Introduction to Psychology

Unit 2 – Structure of the Nervous System

NEURONS
From biology, a cell is considered as the basic unit of life.

Neuron – is the basic cell that makes up the nervous system and that receives and sends messages within
that system.
- There are billions of neurons in our bodies and their connections with each other, allow us to
understand, interpret and act on certain information.
- Such as if you command your arm to move, basically your neurons are communicating with
each other.

Dendrites – branchlike structures of a neuron that receive messages from other neurons.
- In order for a neuron to receive a message, the neuron may make use of its dendrites.
- It’s how information from another neuron, enters the receiving neuron.

Soma – the cell body of the neuron responsible for maintaining the life of the cell.

Axon Terminals – enlarged ends of axonal branches of the neuron, specialized for communication
between cells.
- If dendrites are the ones who are receiving information from other neurons, axon terminals
are the ones communicating to other neurons,
- Once the information the end of the axon, it will reach the terminal buttons.

Myelin sheath – are what covers axons. These enable information to travel faster along the lid of the
axon.

Terminal Button – containing tiny sacs of neurotransmitters. When an electrical impulse reaches the
terminal button, it triggers the release of neurotransmitter molecules.
- Discovered in neurology that within a neuron, the activity is mainly electrical but when
information travels from one neuron to another, the activity is chemical because they
communicate with each other through neurotransmitters.

STRUCTURE OF THE NEURON. When an electrical impulse is received at the dendrites. It moves
through the axon to the terminal buttons. There it triggers the release of neurotransmitters which carry the
impulse across the synapse to the dendrites of the receiving neuron.

The Sending Neuron’s Dendrites is connected to the Receiving Axon’s Neuron.

Presynaptic Neuron – The Sending Neuron
Postsynaptic Neuron – The Receiving Neuron

Synapse – The junction between an axon and the adjacent neuron, where information is transmitted from
one neuron to another.
- Neurons are not directly connected with each other; the gap is called synapses.

GLIAL CELLS – cells that provide support for the neurons to grow on and around,
- deliver nutrients to neurons,
- produce myelin to coat axons,
- clean up waste products and dead neurons,
- influence information processing, and during prenatal development,
- influence the generation of new neurons,

When a cell dies, there is a higher tendency for the neuron to be replaced contrary to when you’re older,
which is why some aged have difficulty remembering things.

Oligodendrocytes: produce myelin in the central nervous system.

Schwann Cells: produce myelin in the peripheral nervous systems

TYPES OF NEURONS
Sensory Neurons – Nerve cells that receive incoming sensory information from the sense organs (eye,
ear, skin, tongue, nose).
- Also known as afferent neurons.

Motor Neurons – Nerve cells that carry commands for movement from the brain to the muscles of the
body.
- Also known as efferent neurons.

Mirror Neurons – Nerve cells that are active when we observe others performing an action as well as
when we are performing the same action.
- Special types of neurons that was observed to be used primarily by monkeys. There are some
evidence that humans may also be using mirror neurons however, not as concrete usage as
monkeys.
Example:
A human tried to teach sign language to a monkey, other monkeys in the area along the
way learned sign language as well by observing the monkey receiving the information.
Further analysis showed that the parts of the brain that works among observers is also
the parts of the brain that is being activated in the monkey who is receiving the
information from the teacher. In other words, if you are trying to learn a skill, the part of
the brain active in the teacher might also be active in your brain. Even though you are not
 yet able to perform the behavior we can see some sort of firing or activation in that part
of the brain. That’s why sometimes we observe first before doing the action.

The Action Potential – how neurons communicate with each other.

The action potential, an electrical and chemical process, is the positively charged impulse that
moves one way down an axon.

● The fluid inside and outside the cell contains electrically charged particles called
ions.

Positively charged sodium and potassium ions and negatively charged chloride ions are the most
common.
Charged (gates) in the membrane of the neuron allow ions to flow between the
inside and outside of the cell.

When a neuron is at rest, the charge difference, is -70 millivolts (mV).

In the resting state, there is an excess of negatively charged particle inside the
axon, whereas the fluid outside the axon has a positive charge,
Since there are fluid inside and outside the cell, there is a difference in the charge which is called
potential.
If an incoming impulse increases the positive charge inside the neuron to a certain threshold, the
neuron becomes depolarized and fires an action potential, a surge in positive charge,
The influx of sodium leads to a brief spike in positive charge, raising the
membrane from -70 mV to +40 mV.

Once initiated, the action potential causes sodium channels to close and potassium voltage-
dependent channels to open (see Figure 6c).
As positively charge potassium ions flow out of the sell the membrane potential
returns to its resting state of -70 mV.

There’s a short amount of time when a neuron will not be able to fire again because it just fired or
an action potential just happened recently, it is called the refractory period.
Summary:
1. Resting potential is -70 Mv.
2. If an incoming impulse causes sufficient depolarization, voltage-dependent sodium channels open
and sodium ions flood into the neuron.
3. The influx of positively charged sodium ions quickly raises the membrane potential to +40 mV.
This surge in positive charge inside the cell is the action potential.
4. When the membrane potential reaches +40 mV, the sodium channels close and potassium
channels open. The outward flow of positively charged potassium ions restores the negative
charge inside the cell.
NEUROTRANSMISSION
Synaptic Vesicles – Tiny sacs in the terminal buttons that contain neurotransmitters.

