetically controlled character and it is a feature of specific seed
species.
2. Induced dormancy: seed achieve dormancy
It may be introduced in the seed after it has lost its innate dormancy. It results from sudden
physiological change in otherwise non-dormant seeds under the impact of factors. The high
temperature and limited O2 supply can induce dormancy.
3. Enforced dormancy: dormancy thrust upon them
It is concerned with the dormancy of seed buried beneath the soil surface which is removed
immediately when the seed are exposed. It is attributed to high CO 2 level, darkness and lack of
fluctuating temperature.
Factors influencing or inducing dormancy or cause of dormancy
The dormancy usually develops as a result of the action of two kinds of processes: one within embryo
and one in seed coat and other tissues external to the embryo.
1. Dormancy due to condition of embryo
A. Immaturity of embryo:
Embryo is rudimentary and poorly developed at seed maturity. Embryo fails to develop fully by the
time seed are shed. It is necessary for such embryo to continue their development during the dormant
period before they can germinate successfully.
Examples: certain orchids, Anemone nemorosa, Ginkgo biloba

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B. Need for after ripening in dry storage

Seed contains fully developed embryos but unable to resume growth promptly when provided with a
suitable environment. These seeds can induced to germinate if stored moist but well aerated under low
temperature condition, a treatment referred to as stratification and sometime called after ripening. It is
possible to remove and culture embryos from seed that require after ripening. If placed at room
temperature (≥200C), the embryos germinate readily, but seedling development is often abnormal. If
cultured embryo kept at low temperature (2-5 0C) grow more slowly but subsequent seedling
development is normal. It appears that early germination processes of these embryos require the
formation of some promoting substances or degradation of inhibitory molecule. In some seeds
gibberlins appear to function as germination promoters while ABA acts as an inhibitor. A proper
balance between these two kinds of regulatory substances achieve during after ripening process.
Examples: Barley, Oat, Wheat, Apple, Pear, Blackbery, etc.
2. Dormancy due to seed coat
Seed coat is composed of several layers of cells derived from the integumentary tissue of ovule. Some
seeds have additional coat layers derived from the endosperm or fruit tissues. From chemical sandpoint,
seed coat consists of complex mixture of polysaccharides, hemicellulose, fats, waxes and proteins.
During seed ripening chemical components of seed coat become dehydrated and form a hard, protective
layer around the embryo. The seed coat has a strong influence on the resumption of growth of embryo.
Different kinds of seed coat effect have been noted:
A. Water impermeability
Plants belonging to families Leguminosae, Malvaceae, Chenopodiaceae, Solanaceae, have very hard
seed coat which are impermeable to water. If seed coat cracked or scarified so that water can gain
entrance, the seed usually germinate promptly. Under natural condition in soil, the fungi and
bacteria acted upon the seed coat and hydrolyze the polysaccharide and other coat components,
thereby softening them so that water can penetrate embryo. It takes several weeks or even month for
seed coat to be degraded by biological activity.
B. Gas impermeability
Seeds coat, while permeable to water, appear to be impermeable to dissolved gases like O 2 and CO2.
For example, Xanthium, some member of composite family, etc. Early respiratory activity is
characteristic of germination of many seeds, if O 2 is prevented from reaching the embryo, prompt
germination may not be able to take place. Respiration also involves the release of CO 2 and some
seed coats, while permeable to O2, may be impermeable to CO2. Accumulated CO2 in the vicinity
of embryo inhibits further germination process. So, broken of seed coat or scarification is required
for setting prompt germination.
C. Mechanical resistance
Some seed coat permeable to water and dissolved gases, but the coats have such mechanical strength
that can’t broken by the growing embryo. For example, Pigweed (Amaranthus), Shepherd’s purse
(Capsella), etc. The dormancy may persist upto periods as long as 30 years in the case of pigweed if
the seed remain saturated with water. If the seed coats soften and allows some embryos swelling and
dries again, however, further growth of the embryo may be prevented. If the seed coat ruptured or
fractured through saturation with water again, prompt germination can occur. In some seeds, during
germination, enzymes that hydrolyze seed coat are secreted thereby weakening it so that the
growing embryo can continue its growth.
3. Chemicals in seed
Different kinds of chemicals affecting plant growth are found in seeds. Some compounds inhibit plant
growth whereas other promotes growth. The inhibitors not only do inhibit seed germination but they
also inhibit the growth of seedling. The germination inhibitors presence either in some parts of seeds
such as testa, endosperm, embryo or in structures surrounding them such as the juice or the pulp of fruit
(eg. in tomato) and glumes (eg. in oats). Germination in some seeds can be promoted by the application
of growth substances such as gibberellins and cytokinins. Germination of non-dormant seeds can

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inhibited by exogenous abscisic acid. So that the germination and dormancy are controlled by
interactions between these growth promoting and growth inhibiting substances.
4. Chilling (or low temperature) requirements
Some seeds such as apple, rose, peach, etc. remains in dormant after harvest in the autumn because they
have a low temperature or chilling requirements for germination. In nature, this requirement is fulfilled
by winter temperature. Seeds remain dormant throughout winter season and germinate only in the
following spring.
5. Light sensitive seeds
Germination of seed in many species is affected by light resulting in seed dormancy such light sensitive
seed are called photoblastic.
Response of seeds to sunlight (white light) falls into the three category:
a. Positive photoblastic seed: Seeds are induced to germinate by exposure to a single
irradiation. Depending on the intensity of the radiation source, the single exposure maybe as
brief as a few second or as long as several hours. Example: lettuce, tobacco, shepherd’s
purse, etc.
b. Negative photoblastic seed: Seeds are prevented from germinating by exposure to light, such
seeds require total darkness for optimal germination. Example: Allium, Helleborus niger, etc.
c. Non-photoblastic seed: Seeds germinate in either light or dark. Example: tomato, cucumber,
etc.

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Lecture: 7
BREAKING DORMANCY AND GERMINATION
Methods of breaking dormancy
1. Scarification
It is the process of rupturing, scratching, piercing, pricking or weakening the seed coat by means of
mechanical or other means - employed in these cases where the dormancy of seed results due to their
resistant or impermeable seed coat. It can done either mechanically by thrashing the seeds by machines
or by hands or chemically by treating them with strong mineral acids.
For example:
Paddy: rupturing, piercing or pricking the seed coat or near embryo
Sorghum: piercing in outer layer of pericarp or integument with sharp needles that ruptures seed
coat
The concentrated H2SO4 used as a medium for acid scarification. For example: In blackgram, 3 minutes
acid scarification gave highest germination.
2. Pressure
In some plants, the seed germination can be improved by 50-200% if the seeds are subjected to
hydraulic pressure of 2000 atmosphere at 180C for about 5-20 minutes. For example: Sweet clover
(Melilotus alba)
The germination results due to changes in the permeability of the testa to water.
3. Stratification
It is the process of breaking dormancy by treating seeds in moist medium at low temperature (5-10 0C)
for sufficient period. The artificial stratification is done by alternating the layers of seeds with layers of
wet sphagnum (peat moss), sand or some other suitable material and keeping them at low temperature.
It is found most effective on cool season crops like Triticum, Hordeum, Sorghum etc. The low
temperature helps to overcome the dormancy of certain light sensitive seeds such as lettuce.
4. Alternating temperatures
Alternation of low and high temperature (the difference of the two being not more than 10 0C and 200C)
greatly improves the germination of seeds. When the dormant seeds are subjected to alternate
temperature of 200C for 16 hr and 300C for 8 hr, the seed lot recorded 90% germination as against 14%
at 300C constant temperature.
5. Light
The dormancy of positive photoblastic seed can be broken by exposing them to red-light (most effective
near 660 mµ) or white light. The primary effect of light on seed germination is mediated by
phytochrome, a pigment composed of a chromophore molecule and a protein. Phytochrome within seed
can be modified by such factors as temperature, moisture, H + concentration, age of seed, seed ripening
and quantity & quality of irradiation. This pigment occurs in two forms: red-absorbing and far-red
absorbing. Phytochrome does not exist solely in Pr to Pfr form following red or far red irradiation rather
exists in some ratio of Pr to Pfr because the absorption spectra of the two forms overlap. Phytochrome
irradiated with red light (660 nm) will be 81% Pfr and 19% Pr. Far-red light (730 nm) establishes
phytochrome at about 98% Pr and 2% Pfr. Both these forms are photochemically interconvertible.

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When phytochrome synthesized, it is believed that the Pr form is made. Finally, Pfr is the active form
and it is destroyed or inactivated if it is not stabilized by interacting with a molecule, referred to as [X],
to form [Pfr.X]. An appropriate ratio of Pfr.X/Pr must be present to trigger germination and white light
at 660 nm is adequate to establish a satisfactory level of Pfr.X/Pr to initiate germination. Example:
Chenopodium rubrum
Research result:
When water soaked light sensitive lettuce seed exposed as:
Sequence of radiation Last radiation given Effect on germination
R Red Germination
R + FR Far red No germination
R + FR + R Red Germination
R + FR + R + FR Far red No germination
6. Chemicals
Potassium nitrate, thiourea, acetone, mercuric chloride, hydrogen peroxide, carbon monoxide, gibberlic
acid, kinetin, ethylene can be used for breaking the dormancy of many crops. The kinetin and gibberlins
induced germination in certain positively photoblastic seeds even in dark. Example: tobacco, lettuce,
etc.
Germination
The block to embryonic growth in many seeds is overcome by placing the seeds in an appropriate
environment. The major environmental conditions necessary are access to water and air, a suitable range
of temperature, freedom from high concentration of inorganic salt, poisons and inhibitors and for some
seeds exposure to light – if provided embryo begins to grow.
The viable seed that have overcome dormancy and just wait for suitable environmental condition as
mentioned above to germinate are said to be ‘quiescent’. In most cases, these seeds germinate if placed
on moist substrate.
Germination is the term used to designate those processes beginning with the imbibition of water by a
dry seed and ending when a portion of the embryo penetrates the seed coat. Initial entrance of water to
seed occurs by imbibitions and then increase in water content of seed and its associated compounds
(seed coat, endosperm or cotyledon, embryonic axis) swells up and the seed coat ruptures. Ordinarily,
radical or root penetrates seed coat first but in some plants plumule or shoot emerges first.
Kinds of germination
Depending on whether the cotyledons are pushed above the ground or remain below, germination
classified as:-
i. Epigeal germination (epi – upon, ge – earth)
Cotyledons are pushed above the ground due to the rapid elongation of hypocotyl i.e. the region just
below the cotyledons. Example: bean, castor, sunflower
Cotyledon turn green and leaf like when the stored food is finished but ultimately they shrivel up and
fall off.
ii. Hypogeal germination (hypo – below, ge – earth)
Cotyledon remain below the soil or just on the surface due to elongation of epicotyl i.e. region just
above cotyledon. Example: rice, wheat, maize
Cotyledon do not turn green, they dry up and fall off ultimately.

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Fig: Epigeal germination of common garden bean

Fig: Hypogeal germination of maize seed

Emergence
Emergence phase of growth begins when the embryo penetrates the seed coat and ends when the shoot
system is able to sustain the growth of the plant by photosynthesis. During emergence, a root and shoot
system develops.
Longevity of seed
It is duration of the viability of seeds. The length of time that embryos retain their viability, often
referred to as their lifespan, varies enormously. Periods ranging from a few days to several thousand
years have been reported. In general, it can be said that seed viability is governed by external
environmental factors to which the seed is exposed following maturation.
Many seeds can be stored for months or even year under condition of low moisture, low oxygen level
and low temperature. For other seed, dry storage at ordinary levels of oxygen and temperature is
necessary to maintain seed viability. Seeds of Indian lotus were found to be viable after being buried for
about 1000 years in peat moss under a dry lake bed. Seed of many plants, particularly those from
tropical and subtropical region, retain their viability for short periods – frequently less than one week.
According to longevity, seeds have been divided into 3 classes.
a. Macrobiotic seed
Seed retain their viability for more than 15 years and sometimes 50-100 years. In such case, the seed
coat is often water proof. Example: lotus seed (Nelumbo nucifera), Chenopodium album
b. Mesobiotic seed
Seed retain viability for 3-15 years.
c. Microbiotic seed
Seed retain their viability for short period – upto 3 years. Oxalis seed supposed to die within 3 days.

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Lecture: 8
PATTERN OR PROCESS OF SEED GERMINATION AND FACTORS AFFECTING IT
Morphological and biochemical changes accompanying seed germination
Although the exact sequence f events in seed germination varies among different plant species, the
basic processes are similar:
 Water imbibitions
 Cell expansion and respiration
 Hydrolysis of food reserves in endosperm or cotyledons
 Transport of soluble metabolites to the embryo
 Synthesis of cellular constituents in embryo accompanied by cell division
 Rupturing of seed coat and emergence
 Seedling establishment
Seed coat takes up water by imbibition which is purely a physical process and enclosed embryonic axis
is gradually hydrated. Various hydrophilic groups such as –NH2, –OH, –COOH, etc. of proteins,
polymeric carbohydrates, etc. found in seed coat attract dipolar water molecules and form hydrated cells
around them resulting in the swelling of these substances. This water uptake by swelling is followed by
intensive water uptake associated with germination. In many seeds, the embryonic root region (radicle)
of the axis takes up water more quickly than the rest of axis and emerges first through the seed coat. In
seed of most crops, radicle emergence (phase I) occurs within 24-36 hours after onset of water
imbibitions. Imbibition of water causes more permeable seed coat to O 2 & water and less resistant to
outward growth of embryo.
As seed imbibes water, all the cells in embryo, cotyledons and endosperm become hydrated resulting in
cell expansion and size increase. The hydration process may take 40-60 hours depending on the
temperature and availability of water. No changes in dry weight take place during the first 24-36 hours
following the onset of water imbibitions. Hydration, however, enables the cells in the embryonic axis
and cotyledons to attain full turgor, accompanied by reorganization of the sub-cellular organelles and
cellular membranes. Respiratory activities are initiated and some dry weight loss occurs.

Fig: Diagrammatic representation of changes in dry weight during seed germination

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Initially there may be anaerobic respiration in embryo but it is soon replaced by aerobic one due to
availability of O2. As compared to dry seed, the uptake of O2 in germination seed may rise in case of
cereals from 0.05 µl/gm tissues/hr to100 µl/gm tissues/hr within very short period when water content
has reached about 40%. The food reserves in the embryo are not adequate to sustain cell division and
new tissues and organ formation. Food reserves in the endosperm or cotyledons are mobilized to
provide substances for continued growth of the embryonic axis.
The major food reserves in seeds are starch, nucleic acid, fat, protein and phytin. These reserves when
mobilized and metabolized provide the embryonic axis with amino acids, nucleotides, nucleosides,
inositol, sucrose, fatty acids and some inorganic ions. Several metabolic pathways involved in the
conversion of storage fat to sucrose, an important pathway in fat rich seeds.
i) Nucleic acids
In monocots during the imbibition stage of seed germination, there is rapid decrease of DNA and RNA
content in the endosperm with a simultaneous increase in the embryonic axis probably due to their
transportation as such. Appreciable amount of RNA appears in the aleurone layer after about 16 hours
which is probably due to its de novo synthesis. Higher concentration of RNA (and also protein) in the
embryonic axis precedes cell division.
Nucleic acids Nucleases nucleosides, nucleotides
ii) Carbohydrates
During germination, starch is hydrolyzed first into maltose by amylose activity.
Starch α-amylase, β-amylase maltose
Maltose Maltase glucose absorbed scutelum
by
The glucose absorbed by the scutelum converted into soluble sucrose and transported to growing
embryonic axis. In monocot cells the hydrated embryo secretes gibberlic acids, which moves to
aleurone layer, where it initiates the synthesis of a number of hydrolytic enzymes: α-amylase, protease,
nuclease, phytase. Several proteinases, nucleases, lipases and phytase apparently are synthesized during
seed maturation but are present in dry seeds in an inactive dehydrated form which resume active
conformation and being capable for catalytic activity following imbibitions. α-amylase is not present in
dry seeds but is synthesized de novo after water imbibitions whereas β-amylase already present in seed
in inactive form which is activates during germination. IAA-inositol is translocated to coleoptiles. IAA-
inositol and IAA-inositol glycosides are released in the endosperm where it supplies both IAA and
inositol for further seedling growth.
iii) Lipids
Mobilization of fats is brought about by hydrolysis of fatty acids and glycerol by lipases.
Lipids Lipases
Fatty acids + Glycerol
Fatty acids β-oxidation Acetyl-CoA
Acetyl-CoA Glyoxylate cycle Sucrose transported Growing embryonic axis
to
Lipase may be synthesized de novo triggered by gibberlic acid. Isocitratase and mate synthetase, key
enzyme of glyoxylate cycle, synthesize de novo during early stages of germination.
iv) Proteins
Protein stored as aleurone grains, mobilization involves their hydrolytic cleavage into amino acids by
peptidases (proteinases)
Proteinases
Protein Amino acids
Peptidases are synthesized de novo as the germination starts. Amino acids may provide energy by
oxidation after deamination or may be utilized in the synthesis of new proteins.
v) Inorganic materials
The inorganic materials such as phosphate, calcium, magnesium, potassium are stored in seeds in the
form of phytin.
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Phytin Phytase
Inositol, Ca++, Mg++, K+, HPO4—

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As a consequence of these events, seed coat gradually results in splitting and emergence of growing
seedling. First radicle comes out and grows downwards and the plumule comes out and grows upward.
Toward the end of the phase II dry weight of the endosperm (in monocots) decreases as the dry weight
of root and shoot system increase. Eventually, green leaves develop as well as a root system and the
plant is capable of an independent mode of metabolism, that is, it is autotropic. Phase II ends as the
plant become autotropic.
During phase III, the growth of plant is supported by leaf photosynthesis and uptake of water and
inorganic solutes by the roots. In early stages of phase III, some substances from cotyledons or
endosperm, are necessary to maintain growth of the emerging seedling.
Factors affecting germination
1. Temperature
Dry seeds are frequently able to withstand a broad range of temperatures but after the germination
process has been set in motion by the imbibitions of water, most seeds appear to tolerate a much
narrower range of temperature. There has been set the concept of minimal, maximum and optimum
temperature for seed germination. The minimal and maximum temperatures are those temperatures that
just permit germination whereas the optimal temperature is considered the one that permit the highest
percentage of germination is the shortest period of time.
Table: Temperature ranges for the germination of seeds
Seeds Temperature (0C)
Minimum Optimum Maximum
Wheat 3-5 15-31 30-43
Barley 3-5 19-27 30-40
Rye 3-5 25-31 30-40
Maize 8-10 32-35 40-44
Rice 10-12 30-37 40-42
Canteloupe 10-19 30-40 45-50
Whitetop 0.5-3 20-35 35-40
Among cereals, wheat, barley and rye can tolerate temperature of 3-5 0C whereas maize and rice require
temperature above 8-120C for germination. The temperature requirement of certain seeds depends on
their age or physical condition. Freshly harvested seeds frequently require a very narrow range of
temperature for germination, but as the seeds age, the temperature requirements become less exacting
and eventually germination proceeds over a broad range of temperature. Seeds of some plants are able
to germinate at low temperature whereas others require high ones. The germination of lima bean seed is
known to be inhibited by brief periods of chilling and low temperature during the imbibitional phase
have a marked influence on later stages of development. A temperature of 5 0C during the first hour of
imbibitions not only leads to an immediate depression in the rate of respiration of the embryonic axis
but also to the death of the embryo within 5 days.
Membrane from chilling sensitive plants displays a change in membrane conformation at temperature of
10-140C. Membranes from chilling tolerant plants, on the other hand, do not display a change in
membrane structure in a range of temperature between 1 and 250C.
2. Gaseous environment
The respiratory processes in seeds are stimulated soon after they imbibe water. After water addition the
cells absorb water by imbibition and increase in volume. This increase in embryonic volume is
sufficient to break the seed coat and facilitate organ (radicle and plumule) emergence. With breaking of
the seed coat, gas exchange can occur, thus providing an aerobic environment for further metabolism.
Since respiration is essentially an oxidative process, an adequate supply of O 2 must be available. If the
O2 concentration is reduced substantially below that of air, germination of most seed is retarded.
However, there are some notable exceptions; rice and other aquatic plants can germinate under water

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where O2 is present only in low concentrations. In absence of O 2, anaerobic respiration enables the rice
seeds to germinate.
The influence of CO2, CO, N2 and other gases in germination can be understood in terms of their effects
on metabolic process. The effects are consistent with those noted concerning the need for O 2 during cell
division.
3. Poisons and inhibitors
Many different kinds of compounds are known to affect seed germination. Low concentration of
hydrogen cyanide or more specifically cyanide (CN -) will poison and kill growing embryos. Some
fruits, however, contain amygdalin, a glucoside compound of sugar and cyanide. If the fruit tissue
damaged, enzyme activity may hydrolyze the glucoside and release the cyanide in concentration great
enough to kill the growing embryo.
High salt concentration (fertilizer or other inorganic salts) in contact with the seed may prevent the seed
(by an osmotic effect) from obtaining enough water to initiate germination or if the radicle does manage
to protrude through the seed coat, the embryonic tissue may become dehydrated and killed. Extracts or
leachates from fruit, leaves, twigs and roots have also been found to inhibit seed germination. For
instance, seeds of tomato will not germinate as long as they enclosed within the fruit but if they are
removed and thoroughly washed free of fruit tissue, they will germinate when moistened. Various types
of complex organic molecules namely alkaloids, essential oils, amino acids, coumarin, mustard oil, etc.
have been isolated and identified from these extracts. Abscisic acid involves in maintaining the
dormancy of embryo during seed development. Many substances foreign to natural seed environment
also influence germination. Some organic herbicides block seed germination. Industrial wastes and
pollutants often prevent seed germination. They may be quite diverse – acids, alkalis, salt of metals
(mercury, lead, silver, aluminium, etc.), phenolics, fluorides and so forth.
4. Moisture
Level of moisture of dry seed may be 5-12% which is insufficient for allowing rapid metabolism. So the
first step in the germination is imbibitions through which the water content increase. As seed imbibes
water, all the cells in embryo, cotyledons and endosperm becomes hydrated resulting in cell expansion
and size increment. Water is essential for enzyme activation, thus permitting breakdown, translocation
and use of reserve storage materials. Field capacity moisture level is optimum for germination and
extreme moisture may inhibit germination. However, germination often proceeds at soil moistures near
the permanent wilting point. The initial stage may even proceed under water available through high
humidity conditions, although such conditions are not adequate for complete germination. Corn seed
begins to germinate at moisture content (fresh weight basis) of 30.5%, rice at 26.5%, soybeans at 50%.
5. Light
Some seeds are positively photoblastic (viz. lettuce, tobacco, etc.), some are negatively photoblastic
(viz. Allium, Datura, etc.) and others are non-photoblastic (viz. tomato, cucumber, etc). Freshly
harvested lettuce seed would also germinate in light but after storage germinability will be manifested
in red light only. Bright sunny day provides upto 10,000 foot-candles, cloudy days about 1,500 foot-
candles. Light intensities of 100-200 foot-candles from indirect light in average seed laboratory are
probably adequate for germination of most species. The greatest germination occurs in red light area
(600-700 nm) with peak of 670 nm and the germination inhibits on far red area (>700 nm).
6. Reserved food materials
Seed contain stored food materials like CHO, proteins and lipids. If these are not accumulated
appropriate amount in the seed, it may not be germinate.
7. Dormancy or resting period
Many angiospermic seeds can’t germinate immediately after maturity even if provided with all
favorable environments for germination. This condition is known as seed dormancy, which may not be
germinated immediately after maturity because of immature embryo. After seed maturity, a rest period
is necessary to develop embryo after harvesting. This period is known as after ripening period or resting
period. Dormancy in seed is either due to embryo condition (immature embryo or need for after
ripening) or due to seed coat (impermeable to water, gases or mechanical resistance).

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8. Longevity or viability of seed

Longevity is the length of time that embryo retain their viability. Seeds retain their viability for certain
period of time, after which the embryo becomes dead. Storage conditions and circumstances in which
the seed mature often determine the period of viability. Non-viable seeds cannot germinate.
9. Agronomic factors
Defective crop husbandry during crop maturity and biotic and abiotic stresses during seed setting and
maturity due to natural disruption in environmental condition affects seed viability and germination
capacity. Cloudy days during grain filling produce chaffy non-viable rice seeds. Inadequate plant
protection during fruit ripening may cause total loss of seed germination. Mechanical injury to seed due
to rough handling during production, harvest and packaging may cause about 20-30% loss in
germination.

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Lecture: 9
SEED & SEEDLING VIGOUR AND CROP ESTABLISHMENT
Introduction
Seed vigour is highly complex. At the biochemical level, it involves energy and biosynthetic
metabolism, coordination of cellular activities and transportation and utilization of reserve foods. At the
level of seed germination, it involves speed and totality of germination, pushing power of the seedling,
range of stress conditions under which germination will occur and disease resistance. The vigorous seed
have the potential to germinate rapidly and uniformly and emerged seedlings are able to grow
vigorously under general and sometimes relatively adverse field conditions.
Perry (1972) defined seed vigour as physiological property determined by the genotype and modified by
the environment which governs the ability of the seeds to produce seedling rapidly in the soil and the
extent to which the seed tolerated range of environmental factors. Further, it was stated that the range of
seed vigour may persist throughout the life cycle of plant and affect the yield.
Association of official seed analyst (1975) defined seed vigour as the sum total of those properties of
seed which upon planting resulted in rapid and uniform production of healthy seedling under wide range
of environment including both favourable and stress conditions.
International seed testing association (ISTA) defined seed vigour as the sum total of those properties of
seed which determine the potential level of performance and activity of a non-dormant seed or seed lots
during germination and seedling emergence.
Concept of seed vigour
It has been noticed that seed lots of similar germination percentage gave varying results in regards to
field stand. A germination test is inadequate as far as prediction of plant stand establishment is
concerned. This is primarily due to the fact that the germination test is carried out in seed testing
laboratory under very favorable artificial conditions, which are seldom available in the field. Under
laboratory conditions the weakest seed can also germinate since it receives favorable moisture,
temperature and substrate, which is not loaded with microorganisms, herbicides, fertilizer, fungicide or
systemic insecticide. Seed lots of equal quality (basis of germination test) will produce differential
response in field emergence. Vigour test could reliably predict stand-producing potential of seed lots in
the field condition. The ultimate proof of any vigour test is its reliability in predicting field stands under
a variety of field conditions.
The following concepts have emerged which clarify the meaning of vigour in terms of seed, seedling
and plant performance:
1. Speed of germination
2. Uniformity of germination and plant development under non-uniform conditions
3. Ability to emerge through crusted soil
4. Germination and seedling emergence from cold, wet, pathogen infested soil
5. Normal seedling morphological development
6. Crop yield and
7. Storability under optimum or adverse conditions
Adverse effect of using low vigour seed
(Mississippi State University study on rice, maize, jowar and cotton)
When we used the low vigour seed as seeding material the following effects may be observed:
1. Stand of seed bearing plant may be reduced.
2. There will be delayed and reduced emergence of seedlings.
3. Plants will be dwarf with thin stems.
4. Number of nodes may be reduced.
5. There may be the reduction of leaf area and tillering.

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6. The panicle length may be reduced in case of rice, wheat, barley etc. and its exertion and
anthesis will also be delayed.
7. There may be delayed maturity of the crop.
Kind of determining seed vigour
1. Direct test: simulate pertinent unfavourable field conditions on a laboratory scale
 Brick gravel test
 Paper piercing test
 Accelerated ageing, etc.
2. Indirect test: measure certain physiological attributes of seeds
 Measurement of seedling growth rate
 Exhaustion test
 Soaking water test
 Tetrazolium test
 Conductivity test
 Enzyme test
 Respiration test, etc.
Factors affecting seed and seedling vigour
i) Genetic control or genotypic effect
The competence of a genotype in a particular environment determines seed vigour. The difference in
vigour exist among different species, different varieties and even within a variety. The influence of
genetic control of seedling vigour is found in hybrid and polyploid plant over inbred and diploid plants
of the same species. For example seeds of barley hybrids have been found to germinate faster, grow
faster and exhibit a higher respiration rate than either parent.
ii) Seed size and density
Seed size also plays an important role in controlling vigour of different crops. The superior performance
of graded large seeds of jute in respect of field emergence, better crop stand at harvest and fibre yield
than the small size seeds have been reported. Similarly, other reported that large wheat seeds had
increased germination percentage, rate of field emergence as well as the root length, dry weight and
vigour index of seedlings. The size of seed and accumulation of nutrition stored in it are controlled
genetically under a high genotype, environment interaction. Seed density may also be positively
correlated with seedling vigour and plant performance.
iii) Seed maturity
As a seed matures, it's potential for rapid and vigorous germination increases. Fully mature seeds have
the potential of complete physical and physiological development needed for maximum expression of
vigour. Seeds of most of the crop plants, which can be dry, stored at low moisture level and cool storage
condition (orthodox seed) can maintain seed vigour for a long time. Complete seed maturity is
sometimes considered as the stage of seed development, which produces maximum seedling vigour
under adverse germination conditions.
iv) Timing of harvest
In plants with determinate flowering, seed maturity is relatively uniform and the seeds mature at the
same time but in case of indeterminate flower (sugarbeet, carrots) harvest at any time yields seeds with
varying stages of maturity and these seeds have low germination and low seed vigour.
v) Temperature and moisture availability during seed development
Air temperature and soil moisture availability during seed development of most of the crop species are
affected on seed size, yield, germination as well as seedling vigour and subsequent yield. Water
availability during seed development may influence seed vigour indirectly through its influence on the
chemical composition of the mature seed. For example N content (protein) of cereal seed generally

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decreases as the amount of water supplied during the vegetative development of the parent plant
increases.
Temperature influences developmental processes, which in turn influences seedling vigour. For example
sugarbeet seeds matured at higher temperature (i.e. 35 oC) germinated more rapidly than those matured
at lower temperatures (30o).
vi) Soil fertility during seed development
The fertility of the soil in which a plant grows influences the chemical composition of the developing
seed and consequently its metabolism and vigour during germination. A comprehensive study of
fertility and seedling vigour in wheat showed definite influence of fertility supplied to the parent plant
and subsequent seedling vigour. It appears that N and P 2O5 availability can influence seed development
and seedling vigour, but their effect varies among species and is highly dependent on the stage of
growth and environmental conditions. The inorganic nutrients stored in the seed provide valuable
reserves during the early germination stages, which can be especially critical for seedling establishment
in soils that are low in nutrients.
vii) Mechanical damage
The mechanically damaged (cracked and broken seeds may appear normal but exhibit less vigour than
undamaged seeds. It is due to the physiological deterioration triggered by impact or it may be purely
physical damage as a result of cryptic, microscopic breaks at crucial locations within the seed. For
example seedlings from mechanically damaged bean seeds may be morphologically normal but exhibit
slower germination, reduced growth rate, delayed maturity and reduced yield. Each handling process
throughout threshing, cleaning, treating, bagging, transplanting and planting may cause impaction of
seeds against other seeds or hard metal surface and result in injury.
viii) Attack of microorganisms
Infestation by microorganisms causes deterioration of seeds in storage and may further reduce seedling
vigour by attacking the germinating seedlings. Many species of fungi that are normally saprophytic can
become parasitic on young seedlings. Fungal growth may be enhanced by substances leached from the
germinating seed. For example damping off in beans may be due to stimulation of Pythium and
Rhizoctonia growth by nutrients leached from the seeds.
ix) Chilling injury during imbibition
Seeds of many warm season species are especially susceptible to low temperature injury during
moisture imbibition and early seedling growth. Such injury may have immediate as well as delayed
season long effect. For example: imbibition of low moisture soybean seed at 5 oC was reported to cause a
reduction in seedling survival, dry matter accumulation and seedling height.

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Lecture: 10
SEED QUALITY
Determinants of seed quality
Seed is a basic input in agriculture and it plays a crucial role in boosting up the productivity, production
and economy of country. Without the use of good quality seed, the investments incurred on fertilizers,
pesticides and water will not pay dividend which ought to be realized. Therefore, the place and progress
in food production of a country will greatly depend on the availability of required quantities of seeds of
superior genotypes and hybrids. A break-through in this direction has already been made in most parts
of the world. However, still more need to be done in making available the seeds of high yielding
varieties or hybrids in most of the developing countries. It is of paramount importance that seeds of the
improved genotypes should be multiplied and marketed in such a way that its genetic purity is
maintained to the desired level. In addition, to the genetic purity, maintenance of the physical and
physiological seed quality during the seed multiplication and marketing operations is also equally
important.
Seed quality is the sum of all those attributes which differentiate the seed from the grain. The important
seed quality attributes are the following:
1. Genetic purity
This is the most important seed quality attribute. The genetic purity of the seed lot governs the yield
potential of the variety. It is, therefore, very important that the genetic (cultivar) purity status of the seed
lot should be high. In a seed certification scheme, the genetic purity standards have been prescribed.
The breeder seed should be of the highest genetic purity. In the foundation and certified seed classes, the
genetic purity standards are lower to those of breeder seed. Genetic purity of the breeder seed should be
maintained through maintenance breeding programme. The responsibility of the maintaining the genetic
purity of breeder seeds lies with the plant breeder who has evolved the variety., while the genetic purity
of foundation and certified seed classes is ensured through seed certification. In the absence of seed
certification, field plot tests should be conducted for maintaining or ascertaining the genetic purity.
2. Physical purity
The physical purity of the seed lot should also be high. The seed which is obtained after harvesting and
threshing the seed lot, is not fit for immediate sowing or planting purposes. It contains certain
admixtures, such as soil, stone pieces, flower stalks, broken seeds and pieces of leaves, barks, chaff and
other foreign material together with seeds of other crops and weeds. These admixtures makes the
harvested seed unfit for sowing or storage. The occurrence of these admixtures reduces the plating value
of the seed lots because these admixtures are undesirable as these may reduce the yielding ability of the
seed lot. During storage, the extraneous matter present in the seed lot serves as the places for harboring
the spores of saprophytic fungi which may cause the loss of seed viability. Therefore, the harvested seed
must be cleaned and processed to remove the admixture. The physical purity status of the seed lot is
judged by the pure seed, weed seed, other crop seeds and inert contents. The pure seed content in a seed
lot should be high and those of other crops, weed and inert matter should be minimum for obvious
reasons.
3. Germination
Germination capacity of the quality seed lot should be high for obtaining the desired crop stand in the
fields. Using seeds of low germination will reduce the field establishment or stand and thus the yields
will be lowered. Seed germination is affected by a variety of factors which are imposed to the seed
during its formation, maturation, ripening such as infection with pests and pathogen, sub-optimal
conditions of nutrients and water supply and untimely rains or frost at the maturity stage. In addition,
post-harvest operations and handling of the seed lots during marketing or distribution are also
responsible for affecting the seed quality.

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4. Moisture
The life processes of the seeds revolve around the seed moisture content. The moisture content of the
seeds should not be too high or too low. Moist seeds are difficult to thresh and will deteriorate at the
faster rate. Similarly, if the seeds are too dry, it may shatter in the field and thereby reduces the yields.
Seed moisture content should be brought to the desirable level, through drying (natural or artificial)
enabling to preserve their viability in storage and avoiding the spoilage by insects and pathogens. The
moisture content also determines the choice of the packing material for marketing or storage purposes.
The moisture content of the seeds varies according to its chemical composition. It is less in case of oily
seeds while it is high in case of those seeds where reserved food material is either predominantly
carbohydrate or proteins.
5. Health
Seed health is also an important seed quality attribute, especially under tropical and sub-tropical
conditions. Quality seed should be free from pests and pathogens. Infection of seed by pests and
pathogens may affect germination and vigour and thereby reduces the yields. It has been found that
large number of micro-organism causes considerable damage to the seed quality either by
discolouration of the seeds, reducing the seed size and weight or causing the seedling or adult plant
diseases. Infected seed lots are also responsible for the spread of the disease in the disease free areas. It
is, therefore, essential to test the seed lots to measure the status of its health in order to avoid problems
in seed production and quality control. In a seed certification scheme, the tolerance limits for the
designated seed borne diseases of the vegetable and field crops have been provided to avoid economic
losses. In addition, seed treatment with fungicide is a regular practice for controlling the disease
organisms.
6. Vigour
The performance potential of a seed lot with reference to field establishment is very much dependent on
the capacity of the seed to germinate, emerge and establish under sub-optimal field conditions. This
‘performance potential’ or ‘hidden stamina’ of the seed makes it fit to perform well upon sowing. This
is called seed vigour. It has been found that the field establishment of two seed lots of the same cultivar
having same germination percentage, may not necessarily be the same upon planting. One seed lot may
give rise to good emergence and establishment while the other may fail to do so in the same field. This
differential behavior in the performance of the two seed lots is mainly due to their vigour status. One
seed lot may be more vigorous in comparison to the other seed lot. Vigorous seeds usually provide
higher yields in comparison to less vigorous seeds. Accordingly, the measurement of seed vigour is of
considerable importance in assessing the seed quality. In addition, the storability of the seed is
influenced by its vigour status. Vigorous seed lot will store well for longer periods without appreciable
loss in the germination in comparison to the less vigorous seeds which deteriorate at a faster rate.

FACTORS AFFECTING SEED QUALITY

Quality influenced by a variety of factors imposed to the seed during its formation, development,
maturation, growth, harvesting, threshing or extraction, drying, cleaning, grading, packaging, storage
and marketing. These entire factors which govern the quality of seed can be broadly grouped as:
1. Genetical factors
Genetic purity or cultivar purity may decline as a result of genetic drift occurring during the seed
production of a particular variety. The varietal characteristics may change during the production stages
due to the combined effect of ecological and other factors. This is, especially true in situations where
same source of seed is continuously used over the years. In addition, chromosomal aberrations and
mutations resulted during the unfavourable storage may cause the genetic deterioration of the variety.
2. Ecological factors
The growth of the plant and the seed quality are strongly influenced not only by the genetic factors
alone but also by the environmental prevailing during the seed formation, maturation and growth. The
important ecological factors which govern the seed quality include the following:
 Soil

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 Adaptability
 Wind velocity and rains
 Light intensities and temperatures conditions
 Insect activities during flowering
 Pest and pathogens
The above factors may favourably or unfavourably affect the seed quality depending upon the situation.
3. Agronomic packages and production technology
Application of prescribed agronomical packages is of utmost importance for raising a good seed crop.
The recommended practices may slightly vary according to the location or the season. Personal
experience, in this regard is very important in order to suitably modify a particular cultural practice. The
cultural practices required for raising the seed crop are different to those of raising the general crop.
Timely operations during the crop management is essential aspect for ensuring a rich harvest and to
produce the quality seed of desired genetic purity and to avoid deterioration of seed quality by insects,
pest and pathogens and the occurrence of undesirable weeds and other crop seeds. Emphasis should also
be paid on the following factors which contribute in affecting the seed quality.
 Seed source
 Isolation and protection
 Land preparation, time and method of sowing
 Weed control
 Rouging of off-types and diseased plants
 Irrigation and nutrition
 Control of pests and pathogens
4. Harvesting and post harvest handling
Supervised harvesting and after care of post-harvest handling of the seed crops is an essential
component for obtaining the quality seed. This is an integral part of a seed certification programme. The
time, energy and money spent in growing genetically pure and disease-free seed crop may go waste, if
harvested seed crop is left to the vagaries of the weather. Seed quality is very much affected during the
following phases. If adequate technology and care is not provided to the harvested produce
 Threshing or extraction of the seed
 Processing- drying, cleaning and grading
 Seed treatment
 Seed packing
 Labeling and sealing
 Storage and movement
Choice of appropriate technology for the above mentioned post-harvest operations will vary according
to the location and the kind of seed. However, the basic principles for these operations are the same
throughout. For example, it is an established fact that threshing should not be done if the seed are too
moist or dry. At high initial moisture content, if threshing is attempted, it would be difficult to thresh the
seed or the seeds will be injured. At such moisture levels (≥18%), ‘bruising injuries’ may occur. It
would be difficult to find out the bruised seed with the naked eye. The immediate impact of ‘bruising
injuries’ may not be serious, however, there would be sudden decline in seed viability and vigour in the
storage. The bruised areas respire heavily and are the centre for infection by the micro-organisms. This
combine effect of high respiration rate and infection with pathogen will impart the seed viability within
no time. Similarly, harvesting or threshing the seeds at very low moisture levels (<9%) will induce the
fracturing or cracking injuries, thereby reducing the seed quality. For the maintenance of seed quality
(germination and vigour), it is very essential to dry the seed properly. The choice of drying method
(natural or artificial) depends upon the kind of seed and the locality. The safe levels of moisture content
for seed packing and storage have also been investigated for important vegetables and field crops. Seeds
must be dried properly before packing or storing them. Adequate supervision during all the post-harvest

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operations is also required to avoid contamination of the seed lots of different varieties on the threshing
floor or in the processing plant. It must be ensured that the labeling of the seed lost have done properly.
Importance of quality seed
1. Quality seed is a basic input in crop production
Quality seed is a basic input in crop production. All other inputs like fertilizer, irrigation, weed control,
plant protection, labour etc. will be useless if seed do not germinate.
2. Quality seed has high genetic potential
Proper use of agricultural inputs like fertilizer, irrigation, plant protection etc increases the productivity
of a crop. But if the quality of seed is poor, it will not increase the productivity of crop in same
proportion because of lower genetic potential of the seed.
3. Quality seed improve the productivity of crops
It has been found that use of quality seed increased the productivity of crops by 10-30% as compared to
local seed. Quality seed with all other recommended inputs would further increase the productivity of
crops. Use of uncertified seed, local seed, and seed without source has damaged the crop in many
places. Thus quality seed play vital role in reducing food deficit by increasing production.
4. Quality seed is a carrier of new technology
Quality seed shows good response of other agricultural inputs like fertilizer, irrigation, weed control etc.
It encourages the farmers to use other inputs. When new wheat seed from Mexico was introduced in
different countries, farmers started to use fertilizers, irrigation also. This brought green revolution. Thus
quality seed is a carrier of new technology.
5. Quality seed cut down the seed requirement
Quality seed has high germination capacity and more seed vigour. We can reduce the seed rate by 10-
30% by the use of improved seed as compared to local seed.
6. High quality produce
Quality seed has no varietal mixture, off type plant, weed seed. So, we can get better quality produce.
We can get more market prices from such produce.
7. Less chances of insect, disease and weed appearance
Quality seed is free from insects, diseases and weed seeds. Thus the chances of appearing insects,
diseases and weed are less than local seed. The cost of production may become less due to these reasons
if we use quality seed.

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Lecture: 11
PRINCIPLES OF SEED PRODUCTION
The seed production is aimed at getting high yield of genetically pure and good quality seed. Production
of genetically pure and good quality seed is an important task requiring high technical skills and
comparatively heavy financial investment. Quality seed production is not like general seed production.
We must have to follow certain principles to get quality seed.
A) Genetic principles
The genetic purity (trueness to type) of a variety can be deteriorating due to several factors during
production period. The best method for the maintenance of genetic purity of any seed is to overcome the
greatest possible factors which are responsible for genetic deterioration. Mostly the genetic deterioration
in seed may take place due to:
1. Developmental variations
2. Mechanical mixture
3. Mutations
4. Natural crossings
5. Minor genetic variations
6. Selective influence of diseases
7. The technique of the plant breeder.
1. Developmental variations
When the seed crops are grown in different environment under different soil and fertility conditions,
different climatic conditions, under different photoperiods or at different elevations for several
consecutive generations, the developmental variations may arise. Therefore to minimize the
developmental variations it is advisable to grow these varieties in their areas of adaptations and growing
areas.
2. Mechanical mixture
It is most important source of variety deterioration during seed production. It may often take place at the
time of sowing (if more than one variety is sown with same seed drill), through volunteer plants of the
same crops in the field or through different varieties grown in adjacent fields. If two varieties are
growing alongside each other in the field, they often mixed during harvesting and threshing. Keeping of
all varieties grown often in the same threshing floor results in varietal mixtures. Threshing machine is
often contaminated with other varieties in augers, elevators, etc. Similarly, the gunny bags, seed bins,
elevators are also quite often contaminated with seeds of other varieties. To avoid this sort of
contamination, it would be necessary to rogue the seed field and practice utmost care during seed
production, harvesting, threshing and handling.
3. Mutations
It is not a serious factor of varietal deterioration. In the majority of the cases it is difficult to identify
minor mutations. The mutants such as fatuoids in oats, rabbit ear in peas should, however, be removed
by rouging from seed plots to purify the seeds.
4. Natural crossing
It is also another important source of varietal deterioration in sexually propagated crops which is due to
introgression to genes from unrelated stocks and can be solved by prevention. The extent of varietal
contamination depends upon the amount of natural cross fertilization. The deterioration of varieties due
to natural crossing occurs by crossing with undesirable types of plants, crossing with diseased plants
and with off type plants. Natural crossing is not serious of contamination and variety deterioration in
predominantly self fertilized crops unless the varieties are male sterile and is grown in close proximity
to other varieties. It is major source of genetic contamination and variety deterioration in cross-fertilized
or often cross-fertilized crops. Extent of genetic contamination in seed fields due to natural crossing
depends upon (Bateman, 1947):

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 Breeding system of species

 Isolation distance
 Varietal mass
 Pollinating agent
The extent of contamination depends upon the direction of prevailing wind, number of insects present
and their activity, humidity and temperature at the time of anthesis, etc. Isolation of seed crops and
periodic rouging are the important methods to minimize the problems of natural crossing.
5. Minor genetic variations
Minor genetic variations may still exist even in the varieties appearing phenotypically uniform and
homogenous at the time of their release. During later production cycle some of these variations may be
lost because of selective elimination by the environment. It is constant feature in often cross pollinated
crop species therefore care during maintenance of nucleus and breeder's seed is necessary in such cases.
6. Selective influence of diseases
It is also an important factor for seed purity deterioration in new crop varieties. New varieties often
become susceptible to new races of diseases often caused by obligate parasites and are out of seed
programs. Similarly, the vegetatively propagated stocks deteriorate fast if infected by viral, fungal and
bacterial diseases.
7. Techniques of plant breeders
In certain cases, the serious instability may occur in varieties due to cytological irregularities not
properly assessed in the new varieties prior to their release. Premature release of varieties, still
segregating for resistance and susceptibility to disease or other factors may also important in the
deterioration of varieties.
Methods of maintaining genetic purity in the seed crops
1. Use of approved seed only in seed multiplication – breeder, foundation, certified , registered
2. Inspection and approval of fields prior to planting
3. Provide adequate isolation distance to prevent natural crossing and mechanical mixture.
4. Regular rouging operation should be followed in the seed plot prior to the stage at which they
could contaminate the seed crop.
5. Periodically varietal testing (grow-out test) should be done for genetic purity.
6. Seed should be certified by certifying agencies to maintain genetic purity and quality of seed.
7. Avoid genetic shift by growing crops in areas of their adaptation only.
8. Inspection of field is done at critical stages for verification of genetic purity, detection of
mixtures, weeds and for freedom from noxious weeds and seed borne diseases.
9. Use the approved seeds only in seed multiplication program.
10. Adopting the generation system
B) Agronomic principles
Besides the genetic principles for standardized seed production, the application of the following
agronomic principles should also be followed.
1. Selection of suitable agro-climatic region
A crop variety to be grown for seed production in an area must be adopted to photoperiodic and
temperature conditions prevailing in that area. In general suitable agro-climate for seed production is the
region where there is ample sunshine, relatively moderate rainfall and the absence of strong wind. Most
crops require a dry sunny period and moderate temperature for flowering and pollination. Excessive
dew and rain causes hindrance in normal pollination resulting in poor seed set, higher incidence of pest
and diseases, delay maturity, reduces the quality and quantity of the seed cause sprouting of the seed on
the plant. Similarly too high temperatures causes desiccation of pollen resulting in poor seed set and
very cold temperatures bring in anther injury and collapse of the embryo sac.

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2. Selection of field and its preparation

Proper field selection is important for successful production of almost any crop; however, it is
particularly important for seed production. The field selected for seed crop must be fertile and able to
fulfill the requirement of the crop. The seed plot should be free from volunteer plants, weed plants and
other crop plants. The soil of the seed plot should be comparatively free from soil-borne diseases and
insect pests. In the preceding season the same crop should have not been grown on this land if it is so
required by the seed certification standard. Fields that has produced seed crops of small-seeded forage
legume (e.g., red clover) should not be used to produce seed of another inseparable legume seed crop
(e.g., alfalfa). Seed of such crops tends to remain viable in the soil and continue to germinate and
contaminate subsequent crops.
The field preparation consists of eliminating weeds or other crops and preparing a favourable seedbed.
Most seed crops are planted by conventional methods following the preparation of a fine, well-tilled
seedbed that helps to achieve maximum seed-soil contact. The seed plot must be leveled. Soil showing
symptoms of salinity and alkalinity are not desirable. Soil where water tend to log or stagnate should be
avoided. The land of the seed crop must be prepared well. This will help in improved germination,
destruction of potential weeds, water management and uniform irrigation.
3. Selection of variety
The variety for seed production must be carefully selected. The variety should be very popular with the
farmers and adapted to agro-climatic condition of the region. The variety should be really high yielder.
It should posses other desirable attributes like disease resistance, earliness, grain quality etc.
4. Selection of seed
The seed used for raising a seed crop should be known purity, appropriate class and obtained from an
authorized official agency. The tag and seals of the breeders or foundation seed bags must be intact. The
validity period has not expired and all the bags are of the same variety.
5. Isolation of seed crops
The seed crop must be isolated from other nearby fields of the same crop and other contaminating crops
as per requirements of certification standards Isolation is obtained by providing distance between seed
field and contamination field. In some crops time isolation can be followed by adjusting the date of
sowing in such a way that flowering does not coincide with one another.
6. Seed treatment
The seed generally given by authorized official agency is already treated, if seed is not treated then we
should treat the seed. There are three types of seed treatments followed for different purposes:
a) Chemical treatment to control insects and diseases infestation.
b) Legume seed inoculation to increase N assimilation from the atmosphere.
c) Seed treatment to break dormancy
7. Time and method of planting
Seed crop should be sown at their normal time of planting. Sometimes we can do some adjustments to
escape from certain diseases and pests. At the time of planting there should be sufficient soil moisture
for germination.
Seed drill or planters preferably do seed sowing. They should be used after thoroughly cleaning to avoid
mechanical mixture of the seed. Seed should have to sown in lines so that plant protection measures,
rouging operation and crop inspection can be conducted quite effectively.
8. Nutrition of the seed crop
It is well known fact that adequate fertilizer should be applied to get maximum yield of good quality
seed. The amount of fertilizer to be applied to seed crop will depend upon various factors like fertility
status of soil, previous application of organic manure and the requirement of the crop. In general
following point must be considered:
i. The fertilizer should be applied according to recommendation given to individual crop.
ii. All fertilizer especially N, P and K must be applied in balanced form.
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iii. Nitrogenous fertilizer should be applied in split dose as per recommendation given for
individual crop.
iv. If soil is deficient in micro-nutrients then we must be use micro-nutrients as per requirement of
crop.
v. In case of starchy crop like potato, sugarcane etc we must be used sufficient amount of
potassium fertilizer.
vi. Do not use of excess of N as it may be deleterious to certain seed crop. It may cause delay
maturity, succulence, lodging of the crop.
vii. In case of oil seed crop use of sulphur containing fertilizer may be useful. If available better
use ammonium sulphate instead of urea.
9. Seed rate
Lower seed rates than usual for raising commercial crops are desirable because they facilitate roguing
operations and inspection of seed crops.
10. Depth of sowing
Depth of sowing is extremely important in securing good plant stands. Small seeds should usually be
planted shallow but large seed could be planted litter deeper. Seeds would emerge from greater depths
in sandy soil than in clay soils also in warm soil as compared to cold. In dry soils, seed should be
planted slightly deeper so that they come in contact with moisture.
11. Weed control
Weed may cause contamination of the seed crop due to which at the time of harvest leads to mixing of
weed seeds with crop seed. The presence of weeds in the seed field or nearby areas may serve as a host
to number of diseases. The following measures should be followed to control weeds during seed
production.
a) Use clean and stale seedbed
b) Follow a good crop rotation
c) Provide intercultural operation and weeding practices as per requirement of crop
d) Use of suitable herbicide at right time and right dose as per crop requirement
12. Irrigation to seed crop
Seed crop should be grown in the regions having moderate rainfall. In such regions irrigation is essential
to obtain good seed yield. Excess water or prolonged drought adversely affects the germination and
stand resulting in poor seed yield. In general irrigation should be given as per requirement of crop.
Lighter soil needs more irrigation than heavier soil. Excess soil moisture at any time may be harmful for
seed production. It is essential to stop irrigation at least two weeks before harvesting. It helps in uniform
maturity of crop as well as easy harvesting.
13. Pollination control
Seed production of any crop requires the fertilization of the female gamete of the flower with a male
gamete from the pollen grain. This fertilization occurs during anthesis, defined as the time that flowers
have formed and the stigma is receptive to pollen. Cross-pollinated crops depend on either wind or
insects to bring pollen in contact with the stigma. Although both processes occur naturally without
human assistance, insect pollination can be greatly aided by the seed producer. Insect pollination occurs
when the insect is attracted to the flower in its search for either nectar or pollen. During its activity in
the flower, pollen from previously visited flowers adhering to various body parts is rubbed off onto the
sticky stigma. Although many types of insects are effective in pollination, various kinds of bees are
especially common and effective. As a result, successful seed producers bring in colonies of honeybees
and culture wild bees to aid in the pollination of seed crops. Aiding insect pollination is often the key to
success and is an important part of seed production of many insect pollinated species.
14. Field inspection
A minimum of 2 inspections should be conducted. The 1 st inspection is conducted at flowering to verify
source of seed used for seed production and to check isolation requirements. The final inspection is
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allowed with the request of seed grower, if the number of off types and objectionable weed plants
exceed prescribed permissible limit. During final inspection at maturity of seed crop, actual counts are
taken from separate places distributed at random in such a way that whole area of the seed plot is
covered.
15. Rouging
Rouging are plants, which differ from normal plant population. Rogue may be weak plant, diseased
plant, dissimilar plant in colour, height, tillering behaviour, leaf orientation, leaf size, auricle colour,
flowering, maturity etc. If there are plants of UP-262 wheat variety in the seed crop of NL-297, than
these are called off type. If there is wild oat (Avena fatua) in the seed crop of wheat field, then it is also
called rogue. Generally rouging is done at vegetative or pre flowering stage, flowering stage and
maturity stage.
16. Plant protection
Successful disease and insects control is another important factor in raising healthy seed crops. Apart
from reduction of yield, the quality of seed from diseased and insect damaged plants is invariably poor.
Therefore, preventive and curative methods should be followed to produce high quality seed which is
free from insect, pest and diseases.
17. Harvesting of seed crop
It is of great importance to harvest a seed crop at the time that will allow both maximum yield and the
best quality seed. The following points should be considered before harvest:
a) Seed is fully mature.
b) Weather damage has not started.
c) Seed can be easily harvested and cleaned.
d) There will be minimum harvest losses.
Harvesting at early stage makes combine harvesting difficult and relative losses due to threshing and
cleaning are greater. Harvesting at a late stage may result in increased weather damage to seeds and
losses due to shattering of seeds and lodging of plants in the field. The moisture content is a good
indication of the optimum time to harvest of most seed crops. Combine harvester do not operate well
above 15% seed moisture. For wheat the optimum moisture content is 15-17% at the time of harvesting
where as maize ears are picked up even at as high as 30-35% moisture content.
18. Drying of seeds
The seed lots usually are at high moisture content at the time of harvesting and threshing. In order to
preserve seed viability and vigour it is necessary to dry seeds to safe moisture content levels.
Moisture content (%) Storage life
11-13 6 months
10-12 1 year
9-11 2 years
8-10 4 years
Note: temperature not exceeding 32oC
Precaution to be taken during drying:
Care should be taken to ensure that mechanical mixture does not take place. Identity of the lots must be
maintained. If the seeds are to be artificially dried they should be supplied to processing plants soon
after harvesting. If seeds are to be dried on farm it must be spread thinly over cement floor or in
tarpaulins.
19. Storage of seed
From the moment of maturity until planting, the seed is stored either on the plant or in the seed store.
By using proper storage condition, the rate of seed deterioration can be greatly slowed. According to an
estimate about 6-7% of the post harvest losses are in storage itself. Seed deterioration occurs in storage

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due to respiration and heating, micro-organism, insects and rodents and biochemical changes. Two
simple rules say that for every one percent decreases in moisture content storage life of the seed is
doubled and for every 5oC decrease in storage temperature, the storage life is also doubled. The ideal
temperature range for insect and fungal activity is 21 oC to 27oC. Therefore the storage temperature as
much colder than 21oC as possible is required for long-term seed storage.
The godowns to be used for storage of seed should be dry, cool and clean and sprayed with malathion
and later fumigated as and when necessary. The best method of storing seed for short periods is in sacks
or bags in godowns. The entire bag must clean and treated with insecticides. There are chances of
mechanical mixture from bags, so proper care should be taken while putting the seed in the bag. The
name of variety, lot number of seeds must be written on bags for identification and further handling of
the seed. The bag should not be kept just on the ground but it should be kept on wooden pallets. The
height of sacks should not be more than 3m to 4m in the case of cereals and 2.5m to 3m for other crops.
20. Seed packaging
Seeds are commonly packed in cotton, jute and paper bags. These materials offer no protection against
high relative humidity. Under high humidity locations with inadequate seed storage conditions, vapour
proof containers can be used. Polythene bags have been regarded as suitable looking to its cost and easy
handling.

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Lecture: 12
TYPES OF SEED, THEIR PRODUCTION AND SEED STANDARDS
Types of seed
The seeds are evolved, tested and if found good, they are multiplied and distributed to the farmers for
commercial production of the crop. Therefore according to the nature and precautions with which the
seeds are produced, they are classified into the following groups:

Nucleus seed Nucleus seed

stage I stage II

Breeder seed Breeder seed

stage I stage II

Foundation Foundation
seed stage I seed stage II

Certified
Certified seed stage II
seed stage I

Farmers’ fields
Fig: Classes of improved seed
a) Basic or Nucleus seed
Basic or nucleus seed is the original or first seed (= propagating material) of a variety available with the
producing breeder (= the breeder, who developed the variety in question) or any other recognized
breeder of the crop. This seed has 100% genetic and physical purity along with high standards of all
other quality parameters. Nucleus seed is multiplied and maintained by selecting individual
pods/spikes/plants and growing individual pods/spike/plant progenies. This process is repeated
continuously. Nucleus seed is divided into the following two sub-classes: nucleus seed stage I and
nucleus seed stage II. In Nepal nucleus seed is synonymous with breeder seed.
b) Breeder seed
Breeder seed is the progeny of nucleus seed and is the source for initial and recurring increase of
foundation seed. Breeder seed is produced by the research institutes and agricultural universities under
the supervision of plant breeder to provide genetically pure seed for foundation seed production. The
production is directly controlled by the originating plant breeder who developed the variety or
sponsored plant breeder. It is produced as a result of hybridization, selection and mutation. Breeder seed
is genetically so pure as to guarantee that the subsequent seed class (foundation seed) shall conform to
the prescribed standards of genetic purity. Other attributes of seed quality must meet the norms
specified for the crop. The quality norms for breeder seed are indicated in the label attached to the seed
bag. Breeder seed tag is golden yellow in colour. Breeder seed may be divided into the following two

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groups: breeder seed stage I and breeder seed stage II. Breeder seed stage I is the progeny of nucleus
seed, while stage II breeder seed is the progeny of stage I breeder seed. Breeder seed stage II is allowed
only under the conditions when the breeder seed is in extremely short supply and it needs to be
multiplied as breeder seed to continue the seed chain in an effective manner.
c) Foundation seed
Foundation seed is the progeny of breeder seed and it conforms to the prescribed field and seed
standard. Foundation seed is second grade seed in order of its genetic purity because there may be slight
degeneration during the process of multiplication of breeder seed. Production of foundation seed is done
generally by government farm or by certain organizations (NARC, AIC, Cooperatives, National Seed
Corporation in Nepal). A strict seed plot technique, which includes inspection, roguing, weed control;
isolation etc is adopted during seed production process. The foundation seed is relatively less pure
compared to the breeder's seed. It has white tag and available in limited quantity. It can also be
classified as foundation seed stage I and foundation seed stage II. When seed is the progeny of breeder
seed, it is called foundation seed stage I, while it is called foundation seed stage II when it is the
progeny of foundation seed stage I. foundation seed stage II shall not be used for further increase of the
foundation seed. It should only be used for the production of certified seed class. The minimum seed
standards for both foundation seed stage I and II are similar unless otherwise prescribed.
d) Certified seed
Certified seed is the progeny of foundation seed and its production is so handled as to maintain specified
genetic identity and purity standards as prescribed for the crop being certified. Certified seed can also be
the progeny of certified seed provided this reproduction does not exceed three generations beyond
foundation seed stage I. certified seed produced from foundation seed is called certified seed stage I,
while that produced by multiplication of certified seed itself is called certified seed stage II. Certified
seed stage I seed is also produced in government farm or by certain organizations. During the period of
seed production, the seed inspectors inspect the field and the seed thus produced is processed, bagged
and tagged in the presence of the seed technicians of the seed-certifying agency. After proper leveling,
the seed is sold to the leader farmers or certain organizations. It has tag with blue border. Certified seed
stage II is produced in seed producing farmer’s field with the supervision of seed certifying agencies. It
is relatively less pure compared to previous three seed categories. It has tag with green border. It is
source seed for improved seed production. It is available in sufficient quantity.
e) Improved seed
Improved seed is the progeny of certified seed 2 nd generation. It is produced in the farmers’ field with
supervision of certifying agencies. They have a wide range of adaptability, tolerance to adverse
environmental conditions such as drought, flood and frost. Their quality is acceptable to the local
market and consumers. It is available in sufficient quantity. It has yellow tag and is used for commercial
cultivation of crop.
f) Other types of seeds in agronomic use
Hybrid seed
Hybrid seed is the seed produced by hybridization i.e. by crossing between two or more homozygous
inbred lines to obtain a desirable type having high yield potential. Only the F 1 generation of hybrids is
recommended for use as seed for commercial production. To obtain such F 1 hybrid seeds parents are to
be maintained and freshly bred each time particularly if the same vigour and known desired quantities
are to be maintained. Hybrid seeds may be the product of single or double cross or multiple cross.
Composite seed
Composite seeds are produced by inter-crossing a number of selected varieties by making germplasm
complexes. Such composites posses the genetic potential for high level of production and are
comparatively more stable than hybrids. Thus they need not be replaced after F 1 generation for
commercial cultivation.

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Mutant seed
Mutant seeds are the seeds produced by mutation breeding with the help of mutagenic agents. Mutant
seeds have greater potential in yield with superior quality and are stable compared to hybrid and
composite seeds.
SEED STANDARDS
Seed quality control measures also stipulate to provide the standards for labeling and for seed
certification. The standards should be realistic and achievable. The standards should be based on the
analytical data generated by the seed testing laboratories and collected through surveys. In laying down
the standards, the standards of the other countries having similar socio-economic conditions should be
consulted. It would be desirable that before obtaining the final approval of the standards by the
competent authority, the standards should be discussed thoroughly by a committee which is represented
by the seed producers, certification and seed law enforcement officials. It would be desirable to
prescribe two sets of standards namely, standards for labeling and standards for seed certification.
Seed certification standards may refer to the field condition or may refer to the procedures in inspection
of the harvested produce as well as the manner of harvesting, transporting, processing and packing. The
seed certification agency should lay down standard for processing plants. In addition, field and seed
standards, such as isolation distances, weeds, plants affected by seed borne diseases, moisture content,
germination, etc. should be prescribed for successful accomplishment of the certification.
For the purpose of labeling the seed under the seed law enforcement programme, the standard for pure
seed and germination is usually required. The standards will vary accordingly to the kind of seed.
Table: Seed standards for rice*
Components Standards for each class
Foundation seed Certified seed
Pure seed (minm) 98.0% 98.0%
Innert matter (maxm) 2.0% 2.0%
Other crop seeds (maxm) 10/kg 20/kg
Other distinguishable varieties seeds (maxm) 10/kg 20/kg
Objectionable weed seeds (maxm) 2/kg 5/kg
Germination (min) 80% 80%
Moisture % (maxm) 13% 13%
Table: Seed standards for wheat*
Components Standards for each classes
Foundation seed Certified seeds
Pure seed (minm) 98% 98%
Innert matter (maxm) 2% 2%
Other crop seeds (maxm) 10/kg 20/kg
Other distinguishable varieties seeds (maxm) 10/kg 20/kg
Objectionable weed seed (maxm) 2/kg 5/kg
Germination (minm) 85% 85%
Moisture % (maxm) 12% 12%
Table: Seed standards for maize*
Components Standards for each class
Foundation seed Certified seed
Pure seed (minm) 98.0% 98.0%
Innert matter (maxm) 2.0% 2.0%
Other crop seeds (maxm) 5/kg 10/kg
Other distinguishable varieties seeds (based on kernel colour 10/kg 20/kg
and texture (maxm)
Weed seeds (maxm) none None
Germination (minm) 85% 85%
Moisture percent (maxm) 12.0% 12.0%

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Table: Seed standards for cowpea*

Components Standards for each class
Foundation seed Certified seed
Pure seed (minm) 98% 98%
Inert matter (maxm) 2% 2%
Other crop seed (maxm) none 10/kg
Weed seeds (maxm) none 10/kg
Other distinguishable var. seeds 5/kg 10/kg
Germination (minm) 75% 75%
Moisture content (Maxm) 9% 9%
Table: Seed standards for lentil*
Components Standards for each class
Foundation seed Certified seed
Pure seed (minm) 98% 98%
Inert matter (maxm) 2% 2%
Other crop seed (maxm) 5/kg 10/kg
Weed seeds (maxm) 5/kg 10/kg
Germination (minm) 75% 75%
Moisture content (Maxm) 9% 9%
Table: Seed standards for soybean*
Components Standards for each class
Foundation seed Certified seed
Pure seed (min) 98.0% 98.0%
Inner matter (maxm) 2.0% 2.0%
Other crops seeds (maxm) 5/kg 10/kg
Weed seeds (maxm) 5/kg 10/kg
Other distinguishable varieties seeds 5/kg 10/kg
Germination (min) 65% 65%
Moisture (maxm) 10.0% 10.0%
Table: Seed standards for rapeseed and mustard*
Components Standards for each classes
Foundation seed Certified seeds
Pure seed (minimum) 97% 97%
Innert matter (maximum) 3% 3%
Other crop seeds (maximum) 10/kg 20/kg
Objectionable weed seeds (maximum) 5/kg 20/kg
Total weed seeds (maximum) 2/kg 5/kg
Seed infected by Sclerotinia disease (by number) 0.1% 0.5%
Germination (minimum) 85% 85%
Moisture % (maximum) 8% 8%
Table: Seed standards for cotton*
Components Standards for each class
Foundation seed Certified seed
Pure seed (minm) 98.0% 98.0%
Inner matter (maxm) 2.0% 2.0%
Other crops seeds (maxm) 5/kg 10/kg
Weed seeds (maxm) 5/kg 10/kg
Germination (minm) 65% 65%
Moisture (maxm) 10.0% 10.0%
*Source: Rana, D.S. 1997. Guidelines for Seed Quality Control and Minimum Seed Certification Standards. HMG/FAO Improvement of Seed Quality
Control Services Project, Kathmandu, Nepal.

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NUCLEUS AND BREEDER’S SEED PRODUCTION

The initial handful of seeds obtained from selected individual plants of a particular variety, for the
purposes purifying and maintaining that variety, by the originating plant breeder and its further
multiplication under his own supervision, or the supervision of a qualified plant breeder, to provide
Breeder’s Seed constitutes the basis for all further seed production. The varietal purity of subsequently
multiplied foundation, registered and certified seed largely depend upon the quality of the
nucleus/breeder’s seed. Unless the nucleus/ breeder’s seed is of highest purity and quality the seed
multiplied from it cannot be regarded as of satisfactory genetic purity. Unsatisfactory genetic purity,
especially in cross pollinated crops, could ultimately severely affect the performance of a variety. It is
therefore, of utmost importance that the nucleus/breeder’s seed is produced in such a manner that
satisfactory genetic purity, identity and the other good qualities of seed are maintained.
Methods of maintenance of nucleus and breeder’s seed in self fertilised crops
Methods of maintaining nucleus seed/breeder’s can be conveniently divided into the following two
groups:
1. Maintenance of newly released varieties
2. Maintenance of established varieties
Maintenance of Nucleus Seed of Pre-released or Newly Released Varieties
The procedure outlined by Harrington (1952) for the maintenance of nucleus seed of pre-released or
newly released varieties is described below:
a. Sampling of the variety to obtain nucleus seed: New numbers, lines or selection which are
highly promising, on the basis of performance in breeding nurseries and yield trials, should be
sampled for seed purification. These samples provide a beginning for purifying new varieties
and for possible increase and distribution to farmers. Not more than fifteen new varieties in any
one crop at a station should be sampled in one year.
The sampling of these promising varieties should be done as follows:
 Obtain approximately 200 plants from the central 3m of the border rows of replicates of
the new variety in one of the yield tests.
 Discard poor plants and those with few tillers. Retain the remaining plants.
 These plants should be pulled out 4-5 days before the grain is fully mature to avoid
shattering. Tie all these plants in a bundle after wrapping in a cloth or paper.
 Check each bundle and store properly till the final yield results are available. After the
availability of data discard the bundle of any of these new varieties if the result indicate it
to be less worthy than others.
b. Table examination of samples: The two hundred plants of each sample should be threshed
separately and the seed should be examined in piles on the table. Discard any pile appearing
obviously off type, diseased or otherwise unacceptable. The seeds of each two hundred plant
samples or less is now ready to be sown in a variety purification nursery called as nucleus.
c. Locating and seeding of nucleus: Each nucleus seed should be grown on clean fertile land at an
experiment station in the region or in area in which this new variety could be grown, in the event
of its release. The land must not have had a crop of the same kind in the previous year.
d. Inspection of nucleus two-row plots and removal of off types: Throughout the season of
growth, from the seedling stage until maturity, the nucleus plot should be examined critically.
Differences in the habit of early plant growth, leaf colour, rate of growth, time of heading, height
head characteristics and diseases reactions should be looked for. If a plot differs distinctly from
the average in the preheading stages of growth, it should be removed before heading.
e. Harvesting and threshing of nucleus: Each remaining plot, of which there should be at least
180 out of the original 200. should be harvested individually with a sickle and tied in a bundle.
The total bundles of each nucleus should be labeled and stored until the current years yield rests
for trials are obtained. The nucleus bundles of any new variety should be discarded, if it is found
unworthy of being continued.
Later the seed should be cleaned in a fanning mill or by hand methods, the grain from each
nucleus plot being placed in a pile on the seed table. The 180 or more piles of seed of one nucleus must

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be examined for approximate uniformity of seed appearance, and any pile, which appears to be off type
discarded. All the remaining piles of the of seed should be masked together in one lot. This should
treated with fungicide and insecticide, bagged, labelled and stored as "Breeder’s Stock Seed" for use in
the next year. Breeder’s stock seed is the original purified seed stock of a new variety in the hands of the
plant breeders.
Maintenance of Breeder’s Seed of Pre-released or Newly Released Varieties
The following steps are involved in the maintenance of breeder’s seed.
a. Breeder’s stock seed from the nucleus should be sown on the clean, fertile land, which did not
grow a crop of the same kind in the previous year. The space required for the seeding the
breeder’s stock is about 1.2 ha in the case of wheat and as much as 3 ha in the case of
transplanted rice.
b. The field should properly isolated.
c. The best farm procedures should be used in the sowing, raising and harvesting of breeder’s
stock.
d. It should be produced at the experiment station in the area in which the new variety has been
bred.
e. The seeding should be done in such a way as to make the best use of the limited amount of seed
available and to facilitate roguing. The row spacing should be sufficient to permit examination
of plants in rows for possible mixture or off types.
f. Roguing: All plants not typical of the variety should be pulled and removed. There should be
very few plants to rogue out if the previous years nucleus breeder’s stock seed was well
protected from natural crossing and careful roguing was done and there were no impurities
during cleaning etc. The rouging should be done before flowering, as was done for the
nucleus/breeder’s stock seed.
g. Harvesting the breeder’s stock: In the breeder’s stock is harvested and threshed, the equipment
used must be scrupulously clean and free from seeds of any other varieties. This cleanliness
should be extended to cards and bags as well as threshing machine it self. The seed should now
be about 99.9 per cent pure as to variety. These breeder’s seed is ready now for increase of
foundation seed. A portion of this breeder’s seed should be retained by the breeders to sown a
continuation breeders seed of the variety.
Second increase of breeder’s seed (continuation breeder’s seed)
A continuation breeder’s stock may be maintained by the plant breeder each year to furnish fresh stock
of seeds to foundation stock growers. This may be continued until the new variety is within two or three
years of being replaced by a still newer variety. Each this continuation breeder’s stock is sown from the
bulk seed of the preceding year’s breeder’s stock and handled in the same manner described above for
breeder’s seed.
Repetition of purification of breeder’s stock
Repurification is commenced by taking at random a lot of 100-200 plants from a continuation breeder’s
stock and sowing a nucleus with the individual plant seed. A smaller no. of nucleus progenies than two
hundred is satisfactory if there is no great urgency in replacing the existing seed stocks of the variety.
On the other hand, when the results of a breeding programme may immediately save the farmers from
the ravages of a certain insect, disease or weather situation, the original samples for the nucleus need not
be restricted to 200 plants, but can be much larger.
Maintenance of breeder’s seed of established varieties:
The breeder’s seed of established varieties could be maintained satisfactorily by any one of the
following methods)
a. By raising the crop in isolation: The breeder’s seed of local varieties could be maintained by
growing them in isolated plots and by very rigorous roguing during various stages of crop
growth, where the various plant characters are observable. The method of handling the breeder
seed crop is the same as described earlier for breeder’s seed of newly released varieties.
b. By bulk selection: The genetic purity of established varieties could be satisfactorily improved by
bulk selection. In this method 2,000 to 2,500 plants typical of the variety are selected, harvested
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,and threshed separately. The seeds from each plant are examined and any pile which shows any
obvious off-types, or otherwise appears dissimilar, are discarded. The remaining piles of seed are
bulked to constitute the breeder’s seed. The other practices of handling remains the same.
Carry-over Seed
The breeder must carry-over at least enough seed to safeguard against the loss of variety if there is a
complete failure during the foundation seed multiplication phase. In addition, the breeder should further
safeguard variety by arranging to have a portion of the seed originally released stored under the ideal
conditions.
Methods of maintenance of nucleus and breeder’s seed in cross fertilized crops
The specific methods adopted for maintenance of parental material depends upon the method of
breeding the variety.
Maintenance of nucleus seed of inbred lines
After the hybrid has been thoroughly tested and its desirability ascertained, the seed of parent inbred
lines must be increase in the following manner.
a. Hand pollination: Methods of maintaining nucleus seed of inbred lines involve self pollination,
sib pollination or a combination of the two procedures. If a change in breeding behavior is
noted, then selfing should be used as a means of stabilizing the inbred lines. The individual
selfed or sibbed ears should be examined critically. Those appearing obviously off types or
inferior in any regard or differing in any character e.g., texture and colour, seed size, chaff
colour, size and shape of ear, should be discarded. The individual selfed or sibbed ears may then
be threshed separately and planted ear to row or all the ears from an individual inbred line may
be composited for increase in the next season.
b. Seeding the hand pollinated: The hand pollinated seeds should be sown on clean fertile land
and on soil where the same kind or variety has not been sown the previous year.
c. Isolation: The isolation requirements vary from crop to crop. The isolation distance depends
upon various factors such as the nature of material to be protected by isolation, the nature of
contaminant from which isolation is sought and the direction of the prevailing wind. The
isolation can be effected by distance or by time also, in case of maize.
d. Roguing: The isolated fields of inbreds must also be carefully rogued and checked for off-types
prior to shedding pollen. It is very easy to recognize the out-crossed rogues because normally
they are much more vigorous and stand out quite clearly in an inbred field. There are other off
type plants which are not easily detected, particularly in bulk planting for which careful
inspection is necessary.
e. Harvesting, drying and shelling: The nucleus seed crop can be harvested soon after it attains
physiological maturity, if artificial drying facilities exist. It is better to harvest ear to row lines
separately and pile made in front of each progeny. These piles should be critically examined for
ear characteristics and all off-coloured, texture or diseased or otherwise undesirable ears sorted
out. If the overall percentage of off-colour and texture ears is more than 0.1%, hand pollination
should again be done for production of the second years’ breeder’s seed.
After examining the ears critically and discarding the undesirable ones, the remaining
ears may be bulked and dried in a clean dry bin at temperatures not exceeding 43 0C. After
drying, shelling should be done. After shelling, the seed may be cleaned, treated and stored
under ideal storage conditions.
Maintenance of breeder’s seed of inbred lines
For breeder’s seed, the breeder’s stock obtained from nucleus seed is planted in an isolated field. During
increase of breeder’s seed, adequate attention must be paid to land requirement, isolation, roguing,
harvesting and drying, sorting of ears, shelling of ears, etc. so as to maintain maximum possible genetic
purity. The cultural practices such as isolation, roguing, harvesting, etc. are similar to those used for
raising a nucleus crop.
Maintenance of nucleus seed of non- inbred lines
Hand pollination: The number of plants to be pollinated for such increase should be large enough so as
not to alter the genetic make-up of the varieties by narrowing the genetic base by sibbing only a few
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plants. No definite number, however, can be suggested. This depends upon the genetic make-up of the
line. Preferably, it should be large enough and may even go up to 5,000 or so, if practically feasible. The
sibbed ears must be examined very carefully and all those having off-colour, texture or are diseased or
otherwise undesirable must be sorted out. The remaining ears should be bulked, dried, shelled, cleaned,
treated and stored.
The other practices for seeding sibbed nucleus seed are similar to those discussed earlier for inbred
material.
Maintenance of breeder’s seed of non-inbred lines
The breeder’s stock seed produced from nucleus seed should be used for increasing breeder’s seed.
During increase, attention must be paid to land requirements, isolation, rouging, harvesting and further
handling so as to maintain maximum genetic purity. These practices are similar to those used for raising
nucleus crops.
Maintenance of seed of established varieties
The breeder’s seed of established cross-fertilised crop varieties can be maintained by any one of the
following methods:
a. By raising breeder’s seed crop in isolation: The breeder’s seed of established varieties can be
maintained by raising the seed crop in isolation. Isolation requirements vary from crop to crop.
The seed crop is thoroughly rogued at various stages, such as vegetative, flowering and at
maturity and all off-types removed as and when noticed. Other practices remain the same as
describe earlier for breeder’s seed production.
b. By mass selection: The breeder’s seed of cross fertilized crops is often purified by mass
selection. The crop is raised in isolation and rogued carefully as describe earlier. At maturity,
approximately 2000 to 2500 true to type plants are selected. The selected plants are harvested
separately and after careful examination bulked to constitute the breeder’s seed. The other
practices remain the same. Modified mass selection can also be used for maintain breeder’s seed.
Cary over seed
The handling of breeder’s seed must be efficient because of the great importance of genetic stability and
its likely influence on the hybrid seed production. Nevertheless, seed production of inbred liens can be
prone to accidents and unpredictable disasters. Hence, a system of carry over seed is the best insurance
against failure. Essentially, carry over seed is extra seed which is retained for a year or longer if needed,
as a safeguard against unforeseen shortages.

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Lecture: 13
SEED PRODUCTION OF RICE AND WHEAT
Seed Production of Rice (Oryza sativa L.)
1. Introduction
It is most important cereal crop in Nepal. It grows from 60 to 3,050 m altitude. Of the total cultivated
land, rice covers 46% of the total cereal crop cultivation area. Its contribution in national AGDP is
20.75%. Total 79% area of rice is grown in rainfed condition, of which 70% is in low land and 9% in
upland. According to season of cultivation, rice can be grouped in 3 types, eg. spring season rice,
summer season rice (upland rice) and rainy (main) season rice.
The area, production and productivity of rice was 12,40,000 ha, 24,52,000 tons and 1.98 t/ha during
1974/75 and it has increased to 15,55,940 ha, 45,23,693 tons and 2.91 t/ha respectively during 2008/09.
It is estimated that 56% area cultivated under rice is occupied by improved varieties. The total 60
varieties of rice have been released by variety releasing subcommittee in Nepal upto 2010, but 12
varieties are denotified.
2. Field standard
2.1. Isolation requirements
Rice is self-pollinated crop but sometimes cross-pollination is also reported, however the extent of
cross-pollination ranges between 0.1- 4.0%. The isolation distance for foundation and certified seed
should be fixed by minimum distance of 3 m from plots of other varieties of rice.
2.2. Varietal purity
The maximum permissible limit of off type plants in foundation seed plots is 0.05% and in certified
seed plots of 0.2% at final inspection. The objectionable weed plants (wild rice) should not exceed
0.05% in foundation seed plots and 0.1% in certified seed plots at maturity of seed.
2.3. Seed borne disease
The foundation seed plots should not have more than 0.2% plants affected by neck blast and in certified
seed plots should not exceed 0.5% at any inspection between ear emergence and harvesting.
2.4. Roguing
Roguing is necessary to maintain varietal purity standards. During pre flowering stage, rouging should
be done on the basis of early or late maturing varieties. All off type and objectionable weed plants
should be removed before final inspection, which is normally conducted at full maturity and prior to
harvesting of seed crop.
3. Cultural Practices
The crop can be grown by direct seeding or by transplanting methods. For seed production, it is
desirable to grow puddle and transplanting system as described below.
3.1. Land selection for nursery
The land should not have been used in the previous year as nursery or general crop of the other varieties
to avoid varietal admixture due to the growth of volunteer plants.
3.2. Time of sowing
The seed sowing time is third week of May to 1 st week of June for long duration varieties and 2 nd week
of June to 4th week of June for short duration varieties. In case of early rice, third week of Feb. to 2 nd
week of March is the time of nursery raising.
3.3. Preparation of nursery bed
The soil of the bed should be pulverized by repeated ploughing. Raised bed of 6m x 1.5m x 0.15 m and
50 cm gap between plots should be maintained. That gap or channel between plots may helps to drain
the excess water. The total of 50-60 such beds are sufficient to transplant one ha of land.
3.4. Manuring of nursery beds
Apply well-decomposed manure or compost plus 450 gm of super phosphate for 9 m 2 area at the time of
final bed preparation and mix them thoroughly with the soil. In area where Khaira disease is prevalent,
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spray ZnSO4 @ 5 kg plus lime 2.5 kg dissolved in 1000 lit of water/ha of nursery areas at 10 days after
seeding and second at 20 days after seeding.
3.5. Seed rate and seed treatment
Seed is to be sown 500-600 gm/bed (9m2) i.e. 30-35 kg/ha for coarse and 25-30kg/ha (400-500 gm/bed)
for fine rice varieties. Seed should be treated with Agrosan G.N. @ 2.5g/kg of seed.
3.6. Method of sowing
Dry or pre sprouted seed can be broadcasted at the time of seeding. For sprouting, the seeds are allowed
to sprout by loosely packing in gunny bag and soaking them in water for 16-20 hours and then drying
out excess water completely. The seed bags are kept in damp by covering with wet gunnies till sowing
to maintain optimum condition for germination.
3.7. After care
Nursery should be protected for 3-4 days from bird's damage. Bed should be wet and if excess water is
accumulated from any source, it should be drained out and should be kept free of weeds also.
3.8. Transplanting
After 3-4 weeks of sowing, the seedlings are ready for transplanting. Seedlings should be uprooted
gently. Weak, diseased or variant seedlings should be discarded.
3.9. Land preparation for transplanting
Land is ploughed 3-4 times to obtain fine tilth and a soft soil. It also creates impervious sub soil
condition, due to which the seedlings can establish quickly and plant nutrients are not washed down. If
possible, the field should be flooded for 7-10 days before transplanting.
3.10. Fertilizer application
Fertilizer should be applied according to soil test result. In general 100-120:50-60:50-60 NPK kg/ha
should be applied just before the final puddling, where N is applied in 3 split doses. Half dose of N as
basal, 1/4th at mid-tillering and 1/4th at panicle initiation stage. If deficiency of N is observed in the field,
2% urea can be sprayed. In zinc deficient conditions apply 15 kg ZnSO 4 + 2.5 kg lime in 1000 L of
water /ha.
3.11. Method of transplanting
Transplant 2-3 seedlings per hill in 2-3 cm depth. The seedlings should not be under or over aged. The
spacing is followed as under.
a) Shy tillering variety - 20cm x 10 cm to 20cm x 15 cm
b) More tillering variety- 20 cm x 15 cm to 20 cm x 20 cm.
3.12. Water management
Water at 3-5 cm depth should be maintained throughout the growth phase of the crop. Irrigation should
be given whenever necessary.
3.13. Intercultural operation
The plot should be kept free from weeds by weeding 2-3 times before heading. If herbicides are used,
following schedule should be followed.
a) Use 2, 4-D or MCPA 1kg a.i. in 150-250 L of water/ha at 20-25 DAT to kill broadleaved weeds.
b) To control grasses, use butachlor or benthiocarb @ 1.5 kg a.i./ha at 5-7 DAT in 600-700 L of
water/ha .
3.14. Plant protection
The rice crop may be infested by different diseases and insects. The major diseases of rice are blast,
blight, brown spot, false smut, khaira disease, etc. Seed treatment with Streptocylcine (3 g in 11 L of
water) after soaking for 8 hr in Ceresin (0.1%) will control most of the diseases. Blast can be control by
spraying Blasticidin at 20 ppm or Rabicide 20% solution at 1.5 kg/ha. Foliar spray with 5 kg ZnSO4 +
2.5 kg slaked lime in 1000 L of water per ha is effective in controlling khaira disease.

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The common insects of the rice are paddy stem borer, rice gundhi bug, case worm, rice hispa, gall fly
army worm, brown hopper, etc. They can be controlled by dusting 10% BHC or spraying 0.05%
Carbaryl or Diazinon or Endosulfan.
4. Field inspection
A minimum of 2 inspections should be conducted. The 1 st inspection is conducted at flowering to verify
source of seed used for seed production and to check isolation requirements. The final inspection is
allowed with the request of seed grower, if the number of off types and objectionable weed plants
exceed prescribed permissible limit. During final inspection at maturity of seed crop, actual counts are
taken from separate places distributed at random in such a way that whole area of the seed plot is
covered. Thousand (1000) ear heads should be included in each count and examined carefully for off
types and objectionable weed plants. An inspection and a copy of the report should be handed over to
the seed grower.
5. Harvesting and threshing
The crop should be harvested just after physiological maturity by hand with sickles. Seeds are threshed,
winnowed to remove chaff, dust, and empty husks and light grains. The clean seeds are dried around 11-
12% moisture content for storage.
6. Seed yield: The expected seed yield is 5-8 tons/ha.
7. Storage
The seed should be store after proper drying at dry places. The rice bags should be stacked on a wooden
pallet in a dry and cool place. Mark the bags with the name of cultivar and other information to avoid
mechanical mixing. Do not store different varieties in the same room without stack identification.
Seed Production of Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.)
1. Introduction
Wheat occupies third position after rice and maize in Nepal. It grows from terai to high hills both under
irrigated and rainfed conditions. It covers about 20.2% area under cereal crop production. Its
contribution in national AGDP is 7.14%. Wheat was grown in 2,91,000 ha (production 3,31,000 tons)
during 1974/75, it has increased to 6,94,950 ha (production 13,43,862 tons) during 2008/09. Thus
productivity has gone up from 1.18 to 1.94 tons/ha. Of the total wheat area about 85% area is covered
under improved varieties. The total 32 wheat varieties have been released by variety released
subcommittee upto 2010 in Nepal, but 13 varieties are denotified.
2. Land selection
As in the case of rice or other crops, the plot should be free from volunteer plants, devoid of noxious
weeds and well drained. The soil should be fertile with neutral in soil pH (6-6.5). Avoid too acidic or
too alkaline soils. If karnal bunt disease is prevalent growing wheat in successive year should be
avoided. Longer intervals between two wheat crops are desirable to reduce the contamination of seed
from diseases like karnal bunt.
3. Field standards
3.1. Isolation requirements
Wheat being self pollinated crop lime rice has very little chance for cross pollination, though cross
pollination to the extent of 1-4% has been reported. Both foundation and certified seed fields should be
isolated by a minimum distance of 3m from fields of other varieties. A minimum isolation of 150 m
should also be provided from fields of wheat, rye and triticale with infection of loose smut in excess of
0.1% for foundation seed fields and 0.5% for certified seed fields.
3.2. Varietal purity
The maximum permissible limit of off type and inseparable other crop plants (barley, oats, triticale and
chick pea) is 0.05% and 0.05% respectively in foundation seed fields and 0.1% and 0.3% respectively in
certified seed fields at the time of final inspection.

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3.3. Seed borne disease

The foundation seed fields should not have more than 0.1% plants affected by loose smut and in
certified seed fields such plants should not exceed 0.5% at any inspection between ear emergence and
harvesting.
3.4. Roguing
Timely rouging is necessary for maintaining varietal purity and seed health standards. Plants affected by
loose smut should be removed as soon as spotted from ear emergence to harvesting of seed crops. Off
type plants should be rogued out on the basis of plant height, tillering habit, ear size and density, awn
length & colour and glume colour before final inspection. Plants of barley, oats, triticale, and chickpea
should also be removed before final inspection.
4. Cultural Practices
4.1. Land preparation
Land should be prepared by deep ploughing with a soil turning plough followed by harrowing after pre
sowing irrigation. Taking 2-3 times of ploughing and disking should pulverize seedbed. The field
should also be leveled. Organic manure plus soil applying insecticides like BHC or Malathion dust 10%
@ 25 kg/ha applied just before the last harrowing or ploughing.
4.2. Time of sowing
It depends upon the climatic condition of any location. In general 15 th November is the best time for
terai and inner terai region and Oct last to Nov 1st week for hilly areas.
4.3. Seed selection and treatment
Purchased the seed from authorized seed agency. It must be of appropriate class and certified by
certifying agency. The seed should be treated with Vitavax @ 2.5 gm/kg of seed is recommended to
control loose smut disease.
4.4. Seed rate: Eighty to hundred (80-100) kg per ha seed is recommended.
4.5. Method of sowing
The seed is sown in rows by using seed drill, behind the local plough or by using broadcasting method.
The depth of seeding should be 5-7 cm. If we use seed drill, it should be clean to avoid mechanical
mixture with another cultivars.
4.6. Spacing
If seed is sown in line, the spacing between rows should be maintained as 20-22cm and between plants
it should be 3-5cm.
4.7. Fertilizer management
The fertilizer application depends upon the soil test result. In general provide 80-120: 50-60:40kg
NPK/ha respectively. Apply N in 3 split doses of 60:30:30 kg/ha at basal, tillering and panicle initiation
stage, respectively. If Zinc deficiency is noticed in the soil, ZnSO 4 @ 15-20kg/ha as basal dose should
be applied.
4.8. Water management
Irrigation number is depends upon the types of soil, residual moisture of proceeding season, variety etc.
Depending upon the soil 4-6 irrigation may be sufficient. If sufficient irrigation is available it should be
applied at CRI, tillering, jointing, flowering, milking and dough stages.
4.9. Weed management
Periodic hoeing and weeding kept the field free of weeds. Manual weeding is generally practiced. It
manual weeding is not possible different herbicides can be used. For control of broad leaf weeds 2,4-D
@ 0.5 kg a.i./ha in 750 lit of water after 25-30 DAS and to control grasses like Ragatejhar ( Phalaris
minor) or Wild oat (Avena fatua) apply Pendamethalin 1 kg/ha in 750 lit of water after 35 DAS or
Isoproturon 1 kg a. i. /ha in 750 lit of water after 35 DAS.

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4.10. Plant Protection

Termite, stem borer, army worm, wire worm, etc. may infest fields. They can be control by mixing 5%
Aldrin or dusting with 5% BHC dust or spraying 0.07% Diazinon, etc. The rust, karnal bunt, etc may be
a problem of disease. So apply seed treatment with Benlate 3%, Vitavax 3% or Ceresin 2% @ 2ml/kg of
seed or spray Carboxin 1%.
5. Field inspection
A minimum of 3 inspections should be conducted. The first inspection is conducted at emergence to
verify source of seed and to check isolation requirements. The second is at heading stage. Plant affected
by loose smut should be recorded and collect the affected plants and burry or burn them. To avoid
spreading of spore, the loose smut ear heads should be put in a bag. The third and final inspection is
conducted at full maturity to record off types, and inseparable other crop plants. During any inspection
between ear emergence and harvesting, actual counts should be taken from separate places distributed at
random in such a way that whole area of seed field is covered. Thousand (1000) ear heads should be
included in each count and examined carefully for off types, number of objectionable weeds and loose
smut affected plants. An inspection report should be prepared on completion of each inspection and
copy of the report should be given to the seed growers.
6. Harvesting and Threshing
Handle the produce carefully during harvesting and threshing. Harvest the crop soon after maturity to
avoid shattering and looses due to unfavourable weather condition (sprouting). Check the cleanliness of
threshing floor and threshing equipments properly. Threshing can be done with stationary thresher or by
bullocks trampling. The crop can also be harvested by using combine harvester directly in the field
when seed moisture is below 16%.
7. Drying, cleaning, bagging and storage
The moisture percent of the seed should be 11-12%, which can be maintained by drying. The seed
should be cleaned, treated and bagged immediately after threshing or stored in a dry, insect and rodent
proof warehouse.
8. Seed yield: Estimated seed yield may be 4-5 tons/ha.

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Lecture: 14
SEED PRODUCTION OF MAIZE
1. Introduction
Maize occupies second position after rice in Nepal. It is a main staple food crop of more than 55% of
the people of Nepal. It can be used as cattle feed and fodder also. Depending upon the altitude it is
grown during winter, summer and rainy season. Although the major area is under rainy season crop and
the productivity is higher in winter season crop. More than 80% of the maize is grown in hills (70% in
mid hill and 10% in high hill) and about 20% in terai and inner terai region of Nepal. There were
4,58,000 ha land under maize (with production of 8,27,000 tons) in 1974/75, which has increased to
8,75,428 ha (with production of 19,30,669 tons) in 2008/09. Maize covered about 25% area of cereal
crop production. Seed releasing subcommittee of Nepal has recommended total 23 varieties of improved
maize upto 2010, but 7 varieties are denotified.
2. Land requirements
The selected field of maize should be free from volunteer maize plants and it should be well drained and
aerated also.
3. Field standards
3.1 Isolation requirements
Maize is generally cross-pollinated crop and pollinating agent is normally wind. It should be prevent
from foreign pollen contamination. The foundation seed plot should be isolated by a minimum distance
of 300 m and certified seed plot by 200 m from plots of other varieties.
3.2 Varietal purity
The maximum permissible limit of off type plants that have shed or shedding pollen is 1.0% in
foundation and 2.0% in certified seed production plot at any inspection during flowering when 5.0% or
more of the plants have receptive silks.
3.3 Roguing
Maize being cross-pollinated crop, timely rouging is necessary to maintain varietal purity. Proper
rouging should be done before flowering of seed crop to avoid contamination due to out-crossing.
Roguing of off type plants should be continued throughout flowering period.
4. Cultural Practices
4.1 Land preparation
Prepare the land by giving one deep ploughing followed by 2-3 harrowing and leveling to prepare
desired tilth. If necessary one pre sowing irrigation should be given before 1st ploughing.
4.2 Time of sowing
The time of sowing maize is differing from place to place. Maize can be sown two weeks before the
onset of monsoon where irrigation facility exists. It is generally sown from 3rd week of March (in khet
land in mid hill) to 1 st week of April in case of rainy season maize (in bari land). Seed production of
maize is successful in terai in winter due to low isolation problem and less incidence of disease and pest.
Maize can be sown in Oct-Nov in terai.
4.3 Seed selection
Seed should be selected from the authorized agency with kinds and source approved by seed
certification agency.
4.4 Method of sowing
Maize can be sown with the help of maize planted by maintaining 75cm x 25cm row to row and plant-
to-plant. The depth of seeding should be 5-6cm. Generally maize is planted in behind the plough in
Nepal.
4.5 Seed rate
Seed rate of 16-20kg/ha is sufficient. A population of 55-60 thousand plants per ha at harvest would be
needed to attain maximum seed yield.

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4.6 Fertilizer management

Fertilizer recommendation is based on soil analysis value from soil testing lab. Add 10-15 tons of well-
rotted organic matter as FYM or compost. For good crop, total requirement of maize crop for one ha is
120-150 kg N, 50-60 kg P2O5 and 40-50 kg K2O/ha. Low fertilizer results in under sized grain and low
seed recovery. Mostly maize crop suffer from Zn deficiency, so it can be solved by using ZnSO 4 20-25
kg/ha in basal dose. One third N plus full P and K as basal dose and remaining 1/3 rd at knee high stage
and another 1/3rd before tasseling.
4.7 Water management
Maize is very sensitive to excess water and drought conditions. Both irrigation and drainage are equally
important. So irrigate the field frequently and do not let the water stand in field more than few hours by
opening bunds or drainage channel.
4.8 Intercultural operations
Timely weeding of maize is very important so 2-3 hoeing is done including earthing up of the crop.
Intercultivation should not be more than 3-5 cm deep so that roots are not damaged. If weed problem is
very high we can the herbicides as under:
Simazine (50%) or atrazine (50%) 1.5 kg a.i./ha in 1000 lit of water as pre emergence soil application is
recommended. After application do not disturb the soil for 4-5 weeks.
4.9 Plant Protection
If maize is produced during winter season, the field remains relatively free from the insect pests and
diseases. However in the summer they predominate and infest the crop heavily. Major insects are stem
borer, pink borer, shoot fly, hairy caterpillars, army worms, maize beetles, hoppers, etc and major
diseases are downy mildew, brown stripe, bacterial stalk rot, pithium stalk rot, leaf rust, head smut,
several types of kernel and ear rot, leaf blight (Helminthosporium), leaf rust, etc. Apply the appropriate
control measures as 0.05% Endosulfan, 0.1% Carbaryl or 0.05% Lindane to control insects and treat the
seeds by using Bavistin or Thiram or Captam @2-3gm/kg of seed or spray Mancozeb 75 WP@1.5kg +
0.25kg zinc sulphate in 500 L of water per ha to control diseases.
4.10 Harvesting
Maize comes under physiological maturity stage at about 30-35% moisture content. If it can be drying
efficiently, we can harvest at physiological maturity stage when the husk turned yellow and grains are
hard enough. In the absence of drying facility, harvesting is delayed until the grain moisture drops down
to 15% level. Remove the husk from the cobs and then dry in sun for 7-8 days.
4.11 Shelling and cleaning
The seed-certifying agency requires an inspection of maize cobs before shelling. After drying, all off
type and diseased cobs should be removed before shelling. After approval from seed certifying authority
the cobs should be shelled and cleaned or processed.
4.12 Seed yield
Under average situation the seed yield varies from 2.5-3.0 tons/ha.

Development of hybrid maize

Types of maize hybrids, showing genetic composition of parents
Type of hybrid Genetic composition of parents
Conventional hybrids
Single cross Inbred line x inbred line
Three-way cross Single-cross hybrid x inbred line
Double cross Single-cross hybrid x single-cross hybrid
Nonconventional hybrids
Top cross Open-pollinated variety x inbred line
Double top cross Single-cross hybrid x open-pollinated variety
Varietal cross Open-pollinated variety x open-pollinated variety
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Cultivation practices for hybrid maize production

Cultivation practices Maintaining inbred Production of single Production of
line line commercial hybrid
Land requirements free of volunteer maize plants, well drained, aerated, fertile, etc and
and preparation good tillage with 2-3 harrowing and leveling
Isolation same kernel colour and texture (same variety) = 400m, with different
kernel colour and texture = 600
Method of sowing Row planting with male and female rows 4:1 (four rows of
maize planter and is kept at 2:4 ratio female parent to one
depth is 5-6 cm row of male parent),
4:2, 4:1:4:2, 6:2
Time of sowing two weeks prior to the onset of moon (second week of June to mid-July)
Spacing R-R = 60-75 cm; P-P = 20-22.5 cm
Seed rate 15 kg per ha Female parent inbred Female parent inbred
10 kg/ha; male parent 12-14 kg/ha; male
inbred 5 kg/ha parent inbred 4-5
kg/ha
Fertililzer 120-150kg: 50-60 kg: 40-50 kg of NPK/ha and 20 kg zinc sulphate per
hectare
First dose 40-50 kg N and full dose of phosphorus, potash and zinc
Second dose 40-50 kg N when plants are 1-2 feet tall
Third dose 40-50 kg N just before flowering
Irrigation sensitive to excess water and drought conditions; Schedule irrigation
Interculture Timely weeding, intercultivation (3-5 cm depth), earthing up
Rouging before pollen shedding; At prefloweing stage, rogue out off type plants;
at flowering stage to remove plants differing in tassel or silk character;
finally remove diseased and pest affected plants
Harvesting 30-35% moisture if artificial drying; 15% if not available
Sorting and dryng sort out all off type maize ears (different colours and texture, and the
diseased ears)
Shelling After drying
Processing processed at processing plants
Seed yield 6-8 qtl per hectare 4-6 qtl per hectare 10-25qtl per hectare
Minimum isolation distance requirements can be modified by
 Additional border row,
 Size of field and production block, and
 Adequate natural barriers and different flowering dates
Pollen control: The two most commonly used methods today for pollen control to ensure hybridization
by forced cross pollination between the female and male parents are
1. Hand or Mechanical detasseling and
2. Cytoplasmic male sterility
Hand detasseling
Detasseling involves the physical removal of the tassel from the female plant, either as a manual
operation or in combination with mechanical devices. Tassels from the female parent rows must be
removed before they shed pollen and/or before silks emerge on the ear shoots of the female parent, so as
to ensure that the resulting ears on the female rows will be a cross between the ear producing parent and
the desired pollen parent. Every seed field should be carefully checked daily until detasseling is
completed.

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Detasselling procedure: Holding the stalk with left hand, a little below the tassel, take a firm holds of
the entire tassel in the right hand. Remove tassel by a steady upward pull and throw tassel on ground as
you walk on. A loose or imperfect grasp of the tassel may cause a portion of it to be left on the stalk.
These portions are difficult to seed and will produce contaminating pollen if left on the plant. Do not
break or remove leaves, as removal will reduce yields and will also result in lower quality of seed
produced.
Mechanical detasseling
The labor cost of manual detasseling led to an increase in mechanical detasselers in the early 1970s.
Mechanical detasselers fall into two basic types (Wych, 1988).
1. Cutters: A rotating cutter blade or knife shreds the top of the corn plant, including the tassel;
the blades operate at various planes, from horizontal to vertical, and are adjustable in height.
2. Pullers: Usually two counter-rotating wheels or rollers, adjustable in height, grasp the tassel and
upper leaves and pull them upward in a manner approximating a hand detasseling operation.
When to detassel?
Detasselling is started when the tassel is well out of the leaf sheath, but before the anthers have shed
pollen. Every seed field should be carefully detasseled at uniform frequency intervals. Detasselling have
to be done every day until it is complete.
Necessary precautions in detasselling
a. Grasp the entire tassel so that all pollen bearing parts are fully removed.
b. Immature detasselling should be avoided. It may cause a few spikelets being left, which may
emerge and shed pollen. Also the top leaves are likely to be pulled out, leading to reduction in
yield or attack of disease.
c. Do not hold tassel too low on the stalk so as to prevent pulling out of plant tops.
d. Once detasselling starts in a field it must be repeated daily in all weather. A fixed time should be
observed every day. Be particular to start detasselling from the same side every day, in the case
of a large field.
e. Mark all the male rows at both ends by driving long wooden markers in the ground, or by some
other suitable means. The markers should be painted white.
f. Look out for suckers (tillers) on female plats and also for lodged or damaged plants in female
rows, as they are likely to pass unnoticed during detasselling.
g. Plants on the verge of shedding frequently have leaves surrounding the tassel. A gentle shaking
of the plant will reveal the tassel and enable the detaseller to grasp the tassel.
h. Instruct the detasseller to drop the tassels on the ground after removing them and not to carry
them in hand, as this may involve the danger of contaminating receptive silks.
i. Put an experienced detasseller in charge of this operation. He should walk behind the other
detassellers and check that no tassels are left.
Cytoplasmic male sterility
The cytoplasmic male sterility – fertility restorer gene system is utilized to offset the scarcity of labor
required for detasseling and to reduce the costs associated with hybrid seed production.
Ways for utilization of CMS
1. One inbred male sterile, no dominant restorer genes
A × B C × D
(Male sterile) (Male fertile) (Male fertile) (Male fertile)

AB CD
(Male sterile) × (Male fertile)

ABCD
(Male sterile)

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Since none of the inbreds contain pollen fertility restoring genes, the double-cross ABCD shall also be
male sterile. A practical way to ensure adequate pollination in the farmer’s field is to make an identical
hybrid with male fertile lines throughout and blend the male fertile seed with the male sterile seed in a
ratio of 1:2 or 1:3.
2. One inbred male sterile (A), either one or two inbreds (C×D) with dominant restorer genes
A × B C × D
(Male sterile) (Male fertile) (Male fertile) (Male fertile)

AB CD
(Male sterile) × (Male fertile)

ABCD
(100% male fertile if both lines carry pollen restoring genes and 50% fertile if only one line carries
pollen restoring genes).

3. Two inbred male steriles, one inbred with dominant restorer genes
A × B C × D
(Male sterile) (Male fertile) (Male sterile) (Male fertile)

AB CD
(Male sterile) × (Male fertile)

ABCD
(50% plants male fertile)
In each scheme the male sterile line is maintained by pollination from a fertile counterpart. Detasselling
is eliminated when a male sterile line is used as seed parent. Other practices remain the same.

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Lecture: 15
SEED PRODUCTION OF GRAIN LEGUMES
1. Introduction
Legumes are important pulse crops and grow in terai, inner terai and mid hills of Nepal. They are also a
good source of foreign exchange as they are exported to various countries. The area, production and
productivity of legume in 2008/09 is 3,13,269 ha, 2,55,384 tons and 0.81 ton/ha, respectively. A total of
35 varieties (soybean – 8, lentil – 10, chickpea – 8, cowpea – 3, pigeon pea – 2, black gram – 1, mung
bean – 3) have been released by variety releasing subcommittee of Nepal upto 2010, but 2 varieties
(soybean – 1, chickpea – 1) are denotified.
2. Land Requirements
Land should be free from volunteer plants (unwanted plants growing from seed that remains in the field
from a previous crop) and weeds. The field should be light, well drained and well aerated. It should be
neither acidic nor alkaline too. If the concentrated fields have certain crop specific diseases problem,
there should be long intervals between the cultivation of respective crops.
3. Field standards
3.1 Isolation:
Crops Pollination type Isolation distance (m)
Foundation seed Certified seed
Lentil Self pollinated 10 5
Chickpea Self pollinated 10 5
Cowpea Self pollinated (some cross pollination by 10 5
insects)
Black gram and Self pollinated 10 5
Green gram
Pigeon pea Partially self and cross pollinated (65%) 200 100
Soybean Self pollinated 3 3
3.2 Varietal purity and field standards
Crops Maximum off –type plant (%) Maximum diseased plant (%) Designated
diseases
Foundation seed Certified seed Foundation seed Certified seed
Chickpea 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.5 Fusarium wilt
Lentil 0.1 0.2 …. …. ……
Blackgram 0.1 0.2 … ….. ….
Cowpea 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.5 BCMV
Greengram 0.1 0.2 ….. …. ….
Pigeonpea 0.1 0.2 ….. ….. …..
3.3 Roguing: Taking off-types plant out from the field is necessary to maintain the varietal and
purity standards. Plant height, leaf and pod characters can be used for identification of off type plants.
All off type plants should be removed before flowering to avoid contamination due to out-crossing and
before harvesting of seed crop to avoid contamination due to mechanical admixture. Other crop plants
and weed plants should also be removed. The diseased plants affected by wilt, leaf spot, stem canker,
yellow mosaic virus, sterility virus, etc. should be removed from seed field from time to time, as
required.

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4. Cultural Practices
4.1 Field preparation: In all the grain legumes, the land should not be ploughed to fine tilth. One
deep ploughing and 2-3 harrowing followed by leveling is sufficient to prepare the land. Soil should be
opened and be allowed some time for aeration.
4.2 Sowing time:
Crops Time of sowing
Lentil Middle of October
Chickpea Third and fourth week of October
Cowpea June - July
Black gram and Green gram Either in second week of February (as summer) or second week of
June to first week of July (as rainy)
Pigeon pea First week of June
Soybean Mid May- mid June
4.3 Seed selection: Collect the seeds of appropriate generation of seed
(nucleus/breeder’s/foundation) certified by seed certifying agency.
4.4 Seed rate:
Crops Seed rate (kg/ha)
Lentil Small seed varieties: 25-30; large seed varieties: 35-40
Chickpea Small sized: 40; medium sized: 60; large sized: 80
Cowpea 20-25
Black gram and Green gram Summer season: 25-30; rainy season: 15-20
Pigeon pea Long duration varieties: 12-15; mid and short variety: 20-25
Soybean 65-70
4.5 Spacing and depth:
Crops Spacing (cm) Depth (cm)
R-R P-P
Lentil 25-30 1-2 2-3
Chickpea Kabuli varieties: 45-60; Desi varieties: 30-40 10 7-10
Cowpea 45-60 10-15 2.5-3
Black gram and Summer: 20-25; rainy: 30-45 7-10 3-5
Green gram
Pigeon pea 60-75 25-30 5
Soybean 45-60 5-10 2.5-5
4.6 Sowing method: Line sowing is preferable by using seed drill.
4.7 Fertilizer management: Soil test is necessary to decide the amount of fertilizer required. For
good yield of all grain legumes, application of 8-10 t FYM/ha about 20 days prior to planting is
imperative. The recommended rate of chemical fertilizers in grain legumes by NGLRP is given below:

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Crops Fertilizer management

NPK (kg/ha) Micronutrients Rhizobium inoculation
Lentil 20:40:20 Spray 0.5% zinc sulphate + 0.25% lime R. leguminosarum
solution
Chickpea 20:40:20 Bradyrizobium sp.
Cowpea 20:40:30 Spray 2 kg boron/ha at flowering
Black gram and 20:40:20 Enrich seeds with Mo @0.5 gm/kg of Bradyrizobium sp.
Green gram seed during rhizobium culture
Pigeon pea 20:40:30 Bradyrizobium sp.
Soybean 10:40:30 ZnSO4@5kg plus lime @2.5kg dissolve B. japonicum
in 1000 lit of water and spray
4.8 Water management: One pre-sowing irrigation, if the moisture is not sufficient, should be
given. If rain distribution is irregular and weather remains dry for prolonged periods, one irrigation at
flowering time and subsequent irrigations after flowering are necessary. Avoid waterlogged condition
through proper drainage system.
4.9 Intercultural operation: To obtain high quality seed, early growth stages should be under
weed-free condition so one to two weeding is necessary to keep the field clean.
4.10 Plant protection: Before sowing, treat the seeds by using Captam, Thiram, Bavistin, etc @2-
2.5 gm/kg of seed to protect it from soil and seed borne pathogen.
Crops Biotic factors Control measures
Lentil Insects: Pod borer and Hairy Spray 0.04% Monocrotophos solution
caterpillars
Diseases: Blight Chemical (Thiram) and hot water treatment of seed
Chickpea Insects: Semi-looper and pod Spray Endosulphan 35EC @1.25 L/ha
borer
Diseases: Blight Chemical (Thiram) and hot water treatment of seed
Cowpea Insects: Stem borer, Aphids, Spray 0.1% Lindane or 0.04% Monocrotophos
Jassids and White flies solution
Black gram Insects: Aphids, Caterpillar, Spray 625 ml Metasystox/ha in 625 L of water to
and Green Pod borer control aphids and dust Sevin 10% dust to control
gram caterpillar and pod borer
Diseases: Anthracnose and Spray Copper oxychloride @1.25-2.5 kg/ha in 625 L
Cercospora of water
Pigeon pea Insects: Pod fly, Pod bug, Spray Monocrotophos @750 ml/ha in 250 L of water
Gram caterpillar
Diseases: Fusarium wilt Crop rotation
Soybean Insects: Hairy caterpillar Spray Metacid 25 EC or Nuvan 100EC or
Metasystox 1.5-2.5 ml/L of water
Diseases: Rust Spray 2.5kg Dithane Z-78 per ha
4.11 Field inspection: A minimum of two inspections should be conducted. First is conducted just
before flowering to check isolation requirement and to verify source of seed used for sowing and second
at flowering and fruiting stage to record off type plants before harvesting. During final inspection
actual counts are taken from separate places distributed at random in such a way that while area of the
seed field is covered. 500 plants should be included in each count and examined carefully for off type

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plants. In soybean, the foundation seed plot should not have more than 0.01% plants affected by
Anthracnose and in certified seed plot such plants should not exceed 0.5% at final inspection. In
cowpea, the foundation seed plot should not have more than 0.1% plants affected by Bean Common
Mosaic Virus (BCMV) and Anthracnose and in certified seed plot such plants should not exceed 0.2%
and 0.5% respectively at the final inspection.
4.12 Harvesting
Harvesting should be done when the seeds are matured.
Crops Harvesting time
Lentil When 80-90% pods riped
Chickpea When pods become yellow and dry
Cowpea Twice to thrice in indeterminate type and in bushy determinant type at 70-80%
pods changed to yellow to brown
Black gram and In black gram, when lower pods up to 1/3rd height of plants turned to brown
Green gram colored, and in green gram, when matured pods turned brown; harvest
periodically with in interval of 7-10 days
Pigeon pea When 80-90% pods changed brown
Soybean When leaves turned yellow and begins to shed
The plant may be pulled by hand or cut with sickles and stacked in small heaps in the field to dry for
one or two weeks. Later these are transported to threshing floors where threshing is done.
4.13 Threshing and cleaning: Threshing is done by beating with sticks or by using stationary
thresher or bullock trampling. After winnowing the seed should be dried to 8-10% moisture before
storage.
4.14 Seed yield and storage:
Crops Seed yield (qtl/ha)
Lentil 20-25
Chickpea 15-20
Cowpea 15-20
Black gram 10-15
Green gram 8-10
Pigeon pea 20-25
Soybean 20-25
Store the seed in cool and dry store in seed bin or in plastic bags.

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Lecture: 16
SEED PRODUCTION OF OILSEED CROPS

1. Introduction
Oilseed crops are also important crops in the Nepalese farming system. Among the oil seed crops,
rapeseed and mustard occupy 90% area. They grow in terai, inner terai and mid hill regions as mono
crop or intercrop under both rainfed and irrigated conditions. The area, production and productivity of
oilseed crop during 2008/09 is 1,81,361 ha, 1,35,494 tons and 0.74 t/ha respectively. A total of 16
varieties (Groundnut – 6, Rapeseed – 6, Mustard – 2, Sesamum – 2) have been released by variety
release subcommittee for growing in different agro-climatic regions of the country upto 2010, but 1
variety of Rapeseed is denotified.
2. Land requirements
The land to be used for seed production should be free from volunteer plants. It should be well leveled
and the soil suitable for cultivation of crops.
3. Field standards
3.1 Isolation distance
Crops Pollination type Isolation distance (m) Remarks
Foundation seed Certified seed
Rapeseed Cross pollinated 100 50 Self incompatible type
and 50 25 Self compatible type
mustard
Groundnut Self pollinated 3 3 Negligible crossing
Sesamum Mainly Self 100 50
pollinated
Sunflower Partially self and 400 300 Cross pollination: 17-62%
cross pollinated according to insect activity
Niger Cross pollinated 400 200
Linseed Self pollinated 50 25 Natural cross pollination upto
6.75% mainly due to insect
3.2 Varietal purity and field standards
Crops Maximum off –type plant (%) Maximum diseased plant (%) Designated
Foundation seed Certified seed Foundation seed Certified seed diseases

Rapeseed 0.1 0.5 0.2 0.2 Sclerotinia

Mustard 0.1 0.5 0.2 0.5 Alternaria leaf
spot
Groundnut 0.1 0.2 … ….. ….
Soybean 0.1 0.5 0.1 0.5 Anthracnose
3.3 Roguing
All off type plant, easily distinguishable on the basis of plant characteristics, and other plant should be
removed before flowering as far as possible to avoid contamination due to out-crossing. The rouging
should be continued during flowering and fruiting stage to remove off types on the basis of flower and
pod characters. Objectionable weed plants (Argemone mexicana in case of rapeseed and mustard)
should be removed before final inspection. All the diseased plants affected by wilt, rosette, phyllody,
leaf spot blight, etc. should be rogue out from time to time in the field as required.

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4. Cultural Practices
4.1 Land preparation
Prepare the field to good tilth. One deep ploughing and 2-3 harrowing followed by leveling are
sufficient to determine fine pulverized soil and desired tilth. Fairly moist seedbed is required for good
germination.
4.2 Time of sowing:
Crops Time of sowing
Rapeseed and mustard Mid September – Mid October (rapeseed earlier than mustard)
Groundnut Mid June – first week of July
Sesamum First week of June – first week of July (av. temp: 25-270C)
Sunflower Rainy: 1-15 July; Spring: 1-15 March
Niger Mid July (June – August)
Linseed First week of October – Mid November
4.3 Source of seed
Collect the seeds of appropriate generation of seed (nucleus/breeder’s/foundation) certified by seed
certifying agency.
4.4 Method of sowing
The seed crop should preferably be sown in lines with seed drill.
4.5 Seed rate, Spacing and depth
Crops Seed rate (kg/ha) Spacing (cm) Depth (cm)
Rapeseed and mustard 5-8 30×7.5-10 3
Groundnut Spreading type: 60-80; Spreading type: 45-60×10- 5-8
Bunchy type: 80-100 15; Bunchy type: 30×10-15
Sesamum 2.5-5.5 30-45×15-22 2.5-3.5
Sunflower 8-10 60×20 2-4
Niger 6-8 30×15 2-4
Linseed 30-35 22-30×5-6 3
4.6 Fertilization
About 5-10 t FYM/ha should be applied 3-4 weeks prior to sowing. The chemical fertilizers could be
maintained as per the following schedule:
Crops Chemical fertilizers
Recommended dose (NPK kg/ha) Micronutrients
Rapeseed and 60:40:20 Apply 2kg Boron, 25kg Zinc per ha
mustard
Groundnut 20-40:50-60:20-40 Apply 125 kg gypsum per ha
Sesamum 30:60:30
Sunflower 60-80:40-60:20-40
Niger 20:20:10
Linseed 50:40:30

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In case of groundnut, N is applied only as starter dose. In other crops, N should be applied in two split
doses as basal and as top dressed at 1st irrigation (30-35 DAS) or flowering or earthing up (40-45 DAS)
time.
4.7 Irrigation
One pre sowing irrigation, one at flowering and pod formation stage is recommended for obtaining
higher seed yields. Provide good drainage system when there is heavy rainfall or excess moisture.
4.8 Intercultural operations
One to two hand weeding or hoeing are required to control weeds. First weeding may be done 3-4
weeks after emergence of crops and the second weeding may be done 6-7 weeks after emergence or
before top dressing. Thinning should be done at the time of first weeding to maintain required plant
stand. Sunflower responds well to earthing up. So that after irrigation around 48 DAS, earthing up (10-
15 cm) is highly desirable. Chemically Nitrofen @ 1-1.5kg a.i./ha or Isoproturon 1kg a.i./ha in 800-
1000 lit of water as pre emergence could be spray.
4.9 Plant protection
Before sowing, treat the seeds by using Captam, Thiram, Bavistin, etc @2.5-3 gm/kg of seed to protect
it from soil and seed borne pathogen.
Crops Biotic factors Control measures
Rapeseed and Insects: Mustard saw fly and Spray Metasystox 25EC @250 - 500 ml in 1000 L of
mustard aphids water
Diseases: Alternaria leaf spot Spray Dithane M-45 fungicide @ 2 kg in 1000 lit of
water per ha
Groundnut Insects: Grubs Apply Carbofuran 10% granules (12 kg/ha)
Diseases: Tikka disease Spray 0.25% solution of DM-45
Sesamum Insects: Caterpillar, Gall fly, Apply 5% BHC dust (20 kg/ha)
Leaf roller
Diseases: Blight Spray Streptocycline @0.3 gm in 125 L of water
Sunflower Insects: Head borer, Jassids Spray 0.025% of Metasystox 25 EC
Diseases: Alternaria blight Spray 0.25% of Dithane M-45 or Dithane Z-78
Niger Insects: Niger caterpillar and Spray 0.07% Endosulphan @500 L/ha
Tobacco caterpillar
Diseases: Alternaria leaf spot Spary 0.3% Zineb
Linseed Insects: Semilooper, Linseed Apply 5% Gammexene (20 kg/ha)
fly
Diseases: Rust Spray Zineb @2 kg/ha in 100 L of water
4.10 Supplementary pollination
Placing of bee hives on the field approximately at 200m intervals during the flowering season boost the
seed yield of cross pollinated species. Sunflower heads are gently rubbed with bare palm or covered
with muslin cloth during the anthesis period between 7-11 AM an alternate days for about two weeks.
4.11 Field inspection
A minimum of 2-3 inspections should be conducted. The first before flowering, second at during
flowering to pod formation stage and final inspection at crop maturing stage to record off type and
objectionable weed plants. Five hundred (500) plants should be taken in each count during sampling.
4.12 Harvesting and Threshing
Harvest the seed crop when they are properly matured.

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Crops Harvesting time

Rapeseed and When most of the siliqua are light yellow; seeds turn brown colour; plants start
mustard turning light yellow
Groundnut When leaves start yellowing and fall down and pods become reticulated and
within it the seed is separated from the shell of the pod
Sesamum When plants turn yellow with capsule still green
Sunflower When top leaves are dry and flowers are shriveled
Niger When flowers are withered
Linseed When plants are brown and brittle and seed rattles in the balls
The crop can be harvested by digging or by pull out or by cutting the plants. After harvest the crop
should be left in the field in small bundles for 2-3 days to dry in the field. Threshing can be done by
bullocks, tractor or with sticks. Before storage the moisture content of seed should be 8%.
4.13 Seed yield:
Crops Seed yield (qtl/ha)
Rapeseed and mustard 15-20
Groundnut 15-20
Sesamum 2-6
Sunflower 15
Niger 3-4
Linseed 10-19

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Lecture: 17
SEED PRODUCTION OF COMMERCIAL CROPS
Seed production of Sugarcane (Saccharum Spp.)
1. Introduction
Sugarcane is a main source of sugar in Nepal. It has been grown from terai to mid hill regions of the
country as cash crop. The area, production and productivity was 58,101ha, 2,35,4412 tons and 40.52
t/ha respectively during 2008/09. Only four varieties (Jeetpur-1, 2, 3 and 4) have been released by seed
releasing subcommittee of Nepal upto 2010.
2. Land Requirements
The seed plot should be selected in such area that where sugarcane crop was not grown in the previous
year. To avoid and reduce the disease (red rot, wilt etc) and insects (termites, shoot borer, mealy bugs,
scales etc) long duration crop rotation should be adopted. Field should be well drained.
3. Field standards
3.1 Isolation
In any case the seed plot must be isolated at least by 5m all around from other sugarcane fields.
3.2 Roguing
Rogue out clumps affected by smut, grassy shoot disease, red rot and wilt from time to time. Reject the
off type cane stalk differing from the typical characteristics and remove the plants infested by borers
also.
4. Cultural Practices
4.1 Land preparation
One to two deep ploughing followed by disc harrowing or repeated ploughing by desi plough followed
by leveling to get good tilth is necessary.
4.2 Time of planting
Mainly Oct planting and spring planting is generally followed. The seed crop should be adjusted in such
a way that the seed crop is harvested 8-10 months age in tropical and at 10-12 months age in sub
tropical regions of the country.
4.3 Source of seed
Collect the seeds of appropriate generation of seed (nucleus/breeder’s/foundation) certified by seed
certifying agency.
4.4. Seed set treatment: Generally two methods are followed which are:
a) Heat treatment: By using hot water (50oC for 2 hours) or by using hot air (54oC) coupled with
95% RH for 4 hours.
b) Chemical treatment: The seed setts should be dipped in agallol or aretan 0.1% solution for 10
minutes before planting.
4.5 Method of planting
There are different methods of sugarcane planting which are: a) Flat bed method b) Furrow bed method
c) Space transplanting method d) Ring method etc. Any one method can be used for seed multiplication
programme.
4.6 Fertilization
General recommended fertilizer and manure for S/C seed production is given below:
a) Basal dose: Nitrogen- 60-75kg/ha, P2O5- 100kg/ha and K2O-75kg/ha and FYM or Compost- 10-
15 t/ha.
b) Top dressing: i) First: 60-75 kgN/ha at 80-100 days after planting.
ii) Second: 30-75 kg N/ha at 4-6 weeks before harvest.
The fertilizer can also be managed as:

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Basal: Full dose of P2O5 as furrow bottom

At 30 DAP: ⅓N + ⅓K as band placement close to rows and partially earthed up
At 60 DAP: ⅓N + ⅓K applied to base and slightly earthed up
At 90 DAP: ⅓N + ⅓K applied to base and fully earthed up
Pre-fertilization: 6-8 weeks prior to harvest @50:25:25 kg N, P2O5 and K2O, respectively
4.7 Irrigation and Drainage
In the absence of rain irrigation should be given at an interval of 10-12 days during its growing period.
All excess water must be drained out from the field.
4.8 Intercultural Operation
After 3-4 weeks of plantin, 1st hoeing and weeding should be done. If weeds infestation is maximum at
initial stage of planting one blind hoeing should be given within one to two weeks after planting. Two to
three more hoeing with earthing up and weeding are required during the first 3 months after planting.
4.9 Earthing and tying
Earth up the crop before monsoon rains. It is also desirable to tie up the canes to prevent from lodging.
4.10 Plant protection
Red rot, smut, wilt, etc are the major diseases of sugarcane. They can be controlled by sett treating with
0.25% solution of Agallol or Aretan for five minutes. The insects like root borer, shoot borer, pyrilla,
white fly etc. infest the crop. They can be controlled by applying 30 kg Carbofuran 3% or spraying with
1.5 L Endosulfan 35 EC or Monocrotophos 36 EC in 1000 L of water.
4.11 Field inspection
Minimum 2 field inspections should be done by the seed inspector. First inspection is after 2 months of
planting and second 2 months before harvest the seed crop. During inspection off types, diseased and
pest infected stalks should be rejected.
4.12 Harvesting and after care
Harvesting is done when the seed cane is about 8-10 months of age in tropical and 10-12 months in sub
tropical regions. A good irrigation should be given before cutting the crop. Damage of stalk should be
avoided during handling. The harvested cane should not be allowed to dry up and if there are any delays
in planting water sprinklings should be done on the canes for checking drying of the canes.
4.13 Seed yield: 40-60 tons/ha.

Seed production of Cotton (Gossypium spp.)

1. Introduction
The cotton is grown in the western terai region of Nepal. Cotton production in Nepal was started in
1972/73 in Banke district in the form of research. HMG/Nepal and Government of Israel did this
initiation jointly. The area covered under cotton was about 100ha, production 59t and productivity
0.59t/ha during 2008/09. Only one variety (Tamcot SP- 37) has been released upto 2010 in Nepal.
2. Land Requirements
Land to be used for cotton seed production must be free of volunteer plants of cotton. The soil should be
deep, well drained, moisture retentive and fertile.
3. Field standards
3.1 Isolation requirements
The foundation seed plot should be isolated by minimum of 50m and certified seed plot by 25m from
plot of other varieties and other species.
3.2 Roguing
Cotton is mainly self pollinated crop but natural cross pollination to extent of 10-50% in G. hirsutum, 1-
2% in G. arboreum, 1-5% in G. herbaceum and 5-10% in G. barbadense has been recorded in different
countries. Timely roguing is necessary to maintain varietal and seed health standards. Off type plants

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should be removed from seed fields as far as possible before flowering and roguing should be continued
during flowering and boll formation to remove late emerging off types.
4. Cultural Practices
4.1 Land preparation
Deep ploughing followed by 2-3 times harrowing and leveling make the field pulverized and leveled.
4.2 Time of sowing: May-June
4.3 Source of seed for sowing
Seed should be obtained from authorized organization and the generation of seed (type) should be
cleared.
4.4 Method of sowing and spacing
The sowing should be done by dibbling 2-3 seeds/hill. The usual seed rate is 15-25 kg/ha for American
cotton and 12-16 kg/ha for desi cotton varieties. The general spacing is 75-90cm row to row and 30-45
cm plant to plant is maintained.
4.5 Fertilizer application
The general recommendation manure and fertilizer is given as under:
FYM or Compost: 5-8 tons/ha
Nitrogen: 100kg/ha,
Phosphorus (P2O5): 50kg/ha and
Potash (K2O): 50kg/ha
Top-dress the nitrogen in two split doses as @ 25kg/ha at 2 month after planting and again at 3 months
after planting. If N deficiency is observed 2% urea or 1.5% DAP solution spray during boll
development period at an interval of 10 days.
4.6 Irrigation
Once time irrigate the crop 15-20DAS if the soil is dried. Heavy irrigation during flowering should be
avoided. Give light irrigation after each picking, through furrow irrigation system.
4.7 Intercultural operation
Cotton is highly sensitive to weed competition specially in the initial stage of growth (50-60DAS). Dry
hoeing with a hand hoe (5-6 weeks after sowing) is essential to get good yields. Some herbicides like
Basaline @ 1kg a.i./ha in 1000 lit of water should be used as pre planting spray.
4.8 Plant protection
Important insects are jassids, thrips, aphids, mites, spotted boll worm, pink boll worm and American
boll worm. Monocrotophos 40EC 0.03% concentration is effective to control sucking insects and
Endosulfan 35EC 0.075% concentration is effective to control bollworms.
4.9 Field inspection
A minimum of 2 inspections should be conducted before flowering and full flowering. First inspection
is to determine isolation requirements and source of seed used for planting and second inspection is to
record off type plants. Hundred (100) plants should be included in each count and carefully examined
for off type plants.
4.10 Picking
Picking should be done when the cotton is fully mature (when the bolls begin to open). Several pickings
may be necessary within 2-3 months. The early picking gives slightly better germination. The late
formed bolls (last picking) should not be kept for seeds.
4.11 Ginning
Ginning is a process of removal of lint and fuzz from the seed cotton. It has big role in cottonseed
quality. Ginning of cotton should be done on one gins approved by certification agency. The ginning
machinery must be thoroughly cleaned before ginning the seed crop. The mechanical damage should be
minimized during ginning of seed cotton.
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4.13 Seed yield: 300-600kg/ha.

Seed Production of Potato (Solanum tuberosum)
1. Introduction
Potato occupies the 5th position in area, fourth in total production and 1 st in productivity with the main
staple crops: rice, maize, wheat and millet. The area, production and productivity of potato during
2008/09 is 1,81,900 ha, 24,24,048 tons and 13.32 tons/ha respectively. It is a staple food for the high
landers and side dish for longer period. Potato is grown in all 75 districts of Nepal and yield varies from
2-35 tons/ha. A total of 8 varieties have been released by variety releasing subcommittee of Nepal upto
2010.
2. Seed production system of Nepal
Seed production system of Nepal is mainly of two types: Informal and formal. The informal system
represents the seed produced by the general farmers and formal the seed produced especially for seed
purposes either by government agencies or by the private sectors.
3. Land requirements
The land should be free from infested disease like wart, cyst forming nematodes, or non-cyst forming
nematodes within the three years and common scab. Two to three year’s crop rotation should be
followed. Two to three year’s crop rotation should be followed. The field should be well-drained, well
aerated, deep and having a pH range of 5.2-6.4.
4. Field standards
4.1 Isolation requirements
A minimum of 5m isolation distance should be maintained all around the seed field, with other
varieties.
4.2 Roguing
A minimum of 3 times rouging should be done at different stages of crop First rouging should be done
at 25DAS to remove virus affected plants and other varieties which can be identified from foliage.
Second rouging should be done at fully growing stage (50-60DAS). At this stage virus affected plant as
well as off type plants should be removed. Third and final rouging should be done just before cutting the
foliage. All virus affected and off type plants should be removed.
5. Cultural Practices
5.1 Time of sowing: Sept-Oct
5.2 Seed rate: 2.5-3t/ha (4-6cm diameter of seed tuber)
5.3 Source of seed
Seed should be obtained from authorized organization and the generation of seed (type) should be
cleared.
5.4 Fertilization
100:80:80-100 kg NPK/ha plus 15-20 tons of FYM or compost should be applied. Half N + P and K
should be applied at the time of sowing and remaining half N at 30-35DAS.
5.5 Method of sowing
It can be planted by using furrow bed method of raised bed method or flat bed or pit method or behind
the local plough. Care must be taken that each piece to be used for planting has 2-3 emerging eyes and
weight at least 40gm. Plant the tubers 3-4cm deep in moist soil. Seed tubers should not come in contact
with fertilizer, and placed below the seed potato.
5.6 Spacing: 60cm RR and 20 cm PP is recommended spacing.
5.7 Irrigation
Irrigation should be given at frequent intervals (10 -15days) from emergence to 10-15 days before
cutting the haulms. It depends upon the soil type, season and stage of crop also. The submerging of
whole plot should be restricted.

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5.8 Intercultural operation

Keep the field free from weeds. At least one earthing up is necessary at vegetative growth stage or when
the plant attains 15 cm height. Exposed tubers should be covered with soil during subsequent earthing
up.
5.9 Haulm cutting
It is a practice of removing uppermost portion (foliage) of the plant to avoid the chances of viral
diseases transmission through the vectors like aphids. It should be done at the end of December or when
the aphid population reaches the critical stage (20 aphids per 100 compound leaves). No re-growth
should be allowed.
5.10 Important insects and diseases
Insects: Aphids, Jassids, Potato cut worms, Potato tuber moth, red ant etc. They can be controlled by
applying 0.2% Carbaryl@1000 L of water or Chloropyriphos 20Ec @2.5ml/L of water or Metasystox
25EC or Rogor 30EC @600 ml in 1000L of water per ha.
Diseases: Early blight, late blight, black scurf, potato scab etc. They can be controlled by applying
Ridomil MZ or Matco or Krilaxyl @2g/L of water or soil treatment with Brassicol @25-30kg/ha.
5.11 Harvesting
a) Time of harvest: 10-15 days after haulm cutting or when the skin of tuber has hardened. The
moisture of soil should be optimum for obtaining clean tuber.
b) Method of harvest: Precaution should be taken during harvesting of potatoes to avoid cuts and
bruises etc. After harvesting, tubers should not be open to hot sun not more than an hour. It can be store
in an airy shed and kept in piles for 7-10 days for further hardening.
5.12 Grading
Grading should be done after curing the potatoes. Size should be about 4-5 cm diameter and about 40-
50cm weight should be maintained. While grading the shape, colour, depth of eyes of tubers should be
carefully examined and off type discarded. Cut, bruises, cracks and mechanically damaged, containing
scab, black scurf disease should be removed.
5.13 Packaging
Soon after grading, the potatoes should be put in clean Hessian bags (50kg size) and leveled with
information.
5.14 Storage
After packaging, the seed tubers can be store in rustic store in ambient temperature in high hill areas
(more than 1500m altitude from mean sea level) where the temperature is below 18-20 oC. In plane or
terai areas where ambient temperature is above 32oC, the potatoes can be stored in cold storage at
temperatures from 2.2-3.3oC and 75-80% RH. Periodic inspection of seed stocks in cold storage is
necessary to ensure that stocks are keeping good.

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Lecture: 18
SEED PRODUCTION OF VEGETABLE CROPS
Seed production in vegetable crops is a specialized job and their culture requires more detailed attention
and handling as compared of field crops. The need for the efficiency of seed production, primarily,
depends upon the seed quality, purity, weed seed content, germination, moisture content, weight and
density. The role of breeder is directly concerned with the genetical purity of seeds in providing the
basic material to the seed production industry. The genetical behavior which is concealed in a seed,
determines the behavior of the plant that emerges from a viable and healthy seed.
When growing vegetables for seed production, it is important to know the pollination mechanisms of
the crops. The pollination preferences of some of the vegetable crops are furnished below:
1. Highly cross pollinated
 Wind pollinated: Amaranthus, Palak, Spinach, Garden beet
 Insect pollinated: All Cucurbits, Cole crops, Radish, Turnip, Carrot, Onion
2. Often cross pollinated: Lima bean, Okra (lady’s finger), Chilli, Sweet pepper, Brinjal (egg
plant)
3. Highly self pollinated: Asparagus bean, Cluster bean, Dolichos bean, French bean, Cowpea,
Garden pea, Fenugreek, Lettuce, Tomato
From the seed production point of view, the additional problems that arise are:
a. Safeguarding the seed plants from foreign contamination through extraneous pollen transmitted
by insects or transported by wind
b. Maintaining pure stocks by raising high grade foundation seed stocks
c. Maintaining vigour of the genetic entities and horticultural varieties which are commonly lost
through close breeding procedures
The general cultural methods and seed production techniques for vegetable crops are presented here:

Self pollinated crops

1. Climatic requirements
Tomato: It is a warm season crop, sensitive to frost and requires an average temperature of 18-27 0C for
proper growth, development and fruiting. It is highly susceptible to frost. Critical factor in setting of
fruit is the night temperature. The optimal range was 15 to 200C.
Lettuce: It requires relatively long cool frost free (12-18 0C) growing season, particularly cool nights
and low rainfall at harvest. High temperatures are undesirable. Heading is prevented and shooting to
seed induced at temperatures between 21-260C.
Cluster bean: It is warm season crop and grows well in summer as well as in rainy season in the plains.
Dolichos bean: It is relatively a cool season hardy and drought resistant legume.
French bean: They are day neutral plants and the optimum temperature for better growth, pod set and
maturity is between 15.60C and 21.10C.
2. Land requirements
The land to be used for seed production should be free from volunteer plants. It should be well leveled
and the soil suitable for cultivation of crops. The fields should have good texture, fertile with high
organic matter and be well drained. (pH for tomato: 6-7; for lettuce: 5.8-6.6; for French bean: 5.3-6)
3. Field standards
3.1 Varietal purity and field standards
Crops Maximum off –type plant (%) Maximum diseased plant (%) Designated
diseases
Foundation seed Certified seed Foundation seed Certified seed
Tomato 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.5 TMV
Fenugreek 0.1 0.2 …… …… …….

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3.2 Isolation distance

Crops Isolation distance (m) Remarks
Foundation seed Certified seed
Tomato 50 20-25 Cross pollination to some extent (0.5-
0.7%)
Asparagus bean 50 25 Isolate from cowpea by same distance
Cluster bean, French 50 10 ………….
bean, Dolichos bean,
Garden pea
Fenugreek 10 5 ………….
Lettuce 50 25 ……………
3.3 Roguing
All off type plant, easily distinguishable on the basis of plant characteristics, and other plant should be
removed.
Lettuce: Lettuce varieties fall in two groups: heading types (cabbage head types, butter head types and
cos types) and loose leaf types. Roguing should be completed before bolting starts in loose head
varieties or when heading is complete in heading varieties. Direct bolters, ill-formed plants, off-types,
diseased plants and wild lettuce plants should invariably be removed from time to time as required.
Tomato: Plants with off-types foliage should be removed before they blossom, to reduce any possibility
of cross-pollination. When the fruits begin to mature, the plants and fruits should be examined for
overall performance and type. When too large a proportion of fruits on a plant fail to meet the
requirements as to shape, colour, general size and interior characteristics, the entire plant should be
removed. Also, rogue out diseased plants affected by early blight, leaf spot and mosaic (TMV) from the
field, from time to time as required.
Fenugreek: The off-types should be removed both at flowering and at maturity stages. The plants of
Melilotus spp. should also be scrupulously removed from field prior to harvest.
4. Cultural Practices
4.1 Land preparation
Prepare the field to good tilth. One deep ploughing and 3-4 harrowing followed by leveling are
sufficient to determine fine pulverized soil and desired tilth.
4.2 Time of sowing:
Crops Time of sowing
Tomato Plains: June – August/September
Hills: March-April/May (spring-summer)
Cluster bean February – March
Lettuce October
French bean Terai: September-November
Middle hills: February-April
High hills: April-May
Dolichos bean July – August
Fenugreek High hills: March-April
Mid hills and terai: September-November

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4.3 Source of seed

Collect the seeds of appropriate generation of seed (nucleus/breeder’s/foundation) certified by seed
certifying agency.
4.4 Nursery raising and Method of sowing
Tomato: Seed may be sown on raised nursery beds (15-20cm high from the ground) in rows 3-4cm
part. Twenty-five nursery beds of size 2-2.5m long and 1-1.25m wide will raise enough seedlings to
transplant one ha land. Spray 4-5 handfull ammonium sulphate or CAN dissolved in 30-35L of water for
producing healthy and vigorous seedlings. Wash out the fertilizer immediately by spraying plain water.
Drench the nursery bed with 0.2% Brassicol or Captan.
Lettuce: The seeds may be sown in raised nursery beds in rows 3-4 cm apart and seedlings later
transplanted into main field.
In case of direct seeded crops, the seed should preferably be sown in lines.
4.5 Seed rate, transplanting, spacing and depth
Crops Seed rate (per ha) Spacing (cm) Depth (cm)
Tomato 500gm Autumn-winter: 75×60; …………
Spring-summer: 75×40
Lettuce 500-750gm 30-45×20-30 ………..
Cluster bean 11-15kg 45-60×20-30 ………..
Dolichos bean 12-15kg 100-150×100 …………
French bean 85kg 30-45×10-30 2-3
Fenugreek 25-30kg 25-30 2-3
Transplant the tomato seedling when 7.5-10cmin height, preferable at evening time. In lettuce,
transplanting is done when seedlings are 5-6 weeks old.
4.6 Fertilization
About 15-25 t FYM/ha should be applied 3-4 weeks prior to sowing. The chemical fertilizers could be
maintained as per the following schedule:
Crops Recommended dose Remarks
(NPK kg/ha)
Tomato 100:60:60 ½ N as basal+¼ N at 15-20DAT+¼ N at
flowering period
Lettuce 60:40:40 40kg N as basal+10kgN each side dressing
(early spring and when the stalks emerge)
French bean 60-80:30-60: 30-60 ……………….
Dolichos bean 15-40:50-75:40-50 ………………
Cluster bean 10-20:60:60 ………………..
Fenugreek 80:40:40 50kg N as basal+15kg N each after every two
cutting as side dressed
4.7 Irrigation
Provide one irrigation just after transplanting or sowing and then frequent irrigations are necessary for
obtaining a quick growth of crop. Provide good drainage system when there is heavy rainfall or excess
moisture.
4.8 Intercultural operations
Frequent hoeing (2-3) and weeding is necessary for proper aeration of soil and to keep down the weeds.
Keep the seed field free of weed, particularly after the last cut in case of fenugreek.

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4.9 Plant protection

Before sowing, treat the seeds by using effective fungicide (Thiram @ 2 g/kg seed in case tomato) to
protect it from soil and seed borne pathogen.
Crops Biotic factors Control measures
Tomato Insects: Fruit borer Spray sevin @1250gm/ha starting from 20 DAP
Diseases: Damping off Thin sowing in nursery; Seed treatment with Captan
or Agrosan or Thiram (0.2%); Drench the seed be
with Captan (150g in 100 L water for 200m2)
Diseases: Early blight, Fruit rot Spray Benlate @60g/100L of water or DM-
45@1kg/300L water
Lettuce Insects: Aphids Apply 3-4% Nicotine dust
Dolichos Insects: Aphids Apply Nicotine sulphate 40% or 0.025% Parathion
bean
Diseases: Anthracnose Spray copper fungicides

4.10 other activities

Tearing or making cut in head types: In case of head types lettuce, a slight cut or tearing the upper
leaves by hand, helps the seed stalk to emerge easily.
Cutting: In fenugreek, 2-3 cuttings may be taken and the crop is left for seed production.
4.11 Field inspection
A minimum of 2-3 inspections should be conducted. The first before flowering, second at during
flowering to fruit/seed formation stage and final inspection at crop maturing stage (before or after
maturity) to record off type and objectionable weed plants.
4.12 Harvesting and Threshing
Harvest the seed crop when they are properly matured.
Crops Harvesting time
Tomato Pink to red ripe stage
Lettuce When 30-50% of seeds in the heads show white pappus or fluff and a good
number of heads after opening have turned brown or dark brown but have not
shown out the pappus
Fenugreek When two-third of pods have turned brown
Beans (French) When 70-90% of pods are dry
After picking of tomatoes, two methods are applied for the extraction of seed: 1. Use of juice extracting
equipments and 2. Ordinary seed extraction method completed by fermentation or acid
(HCl@100ml/14kg of pulp) or alkali treatment (equal volume of alkali mixture - 425gm ordinary
washing soda added to 5L of boiling water - added to pulp and mixed). After extraction, the seeds are
washed with water to remove the pulp and drying is completed. In lettuce and fenugreek, the plants are
cut by hand and left to dry on the ground for few days and later seeds are collected by gently shaking
them. The ripened pods are picked in case of beans.
4.13 Seed yield:
Crops Seed yield (kg/ha)
Tomato 100-120
Lettuce 500-600
Fenugreek 1,500-1,900
Cluster bean 600-740

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Lecture: 19
SEED PRODUCTION OF VEGETABLE CROPS
Often cross pollinated crops
1. Climatic requirements
The brinjal, okra and chillies are popular warm season vegetable crops. A frost-free period of about
130-135 days with temperature range of 15-350C is optimum for chilli cultivation while for brinjal a
long warm growing season with temperature range of 21-27 0C is most favourable. Okra requires warm
humid weather with optimum temperature range of 20-300C.
2. Land requirements
The land to be used for seed production should be free from volunteer plants. It should be well leveled
and the soil suitable for cultivation of crops. The fields should have good texture, fertile with high
organic matter and be well drained and sandy loam. (pH for brinjal: 5.5-6.6; for chilli: 6-7; for okra: 6-
8)
3. Field standards
3.1 Isolation distance
Crops Isolation distance (m) Remarks
Foundation seed Certified
seed
Brinjal 200 100 Insect pollinated and natural crossing is 0-48%; isolate
from Capsicum by same distance
Chilli 400 200 ………….
Okra 400 200 ………….
3.2 varietal purity and field standards
Crops Maximum off –type plant (%) Maximum diseased plant (%) Designated
Foundation seed Certified seed Foundation seed Certified seed diseases

Brinjal 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.5 Phomopsis blight

Okra 0.1 0.2 …… …… …….
Chillies 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.2 Bacterial leaf spot,
Anthracnose
3.3 Roguing
Roguing should be based on the plant, leaf and stem characteristics, pigmentation, flower size and its
fruit crop as well on the whole rather than on individual fruits. Off type plant should be removed as
soon as they are observed. When each plant has several more or less mature fruits, rouging can be based
on fruit size, shape and colour. In addition to off-types, plant affected by phomopsis blight and little leaf
(in brinjal), leaf blight, anthracnose and virus diseases (in chilli) and yellow vein mosaic (in okra)
should be removed from time to time.
4. Cultural Practices
4.1 Land preparation
Prepare the field to good tilth. One deep ploughing and 3-4 harrowing followed by leveling are
sufficient to determine fine pulverized soil and desired tilth.
4.2 Time of sowing:
Crops Time of sowing
Brinjal In plains: February – March; June – July and October – November; in hills: March
– April

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Chilli In terai: August – September (for autumn-spring) and February –March (for
spring-summer); in hills: February – April
Okra February – July
4.3 Source of seed
Collect the seeds of appropriate generation of seed (nucleus/breeder’s/foundation) certified by seed
certifying agency.
4.4 Nursery raising and Method of sowing
Seed may be sown on raised nursery beds (15-20cm high from the ground) in rows 3-4cm part in case of
brinjal and broadcasted in case of chilli. Twenty-five nursery beds of size 2-2.5m long and 1-1.25m
wide will raise enough seedlings to transplant one ha land. Spray 4-5 handfull ammonium sulphate or
CAN dissolved in 30-35L of water for producing healthy and vigorous seedlings. Wash out the fertilizer
immediately by spraying plain water. Drench the nursery bed with Captan at 150 g/100L of water to
cover 200m2 areas.
In case of direct seeded crops, the overnight soaked seed should preferably be sown in lines.
4.5 Seed rate, transplanting, spacing and depth
Crops Seed rate (per ha) Spacing (cm)
Brinjal 375-500gm Non-spreading: 60×60; Spreading: 75-90×60-70
Chilli 1-2kg Hot pepper: 60×45; Sweet pepper: 45×45
Okra 10-15kg 45×30
Transplant the brinjal seedling when 12-15cm with 3-4 leaf stage, preferable at evening time. In chilli,
transplanting is done when seedlings are 4-5 weeks old with 15-20cm height.
4.6 Fertilization
About 20-25 t FYM/ha should be applied 3-4 weeks prior to sowing. The chemical fertilizers could be
maintained as per the following schedule:
Crops Recommended dose Remarks
(NPK kg/ha)
Brinjal 100:50:50 ½ N as basal+¼ N at 30DAT+¼ N at 60 DAT
Chilli 100:60:60 ½ N as basal+¼ N at 30DAT+¼ N at 60 DAT
Okra 100:60:60 ½ N as basal+¼ N at 30DAT+¼ N at 60 DAT
4.7 Irrigation
Provide one irrigation just after transplanting or sowing and then frequent irrigations (twice a week or
once in two weeks) are necessary for obtaining a quick growth of crop. Provide good drainage system
when there is heavy rainfall or excess moisture.
4.8 Intercultural operations
Frequent hoeing (2-3) and weeding (10-15 days interval) is necessary for proper aeration of soil and to
keep down the weeds.
4.9 Plant protection
Before sowing, treat the seeds by using effective fungicide (Thiram or Captan @2.5g/kg of seed) to
protect it from soil and seed borne pathogen.
Crops Biotic factors Control measures
Brinjal Insects: Fruit and shoot borer Spray Sevin 0.2% at 15 days interval
and Chilli Diseases: Phomopsis blight and Spray with Dithane Z-78 at 0.2% at 7-10 days
fruit rot interval; seed treatment
Diseases: Damping off Spray Captan @1.25kg in 800-1000 L of water

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Okra Insects: Fruit and shoot borer Apply Thiodan 35EC @ 0.2% at weekly interval
Diseases: Yellow vein mosaic Spray Metasystox @ 0.1%, grow resistant var.
4.10 Field inspection
A minimum of 2-3 inspections should be conducted. The first before flowering, second at flowering and
final inspection at fruit ripening stage to record off type and objectionable weed plants.
4.12 Harvesting and Threshing
Harvest the seed crop when they are properly matured.
Crops Harvesting time
Brinjal When fruits are fully riped
Chilli When red riped
Okra When pods are brown
After picking, fruits are crushed, cut or macerated in case of chilli and threshed by flailing seed by hand
in case of okra while in brinjal, the outer covering of fruit is peeled off and the flesh with the seeds is
cut into thin which are then softened by soaking till the seeds are separated from the pulp. Seeds are
washed free of pulp and skins and then allowed to dry in the sun.
4.13 Seed yield:
Crops Seed yield (kg/ha)
Brinjal 100-200
Chilli 50-80
Okra 1,000-1,500

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Lecture: 20
SEED PRODUCTION OF VEGETABLE CROPS
Highly cross pollinated crops
1. Climatic requirements
Cucurbits Cucurbits require long growing season with average monthly temperature of 25-30oC
and ample sunshine.
Cole crops Except some broccoli and cauliflower need cold temperature for the transformation
from vegetative to the reproductive stage. The average chilling temperature is 7 0C for
1-2 months. Mature cabbage plants exposed to 9-14 oC temperature produce flowers
and seeds. Optimum monthly average temperature is 15-200C for cauliflower.
Root crops In case of radish, high quality roots are produced at cooler temperature range of 10-
150C while in carrot at 18-22oC. Long day and high temperature enhance bolting.
Onion Temperatures of 25-30oC are effective for rapid bulb growth of onion while in 10-15 oC
varieties bolt readily. Onion is a biennial crop and appears to be day neutral for seed
production.
Palak and The seeds of (garden) beet roots are produced in hills (>1200m). The palak is a cool
garden beet season crops.
2. Land requirements
The land to be used for seed production should be free from volunteer plants. It should be well leveled
and the soil suitable for cultivation of crops. The fields should have good texture, fertile with high
organic matter and be well drained and aerated. (pH for cole crops: 6-6.5; for cucurbits: 6-7; for root
crops: 5.5-6.8; for onion: 5.8-6.5; for spinach: 6-7)
3. Field standards
3.1 Isolation distance
Crops Isolation distance (m) Remarks
Foundation seed Certified seed
Cole crops 1600 1000 Isolate from turnip by same distance
Cucurbits 1000 500 Isolate from wild cucurbit spp.
Radish 1600 1000 ………….
Turnip 1600 1000 ……………
Carrot 1000 500 ……….
Palak 1600 1000 Isolate from Garden beet, Swiss chard and Sugar
beet
Spinach 800 400 …………..
Garden beet 1600 1000 Isolate from Palak, Swiss chard and Sugar beet
Onion 1000 500 ……………
3.2 Varietal purity and field standards
Crops Maximum off –type plant (%) Maximum diseased plant (%) Designated
Foundation seed Certified seed Foundation seed Certified seed diseases

Cole 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.5 Alternaria leaf

crops spot, black rot
Cucurbits 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.2 Mosaic virus
Carrot 0.1 0.2 ….. ….. ……
Radish 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.5 Alternaria leaf
spot

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Spinach 0.1 0.2 …… …. ……

& palak
Onion 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.5 Purple blotch
3.3 Roguing
Cucurbits Roguing should be based leaf and vine characteristics, flower size and its fruit.
Off-type plant should be removed as soon as they are observed before flowering.
Any plant with off-type fruits should be removed from the field as soon as it is
noticed.
Cole crops Off-type plants and those forming poor curds or head are rogued out. In cabbage,
first roguing is done at the time of handling the mature heads and second roguing
is done before the heads start bursting. Selection of curds is done when curds are
well developed in cauliflower.
Root crops Plants with off-type foliage, direct bolters, early bolters, small sized or oversized
stecklings, forked and undesirable roots are removed. Three roguing should be
done , namely, before maturity of roots for off-type foliage, at the time of
replanting for verifying root characteristic and the last at flowering stage for early
& late bolters and off-types.
Onion Roguing should be done before bulb harvest and after harvesting for sorting off-
types as thick-necks, doubles, bottlenecks bulbs during first year while in second
year remove plant not conforming to varietal character before flowering.
Palak The first roguing may be done at pre-flowering stage and subsequently early
bolters, off-types plants and pig weed plants may be removed immediately as and
when they are noticed.
Besides diseased plants affected by phyllody, black leg, black rot, mosaic, etc should be rogued out
from field time to time.
4. Cultural Practices
4.1 Land preparation
Prepare the field to good tilth. One deep ploughing and 3-4 harrowing followed by leveling are
sufficient to determine fine pulverized soil and desired tilth.
4.2 Time of sowing:
Crops Time of sowing
Cucurbits Cucumber: January-February; Melon, Pumpkin, Squash, Gourd: February - March
Cole crops Cabbage: early varieties = July; mid-late varieties = second and first fortnight of
June; Cauliflower: main season late varieties (in hills) = last week of August; early
varieties (in plains) = June – August
Radish Raising of stecklings (first season): for hill – early October as autumn and March
as spring; for plains – early October and transplant in second season
Carrot Mother root production (first season): 15th July – 7th August and transplant in
second season
Turnip Raising of stecklings (first season): last week of August – first week of September
and transplant in second season during second half of December
Garden beet Raising of roots (first season): 15th July – end of July; transplant selected roots in
second season during November - December
Palak October – November
Onion Nursery (first year): mid-October – mid-November in plain and April – June in
hills; transplant bulb in second year at second fortnight of October

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4.3 Source of seed

Collect the seeds of appropriate generation of seed (nucleus/breeder’s/foundation) certified by seed
certifying agency.
4.4 Nursery raising and Method of sowing
In cole crops, seed may be sown on raised nursery beds (15-20cm high from the ground) in rows 5cm
apart in case of cole crops. Twenty-five nursery beds of size 2-2.5m long and 1-1.25m wide will raise
enough seedlings to transplant one ha land. Spray 4-5 handfull ammonium sulphate or CAN dissolved
in 30-35L of water at 10-15 days after germination for producing healthy and vigorous seedlings. Wash
out the fertilizer immediately by spraying plain water. Thin sowing should be done to avoid ‘damping
off’ disease.
In onion, 1/20 ha nursery is sufficient for raising seedling for one ha.
Crops Method of seed production
Cauliflower Seed to seed method (In situ method); Head to seed method (transplanting method)
Cabbage Stump method (removal of head); Stump with central core intact method (chopping of
head on all sides); Head intact method (give a cross-cut)
Root crops Seed to seed (certified seed) and Root to seed (nucleus seed)
Onion Seed to seed and Bulb to seed

Crops Method of sowing

Cucurbits Two methods of sowing adopted
1. Hills are prepared at proper spacing by adding well rotted FYM and a number
of seeds are sown on each hill.
2. Furrows are made at proper spacing and seeds are sown on the edge of
furrows.
Root crops Double row ridges or single row ridges
4.5 Seed rate, transplanting, spacing and depth
Crops Seed rate (per ha) Spacing
Cucumber 2-5kg 2×0.6-0.9m (on edge of furrows)
Melon 3-4 or 5kg 2×1m
Pumpkin, 5kg 2×1m
Squash, Gourd
Cole crops Mid to late var.: 375-400gm; Late var.: 60×60cm; mid-var.: 60×45cm; late
early var.: 600-750gm var.: 45×45cm
Radish Asiatic var.: 10kg; Asiatic var.: 45×10-15cm; Temperate var.:
Temperate var.: 12kg 30×10-15cm; Transplanting in second season:
60×45cm
Carrot, Turnip 2.5-3.75kg Raising stecklings: 45×7-8cm (turnip) & 75×6-
7cm (carrot); Transplanting: 75×30cm
Garden beet 5-7kg Raising roots: 45×10cm; Transplanting: 60×45-
60cm
Palak 25-30kg 20×25cm
Onion 8-10kg seed; 15 qtl of bulb Seedling transplanting space: 10-15cm; bulb
(3-4cm diameter) planting: 45×30cm and depth of 8-10cm

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In case of onion, transplant 8-10 weeks old seedling in field during first year (during January) and plant
bulb in second year. In cole crops, 3-4 weeks old seedlings (12-15cm high) are transplanted in main
field. Thinning should be provided in case of root crops after 10-15dasy or when plants are 5-6cm in
height during first season. In cucurbits sown on hills, the plants should be thinned so that no more than
3 plants are left standing on each hill and 1-2 plants at each place in furrow sowing.
4.6 Fertilization
About 20-25 t FYM/ha should be applied 3-4 weeks prior to sowing. The chemical fertilizers could be
maintained as per the following schedule:
Crops Recommended dose Remarks
(NPK kg/ha)
Cole crops 100:80:50 ½ N as basal+¼ N at 15-20DAT+¼ N at before
starting the formation of productive organ
Cucurbits 80:60:50 60kg N/ha as basal+ 10kg N/ha each at vining
stage and after 10-15days interval
Root crops 60-80:40-60:40-80 40-60kg N/ha as basal + 20kg N/ha side dressed
after 3 weeks of emergence
Leafy vegetables 60:40:40 40kg N/ha as basal+ 10kg N/ha each at 20-25
days and 40-45 days after emergence
4.7 Irrigation
Provide one irrigation just after transplanting or sowing and then frequent irrigations (twice a week or
once in two weeks) are necessary for obtaining a quick growth of crop. Provide good drainage system
when there is heavy rainfall or excess moisture.
4.8 Intercultural operations
Frequent hoeing (2-3) and weeding (10-15 days interval) is necessary for proper aeration of soil and to
keep down the weeds. In onion, post emergence application of Tenoran @2kg/ha in 800 L of water 2-3
weeks of transplanting help to control weeds. One earthing up is necessary in root crops. One weeding
and earthing up during November-December and second during March is required in case of cole crops.
4.9 Sex expression and sex ratio in cucurbits
Two sprays, one at 2-leaf stage and again at 4-leaf stage with 25-100 ppm Malic hydrazide, 100 ppm
Alphanaphthalene acetic acid, 3 ppm of Ethrel, 3 ppm of Boron or 3 ppm of Molybdenum can suppress
the number of male flowers and increase the number of female flowers, fruit set, and ultimate yield.
4.10 scooping in Cauliflower
Scooping the central portion of curd when it is fully formed helps in the early emergence of the flower
stalks.
4.11 Staking
After the flower stalks are sufficiently developed, staking is necessary to keep the plant in an upright
position in certain plant (cole crops).
4.12 Supplementary pollination in Turnip
The turnip is pollinated by insects. To ensure good seed set, pollination of maximum flower is
necessary. Honey-bees are important agents so in large seed fields it is advisable to place bee hives
nearby, to increase pollination.
4.9 Plant protection
Before sowing, treat the seeds by using effective fungicide (Thiram or Captan @2-3g/kg of seed) to
protect it from soil and seed borne pathogen.

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Crops Biotic factors Control measures

Cucurbits Insects: Red pumpkin beetle Spray Malathion 50 EC @ 2 ml/litre of water or
Metacid 50 EC @ 1 ml/litre of water
Insects: Pumpkin fruitfly Spray Malathion 50 EC 1 ml + 10 g sugar/litre of
water
Diseases: Anthracnose Seed treatment with Thiodan @ 2-3 g/kg of seed and
spray Bavistin @ 1 g/litre of water
Diseases: Downy mildew Spray Dithane M-45 @ 2-3 g/litre of water or Blitox-
50 @ 2.5 g/litre of water
Cole crops Insects: Cabbage Butterfly, Apply Metacid 50EC (1 ml/lit) or Nuvan 100 EC (0.5
Diamond back moth, Aphids ml/lit) or Thiodan 35 EC (2 ml/lit
Diseases: black leg Hot water seed treatment (50oC) for 30 minutes and/or
spray with organomercuric compound (2-3 g/litre of
water)
Diseases: Downy mildew Spray 1% of Bondeaux mixture or spray Dithane M-45
Diseases: Black rot Seed treatment (52oC to 30 min.) and Soil drench with
bleaching power.
Root crops Insects: Mustard saw fly Spray Nuvan or Malathion dust
Leafy Insects: Aphids, hairy Spray Malathion, Thiodan, Metasystox
vegetables caterpillar
Onion Insects: Onion thrips Spray Malathion 50EC at 600-700ml/ha
Diseases: Purple blotch Spray Blitox 50 at 0.2%
4.10 Field inspection
For onion, at least 5 inspections are necessary while a minimum of 3-4 inspections are required in root
crops. In leafy vegetables and cole crops, 2-3 inspections are sufficient.
Cucurbits and leafy First before flowering, second at flowering and final inspection at fruit ripening
vegetables stage
Onion First after planting of bulb (plating after roguing operation), second before
flowering, third and fourth during flowering and last inspection at ripening
stage
Cole crops First before emergence of curd or head, second during curd or head formation
and last inspection at after flowering
Root crops First after 20-30 days of sowing, then next after transplanting of uprooted roots,
then subsequent inspection during flowering and last one at ripening stage
4.12 Harvesting and Threshing
4.12.1 First year or first season harvesting and selection
Crops Harvesting time Selection
Garden During November- Root: Carefully based on leaf and skin colour, shape and size
beet December of roots; reject diseased and malformed
Radish When they attained edible Roots: Examined foliage and root characteristics namely
maturity (30-70 DAS) size, shape, colour, texture, sponginess, etc; reject diseased,
malformed and off-types
Carrot When root fully Roots: made selection on the basis of character of tops,
developed whether short or heavy, colour of skin, shape and size of rots
(most important: color of flesh and color and size of core)

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Turnip When roots fully Roots: Based on shape, color, size of roots; reject
developed (70-80 DAS) undesirable and small roots
Onion When tops droops just Bulbs: Thorough selection based of bulb characters and
above the bulb allow for curing (3-4 weeks)
4.12.2 Second year or second season harvesting (seed)
Crops Seed harvesting time
Cucumber When fruits have turned pale yellow or golden
Melon At full slip stage or when they reach edible maturity
Gourd, When fruits redden and seeds inside the shell break readily from the pulp
pumpkin,
squash
Cole crops When pods brown
Palak When much seed firm before shattering
Garden beet When 70-80% of seed balls on a plant get hardened and those at the base of shoot
turn brown
Radish When plants are fully mature
Carrot When secondary heads are fully ripe and tertiary heads are beginning to turn brown
Turnip When the seed pods are reddish brown
Onion When first formed seed in heads get blackened
Onion and carrot 2-3 hand picking of heads are necessary for complete harvesting while in other a
single cut harvesting is sufficient. After picking, seed extraction is done in cucurbits which can be
achieved either by dry seed extraction method or wet seed extraction method (fermentation or
mechanical method). After that seeds are separate from pulp and then sun dry before storage. In other
crops, the head or stalks are dries on sun and threshed when seed separates easily form them. Then the
seeds are clean and sun dry.
4.13 Seed yield:
Crops Seed yield (kg/ha)
Cabbage 500-650
Cauliflower 250-400
Cucumber 110-130
Other cucurbits 200-500
Root crops 600-800
Palak 1000-1500
Onion 850-1000

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Lecture: 21
SEED QUALITY CONTROL
Quality control is an important component of the seed programme. In fact the essence of any seed
programme lies in the quality control. A seed programme without the provisions of regulating the seed
quality control measures may collapse. Seed quality control is a system which ensures to govern the
quality of the seed through check, certification and official regulations (legislation). For seed production
it is necessary that the quality of the seed should be of the highest possible standards. Quality of seed is
ensured and guaranteed through checks i.e. field inspections to establish genetic/varietal purity and
laboratory tests to record physical purity, germination, vigour, moisture content and seed health.
Seed quality control concepts
There are two aspects of quality control. Firstly, the genetic purity of the seed is maintained during the
production and marketing operations. Secondly, it should be ascertained that the seed lot itself is of
adequate quality. It should be free from weeds, other crop seeds, extraneous materials, disease
organisms and possesses high germination capacity and optimum moisture to avoid its deterioration
during storage and marketing.
There are three important facts to achieve the above objectives. These are:
1. Quality maintenance
2. Quality assurance
3. System of quality control
Quality maintenance
The responsibility of maintaining the quality of the seed lies with the producer (public or private) who is
producing and marketing the seeds. Seed production is a highly specialized and systematic job. It
encompasses the production of nucleus seed, breeder seed, foundation, certified and labeled seed
classes. The process occurs in systematic manner. The breeder seed is produced from nucleus seed;
foundation seed from the breeder seed or foundation stage 1 and the certified seed from foundation seed
or certified stage 1 classes. If there is some missing link in this chain, quality maintenance programme
suffers and consequently the quality assurance and quality control components will get the set-backs. It
is, therefore, imperative that adequate care needs to be exercised in the quality maintenance or internal
quality control programme. If, this is achieved adequately well, the problems in the quality control will
be minimized and the assurance of seed quality provided by the producer will not face any problem
during marketing or distribution.
The first and foremost aspect of quality maintenance is the quality of the breeder seed with special
reference to the genetic purity. Breeder seed should be of the highest genetic purity. The genetic purity
of breeder seed should be above to the genetic purity status of the foundation seed class. Usually, the
breeder seed does not falls under the preview of seed certification. However, its quality must be
monitored by the breeder himself or by a joint team or any other authority which has been identified in
the rules and regulations. In addition, it is also equally important that the post harvest operations should
also be supervised to avoid contaminations during harvesting, threshing, drying, cleaning, grading and
packing operations of the breeder seed. In case of vegetable seeds, seed certification is opted mainly by
the public organizations, it would, therefore, be essential that the private seed companies should have
their own research and developmental wing for ensuring the quality of their produce so as to serve the
farmers in a better way.
Quality assurance
This is the responsibility of the seed corporation/organization and the seed companies to provide
assurance about the quality of the seed offered by them for marketing or distribution. There would not
be any problem to the seed producing organizations in providing the assurance of the seed quality, if
they are conscious about the maintenance of the quality of their produce. In the absence of the system of
quality maintenance, it would be rather impossible to provide the assurance of the seed quality. Without
observing the quality maintenance, if quality assurance is provided by an organization in the form of a
declaration or a label containing the details of the physical purity and germination of the seed, the
organization may face heavy penalties under the provisions of the seed legislation or seed act or else
will lose the faith of the consumer. Accordingly, it would be desirable on the part of an organization or
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seed company involved in the seed trade that before providing the assurance relating to the identity of
the variety and the quality of the seed offered by them, they must ensure to get the seed tested in the
seed testing laboratory.
System of quality control
Seed quality control is itself a system which ensures the interest of the farmers and to avoid hazards in
the crop production. It is the responsibility of the government to enforce the measures for controlling
the quality of the seed being marketed in the country. This is usually accomplished through the
legislation in the form of a law or act of parliament. Essentially, there are two components in a seed
quality control system namely: the seed certification and labeling. Seed certification may not be
compulsory but labeling is usually compulsory provision of any seed legislation. To accomplish the task
of seed legislation or seed act framing the rules and regulations pertaining the legislation and their scope
is the pre-requisite. In addition, certain basic infrastructural facilities are also required. This includes,
the notification of the seed standards, kind or varieties expected to be governed by the legislation,
establishment of seed certification authority or agency, seed testing laboratories, processing plants and
notification or authorization of seed inspectors and seed analysis.
Essential of seed quality control
The following are the essential components of a seed quality control programme:
1. Quality control of breeder seed
2. Seed certification
3. Seed legislation
4. Seed standards
5. Seed testing

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Lecture: 22
SEED PRODUCTION AND DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM IN NEPAL
General information
 Systematic seed production in Nepal was initiated sometimes in the early seventies.
 To make the beginning, seed was entrusted to AIC in addition to its responsibility for fertilizer.
 In 1962: The first seed testing lab at Khumaltar was established.
 Around 1976: The Hetuda seed processing plant was established.
 October 1988: The Nepal Seed Act is in effect.
 In 1965: Organized seed procurement and distribution programs was started with the
establishment of Agriculture Supply Corporation (ASC).
 In 1969: Coordinated Crop Development Programmes was also started in Rice, maize and
wheat crop
 In 1970: Systematic seed production programme was launched with the project entitled
"Increased Use of High Yielding Crop Varieties and Fertilizers in Nepal" through FAO/UNDP
in Bara, Parsa, Rupendehi, Nawalparasi and Kapilbastu districts of Nepal. At that time, seed
distribution was contracted by ASC later named as Agriculture Marketing Corporation (AMC)
through Agriculture Botany Section (ABS) of Department of Agriculture (DOA). Seeds
approved by ABS used to be marketed named as "Certified Seed".
 Between 1983 and 1990: Organization and conduction of the National Seed Seminars was
made; enactment of Seed Act (1988) and establishment of National Seed Board (NSB) were
landmark achievement.
 In 1993: Seed Development and Quality control Service Section (SDQCS) was created under
Department of Agriculture to provide quality monitoring services to public and private seed
agencies. This section is now functioning under the overall umbrella of NSB.
 After the establishment of Agriculture Input Corporation (AIC), the seed production, storage,
seed treatment and distribution responsibility was taken till 2002.
 AIC is divided as:
 National Seed Company Limited: The national seed company limited is mainly
responsible for the production, processing, storage and certification of quality seed in
Nepal. Its main office is in Kathmandu and regional offices are in Ithari (EDR), Hetuda
(CDR), Bhairahawa (WDR). Nepalgunj (MWDR), and Dhangadi (FWDR). Now days
the main emphasis of seed production has been taken to produce mostly cereal crop
(Rice, wheat and maize only).
 Agriculture Inputs Company Limited:
 Now-a-days Sustainable Seed Multiplication Programme (SSMP) has been launched in all
district of Nepal through Department of Agriculture. In this program the seed production has
been done under community level through forming progressive farmers group. The technical
support i.e. farmer's selection, group formation, training to the farmers, arrangement of quality
seeds, and management of revolving fund etc to each group of farmers has been managed by
District Agriculture Development Office (DADO). In this program the minimum seed
multiplication area of a farmer in each group should be more than 5 ropani in hilly areas and
more than 1 ha in terai and inner terai areas. The arrangement of a revolving fund (more than 60
thousand from DADO and about 60 thousand from the farmers) for each group should be
managed as a revolving fund to purchase source seed, pesticides, machineries, tools and
equipments and other activities. Regional seed testing laboratory of each development region
and DADO of each district takes the field inspection and monitoring responsibility. The final
pricing responsibility of seed is generally done by the representatives from DADO, seed testing
laboratories, NARC, Agriculture Development Bank, farmers and others line agencies. National
seed company purchase the seed from the community level (through community group of
farmers) and processed, certified and stored in warehouse. The demand of seed for next year is
collected from the farmer’s level by field technicians like JT and JTAs and submit to the seed
company. On the basis of seed demand of each district the seed is distributed just before one
month of cropping season of any crop. In this process the seed farmers’ team is involved to
produce quality seed, which is used for general in each districts of Nepal.
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The important programmes which were launched in different time in Nepal are listed below:
 Seed Production and Input Storage Project supported by USAID.
 Agriculture Research and Production Project supported by USAID.
 Integrated Cereal Programme (ICP)
 Koshi Hill Area Rural Development Project (ODA/UK)
 Koshi Hill Agriculture Project (ODA/UK)
 Vegetable Seed Production Project of FAO- FAO/SATA.
 Fresh Vegetable and Vegetable Seed Production Project (FAO/SDC)
 Cereal Seed Production Project (GTZ/FRG)
 Seed Production and Marketing Project GTZ/FRG
 National Seed Potato Development Programme (SWISS)
 Seed Technology and Improvement Programme (STIP)
 Mechi Hill Development Programme (ODA/KHARDEP)
Seed program components
For a clear understanding of the national seed program the following are the major elements of the
national seed program.
Components Organizations
Seed legislation Nepal Seed Act
Strategy and policy coordination National Seed Board and Ministry of Ag.
Seed program planning, monitoring NSB
Variety development and NARC
maintenance
Breeder and foundation seed NARC
Human resource development NSB
Seed testing service NARC, Seed Technology and Iprovement Program
(STIP)
Seed certification / quality NSB/ STIP
assurance
Seed technology research NARC / STIP
International collaboration NSB/STIP
Seed processing and storage Seed production agencies or national seed company
facilities
Seed extension and demand DOA
collection
Seed marketing and distribution National Seed Company (NSC)
Seed producers advisory services DOA/ NSC
Seed industry development NSB/NSC/Private sector
Seed supply system
A national seed system includes the entire complex of organizations, institutions, and individuals
associated with seed programs of the country comprised of the traditional or informal system of farmer -
selected –multiplied- processed- exchanged and retained seeds, and a non-traditional or formal system
of individuals, organizations and institutions involved in specialized tasks related to production and
marketing seed for sale to seed users.
1. Informal seed sector
The informal seed sector in Nepal has its roots in subsistence agriculture in remote areas where market
forces have least impact. It consists of the collective efforts of farmers and their local communities who
save and store part of their harvest for future planting exchange seed with relatives and other framers or
trade seed in the local market place. These farmer and community based seed acquisition and
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distribution channels from the basis of a dynamic, if ill defined seed system. Much of the information
concerning agronomic performance, yield, disease resistance, quality, cultural preference and diversity
of end users is communicated by word of mouth and is seldom, if ever, subject to rigorous experimental
evaluation. A fundamental feature of the informal seed sector is the interrelationship of diversity and
food security- the use of diversity at the genetic level, understanding diversity at the ecological level and
sustaining diversity at the farm management level. Any seed security strategy must take into account the
predominance of subsistence maize production in Nepal.
2. Formal seed sector
The formal seed sector in Nepal comprises public sector institutions such as NARC, DOA, AIC and
private sector seed entrepreneurs. NARC is involved in maize breeding research, variety release, seed
multiplication and to some extent in seed processing, storage, seed marketing and distribution in
response to the clients’ need. DOA is involved in policy issues, certification, quality control and seed
production in DOA farms. The public sector such as AIC is involved in seed production to marketing
but in recent years its activities in maize have been reduced drastically. The role of the private sector is
limited to retail marketing of maize seed in Nepal. The formal seed sector is leading the establishment
of rules and regulation to manage variety release, quarantine, testing, seed certification, product
labeling, and so on. This sector in Nepal is frequently influenced by national politics and bilateral trade
agreements with India, which are driven largely by public sector institutions.

Government farm/
Research Station

Private seed
sector
National Seed (Cooperative
Company Ltd growers)
Community based
Orgaizations (CBOs)

Contract Farmers
Contract Individual
(Seed growers) Themselves farmers farmers
grow

Farmers (Food Grain growers)

Fig: New model of seed supply

(Source: Regmi et al., 2004)

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Lecture: 23
SEED CERTIFICATION
Seed certification is a system which is designed to secure, maintain and multiply the seeds of superior
varieties or hybrids, so grown and distributed as to ensure the genetic identity and purity. In addition,
seed certification also ensures that the seeds conform to the prescribed standards for various seed quality
attributes. It should be borne in mind that neither the field inspection nor the seed testing is certification.
These are the components of the certification. Similarly, seed quality control is not the seed
certification. Seed certification is itself a component of the seed quality control. In certification
programme, seed is produced by farmers through using careful quality control mechanisms like field
inspection during growing season and seed inspection following harvest by legally authorized agency.
High quality seed should equal or exceed the bench mark of standards set for genetic and physical
purity, germination, vigour and should be free from seed borne disease and insect pest damage.
Fundamental concept of seed certification
The following are the basic concept which must be fulfilled before seed certification. Which are:
1. The pedigree of all certified seed crops must be based on lineage.
2. The integrity of certified seed growers must be recognized.
3. Field inspection must be made by qualified inspector.
4. Verification trials to established identification and the usefulness of the varieties and strains
certified must be conducted.
5. It must be recognized that there is necessary of keeping proper records to establish and maintain
satisfactory pedigree of the seed stock.
6. There should be standards for purity and germination established.
7. The principles of sealing seeds to protect both grower and purchaser must be approved.
8. Species of farm weeds which would be included within the meaning of noxious weed must be
defined.
9. There must be standardization of nomenclature used, describing the class of pedigreed seed.
High quality seed can be produced by controlling the production protocol in two ways:
1. By monitoring seed multiplication and processing operations to avoid or minimize the risk of
mechanical or genetical contamination for maximizing biological efficiency of seed crop.
2. By fixing minimum field and seed standards of different crop species to facilitate certification
and assuring dependability of the product to the users.
Objective of certification
 To ensure genuineness and quality of seed to the users or purchasers to increase the production
and productivity of any crop is the main objective of seed certification.
Organization of certification
 Seed certification is done by seed certification agency i.e. Seed Quality Control Center under
Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives of Nepal.
Phases/ sequence of seed certification
Seed certification is usually accomplished in following six phases:
1. Receipt and scrutiny of application
The producer is required to submit an application for certification on the form prescribed by the
certification agency along with relevant evidence about the source of seed, certification tags, sales and
purchase records etc. The certification agency may fix a nominal fee as the cost of application. Each
application must be scrutinize by the official of the certification agency for the crop, variety, locality
and the area intended to be covered for the production of the certified seed. There is no minimum or
maximum limit for the area offered by the produce for certification, provided that the certified seed
production meets all the prescribed requirements.
2. Verification of source
The seed producer intended to produce seed under seed certification must provide relevant evidences,
pertaining to the source of seed which will be used for raising the crop. This is the pre-requisite for seed
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certification. The evidences may include the certification tags, seals, labels, seed container, purchase
record and cash receipt, etc. Such evidence is necessary to conform that the seed used for producing
seed crop has been obtained from the source approved by the seed certification agency or not. Evidence
of the source if not supplied with application, can be provided at the time of first field inspection.
3. Field inspections
Field inspection is required to verify the genetic purity and other factors which can cause irreversible
damage to the genetic purity or seed health. This includes checking for isolation requirements, planting,
seed borne-diseases, objectionable weeds and other contaminants. Field inspection work requires trained
staff who have the knowledge of the variety and the procedures for inspecting the crop. Usually 2-3
inspections are required. The purpose of field inspections is to examine the seed crop in the field and to
determine its suitability for certification. Seed certification inspectors do field inspections. The
inspections should be performed at various stages of crop development such as vegetative stage,
flowering stage, maturity stage, etc. Foundation seed crops are also subjected to the same number of
field inspections as those for certified seed; however, the requirements are more strict. During field
inspections, objectionable weed plants and plant infected by designated (seed borne) diseases are
specifically monitored. After completing the inspection, the inspector must submit a copy of the report
to the producer or his representative.
For the purpose of field inspection the entire are planted under the production of certified seed by an
individual produce may constitute as one unit provided that:
1. It is all under one variety.
2. It does not exceed 10 ha.
3. It is not divided by field separated by more than fifty meters between them.
4. It is planted with the seed belonging to the same class and stage in generation chain and it is
meant for the production of seed of same class.
5. The crop over the entire area is more of less of the same stage of the growth so that the
observations made are the representative of the entire crops.
6. The total area planted corresponds to the quantity of the seed reported to have been used.
7. Raised strictly as a single crop and never as mixed one.
8. Not so heavily and uniformly lodged that more than one third of the plant population is trailing
on the ground leaving no scope for inspection.
9. Not grown as inter, companion or ratoon crop and
10. Fields are so maintained as to show adequate evidence of good crop husbandry.
The above guidelines are not absolute and may be modified by the certification agency according to
situation.
The seed certification scheme may have the provision of the re-inspection on the request of the
producer. For this purpose the agency may charge a separate fee.
4. Supervision of post harvest operations
Seed crop, meeting the field standards for certification should be harvested after the seed reaches
physiological maturity stage and threshed on the clean threshing floor and as far as possible beating the
ear heads with sticks should be avoided to minimize cracking of seed. It will be safer to use
thresher/seed extractors. In hybrid seed production fields, male parent (pollinator) should be harvested
first and removed from the field to avoid mixing with seed parent. Seed producer must take all the
precautions to avoid the seed from admixtures and other causes of seed deterioration. Similarly, while
transporting the seed to the processing plant, adequate care must be exercised to avoid contamination.
In a seed certification scheme, bulking of the unprocessed seed stocks may be permissible to obtain
larger homogenous seed stocks. However, for bulking the seed stocks must meet the following
requirements:
 Belong to the same certified seed producer.
 Belong to the same crop, variety, class or seed and stage in the generation chain.
 Were produced in the same season under the similar agro-climatic conditions.
 Were subjected for certification by the same certification agency.
 Have similar physical composition, lusture and levels of moisture.
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 Are adequately homogenous in composition.

The processing of seed lots must be supervised by the official of the certification agency to avoid
mixing of the seed lots or contamination during processing and packing. The processing plant should
have adequate space for storing the seeds. The phyto-sanitory conditions of the plant and storage
godowns should be of the highest possible order to avoid deterioration of the seed by pests, pathogens
and rodents. Inspection during seed processing is done to determine whether the seeds have been dried
to appropriate moisture level, and whether the correct processing procedure is being followed or not.
Another purpose of such inspections is to determine whether appropriate care is taken to avoid
mechanical mixtures during seed processing. This is not common practice in Nepal.
5. Seed sampling and analysis
After the processing of the seed lot, a representative composite seed sample should be drawn by the
official of the certification agency. The sampling should be done in accordance with the prescribed
procedure. The composite samples should be divided into 3 samples of the size equivalent to the weight
of submitted sample. Each sample should be packed separately in cloth bag. For moisture testing, a
separate sample should be packed in moisture-proof container and be placed in the cloth bag containing
the sample. One sample may be delivered to the seed producer and other should immediately be sent to
the seed testing laboratories. The certification agency must retain one portion as guard sample.
The seed samples should be analyzed in the seed testing laboratory promptly in accordance with the
prescribed procedure and the analysis report should be delivered to the certification agency urgently, but
not later than 30 days from the date of receipt of the samples unless the seed is subjected to such tests
which require more time than the normal test.
Laboratory testing consists of series of seed tests designed to determine the quality seed. Before
certification, seed lots are subject to test to determine the quality of seeds.
1. Purity test
2. Germination or seed viability test and
3. Moisture content test
Seed tests are conducted on small sample sizes (about 25 gm) so it is essential that the samples used for
seed tests are representative of the lot and the samples should be drawn randomly from the seed lots.
6. Grant of certificate and certification tags
The seed certification agency may issue certification tags after receiving the favourable report from the
seed testing. However, if the analysis report reveals that the seed lot is not conforming the prescribed
seed standard, either for purity, germination, moisture; certification tags should not be issued. The
initial validity period is normally nine months from the date of first test. This could be extended for six
months provided seed provided seed conforms to the prescribed seed standards in respect of physical
purity, germination, moisture content and insect damage. The seed lot will be eligible for subsequent
extension of validity period as long as it conforms to the prescribed standards.

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Lecture: 24
SEED AND FIELD INSPECTION
Field inspections
Field inspection, that is, inspection of standing seed crops is an essential step in verifying conformity of
seed crops to prescribed certification standards. It is done by seed certification inspector regularly in
different stages of growth to produce high quality seed. Stages may vary depending upon the duration,
nature of pollination, susceptibility to contamination and diseases and the nature of the contamination
factor. During field inspections, observations are made on isolation, the presence of off-types plants,
errors in planting, planting ratios in the case of hybrid varieties, presence of objectionable weeds and
plants of other crops and the incidence of diseases transmissible through seed. In case of cross- and
often-cross pollinated crops, a very rigid check is applied on the presence of off plants during the
various stages of flowering in order to prevent contamination through pollination. In each crop a
specific number of field inspections must be made at the specified stages of crop growth. In a single
inspection it may not be possible as the different factors do not occur at the same time.
Objectives of field inspection
1. To verify seed origin (source seed) and identity of the variety
2. To collect information on cropping history of the seed field, i.e. to verify whether the seed field
meets the prescribed land requirements
3. To check crop and cultivation conditions
4. To check isolation distance
5. To check freedom from impurities, namely, other crop plants and weed plants
6. To check freedom from other cultivars and off-types
7. To check freedom from seed-borne diseases
General principles of field inspection
1) All field inspections must be made by well-trained and qualified personnel.
2) The prescribed procedures and techniques of field inspection and the minimum number of
inspections specified in the certification standards should be strictly adhered to.
3) Inspection of cross-pollinated crops during flowering and those self-pollinated crops which are
infected by designated seed-borne diseases during flowering stage
4) The seed inspector should achieve full co-operation from the seed growers, even in the case of
the rejection of a field.
5) Upon arrival at seed farm, the inspector should check all information about species, variety, seed
origin, cultivated area, class of seed, cropping history of the field to be inspected and known
adjacent fields of the same species, which may be dangerous from isolation point of view.
6) Each field and its boundaries must be pointed by the seed grower.
7) During the walk in the field, the inspector must make estimates of other varieties and impurities,
diseased plants, general condition of the crop, applied farm practices and possible yield.
8) If the direction of plant rows permits, the inspector should walk through this side or back.
9) For short crops, squat or bend periodically during inspection so that eye level observations can
be made at the top height of plants.
10) Impurities, off-types and diseased plants need not normally be pulled out.
11) In self-pollinated seed crops, if one third or more of the area is so heavily lodged that taking
field count is difficult or impossible, the seed crop should be recommended for rejection.
12) In cross-pollinated crops and hybrids seed fields, if one third or more of the seed crop had
lodged just prior to or during flowering and the inspection during flowering are difficult, the
seed crop should be recommended for rejection without taking field counts.

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13) If roughed plants or heads, etc., are observed lying on the ground within or on the outskirts of
seed field where they could possibly cause contamination, the grower should be directed to
gather and remove them.
14) During an inspection, if the seed field is found to be liable for rejection, in part or in full, on
account of inadequate isolation, the prescribed number of field, counts for that inspection must
still be taken for the entire field.
15) If, on the basis of the first set of field counts, the seed crop does not conform to the prescribed
standards for any factor, a second set of counts should be taken for the concerned factor only.
16) For seed fields involving two parental lines, even if two sets of counts in one of the parental
lines show that the seed field does not conform to be prescribed standards, it is necessary to
record counts in the other parental line.
17) If, at any given inspection, the seed crop does not conform to the prescribed standards, further
inspections need not be made unless the seed crop is eligible for re-inspection after removal of
contaminating factors.
18) If the factor present beyond the maximum permissible level, as verified by two sets of counts,
could not have already caused contamination of the seed crop, or when contamination has
already taken place, if the removal of contaminating factor and contaminated material could
make the seed crop conform to the prescribed standards, their removal from the field may be
recommended or permitted.
19) On completion of field counts, if it is observed that contamination factors are localized in certain
patches, or in parts of the field and it is felt that rouging in such patches is relatively poor, the
inspector may check the entire rows of which the patch is apart.
Method of inspection
The inspection of a seed crop is done at different stages of crop growth so as to make various
verification and estimates of various impurities, off-types and diseases, etc. Following stages of crop
growth are recommended for minimum number of inspections to be made in sexually propagated
species.
1. Pre flowering stage:
This stage includes seedling, vegetative growth and flower or bud initiation prior to emergence of
panicle stage. The inspection at this stage helps certification agency to confirm the seed source and
actual area planted as per allotment so that additional area, if any may be charged for inspection.
2. Flowering stage:
At this stage of inspection, when 5% or more of the plants are in flower and stigma is receptive and
anther has started shedding pollen. The inspector is supposed to check the removal and occurrence of
pollen shedder in bajra and sorghum, shedding tassel in maize, off type, objectionable weed plants,
inseparable other crop plants and diseases such as loose smut of wheat. Errors can be detected in
planting ratios and in marking ends of the male rows in case of cross pollinated crops. In case of self
pollinated crops, the grower should be stressed the necessity of rouging off type, objectionable weed
plant, inseparable other crop plants before subsequent inspections.
3. Post flowering stage:
At this stage of inspection, when the pollen shedding and receptivity of stigma has ended & fertilized
ovule has started developing and in milky stage. During this inspection, the inspector confirms his
earlier observations on planting ration, border rows, rouging, detasseling and pollen shedders etc. were
reasonably accurate and no defective factors have escaped his attention during previous inspections.
He/she should also confirm that the seed producer has thoroughly taken up rouging after receiving
instruction at the time of inspection during flowering.
4. Pre harvest stage:
When the seed become harder and approaches physiological maturity. At this stage seed is fully formed
but very high in moisture content. At this stage of inspection, the inspector is supposed to confirm the
correctness of his observation made in the earlier inspections. He/she has to determine possible factors
which might not have been apparent at the post flowering stage. Special instructions should be given to
the growers on taking up roguing work based on colour, shape and size of ear, seed and chaff. He/she

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has to fix a date for re-inspection for certain factors found in the field which have been permitted for
their removal. At this stage he has to discuss with the producer about the correct method of harvesting
and the handling arrangement.
5. Harvesting stage:
When the crop has reached physiological maturity and seed become sufficiently dry for easy harvesting
and threshing. Inspection at this stage serves the purpose of separately harvesting the male rows which
are removed and sealed. Suitable arrangements have to be made for processing and handling in the
certified processing plant.
Table: The minimum number of field inspections essential for seed certification
Crop Minimum
Stages of crop growth at which field inspections are
number of field
done
inspections
Hybrid maize 4 One inspection before flowering, two inspections
during flowering, one inspection just before or during
harvesting
Other varieties of 2 One inspection before flowering and one during
maize flowering
Wheat, Rice, Barley, 2 Anytime from the initiation of flowering till maturity
Gram, Arhar, Pea,
Soybean, Cotton
Rapeseed, Mustard, 3 First inspection before flowering, second during
Sesame, Cucurbits, flowering and third at the time or after fruits become
Tomato, Chillies, mature/before harvesting.
Okra
Potato 3 First inspection 45 days after planting, second before
killing of aerial shoots and third after killing of aerial
shoots.
Table: A list of objectionable weeds and designated diseases for seed production
Crop Objectionable
Designated diseases
weeds
Wheat
Loose smut (Ustilago tritici)
Convolvulu
s arvensis
Rapeseed and Argemone Alternaria blight (Alternaria brassicae)
mustard Mexicana
Cowpea Nil Anthracnose (Colletotrichum cupsicae), Ascochyta
blight (Ascochyta phaseolorum), Bacterial blight
(Xanthomonas campestris pv. Vignicola)
Cucurbits Wild cucurbits Pumpkin mosaic (Cucumis virus)
Potato Nil Brown rot (Pseudomonas solanacearum), Leaf roll
(Solanum virus), Root knot nematode (Meloidogyne
sp.), Scab (Streptomyces scabies) Wart (Synchytrium
endobioticum)
Various contaminants to be observed during field inspection can be broadly classified into the following
categories:
a) Off-types: Off-type is always counted as an off-type irrespective of its stage of growth
b) Pollen shedder: In hybrid seed production, a plant of the ‘B’ line (maintainer line) in the female
row (male sterile ‘A’ line) is called a pollen shedder.

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c) Shedding tassel: A tassel on a female parent is considered a shedding tassel if 5 cm or more of
the centre spike, or any of the side branches of the spike, or a combination of both, have anthers
exserted from their glumes and are shedding or have shed pollen.

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d) Inseparable other crop plant: They are plants of cultivated crops found in the seed field and
whose seeds are so similar to the crop seed that it is difficult to separate them economically by
mechanical means.
e) Objectionable weed plants: These are plants of weed species whose seed size and shape are
similar to that of crop seeds and which are difficult to remove from the seed economically by
mechanical means.
f) Diseased plants: The plants affected by designated diseases should invariably be counted.
During field inspection, several field counts are taken which involves the following steps:
a) Determine the number of field counts: This is done as given in the following table.
Area of the field in hectares Minimum number of counts to be taken
Upto 2 5
2 to 4 6
4 to 6 7
6 to 8 8
8 to 10 9
Above 10 10
b) Number of plants to be observed for completing one count: It varies from crop to crop.
Crops Number of plants or heads per count
Wide spaced row crops (maize, cole crops, cotton, etc.) 100
Medium spaced row crops (beans, mustard, gram, etc.) 500
Thickly sown crops (paddy, wheat, barley, jute, etc.) 1000
c) Taking the field counts: The method of taking field counts varied somewhat in different crops.
Finally, the results of the field inspection must be reported on a prescribed proforma.

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Seed inspection
a) Seed sampling: Sampling of each seed lot to be certified should normally be done by seed
certification inspector. The bags for sampling should be stored or piled in such a way that the
inspector can reach any bag to get a representative sample of a lot. The inspector must be well-
trained in seed sampling. Before sampling for seed analysis in a seed testing laboratory, the
inspector should check to make sure that the moisture of the seed lot is not notably higher than
the maximum standards and that the lot is acceptably uniform. If these conditions are not met,
the inspector should not take the sample. The sample, properly identified and packed, should be
transferred to a seed testing laboratory without delay. It must be sealed, if mailed or handled by
unauthorized persons. A sampling report giving the following information should be submitted
with sample.
1. Owner of seed lot and address
2. Seed producer and location
3. Kind and variety
4. Lot number or marking
5. Weight of lot
6. Number and kind of units
7. Seed origin
8. Certification class
9. Date of sampling
10. Signature of inspector
b) Time of sampling: The sampling of seed lots should be done at least two times. The first
sampling should be done before the seed is processed to have a preliminary testing for seed
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purity, viability and/or germination and seed health. The second sampling should be done after
cleaning the seed lot.
c) Seed testing: Testing of seed samples drawn by seed certification inspector is done in a seed
testing laboratory.
d) Inspection during seed processing: Inspection during seed processing is done to determine if
the seeds have been dried to the appropriate moisture level, and if the correct processing
procedure is being followed. In case of maize, a check is also made to see that undesirable cobs
have been separated and rejected before silking. Another purpose of such inspections is to
determine if appropriate care is taken to avoid mechanical mixtures during seed processing.

SEED LEGISLATION AND LAW ENFORCEMENT

Seed legislation
Seed laws are designed to aid in the orderly marketing of seed. They establish regulations governing the
sale of seed, thereby providing legal protection to both buyers and sellers. No country can expect to
have a well developed, effective seed industry without seed control regulations. The basic purpose of
seed legislation and its subsequent enforcement is to regulate the quality of seed sold to farmers. So
long as agriculture remains traditional and static, there is little justification for regulating seed quality.
Farmers generally save their own seed from year to year or exchange seed with their neighbours. This
system of agriculture involves almost no commerce in seed and has little need for seed control
legislation. However, with technological advancement and the systematic application of science to
agriculture, it becomes imperative to regulate the quality of seeds through seed legislation and its
subsequent enforcement to ensure that seed buyers are not made to run undue risks. The first seed laws
in developing countries are usually primarily truth-in-labeling laws, requiring that seed be labeled as to
quality, and that such labels truthfully represent the actual seed quality.
There are two fundamental philosophies for regulating seed quality.
1. European philosophy
This philosophy aims at excluding low or uncertain quality seed from the market. The seed laws based
on it are very broad and very restrictive. The law regulates everything from release of varieties through
variety performance testing to the very specific quality of seed that can be marketed.
2. North American philosophy
This philosophy aims at truthful labeling. The seed laws based on this require that all seed marketed be
labeled for specified seed quality attributes and the person or firm marketing the seed be identified on
the tags attached to each container of seed. The quality standards prescribed in laws developed under
this philosophy are also very liberal and relate to purity and germination only.
Types of seed legislation
1. Sanctioning legislation
Such legislation authorizes, establishes or otherwise legally sanctions such activities as
formation/establishment of advisory bodies, seed certification agencies, seed testing laboratories,
foundation and certified seed programmes, recognition of seed certification agencies of foreign
countries, appellate authority, etc.
2. Control legislation
Such legislation regulates the quality of seed sold in the market and include the establishment of
suitable agencies for regulating the seed quality.
Seed law enforcement
The responsibility for enforcing various provisions regarding regulation of sale of seeds of notified
kinds/varieties rests with seed inspectors. The seed inspector is required to:
 Inspect as frequently as may be required all places used for the growing, storage or sale of any
seed of any notified kind or variety
 Satisfy himself that the conditions of the certificates/labels are being observed

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 Procure and send for analysis, if necessary, samples of any seeds, which he has reason to
suspect, are being produced, stocked or sold or exhibited for sale in contravention of the
provisions of the act or the rules
 Investigate any complaint which may be made to him in writing in respect of any contravention
of the provisions of the act or the rules
 Maintain a record of all inspections make and action taken by him in the performance of his
duties, including the taking of samples and the seizure of stocks and to submit copies of such
records to the Director of Agriculture or certification agency
 When so authorized by government, to detain imported containers which he has reason to
suspect contain seeds, the import of which is prohibited, except and in accordance with
provision of the act and the rules
 Institute prosecution in respect of breaches of the act and rules
 Perform such other duties as may be entrusted to him by the competent authority from time to
time
Government quality control services in Nepal
For the implementation of quality control mechanisms in Nepal, National Seed Board (NSB) and its
three sub-committees; Seed Development and Quality Control Service Section (SDQCSS) and Regional
Seed Testing Laboratories (RSTL) are involved. The Nepal Seed Act 1988 has prescribed two systems
i.e. certification and truthful labeling with minimum standards as seed quality control measures.
Certification is carried out on a voluntary basis as per request of the seed producer whereas truthful
labeling is compulsory where seed traders must affix a label describing quality. Seed certification is a
regulated process designed to secure, maintain and make available a prescribed level of genetic purity,
physical purity, physiological quality and health in seed including vegetatively propagated materials of
superior crops and plant varieties. Certification schemes cover the various phases of seed production,
processing, storage and handling so as to meet their requirements of the scheme.
The seed lot after the harvest of a seed crop is tested in a seed testing laboratory to determine its quality.
These testes have been provided free of cost by the five authorized RSTL. Besides these authorized
laboratories there are other laboratories under Agriculture Input Corporation (AIC), Nepal agriculture
research council (NARC) and the private sector but these laboratories can test only for internal quality
control. For certification programme testing can only be carried out by authorized laboratories. Testing
procedures are followed according to International Seed Testing Association (ISTA) rules. All the
regional laboratories under Department of Agriculture (DOA) have the capacity to test around 2000-
3000 samples per annum.

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Lecture: 25
SEED PROCESSING: SEED CLEANING AND DRYING
Seed processing is the process of removal of undesirable materials (weed seed, other crop seed and inert
matter) and the seed is uniformly sized, dried to safe moisture content, treated, tested and bagged. Thus
by seed processing, the physical quality of seed is improved. The equipments like sheller or thresher,
dryer, cleaner, grader, gravity separator, treater, bag closer, set of screens, heat sealers etc are normally
required to establish a small seed processing plant.
Advantages of seed processing
 Due to proper sizing we can get the uniformity in planting, germination and maturity of seed
crop.
 Improvement in seed marketing due to upgrading of seed quality.
 Prevention of the spread of weed.
 Protection from diseases and insects.
 Reduction in seed losses by removing high moisture content and foreign materials from the seed.
As processing begins, the first phase consists of scalping, debearding, hulling, shelling or any other
operations necessary to make the seed flow more readily through cleaners and elevators. The second
phase includes removal of inert matter; weed seed, other crop seed and broken seed that are larger or
smaller than the normal size of seed. This is done by the air screen cleaner but may include one or two
other basic machines. After desired purity obtained, seed enter the final processing phase- drying,
treating and bagging and get ready for marketing.
Seed cleaning and drying
Cleaning is the process of the separation of undesirable material i.e. inner matter, weed seeds, other crop
seeds, light and chaffy seeds, off sized, damaged or deteriorated seed from desirable materials. This is
done on the basis of differences in physical properties of desirable seed and undesirable matter. The
principle physical differences found in seeds are seed size, density, shape, surface texture, colour etc.
Methods of cleaning seeds
There are mainly three methods or steps, which are adopted during seed cleaning. They are:
a. Pre-conditioning and pre cleaning: Pre conditioning refers to the operations performed to
prepare the seed lots for basic seed cleaning e.g. shelling, debearding etc. In pre-conditioning the
pieces of trash, stones, clods, which are larger or lighter than the desirable size and weight of
seeds are removed.
b. Basic seed cleaning: It refers to the actual cleaning and grading of seeds. Many types of seeds
can be completely cleaned and made into a finished product by basic cleaning. Basic seed
cleaning is done over an air screen machine, which is called air screen cleaner. It is a basic seed
cleaning equipments of the seed processing plant.
c. Upgrading the quality of cleaned seed: The various processing operations conducted after
basic cleaning operation to further improve seed quality are regarded as upgrading operations.
This practice is done to further upgrade the seed quality by removing either specific condiments,
or by very precise size grading. The choice of upgrading operation depends upon the type of
contaminants and crop seed. Different types of screens are used in cleaning seeds.
Drying of seed
Drying of seed lots i.e., lowering down the seed moisture content to safe moisture limits, is very
important in order to maintain seed viability and vigour which may otherwise deteriorate fast due to
mold growth, heating and increased microorganisms.
For the production of high quality seed drying for effective seed storability and longevity is very
important. At maturity stage, the moisture content of the seed is quite high (upto 45%). It has to be
reduced to a safe level weather it has to be stored for short or long period. For short term storage (upto 9
months) the seed should be dried to a moisture content of 8-10%. For storage upto three years, it has to
be dried to 6-8%. High moisture content during storage is undesirable. Seed is living hygroscopic
material, its moisture content depends upon the relative humidity and temperature of the air. Whenever
the vapour pressure within the seed is greater than that of the surrounding air, vapour will move out of
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the seed and vice versa. When the two vapour pressure are equal, there is no net movement of vapour, at
which point the moisture content of the seed is in a state of equilibrium with the surrounding
atmosphere. Drying air temperature higher than 43oC are injurious to seed quality.
Advantages of seed drying
1. Seed drying permits early harvest.
2. Permits long term storage.
3. Permits efficient use of land and manpower.
4. Permits use of plant stalks as green fodder.
5. Permits seeds men to sell a better quality product.
Methods of seed drying
There are mostly two methods of seed drying, which are:
1. Sun drying
This method involves for reducing the moisture level of crops before harvest, after harvest and after
threshing of seeds on the threshing floor in a couple of days. The main advantages of sun drying are that
it requires no additional expenditure; some diseases of seeds can also be controlled by the sun rays and
this technique is known as heliotherapy. The disadvantages are delayed harvests, risk of weather
damage and increased likelihood of mechanical admixture. During sun drying the produce should not
spread on wet, dirty and kachha threshing floor and to avoid mechanical admixture only one crop
variety should be handled in a threshing floor
2. Forced air drying
In this method natural or heated air is forced in to seeds. The air passing through damp seeds picks of
water. The evaporation cools the air and the seed. The heat necessary for evaporating the water comes
from the temperature drop of the air. This is the most fundamental principle of forced air seed drying.
There are generally three methods of forced air drying which are:
a. Natural air drying: Natural air is used in this type of drying method.
b. Drying with supplemental heat: Small quantities of heat to raise temperature about 10-20 oC
for reducing RH are provided in this method so that drying can take place.
c. Heated air drying: In this method the drying air is heated considerably as much as 110oF.

Fig: IRRI-type hot air drier

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Lecture: 26
SEED BLENDING, UPGRADING AND TREATMENT
Seed Blending
Seed blending is the process of mixing of two or more dissimilar portions of seed produces for
maintaining overall uniformity in the final seed lot. When the seed is produced in different fields, it is
obvious that the seed will have dissimilarity in its test weight, inert matter, germination, percentage of
weed and other crop seeds. Under such condition mixing or blending of seed is essential. For example if
a seed lot having substandard germination can be blended with a lot of unusually high germination so as
to get one relatively large lot of acceptable germination. Seed blending process is difficult and it
requires care while blending the seed lots. Only reliable seed agencies adopt this practice for the sake of
their good will in the market.
The Pearson square method is adopted for finding out the proportions of different seed lots that can be
blended together to get a final lot of desired quality. Mainly two types of equipments are used for
blending, which are:
a. Batch blending and
b. Continuous blending
When small quantities of seeds are mixed into different batches by using simple machines called batch
type of blenders. There are three types of batch blinders i.e.
i) Rotary drum blender,
ii) Conical mixers and
iii) Vertical spiral conveyor blenders.
When big machines are used for blending huge quantities of seeds, the machines that are called
continuous type of blenders. These are:
i) Continuous centrifugal blender,
ii) Horizontal blender
iii) Bin-feeding devices and
iv) Multiple bin arrangements.
Calculation of seed blending for dissimilar lots of seed
There are two seed lots having 98% and 75% germination respectively. How much quantities of each
seed lot should be mixed together to get a final lot of 85% germination?
98%
10 parts of 98% germination seed

85%

75%
13 parts of 75% germination seed

23 (Substract) 23 parts of 85% germination seed (add)

Thus, in the process of blinding, the blinder should mix in a proportion of 10 parts of 98% germination
and 13 parts of 75% germination seeds so as to get a seed lot of 85% germination.

Seed Upgrading
Seed upgrading practices are generally conducted after basic cleaning of seed to further improve the
quality seed. The various processing operations are necessary for upgrading the quality of seed. These
operations are depend upon the type of contaminants and crop seed. Different upgrading operations are
done by using different machines these operations are:

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a. Sizing and grading

Machines, which are used for the separation of extremely sensitive and precise process of seed based on
seed thickness and width. The seeds are sized for width by using round hole screen openings, and for
thickness by using slotted screening openings.
b. Gravity or weight separations
Using floatation principle uses the gravity separator. In this separation, seeds are vertically stratified in
layers on the deck according to density. Seeds of same size are stratified and separated by differences in
their specific gravity. Seeds of same size are stratified and separated by differences in their size.
c. Air separations
Pneumatic and aspirator separators are use for the movement of air to divide seeds according to their
terminal velocities. Terminal velocity is the velocity of air required to suspend particles in a rising air
current. When a seed mixture is introduced into a confined rising air stream, all particles with a terminal
velocity less than the air velocity will be lifted and seeds with higher terminal velocities will fall below
against the airflows. Many factors such as density, shape and surface and texture affect resistance of a
particle to air flow.
d. Surface texture separation
Roll mill, magnetic separators, inclined draper separator are use for the separation of seed based on their
surface texture. Separation of smooth clover seeds e.g. from rough seed coat, seeds irregular shape,
wrinkled or shriveled seeds, broken , clipped or damaged seeds, rough or irregularly shaped inert
materials are separated by using roll mill. For the removal of contaminating weed seed from the seeds of
clovers, alfalfa, trefoils and vetch magnetic separators are used.
e. Electronic separation
For the separation of off coloured seeds, electronic colour sorters are used. The electronic colour sorters
separates the seeds on the basis of a differences in colour brightness. Electrostatic separators are used
for specific separation of seed like Johnson grass seed from sesame seeds.
f. Polishing operation for seed quality upgrading
Polishing is an operation, which is done to improve the lustre of seeds. Beans, peas, popcorns are
polished by using polishers like saw dust or bran to remove discolouration of seeds. Mechanical
brushing or rubbing action can also be done for polishing of seed.

Seed Treatment
Seed treatment is necessary to maintain the quality of seed. Seeds, which are susceptible to different
kinds of seed borne diseases, should be treated with the recommended chemical before certification.
Seed treatment provides a good insurance against diseases, soil borne organisms and thus affords
protection to weak seeds enabling them to germinate and produce seedlings.

Seed treatment is one single operation, which returns more money for the amount invested. It is
reasonable guarantee against crop failures due to at least externally seed borne pathogen. Therefore it is
sound practice to use treated seed. Fungicide, bactericides, insecticides etc are generally used for seed
treatment. Fungicidal seed treatment can be divided into three categories depending on the nature and
purpose of the treatments, which are:
a) Seed disinfection: It is the process of elimination of a pathogen, or its spores which has
penetrated into the living cells of the seed, infected it and become established within seed.
Different systemic fungicides are used to kill these microorganisms.
b) Seed disinfestation: It is the process of elimination of pathogenic spores or other forms of
organisms which are present on the seed surface without being infected by the organism.
c) Seed protection: It is the process of chemical treatment of the soil to protect the seeds and
young seedlings from pathogenic organisms. If the soil is not treated properly before sowing of
seed the soil microorganisms can cause the decay of seeds.

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Conditions for seed treatment

Under following conditions under which seed must be treated:
a) Injured seeds: Injured seeds or break seed coat may afford an excellent opportunity for fungi or
bacteria to enter the seed for killing embryo or weakening the seedlings that will be produced
from it. Seeds suffer mechanical injury during combining and threshing operations or from
being dropped from excessive heights or may be injured by weather or improper storage.
b) Diseased seed: Disease organisms can infect the seeds during harvesting or processing time. If
the seed is processed on contaminated machinery or if stored in contaminated containers or
storehouses the contamination chances will be high.
c) Undesirable soil conditions: If the seeds are planted under unfavourable soil conditions such as
cold and damp soil or extremely dries soils, which may be favourable for the growth and
development of certain fungal spores to attack and damage the seeds.
Chemicals used
1. Mercurials:
 Organo mercurials: Recommended for the treatment of small grains, flax, cotton and safflower;
Example: Agrosan GN, Ceresan
 Inorganic mercurials: eg. Mercuric oxide, Mercuric chloride, Mercurous chloride, etc.; limited
primarily to seeds, roots, tubers, garden and vegetable crops
2. Non- mercurials:
 Organo non-mercurials: eg. Thiram, captan etc.; used for millet, maize, wheat, barley; act as
seed disinfectants and/or seed protectants
 Inorgaic non-mercurials: eg. Copper sulphate, Cuprous oxide, Copper carbonate, etc.; used for
wheat
Methods of seed treatment:
1. Dust treatment: Seeds are treated with dust fungicides in a closed barrel type rotating drums,
usually applied at rates of 200 to 250 grams per quintal of seed.
2. Wet treatment: Water soluble chemicals are dissolved in water in containers and seeds are
dipped for a certain period of time and then dried properly before packing and storing
3. Slurry treatment: Chemicals are mixed with small quantity of water to make slurry and then
the mixture is applied to seeds in automatic or semi-automatic machines
Advantages of seed treatment:
 Prevention of plant disease
 Controlling soil insects
 Controlling storage insects
 Improving seed germination
Precautions for seed treatment
 Seeds having high moisture content should not be treated
 Correct dose of chemicals should be used
 The treated seeds should not be used for human or animal consumption
 The treated seeds should be well lebelled properly in order to indicate treated seeds are
injurious

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Table: Schedule for seed treatment

Crop Name of chemical and Dosage for 100 kg of seed
its formulation Qty of chemical Nature of Qty. of water in the
(gm) treatment case of slurry (ltr)
Paddy Ceresin wet 2.5% or 60 W To immerse seed
Organo-mercurial 1% 250 D completely
Wheat Thiram 75% WP or 100 S ½
Mancozeb 200 S ½
Or Organo-mercurial 250 D -
1%
Maize Thiram 75% WP 70 S ½
Or Captan 75% WP 70 S -
Black Thiram 75% WP 250 D -
gram Or Carbendazim 50% 100 S ½
WP
Green Thiram 75% WP 75 S -
gram Or Carbendazim 50% 100 D -
WP
Lentil Agrosan GN 1% 250 D -
Groundnut Captan 75% dust 250 D -
Or Thiram 75% WP 125 S ½
Rapeseed Agrosan GN 1% 250 D
and Or Thiram 75% WP 250 D
mustard
Soybean Mancozeb or 300 D -
Captan 75% WP plus 150 plus150 D -
Thiram 75% dust (300)
Sesamum Thiram 75% WP 300 D -
Sunflower Thiram 75% WP 250 D -
Or Mancozeb 250 D -
Cotton Captan 75% WP 250 D -
Or Thiram 75% WP 110 S ½
Jute Captan 75% WP 80 S ½
Or Carbendazim 50% 200 D -
WP

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Lecture: 27
SEED STORAGE AND FACTORS AFFECTING STORAGE LIFE OF SEED
Good seed storage mechanism is basic requirement in seed production programme. Maintenance of high
seed germination and vigour after harvest of crop until planting is very important in seed storage. Post
harvest losses are to the extent of 10% out of which 6.6% loss is in the storage. During storage period,
the seed deteriorates due to ageing.
Purpose of safe seed storage
 To maintain the physical and physiological condition from harvest to planting of seed or to
preserve the planting material form one season until the next.
Seed storage potential
Seeds have traditionally been grouped into two main groups according to their physiological storage
potential namely recalcitrant and orthodox. Orthodox seeds can be dried to low (2-5%) moisture content
and can, with low moisture content, be stored at low temperature. Seeds of recalcitrant species maintain
high moisture content at maturity (often > 30-50%) and are sensitive to desiccation below 12-30%,
depending on species and cannot be stored for longer as in case of orthodox.
Stages of seed storage
1. Store on plant (from physiological maturity till harvest)
2. Processing to store in warehouse
3. In storage house or warehouse
4. In transit (truck, carts etc)
5. In retail store
6. On the user’s farm
Causes of seed deterioration
Seeds start deterioration when it reaches maturity. Bad weather before harvest may cause considerable
deterioration of seed. Nutritional deficiency, water shortage, lodging at the time of seed development
and fungal attack on seed can also cause the deterioration in the seed. Mechanical damages during
harvesting, threshing, drying, packaging and handling may also cause seed deterioration. The storability
of seed lot depends on its initial quality. In other words, the storage life of good quality seed lot is much
longer than the life of poor quality seed. Therefore, seed producers should be aware since crop maturity
to maintain its quality.
Process of seed deterioration
Seed is biological product and has a process of ageing and then deterioration. We can’t stop the process
of ageing, but it can be slow down by providing proper storage condition. The speed of deterioration of
seed highly related to the environment where the seed are stored and to some extent to environment
conditions at the time of seed development stages. Sever deterioration results in poor germination
capacity and plant establishment even if the seed is kept under favourable conditions. The loss of vigour
and viability of seed as function of time is shown as figure below:
100
vigour
viability
Percent

50

0
Time

From above curve it is indicated that vigour drops more rapidly and also before viability drops.

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The loss of vibour and viability depends on kinds of seed. Some seed deteriorates faster while other
deteriorates slowly. However, deterioration rate is minimal at crop maturity. The rise and fall of
qualities in seed is shown in the following figure.
Mature seed
Fertilization Death (seed)
12-14 days Few days to many
Increased years
viability Respiration

Moisture High
loss temperature

Structure
development High humidity

Increased of Mechanical
dry wt injury
Increasing
size Time

Figure: The rise and fall of seed qualities

General Principals of Seed Storage
1. Seed storage condition should be dry and cool.
2. Pest should be controlled effectively.
3. The store should be cleaned or maintain proper sanitation.
4. Seed should be dried to safe moisture limit before placing in storage condition.
5. High quality seed should be stored only (well cleaned, treated, high germination percentage and
vigour etc).
6. The length of storage time and prevailing climate should be determined or cared.
Factors Affecting Seed Longevity
1. Genetic effects
Storage potential is heritable. Species and sometimes genera typically showed inherited storage
behavior, which may be either orthodox or recalcitrant. The different types of germplasm or variety are
specificity for storability. Some kinds of crop species or variety are naturally short lived, e.g., onion,
soybean, peanuts, etc. while cotton and wheat seeds can be stored for medium and rice, beans etc are
long lived and can be stored for longer period.
2. Initial Seed quality
The seeds lots having vigorous, undeteriorated seeds store longer than deteriorated seeds. Depending
upon the severity of damage, or degree of deterioration, e.g., extent of weathering damage, mechanical
injury, flat, wrinkled or otherwise damage seed, even seed lots of good germination, at the beginning of
storage, can and do decline rapidly within a few months. The only implication of this is that only high
quality seed should be carried out.
3. Moisture content of seed
The amount of moisture in the seed is probably the most important factor influencing seed viability
during storage. Over most of the moisture range, the rate of deterioration increases as the moisture
content increases. The following table shows the effect of moisture content on seed storability.

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Seed moisture content % Storage life

11-13 ½ year
10-12 1 year
9-11 2 year
8-10 4 year
The higher the moisture content of the seeds, the more they are adversely affected by both upper and
lower ranges of temperature. Very low moisture content (< 4%) may also damage seeds due to extreme
desiccation or cause hard-seededness in some kinds. Since the life of a seed and its span largely
revolves around its moisture content, it is necessary to dry seeds to safe moisture contents. The safe
moisture content, however, depends upon storage length, type of storage structure, kind/variety of seed,
and type of packaging material used. For cereal in ordinary storage condition for 12-18 months, seed-
drying upto 10% appears quite satisfactory.
4. Relative humidity and Temperature
The main external factor directly affecting seed moisture content is the relative humidity of the
atmosphere. If seeds are very dry but relative humidity is very high, the seeds will tend to take moisture
from the atmosphere. The opposite occurs if the seeds are wet and atmosphere is dry. The process will
be continued until it reaches equilibrium between the moisture in the seed and in the atmosphere. It is
known as the equilibrium moisture content. In sealed storage, seed moisture content determines the RH
of environment in the container. Seed moisture content fluctuates with the change in RH. Temperature
increased by 10OC results in 2% decreases in moisture content of seed at a given RH and vice versa.
Temperature also plays an important role in life of seed, although if does not appear to be a controlling
one. Within the normal range of biological activity of seeds, insects and moulds increase as temperature
increases. The higher the moisture content of seed, the more they are adversely affected by temperature.
Therefore, effective means for maintaining seed quality in storage is decreasing temperature and seed
moisture. Low temperature is varying effective in maintaining seed quality even if RH might be high.
Good cold storage for seed should not exceed 60% in RH.
Table: Absorbed equilibrium moisture content of cereal seeds at various RH and approx. 250C
Crop Relative humidity (%)
15 45 75 100
Shelled maize 6.4 10.5 14.8 23.8
Rice, milled 6.8 10.7 14.4 23.6
Buckwheat 6.7 10.8 15.0 24.5
Wheat, hard red winter 6.4 10.5 14.6 25.0
Temperature influences the seed on storage in two ways:
1. It influences in seed moisture to bring equilibrium with a given relative humidity.
2. At higher temperature, seed with higher moisture respires rapidly and thus loss their vigour and
viability.