Neurotransmitter logic: just like lock and key wherein a certain neurotransmitter will look for a certain
receptor. A transmitter needs to be compatible with the receptor if not…
Excess neurotransmitter remains in the synaptic cleft and needs to be removed.

Reuptake – return excess neurotransmitter to the sending, or presynaptic, neuron for storage in vesicles
and future use.
Enzymatic degradation – enzymes specific to that neurotransmitter bind with the neurotransmitter and
destroy it.

MOST COMMON NEUROTRANSMITTERS

Neurotransmitter Major Function

Acetylcholine Slows ANS activity: eating, drinking neuromuscular junction; involved in learning
memory, sleeping, and dreaming

Dopamine Plays an important role in arousal, mood (especially positive); oversupply correlates
with schizophrenia; voluntary muscle control

Epinephrine Increases ANS activity, fight-or-flight response

(adrenaline)

Norepinephrine Affects CNS activity; plays role in increasing alertness, attention

(noradrenaline)

Serotonin Plays role in mood, sleep, eating temperature regulation; undersupply correlates with
anxiety and depression

GABA; Is the major inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain; slows CNS function; correlates
with anxiety and intoxication
Gamma-
aminobutyric acid

Glutamate Is the most common excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain; involved in learning and
memory; may be involved in schizophrenia

Verbal Notes.
People with Alzheimer’s disease have low acetylcholine.
 There is a hypothesis saying, if there is too much dopamine in our body, it may be a predictor of
Schizophrenia. That’s why there are some people with schizophrenia that block the activity of dopamine.
Adrenaline/Epinephrine – whenever you are stressed or there is an emergency, your body uses these
chemical messengers to be more active or to respond in a certain way whether to fight the threat or to
flee from the situation.
The biological explanation for anxiety and depression is that there’s a low supply of serotonin in their
body. What antidepressants do; they block the reuptake of serotonin so that there will be no undersupply.
GABA is like the brain police; it tells you to relax, it relaxes your body, it inhibits your central nervous
system activity. What they say is that, among people with anxiety, they have an undersupply GABA, that’s
hy people with generalized anxiety disorder have difficulty from stopping themselves when it comes to
worrying or being anxious because they have low amounts of GABA. Among people who don’t have
anxiety disorders, they have the optimal amount of GABA that’s why you know when to stop thinking or
worrying about something.

NERVOUS SYSTEM

Central Nervous System Peripheral Nervous System

The brain and spinal cord Transmits information to and from the central nervous system

Brain Spinal cord Autonomic Nervous System Somatic Nervous System

Interprets and Pathway Automatically regulates glands, Carries sensory information and
stores information connecting the internal organs and blood vessels, pupil controls movement of the skeletal
and sends orders brain and the dilation, digestion, and blood pressure muscles
to muscles, glands peripheral
and organs nervous system

Parasympathetic Sympathetic Sensory system Motor system

division division (afferent) (efferent)

Maintains body Prepares the body Carries messages Carries

functions under to react and from senses to messages from
ordinary expend energy in CNS CNS to muscles
conditions; saves times of fitness and glands.
energy

THE BRAIN – a collection of neurons and glial cells that controls all the major functions of the body;
produces thoughts, emotions, and behavior; and makes us human.
Overview of the Human Brain
In evolutionary terms, then the human brain is the result of a few hundred million years of natural
selection. The three major regions of the brain, in order from earliest to develop to newest, are the
hindbrain, the midbrain, and the forebrain.

The Hindbrain – The oldest brain region is the hindbrain, the region directly connected to the spinal
cord.
- Regulate breathing, heart rate, arousal, and other basic functions of survival.

Major Parts of the Hindbrain

Medulla – regulated breathing, heart rate,
and blood pressure. Involved in coughing,
swallowing, sneezing, and vomiting
(reflexes).
Pons – a hindbrain structure that serves as a
bridge between lower brain regions and
higher midbrain and forebrain activity.
Cerebellum – a.k.a little brain. Contains
more neurons than any other single part of
the brain.
- Responsible for body
movement, balance,
coordination, and fine motor
skills.
- Learning and language

The Midbrain – The smallest of the three

areas.
- Voluntary movement;
controls eye muscles.
- People with Parkinson’s
disease have problems with
midbrain functioning.

Major Parts of the Midbrain

- Brain stem – midbrain,
medulla, and pons
Reticular Formation – a network of nerve fibers that runs up through both the hindbrain and the
midbrain; it is crucial to waking up and falling asleep.
- Involved in a coma.

The Forebrain – Consists of the cerebrum and numerous other structures.

- Control cognitive, sensory, and motor functions and regulate temperature, reproductive
functions, eating, sleeping, and the display of emotions.

Major Parts of the Forebrain

Thalamus – a forebrain structure that receives information from the senses and relays it to the cerebral
cortex for processing.
- Sensory relay station.