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30

Seed moisture (%)

25
20
15
10
5
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Relative humidity (%)

Fig: Relationship of atmosphere relative humidity and seed moisture content

Harrington’s thumb rules are useful to measure roughly the effect of moisture and temperature to the
seed’s life span. The rules stated that:
a. For every 1% decreases in seed moisture, the life of the seed is doubled (it applies between
14 and 5% moisture).
b. For every decrease of 10 oF in storage temperature, the life of seed is doubled (it applies
between 122 oF and 32 oF).
5. Oxygen pressure: Increases in pressure of O2 tend to decrease the period of viability.
6. Seed maturity
Seed lot may contain both mature and immature seeds. Immature seeds that are smaller than normal
size, wrinkled and shriveled do not store well. Delayed harvesting also causes reduction in viability. In
the rainy season, rice seed harvested 25 days after 50% flowering have viability for longer periods than
seeds harvested at later dates.
7. Seed structure and size
Mechanically injured seeds have reduced storability. Damage to seed during harvest is influenced by
seed size, seed shape, firmness of the seed coat and seed moisture content. Damage seed not only
deteriorate faster but are also more susceptible to storage fungi and treatment damage.
8. Initial viability
Seeds lots with high initial viability also have a higher longevity in storage. The progression of natural
ageing with resultant loss of viability is not linear over time but typical follows a sigmoid pattern.
9. Effects of insects and diseases
When insects and diseases damage the seed, the viability as well as storability of seed will be influenced
directly. The important pests known to be found in the storages are rice weevil (Sitophilus orzae), Kapra
beetle (Trogoderma granarium), Rhizopertha dominica, Tribolium castaneum (Rust red flour beetle),
Saw toothed grain beetle, Almond moth and Indian meal moth. Temperature above 40 oC causes the
death of most of the insects. Also, there is no insect activity at seed moisture content below 8%.
10. Rodents and birds effects
The effect of birds and rodents from the field to seed storehouse may influence the storability of any
crop seeds. When the seed is damaged more, its quality and storability will be deteriorated quickly and
vice versa. The annual loss of rodents is about 1.7% of the total stored grain and seed. There are three
common methods of destroying rodents, which are: a) Poison baiting b) Fumigation c) Trapping.
Types of storage
 Ventilated godowns: for 6-10 months (short period)
 Temperature and humidity control stores: upto 10 years (long term)
 Moisture proof container: 3-4 years (intermediate)

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Management of seed storage

 Cleanness of storage.
 Disinfect the storage before seeds are kept.
 Fumigate the seed before storage.
 Fumigate the packaging materials.
 Keep the seed bags on the pallets providing sufficient space around the pallets to facilitate
fumigation and sampling.
 Periodical supervision of seed lot.
 Affix a stack card for identification of seed lot indicating crop variety, year of production and
germination percentage.
One should not forget the following things
 Qualities of seed can’t improve in storage; it can at best be maintained.
 High quality seed store better than low quality seed.
 Care of seed should begin from the field as deterioration of seed starts from physiological
maturity.
 Seeds are hygroscopic; tend to absorb or loose moisture from the atmosphere.
 Seeds can be protected from high relative humidity using moisture proof container.
 Direct sunlight is harmful to seed viability.
 Well dry seed can maintain physiological quality.

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Lecture: 28
SEED TESTING
Seed testing is most important practice to evaluate the quality of seed meant for sowing purpose. Seed
tests consist of a serried of tests designed to determine the quality of seed. Seed tests are done in seed
testing laboratories. Generally, the following tests are conducted to determine the quality of seeds:
purity test, germination or viability test, vigour test, moisture content test, etc.
Objectives of seed testing
 To determine their quality, that is their suitability for planting.
 To identify seed quality problems and their probable cause.
 To determine the need for drying and processing and specific procedures that should be used.
 To determine if seed meets established quality standards or labeling specifications.
 To establish quality and provide a basis for price and consumer discrimination among lots in the
market.
Seed sampling
Seed tests are conducted on small samples generally drawn from processed seed lots. It is essential that
the samples used for seed tests are representative of the lot. Therefore, elaborate attempts are made to
draw a random sample from seed lots. If the sample represents a single bag, samples should be drawn
with the help of a trier from 3 or more places of the bag and composited. If the seed sample represents a
number of bags, one sample should be drawn from each bag or from a random selection of bags and the
seeds from all such samples should be composited. The idea is to obtain a sample, which represents the
entire seed lot and not one or two bags of the seed lot. The composited seed is thoroughly mixed and is
subdivided into a number of smaller samples, know as working samples, the weight of working sample
is usually 25 gm. Often the seed samples are mixed and subdivided into working samples with the help
of certain machines, e.g. Boerner divider, Gamet precision divider, etc.
Sampling intensity
Lot size Minimum number of primary samples to be taken
Less than 50 kg Three
50-500 kg Five
501-3,000 kg One primary sample for each 300 kg, but not less than a total of five.
3,001-20,000 kg One primary sample for each 500 kg, but not less than a total of ten primary
samples.
20,000 kg and One primary sample for each 700 kg, but not less than forty primary samples.
above
Viability test
a. Germination test
Germination is defined as ‘the emergence and development from seed embryo of those essential
structures, which, for the kind of seed tested, indicate its ability to develop into a normal plant under
favourable conditions in soil’. Thus germination test is of great importance because the sole function of
seed is to produce healthy seedling for raising a good crop. Germination test determines the percentage
of seeds that produce healthy root and shoot. In most of the cases, seeds are germination on wet filter
paper placed in petridishes. Other media used are sand, towel paper, etc. the petridishes are kept under
controlled conditions in an incubator or in a culture room. For most species, a temperature between 18-
22oC is adequate; for some species, a specific temperature may be required. Generally diffuse light or
even darkness suffices. Where required, the specific environment should be provided for germination
tests. The duration of germination test varies from7-28 days depending upon the crop species. For most
of the cereals and many legumes, 7 days are enough. Germinated seeds are counted at regular intervals
and are removed from the petridishes. The total number of germinated seeds would be the sum of
number of seeds that germinated at different observations.

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Total number of seeds germinated

Germination (%) = Total number of seeds planted × 100
b. Tetrazolium method
This method determines the percentage of viable seeds, which may be expected to germinate. This test
is very rapid (can complete in less than 24 hr) and useful for dormant and non- dormant seeds. The
tetrazolium testing method based on the enzymatic activity of the seed. The living or non-living seeds
can be distinguished by the presence or absence of the respiratory processes. Respiration in seeds is
controlled by a group of enzymes known as ‘dehydrogenases’. The presence or absence of the enzyme
dehydrogenase in the seed will, therefore, indicate whether the seed is ‘living’ or ‘dead’. So, it is
biochemical method in which viability of seed is determined by relative respiration rate of living tissues
which yields hydrogen ions by the activity dehydrogenase enzyme, the released hydrogen ions react
with 2-3-5-tetrazolium salt forming triphenyl formazan (red and insoluble product). Such reaction
causes seed color red whereas the dead tissues of seed does not respire. Therefore dead seed remains
colorless even after dipping in tetrazolium salt solution (0.5 % for bisected seed or embryo and 1 % sol
for whole seed).
The reaction is as follows:

In this test the seeds are soaked in tap water overnight and are split longitudinally with the help of
scalpel so that a portion of the embryo is attached with each half of the seed. One half of each seed is
placed in a petridish and covered with 0.1% aqueous solution of tetrazolum chloride for 4 hr. the seeds
are then washed in tap water and the number of in which the embryo is stained red is determined.
Number of half seed stained red
Viable seeds (%) = Total number of half seeds × 100
Purity test
The term purity analysis for seed testing view point, refers to the physical or mechanical purity of seed
lot. The working sample is closely examined, often with the help of a magnifying glass, to classify it
into the following components:
1. Pure seeds: seeds of the variety under certification
2. Seeds of other varieties of same crop
3. Seeds of other crops
4. Seeds of weeds/objectionable weeds
5. Inert matter: sand, straw, stones, pebbles, soil particles, etc.
6. Defective seed: broken and shrunken seeds. A broken seed that is larger than half of its original
size and has intact embryo is classified as pure seed.
Weight of pure seed
Purity (%) = Total weight of working × 100
sample
Weight of pure seed × 100
= Weight of (pure seed + seeds of other varieties
+seeds of other crops + weed seeds + inert matter)
Impurity (%) = 100 – Purity (%)
Impurity percentage is also referred to as dockage.
Moisture content
Moisture content is determined as percent water content of the seeds. Optimum moisture content
reduces deterioration during storage, prevents attack by molds and insects and facilitates processing.
The moisture content is determined by drying the seed samples in an oven or with the help of moisture
meter. In case of oven method, weighed samples are dried at 130 oC for 90 minutes in an oven. The dried
seeds are weighted again. The loss in weight represents the weight of water lost due to drying.

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W1 — W2
Moisture content (%) = × 100
W1
Where W1 is wt of seed sample before drying and W2 is wt of seed sample after drying.
Moisture meter measure the resistance of seeds to an electrical current, the electrical resistance of seeds
varies with the moisture content.
Cultivar purity test
Determination of amount of seeds of other varieties of the same crop in a seed lot that is under
certification is often more difficult than that of other impurities, e.g., other crop seed, weed seed, etc.
For this purpose, samples from seed lots are compared with the authentic seed sample of the cultivar in
question. An adequate amount of seed must be sampled for cultivar test. This seed sample is subjected
to the following three types of tests:
1. Examination of seed in the laboratory
2. Examination of seedlings grown in a growth camber or green house
3. Field plot tests or grow-out test
Table: Minimum weight of seed sample required for cultivar purity test
Crop species Laboratory test only (gm) Field plot and laboratory test
(g)
Pea, Mung, Maize, Soybean 1000 2000
Wheat, Barley 500 1000
Others 100 250
Real value of seed
The real value of seed is the percentage of a seed sample that would produce seedlings of the variety
under certification. This is also known as utility percentage of seed and is a function of the purity and
germination percentages of seed sample.
Purity % × Germination %
Real value of seed (%) = 100

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Lecture: 29
SEED SECTOR PLANNING AND ORGANIZATIONS
International organizations to control the quality of seed
1. International Seed Testing Association (ISTA)
2. Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD)
3. International Crop Improvement Association (ICIA)
4. International Union for the Protection of New Varieties of Plant (UPOV)
5. International Association of Breeders for the Protection of Plant Varieties (ASSINSEL)
6. International Seed Trade Federation (FIS)
7. Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)
International Seed Testing Association (ISTA)
ISTA is the only world-wide organization dedicated to seed testing on an international scope. The ISTA
had its beginning in the early 1900s, when seed technicians from several European laboratories felt the
need for more exchange of seed testing information and communication among seed laboratories in
different countries. During this period, the international seed trade was becoming established, creating
the need for standardization of seed-quality concepts across national borders. This need was first put
into action at the 1905 Botanical Congress in Vienna, during which several people met informally to
plan a European seed testing association. The Second seed testing congress was held in 1910, and the
subsequent congress was not held. The fourth international seed testing congress was held in
Cambridge, England, in 1924 and at this meeting the name was officially changed to the International
Seed Testing Association.
ISTA has the aim to develop and publish standard procedures in the field of seed testing. It is
inextricably linked with the history of seed testing. With member laboratories in over 70 countries
world-wide, ISTA membership is truly a global network. ISTA has approximately more than 160
personal members. The ISTA holds a congress every three years at different locations throughout the
world to hear scientific and technical papers from its members and to provide forums and committee
meetings for the exchange of information and the finding of solutions to mutual problems.
Vision: Uniformity in Seed Testing world wide
Mission
 ISTA achieves its vision by producing internationally agreed rules for seed sampling and testing,
accrediting laboratories, promoting research, and providing international seed analysis
certificates, training and dissemination of knowledge in seed science and technology to facilitate
seed trading nationally and internationally.
Goals
 Development of rules for seed testing,
 Standardization of testing techniques,
 Seed research, and
 Cooperation with other international agencies for seed improvement.
Objectives
 To develop, adopt and publish standard procedures for sampling and testing seeds
 To promote uniform application of procedures for the evaluation of seeds moving in the
international trade.
 To promote research in all areas of seed science and technology.
 To establish and maintain relationship with other organisms having interest in seed.
 To participate in conference and training courses aimed to fulfill the above objectives.
Committees of ISTA
The association is headed by 11 member executive committees who are elected by accredited members
by the ordinary meeting held every third year. Fifteen special committees have been formed consisting
of 15 members each with specialist in their technical field. These committees take care of technical
work in research method, sampling, purity, germination, TZ test, health test, cultivar purity testing,

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moisture, storage and statistics. In addition to this forest tree seed committee, flower seed committee,
vigour test committee, nomenclature committee is also functional.
The Secretariat of ISTA
The secretariat is being changed every 10th year among the ISTA member laboratories. Previously it was
in Denmark, Netherlands and Norway and now it is located in Zurich, Switzerland. For communication
ISTA has recognized three languages i.e. English, French and German.
Notable accomplishment
1. In promoting uniformity of seed testing results among laboratories, it has facilitated movement
of seed across international boundaries and helped farmers get the best possible seed regardless
of the country of origins.
2. It has arranged for seed scientists and technicians to meet and discuss their problems and to find
solutions for them. By drafting seed testing rules and by discussing their interpretations, they
have provided as sound basis for enactment of seed laws to protect the farmer.
3. It has helped to achieve closer association between test results and field performance, assisting
farmers to recognize seed of high plating value.
4. It has organized training courses and workshops in Africa, Asia and South America to help
promote seed testing in areas of rapidly emerging agriculture.
5. It has provided a focal point of seed knowledge.
Publications of ISTA
1. Proceedings of ISTA (from 1924 to 1973).
2. Seed Science and Technology (Proceedings from 1973 to date)
3. Advances in Seed Science and Technology (proceedings of literature review).
4. Seed Abstract (collaborating with Common Wealth Agricultural Bureau)
5. News Bulletin (Secretariat issues)

NATIONAL SEED ACT AND REGULATION

1. Seed Act, 1988 (2045)
a. The Act consists of 24 sections along with number of sub-sections and clauses.
b. The main purpose of this Act is to make high quality seed in a well-organized manner for
increased production.
c. The act provides the definitions of various terms and terminologies like seed, crop, notified seed,
seed testing board etc used in the Act.
d. The Act sanctions the establishment of different statutory bodies such as National Seed Board
and sub committees under the Board; Seed Certification Body, Central Seed Testing
Laboratories and also the provision of other Governmental and non-governmental laboratories as
prescribed in the Regulations.
e. The Act also provides for the notification of seeds of kinds/varieties and also areas to be brought
under the purview of the Act and the Regulation. These include:
 Restriction in sale and distribution of such seeds.
 Requirement for labeling the container.
 Meeting the minimum quality standard for germination and purity.
 Obtaining approval for export and import from authorized body.
f. The Act also sanctions the appointment of Seed Inspectors, Seed Analyst and Law Enforcement
Machinery, prohibition of sale of seeds treated with toxic chemicals, punishment and penalty for
offenders, power to hear the case and protection of action in good faith.
g. Finally the Act empowers HMG/N to frame rules and regulations under the act.

2. Seed regulation, 1997

The regulation provides the basis for implementation of the Act. The Regulations consists of 5 chapters,
23 rules and 8 schedules along with sub-rules and clauses.

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a. The seed Regulation sanctions the following three sub committees as the permanent committees
of the National Seed Board (NSB) with their composition, functions, duties, power and
procedures related to meetings.
They are:
 Variety Approval, Release and Registration (VARR)
 Seed Planning, Formulation and Monitoring (SPFM)
 Seed Quality Standards’ Determination and Management (SQSDM).
b. The Regulation makes provisions relating to approval, release, registration and ownership of
seeds, its process, records of seeds, right of ownership of new variety, breed or selected by any
breeder and necessary schedules.
c. The Regulation also makes provisions in relation to Seed Certification, export and import, the
functions, duties and powers of seed certification body, procedures for the certification
functions, duties and powers of the Central Seed Testing Laboratory, restriction on sale and
distribution of notified seeds in addition to the notified seeds pursuant to Section 13 of the Act
and necessary schedules.
d. The Regulation empowers the member secretary of the Board to issue the permit for export or
import of notified seeds.
e. The Regulation also covers the functions, duties and powers of seed inspectors and Seed
Analyst.
f. Finally the Regulation confers
 HMG/N to change and alter schedules as necessary.
 Board to make necessary manuals subject to the Act and the Regulation but final
approval lies this with the HMG/N for enforcement
 The concerned Regional Agricultural Director with the authority to hear cases..
Main Features of the Act and the Regulations
1. The Act is an enabling act on seed and the Regulation provides the basis for its implementation.
It is a liberal act intended to encourage the private sector as well as coordinate the public sector.
2. The Act covers all seeds which by definition means botanical seeds and planting structures used
for sowing of planting crops such as food grains, vegetables, cash crops, fruits, fodders and
forages.
3. National Seed Board is a legally sanctioned apex advisory and seed policy setting and
implementation board. Its main tasks are:
 Approve, release and register new varieties and grant ownership right to the breeders or
breeding institutions.
 Determine quality standards.
 Regulate or control the quality of seed.
4. The Regulation sets the rules to perform the above tasks of the NSB through the respective sub
committees.
5. The Act and Regulation are applicable to notified seeds of kinds or varieties. Suitable kind or
varieties may be notified for specific areas.
6. The Regulation confers authority to hear the case to Regional Agricultural Directors who shall
follow the procedure as stated in the special Court Act 2031 on disposing the cases.
Implications of Act and Regulations in the Production and Marketing of Seeds
The Seeds Act and the Regulation in general do not have direct implications on the production and
marketing of seeds of any kind or variety that are not “notified” in the “Nepal Rajpatra” by the HMG/N.
However, seeds treated with toxic chemicals are prohibited from selling for purposes other than
agricultural activities and other prescribed purpose (Act, Sec. 14). Any person who sells such seed by
himself or through any other person on his behalf shall be fined upto rupees 2000 and the seeds will be
confiscated.
Likewise, the Act and the Regulation provide a seed of policies on the production and marketing of
seeds such as the rules for approval, regulation and release of varieties, seed certification and
multiplication of seed etc. According to the Section 19, Sub-Section19.4 as given in the penalty and
punishment beyond what is written in the Sub-sections, any person who works by himself or through

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any person on his behalf, against the Act and Regulation formed there under are liable to be fined upto
rupees 500. This might have indirect implication on the transaction of foundation and certified seeds.
According to the Act and Regulation, they seemed to have following implications on the production and
marketing of the “notified seeds” as mentioned below. Notification could be on crop species or
varieties. Such seeds may be notified for specific areas for use.
1. Meeting quality standards
 Such seed should meet the minimum germination and purity standard and other factors that are
to be mentioned on the tag (Act Clauses 12.1.2).
2. Restriction on the sale and distribution, if it is:
a. Unidentified as to kind or variety (Act Clause 13.1.1)
b. Not meeting the minimum germination and purity standard as prescribed in clauses 12.1.1 and
13.1.2.
c. Held in a container without the prescribed description on the label in accordance with the clauses
12.1.2 and 13.1.3.80.
d. Not in conformity with other prescribed conditions according to clause 13.1.4 and also with
other factors as given below according to Reg. Ch. 4, Sec. 17.
 Of which Seed test date and lot number not clear.
 Of which are of use not clear and
 Of which quantity not clear.
3. Approval for exports and import
 Submission of an application to the member secretary of the Board in the prescribed format and
with details as given in the Act, Sub section 15.1 and the Regulation Ch.4 sub-rule 18.1 and
schedule 6.
 Obtaining permit from the Board in accordance with Regulation Ch. 4. Sub rule 18.2 and
schedule 7.
 Intimation to the member secretary of the Board with prescribed details as given in the Reg.
Schedule 8 in the case of the established Seed Export/import enterprises as provided in the Act
Sub-section 15.3.
 Not withstanding anything contained in the sub rules 18.1, 18.2 and 18.3, while importing such
seeds in the event of the natural calamity in the kingdom of Nepal, it shall be decided by the
board.
4. Penalty and punishment
 Any person who sells seed by himself or through any other person on his behalf, against the
restriction on the sale and distribution shall be fined upto Rs. 3000.0 according to the Act Sub
section 19.1.
 Any person who exports or imports such seed by himself or through any other person on his
behalf against the approval for export and import of such seed as given in the Act section 15
shall be fined up to Rs. 1000.00.

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Lecture: 30
SEED FARMERS, INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY RIGHT (IPR), HYBRID AND GE CROPS
International and national issues related to seed
a. Farmers' right
Over the long period of crop domestication, farmer families and farming communities have selected,
developed, used and conserved the present day crop genetic resources. These same resources have been
collected, conserved and used as raw materials to develop the modern high yielding varieties of various
crops. Seed sales of these improved varieties earn huge profits by the seed corporations or companies.
It has been argued that the farmers should be allowed a share in this profit in recognition of their
contribution for the development of germplasm of the various crops. So farmer's rights are sharing of
benefit for the germplasm, which arise from the past, present and future contributions of farmers in
conserving, improving and making available plant genetic resources. It has been emphasized that
farmer's right should be obligatory and should not be treated as privileges only.
b. Intellectual Property Rights (IPRs)
Dictionary meaning of property is ‘estate whether in lands, goods or money’; which refers to as material
or physical property. In contrast, intellectual property is an idea, a design, an invention, a manuscript
etc, which can ultimately give rise to a useful product or application. The development of such a
property requires intellectual inputs, ingenuity and innovativeness; it also demands monetary and other
resources. Therefore, the inventor of an intellectual property would like to ensure at best a fair reward
for his/her invention. But the major problem with intellectual properties is that they can be copied,
imitated or reproduced, which minimizes the returns to the original inventor. IPRs are the monopoly or
exclusive rights granted and protected by the respective governments to an inventor for deriving
economic benefits from the invention. The governments recognize the IPR only so long as it is not
detrimental to the society. The main forms of IPR protection are as follows:
1. Trade secrets:
When the individual or organization owing an intellectual property does not disclose the property to any
one and keeps it as a closely guarded secret to promote the business interest, it is called trade secret. It
may relate to formulae, processes, or materials. Example: Coca Cola and biotechnology related products
and processes.
2. Patent:
It is the right granted by a government to an inventor to exclude others from imitating, manufacturing,
using or selling the invention in question for commercial use during the specified period. Patents are
granted for an invention, improvement in an invention, the process of an invention/product and a
concept. Patent requirements: novelty, inventiveness, industrial application and usefulness,
patentability and disclosure.
3. Copyright:
Certain intellectual properties are not patentable and they are protected by copyright. Example of these
properties is authored and edited books, audio and videocassettes, computer software etc. A person
holding the copyright of a book has the right to exclude others from reproducing the book in any form.
The author, editor or the publisher may hold the copyright of a book.
4. Plant variety Protection or plant breeder's right:
Plant breeder's right s(PBR) are the rights granted by the government to a plant breeder, originator or
owner of a variety to exclude others from producing or commercializing the propagating material of that
variety for a fixed period of time (15-20 years). A person/owner holding this right to a variety can
authorize other interested persons/organizations to produce and sell the propagating material of that
variety. He/she should set reasonable terms for such transfers of PBR titles or for the sale of the
propagating materials; otherwise the government can grant licenses of the titles in public interest. It is
important that the object of protection in PBR is variety and that genetic component and breeding
procedures are not protectable. Many developed countries have already adopted PBR during 20 th
century, and many developing countries are in the process of adopting PRR. The most significant event

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in the development of PBR systems was the effect to harmonize PBR laws of different countries
through IUPOV (International Union for Protection of New Plant Varieties). It is an internationally
legally binding document and persons of any member country have rights in other member countries.
Requirements of PBR
Under the provisions of UPOV 1991 Act, a plant variety must satisfy the following four criteria for
protection:
 Novelty: A variety should not have been commercially exploited for more than one year before
grant of PBR protection.
 Distinctiveness: The new variety must be distinguishable from other varieties by one or more
identifiable morphological, physiological or other characteristics.
 Uniformity: The new variety must be uniform in appearance under the specified environment of
its adaptation.
 Stability: The new variety must be stable in appearance and its clonal characteristics over
successive generations under the specified environment.

INTERNATIONAL CONVENTION ON BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY (ICBD)

On December 29, 1993, total 173 nations signed the International Convention on Biological Diversity
(ICBD) for recognizing the sovereign rights of nations over their genetic resources and also for
determining access to them based on prior informed consent and linking to transfer of relevant
technologies and sharing of benefits. The CBD has recognized two outstanding issues that needed
resolution are:
i) the mechanism for implementing farmer’s rights and
ii) the status of ex-situ germplasm collections that were not acquired according to the provisions of
CBD, i.e., collected prior to December, 1993.
These matters have now been taken up by the FAO council following a resolution (3/93) adopted by the
conference of contracting parties. The International Agricultural Research Centers under the CGIAR
system have placed their global germplasm collections under the auspices of FAO upon joining the
International Network of ex situ collections through an agreement signed on October 26, 1994.
INTERNATIONAL UNION FOR THE PROTECTION OF NEW VARIETIES OF PLANT
(IUPOV)
The abbreviation of IUPOV is derived from its French name. It has two main tasks, which are:
i) To spread the idea of the protection of plant breeders right throughout the world.
ii) To arrange cooperation among member countries.
Mostly European countries are members of this organization. The technical work is carried in methods
to examine new varieties for distinctiveness, homogeneity and stability. They issue test guidelines in
English, French and German. The guidelines are of specific interest because they present table of
characteristics of a given species of cereals, grasses and clover, vegetable and ornamental plants. The
first UPOV convention was signed in 1961 in Paris; at that time 24 members countries were signed. The
UPOV 1991 Act has strengthened the PBR in comparison to UPOV 1978 Act and has made PBR more
comparable to a patent. Most of the member states has signed the UPOV 1991 Act by 1993 but it is yet
to be ratified.
SUI GENERIS SYSTEM
A sui generis system simply means a system of their own’ that is designed by them. The essential
features of UPOV 1978 Act are being considered to be adopted. Some important features of the
proposed sui generis system are: a) Farmer’s right b) researcher’s use right c) protection period, 15
years (annual crops) or 18 years (fruit trees and vines) d) compulsory deposit in national gene bank e)
compulsory certification f) compulsory licensing g) establishment of a National Authority for the
protection of breeder’s, farmer’s and researcher’s use rights.

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HYBRID SEED AND GENETICALLY ENGINEERING CROPS

Hybrid seed
Hybrid variety/seed is the F1 generation from a cross between two different strains. Hybrid shows
increase in size, vigour, growth, disease and pest resistance, stability, metabolic activity and yield over
the parents, which is produced from the union of gametes of the two genetically dissimilar individuals.
It permits and protects number of recessive genes from being eliminated under natural conditions in the
out breeding organisms. The increase in F 1 or hybrid is observed to be stable, wide occurring and could
be satisfactorily reproduced over years and locations.
Production and use of hybrid seed has become very popular with the farmers everywhere although its
production is labour intensive with high financial investment. Generally three steps are involved in the
production of hybrid seed, which are: emasculation, pollination and bagging.
Techniques involved for emasculation and crossing in different crops:
1. Hand emasculation and hand pollination: Example: Tomato, Brinjal, Cotton etc.
2. Emasculation by removal of male flowers: Example: Maize, Cucumber, Squash and Melons
3. Emasculation by removal of male parents: Example: Spinach, Asparagus and Papayas
4. Emasculation by suppression of male flowers: Male flower suppress by spraying dilute solution
of meleic hydrazide on young seedlings.
5. Use of male sterility
 Genetic male sterility:
 Cytoplasmic male sterility:
 Cytoplasmic-genetic male sterility:
Genetic Engineering (GE) and GE Crops
Genetic engineering is a laboratory technique used by scientists to change the DNA of living organisms.
It is the most recent form of bio-technology. It is a potential profit-making life industry. It gives
unprecedented power to create novel living organisms. This technology allows powerful companies to
control food production, often to the detriment of the local populations, especially indigenous
communities. This raises social and economic concerns.
A plant in which a gene has been transferred through genetic engineering is called a transgenic plant and
the gene so transferred is called transgene. The crops which are developed through genetic engineering
are called GE crops. The general approach for genetic engineering in plants may be outlined as follows:
 Introduction of the gene of interest into cells of concerned plant species.
 Integration of this gene into the nuclear genome of the plant cells
 Expression of the transferred gene in the new genetic background
 Regeneration of whole plant from the genetically modified cells and finally
 Transmission of the transferred gene to the sexual progeny of these plants.

Table: Genetically engineered plants with resistance to four synthetic herbicides

Herbicide GE crops
Glyphosate Corn, Soybeans, Cotton, Canola, Sugarbeets
Glufosinate Corn, Soybeans, Cotton, Canola, Rice, Sugarbeets
Bromoxynil Cotton
Sulfonylurea Cotton, Flax

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Table: Genetically engineered plants species

Trait Modified Plants Gene Source

Insect resistance (Bt) Corn, Cotton, Potato, Tomato Soil bacterium
Herbicide resistance Corn, Soybeans, Cotton, Canola, Various bacteria, Tobacco
Sugarbeets, Rice, Flax (modified)
Virus resistance Squash/Zucchini, Papaya, Potato Plant viruses
Delayed fruit ripening Tomato Tomato, Soil bacterium, or
Virus
Altered oil content Canola, Soybeans Bay or Soybeans
Pollen control Corn, Chicory (Radicchio) Soil bacterium
In addition to these, gene transfer have been made for many other purposes and also for a variety of
studies on the regulation of induction and or suppression of the expression of many genes e.g. protease
inhibitor (potato), leghaemoglobin (soybean), nodulin (soybean), lectin (rajma, soybean), glutein
(wheat), hordein (barley), legumin (pea) etc., and in the identification of their regulatory sequences.
Danger and threats in agriculture
A. Economic impacts
1. GM crops grown on a commercial basis: input-oriented
2. Control over world food
 Control the technical and the marketing practices
 Control the seeds
 Control the patents
 Monopoly control world food market
3. Consequences for farmers: increased dependency
4. GM yield drag
5. Bioprospecting
B. Ecological Impacts
1. Development of Resistance biotype
 Insect pest resistant to Bt and weeds resistant to insects
2. Animal other than can be affected
3. Possible increase of the Herbicides
4. Negative Impact to Biodiversity
5. Genetic pollution of the Environment
 Gene flow
 Development of weed resistance
 Weediness and superweeds development
C. Effects on the soil ecosystem
1. Gene transfer in the soil
2. Impact on flora and fauna (macro and micro) biodiversity: loss from nature
3. Increasing Vulnerability
D. Effects for organic farmers and sustainable agriculture
1. Transgenic crops are resistant to herbicides are incompatible with sustainable agriculture:
2. Bt crops are incompatible with sustainable agriculture

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