Limbic System – a connection group of forebrain structures (hypothalamus, amygdala, hippocampus, and
cingulate gyrus) that share important functions in emotion memory and motivation and regulate
autonomic and endocrine function.

Hypothalamus – the master regulator of almost all major drives and motives we have such as
hunger, thirst, temperature, and sexual behavior; also controls the (master) pituitary gland.
\
Cingulate Gyrus – a belt-like structure in the middle of the brain; plays an important role in
attention and cognitive control.

Basal Ganglia – a collection of structures surrounding the thalamus; involved in voluntary motor
control.

Amygdala – in charge of detecting threats in the environment. Plays an important role in

emotional memory such as emotional threats. The reason why you are afraid of certain things is
because of the activity of the amygdala.
- The amygdala can be removed but not advised because you will be fearless and impulsive.
For if you engage in a dangerous activity without fear and protective gear, a dangerous
situation may be presented.

Cerebral Cortex – the thin outer layer of the cerebrum, in which much of human thought, planning,
perception, and consciousness takes place.
Cerebrum – each of the large halves of the brain; covered with convolutions, or folds.
Frontal Lobes – In the front of the brain; make up 1/3 of the area of the cerebral cortex.
- The “youngest” brain system.
- Attention, planning, abstract thinking, control of impulses, creativity, and social
awareness.
- The frontal lobe continues to develop until the early 20s.
▪ In September 1848, a 25-year-old railroad foreman, Phineas Gage, was
laying railroad ties. While hammering a tamping iron (an iron bar), Gage
accidentally ignited gun powder used to lay the track, and it exploded.
▪ After the incident, he was stubborn, impulsive, and argumentative, and at
times, he said offensive things.
- One important part of the frontal lobe descending from the top of the head toward the
center of the brain, is the primary motor cortex.
- Output: Motor cortex (left hemisphere section controls the body’s right side)
- Input: Somatosensory cortex (left hemisphere section receives input from the body’s right
side)

In some research, people who don’t show empathy or helping behavior may have a problem on a certain
part of their frontal lobe. In other words, we can predict that if a person has a problem in the frontal
lobe, he or she is most likely to engage in antisocial behavior. In Psychology, an antisocial person is
someone who performs behavior that violates the rights of a human person,

Parietal Lobe – make up the top and rear sections of the brain, are important in the sensation and
perception of touch.
- For example, a stranger may grab your arm therefore there will be an action potential going to
the spinal cord, going to the brain and the information will go to the thalamus where it will
relay the information to the parietal lobe and activate the somatosensory cortex.
Somatosensory Cortex – a strip of the parietal love involved in the processing and
perception of sensory information from the body, especially temperature, touch, pressure, and
pain.

When we receive information from our senses, they go to the somatosensory cortex. Part of the
cortex responsible for that part of the body is portrayed on the right side of the image. Wherein the arrow
is going to the cortex, meaning from the various parts of the body to the thalamus then to the cortex.
On the other hand, the motor cortex is from the cortex going to the lower parts of the brain,
ultimately to the spinal cord and then to the peripheral nervous system.
The images placed side by side means that they are adjacent to each other. The part of the brain
detecting the movements, or the pressure in the hand is also adjacent to the part of the brain which will
 tell the hand what needs to be done for easier communication between the parietal lobe, the
somatosensory cortex and motor cortex.
The enlarge parts of the body displayed on the picture depicts more sensitive areas in the brain.
Such as why somebody suddenly touches your hand, you are aware of the information immediately.

Temporal Lobes lie directly below the frontal and parietal lobes and right behind the ears.
Auditory cortex – where sound information arrives from the thalamus for processing.

Cerebral Hemispheres
Broca’s area – the area in the left frontal lobe responsible for the ability to produce speech.
Broca’s aphasia – (non-fluent aphasia) difficulty in communicating what you want to communicate
because the damage is with speech production.
Wernicke’s area – the area deep in the left temporal lobe responsible for the ability to speak meaningful
sentences and to comprehend the meaning of speech.
Wernicke’s aphasia – (fluent aphasia) difficulty understanding incoming information but can easily
express what you want to say.

Communication Between Hemispheres

All communication between one side of the brain and the other travels across the corpus
callosum (- bridges the right and left hemisphere for the information to go from one side to another for
processing).

The hemispheres work contralaterally (right hemisphere controls left side of the body while left
hemisphere controls right side of the body).

Specialization of the Two Hemispheres

LEFT HEMISPHERE RIGHT HEMISPHERE

Controls the right hand Controls the left hand

Spoken language Nonverbal
Written language Visual-spatial perception
Mathematical calculations Music an artistic processing
Logical thought processes Emotional thought and recognition
Analysis of detail Processes the whole
Reading Pattern recognition
Facial recognition

▪ In the early 1960’s, a former prisoner of war from World War II developed epileptic seizures as a
result of a failed parachute jump.
▪ Previous medical evidence suggested that cutting the bundle of nerves between the two
hemispheres could stop epileptic seizures.
▪ After the surgery, the man could not name things that were presented to his left visual field.
SUMMARY: