Name: ________________________

Psychology A level paper 1 2023 Class: ________________________

Date: ________________________

Time: 93 minutes

Marks: 72 marks

Comments:

Rivers Academy West London Page 1 of 23

 Outline informational social influence as an explanation for conformity.
1.
_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________
(Total 3 marks)

A teacher asked her class for a volunteer to talk to future A-level students. The teacher asked
2. Sarah first, but she refused. The teacher then asked Emily to help.

Use your knowledge of resistance to social influence to explain Emily’s likely response to the
teacher’s request.

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________
(Total 3 marks)

Rivers Academy West London Page 2 of 23

 A teacher investigated students’ attitudes to the school’s uniform rules. The school consisted of
3. students from Years 7–11, with 100 students in each year.

She conducted interviews individually with 10 students. One of the questions in the interview
was, ‘How many times have you been ‘told off’ for not following the school’s uniform rules this
term?’ The results from this question are shown in the table below.

Number of times each student had been ‘told off’ that term

Number of times
Student
‘told off’

1 1

2 7

3 2

4 3

5 4

6 5

7 3

8 1

9 25

10 2

Explain why the median would be a more appropriate measure of central tendency than the
mean for the data in the table above.

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________
(Total 2 marks)

Rivers Academy West London Page 3 of 23

 A teacher investigated students’ attitudes to the school’s uniform rules. The school consisted of
4. students from Years 7–11, with 100 students in each year.

She conducted interviews individually with 10 students. One of the questions in the interview
was, ‘How many times have you been ‘told off’ for not following the school’s uniform rules this
term?’ The results from this question are shown in the table below.

Number of times each student had been ‘told off’ that term

Number of times
Student
‘told off’

1 1

2 7

3 2

4 3

5 4

6 5

7 3

8 1

9 25

10 2

Explain how the sample of 10 participants could have been obtained from the students at the
school using stratified sampling.

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________
(Total 4 marks)

Rivers Academy West London Page 4 of 23

 A teacher investigated students’ attitudes to the school’s uniform rules. The school consisted of
5. students from Years 7–11, with 100 students in each year.

She conducted interviews individually with 10 students. One of the questions in the interview
was, ‘How many times have you been ‘told off’ for not following the school’s uniform rules this
term?’ The results from this question are shown in the table below.

Number of times each student had been ‘told off’ that term

Number of times
Student
‘told off’

1 1

2 7

3 2

4 3

5 4

6 5

7 3

8 1

9 25

10 2

Investigator effects sometimes occur in interviews.

Explain two modifications that would help to minimise investigator effects in this study.

Modification 1 ___________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

Modification 2 ___________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________
(Total 4 marks)

Rivers Academy West London Page 5 of 23

 Maya wants to encourage the workers in her office to use their own reusable cups at work, rather
6. than the disposable paper cups provided by the company.

Explain how Maya might show either commitment or flexibility to persuade the workers to
change their behaviour.

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________
(Total 2 marks)

Briefly outline three findings from Asch’s research into conformity.

7.
_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________
(Total 3 marks)

Explain one limitation of Asch’s research into conformity.

8.
_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________
(Total 3 marks)

Rivers Academy West London Page 6 of 23

 Which one of the following descriptions best describes semantic memory?
9.
Shade one box only.

A A long-term store for knowledge of the world, not requiring

conscious effort to recall.

B A long-term store for knowledge of the world, requiring conscious

effort to recall.

C A long-term store for personal events, not requiring conscious effort

to recall.

D A long-term store for personal events, requiring conscious effort to

recall.

(Total 1 mark)

Briefly outline two criticisms of studies into short-term memory.

10.
_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________
(Total 4 marks)

Describe how post-event discussion can affect eyewitness testimony.

11.
_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________
(Total 4 marks)
Rivers Academy West London Page 7 of 23
 Kaleb is learning about models of memory. Last week the teacher taught the class about the
12. multi-store model. This week she is teaching the working memory model. Kaleb is now finding it
difficult to recall any of the information about the multi-store model of memory.

Using your knowledge of interference as an explanation for forgetting, explain Kaleb’s difficulty.

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________
(Total 3 marks)

Briefly evaluate the use of the cognitive interview technique.

13.
_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________
(Total 4 marks)

Rivers Academy West London Page 8 of 23

 Describe and evaluate the working memory model.
14.
You may use this space to plan your answer.

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________
(Total 8 marks)

Rivers Academy West London Page 9 of 23

 Explain the role of the internal working model in Bowlby’s monotropic theory of attachment.
15.
_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________
(Total 4 marks)

In the 1990s, many children were found living in poor-quality orphanages in Romania. Cema and
16. her sister Katti lived in one of these orphanages from birth but were later adopted. When they
were adopted, Cema was 5 months old and Katti was 5 years old. Their development was then
studied for several years.

Using your knowledge of the Romanian orphan studies, explain how Katti’s development is likely
to have differed from Cema’s as they grew older.

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________
(Total 6 marks)

Rivers Academy West London Page 10 of 23

 Briefly explain one economic implication of the findings of research into the role of the father in
17. attachment.

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________
(Total 2 marks)

Rivers Academy West London Page 11 of 23

 Discuss the learning theory explanation of attachment.
18.
You may use this space to plan your answer.

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________
(Total 12 marks)

Rivers Academy West London Page 12 of 23

Mark schemes
[AO1 = 3]
1.
3 marks for a clear, coherent and detailed outline of informational social influence as an
explanation for conformity, using appropriate terminology.
2 marks for a less detailed outline.
1 mark for a muddled or limited outline.

Possible content:
• going along with the majority through acceptance of new information
• occurs because of a desire to be right/correct
• occurs in ambiguous/difficult/novel situations
• conforming for cognitive reasons
• leads to internalisation
• a permanent change in view/behaviour.

Credit other relevant content including the use of examples to illustrate informational social
influence.
[3]

[AO2 = 3]
2.
3 marks for a clear, coherent and detailed explanation with explicit links to the scenario, using
appropriate terminology.
2 marks for a less detailed explanation where application might be implicit.
1 mark for a muddled or limited explanation.

Social Support Possible content:

• Emily resists the teacher because she is influenced by Sarah’s refusal
• Sarah acts as social support/presence of a role model which makes Emily feel confident to
also refuse.

Locus of control Possible content:

• Emily resists Sarah’s influence because of her own internal locus of control
• Emily’s internal LOC makes Emily feel confident in making her own decisions, ignoring
Sarah’s behaviour.

For full marks the answer must refer to Emily being more likely to refuse/resist the teacher OR
Sarah.

Credit answers where both alternatives are suggested.

[3]

[AO2 = 2]
3.
1 mark for each of the following:
• there is a large anomalous result in the data set/ student 9 has been told off 25 times
• the median is not affected by this/this would distort the mean value.

Accept answers based on the level of data (not interval/mean not appropriate).
[2]

Rivers Academy West London Page 13 of 23

 [AO2 = 4]
4.
1 mark for each of the following:
• identify strata/sub-groups in their population: different year groups (accept other possible
strata, eg gender)
• obtain 2 from each year group
• select sample at random/use a random sampling procedure eg hat/computer/random
number generator
• how the random sampling procedure would be implemented, eg assign each student in
each year group a number then use a computer, calculator or random number table to
select 2 from each year (or hat method).

Credit answers where the correct proportionality is evident within a calculation.

[4]

[AO3 = 4]
5.
For each modification award marks as follows:
2 marks for a clear and coherent explanation of an appropriate modification that might minimise
investigator effects in this study.
1 mark for a muddled/limited explanation.

Relevant points:
• have an interviewer who did not know the aims of the study so that they would not let their
own expectations influence how they ask the interview questions (double blind technique)
• have an interviewer who was not the students’ teacher so that the students would not be
influenced by wanting to impress their teacher
• use open-ended questions/avoid leading questions so that the students are less likely to be
led and are able to give a more detailed and accurate explanation of their views in their
own words
• use a structured interview so that the investigator cannot alter the questions
• video the interviews and have another investigator watch and analyse them, improving the
objectivity of the results
• use a questionnaire (or other means) to collect data without face-to-face interaction, so the
students cannot be led/ are not affected by the presence of another person.

Credit other relevant suggestions that would reduce investigator effects in this study eg closed
questions, trained interviewers.
[4]

Rivers Academy West London Page 14 of 23

 [AO2 = 2]
6.
2 marks for a clear and coherent explanation of how Maya might show either commitment or
flexibility to persuade the workers in her office to change their behaviour.
1 mark for a muddled/limited explanation.

Possible content:
• commitment: Maya might place herself at some inconvenience – she may volunteer to buy
some reusable cups. This will draw more attention to her ‘cause’ (augmentation principle)
• flexibility: Maya might adapt her view/accepting other valid counterarguments. She could
agree that some paper cups could still be available in case anyone forgot to bring their
reusable cup to work.

If both factors are applied, mark both and credit the best answer.
[2]

[AO1 = 3]
7.
1 mark each for a brief outline of a correct finding that identifies an appropriate finding with a
correct percentage or direction of influence.

Possible content:
• naïve participants gave a wrong answer about 37% of the time (do not accept ’37%
conformed’)
• participants conformed on 32% of critical trials (do not accept ‘32% conformed’)
• 25% of participants did not conform/75% conformed at least once
• 5% conformed every time
• the control group conformed (less than) 1% of the time
• increasing the size of the majority increased conformity
• increasing task difficulty increased conformity
• presence of a dissenter who did not conform reduced conformity (to 5%)
• withdrawal of a dissenter led to increased conformity
• writing the answer down (rather than saying aloud) reduced conformity
• individual differences, eg highly confident individuals conformed less.

Credit an answer which may focus on explanations for behaviour eg some participants reported
‘distortions of perception’/ ‘distortions of judgement’.

Credit other relevant findings.

[3]

Rivers Academy West London Page 15 of 23

 [AO3 = 3]
8.
3 marks for a clear, coherent and detailed explanation of an appropriate limitation of Asch’s
research into conformity, using appropriate terminology.
2 marks for a less detailed explanation of an appropriate limitation using some of the detail given
below.
1 mark for a muddled or limited explanation.

Possible limitations:
• lacks temporal validity: Asch’s findings may not be so relevant today – the outcome may
have been influenced by social attitudes of the 1950s – post-war attitudes that people
should work together and consent rather than dissent
• lacks mundane realism: Asch’s task was artificial – therefore not a valid measure of real-life
conformity where conforming takes place in a social context and often with people we know
rather than strangers.
• lacks ecological validity: the research was carried out in a laboratory/controlled conditions,
so behaviour may not represent real world conformity
• demand characteristics: artificiality of situation/task may have caused some participants to
go along with the confederates, reducing internal validity
• gender bias/lack of generalisability: use of a male sample thus may not represent female
behaviour.
• lacks population validity: use of volunteer sample whose behaviour may not represent that
of a wider population
• ethical problems including deception (participants believed they were taking part in a test of
perception) and protection from harm (participants were put in a stressful and
embarrassing situation).

Credit other relevant limitations.

[3]

[AO1 = 1]
9.
B
[1]

[AO3 = 4]
10.
For each criticism award marks as follows:

2 marks for a clear and coherent outline of an appropriate criticism of studies into short-term
memory.
1 mark for a muddled/limited outline.

Rivers Academy West London Page 16 of 23

 Possible criticisms:
• lack of mundane realism: use of artificial material (eg recall of trigrams, lists of
unconnected words etc)
• early research often lacked adequate control, introducing confounding variables into the
study, reducing validity
• inconsistent findings: span for letters is lower than span for digits
• overestimation of capacity: capacity is only 4 chunks not 7+/- 2 items
• lack of ecological validity: studies carried out in an artificial laboratory setting or with
artificial tasks, do not reflect real life memory
• alternative explanations in relation to specific studies, eg Peterson and Peterson’s findings
may be more to do with interference than duration
• issues with participant variables in studies that used independent measures design (eg
Baddeley’s study of coding)
• issues with order effects in studies that used repeated measures designs (eg Jacobs).

Credit other relevant criticisms including positive points.

Relevant studies would include: Baddeley, Jacobs, Miller, Peterson and Peterson. Studies of
working memory could be made relevant.
[4]

[AO1 = 4]
11.
Level Marks Description

Description of how post-event discussion can affect eyewitness

2 3-4 testimony is clear and has some detail. The answer is generally
coherent with effective use of terminology.

Description of how post-event discussion can affect eyewitness

1 1-2 testimony is evident but lacks clarity and/or detail. Terminology is
either absent or inappropriately used.

0 No relevant content.

Possible content:
• occurs when there is more than one witness to an event
• witnesses discuss what they have seen (with co-witnesses or other people)
• memory conformity, false memory, reconstruction, confabulation can occur
• information is added to a memory after the event has occurred
• information that is added may be misleading
• the accuracy of the witness’s recall may be reduced
• false memories can be stimulated by misleading post-event discussion
• use of evidence to illustrate, eg Gabbert et al. (2003)
• effects of post-event discussion can be reduced if participants are warned of the effects (eg
Bodner et al. 2009).

Credit other relevant content.

There may be a depth/breadth trade-off: one effect in detail or more than one effect in less detail.
[4]

Rivers Academy West London Page 17 of 23

 [AO2 = 3]
12.
3 marks for a clear, coherent and detailed explanation of why Kaleb is having difficulty recalling
the multi-store model.
2 marks for a less detailed explanation using some of the detail given below.
1 mark for a muddled or limited explanation.

Possible content:
• retroactive interference is occurring
• the newer learning of the working memory model (WMM) is affecting recall of the older
information about the multi-store model (MSM)
• information about the WMM may have overwritten the earlier information about the MSM
• interference is more likely to occur because both topics were similar/models of memory
• there may not have been much time between learning the two models and so they have
become confused/forgetting of the first model (MSM) is greater.

Credit other relevant material.

[3]

[AO3 = 4]
13.
Level Marks Description

Evaluation of the use of the cognitive interview technique is clear

2 3-4 and has some detail. The answer is generally coherent with
effective use of terminology.

Evaluation of the use of the cognitive interview technique is evident

1 1-2 but lacks clarity and/or detail. Terminology is either absent or
inappropriately used.

0 No relevant content.

Possible evaluation:
• use of evidence to support/challenge the effectiveness of a cognitive interview (CI), eg
Kohnken et al (1999)
• although CI leads to more correct information, incorrect information also increases
(although some studies, eg Geiselman dispute this)
• some elements of CI may be more successful than others − Milne and Bull (2002)
• the success of CI may be related to the age of witness
• CI requires training and investment so it may not always be available because of limited
resources
• credit evaluation of enhanced cognitive interview
• credit comparison with standard interview and enhanced CI
• ethical issues if made relevant to the processes involved in the CI eg distress from
reinstating context
• credit time/cost if there is a reasoned discussion.

Credit other relevant evaluation.

[4]

Rivers Academy West London Page 18 of 23

 [AO1 = 4 AO3 = 4]
14.
Level Marks Description

Knowledge of the working memory model is accurate with some

detail. Evaluation is effective. Minor detail and/or expansion is
4 7-8
sometimes lacking. The answer is clear and coherent. Specialist
terminology is used effectively.

Knowledge of the working memory model is evident but there are

occasional inaccuracies/omissions. There is some effective
3 5-6
evaluation. The answer is mostly clear and organised. Specialist
terminology is mostly used appropriately.

Limited knowledge of the working memory model is present. Focus

is mainly on description. Any evaluation is of limited effectiveness.
2 3-4
The answer lacks clarity, accuracy and organisation in places.
Specialist terminology is used inappropriately on occasions.

Knowledge of the working memory model is very limited. Evaluation

is limited, poorly focused or absent. The answer as a whole lacks
1 1-2
clarity, has many inaccuracies and is poorly organised. Specialist
terminology is either absent or inappropriately used.

0 No relevant content.

Possible content:
• version of STM which sees this store as an active processor
• description of central executive/visuo-spatial scratch/sketch pad; phonological store/loop;
articulatory loop/control process; primary acoustic store; episodic buffer (versions vary –
not all systems need to be present for full marks)
• information concerning capacity and coding of each store
• allocation of resources/divided attention/dual-task performance.

Credit other relevant content.

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 Possible evaluation points:
• use of evidence to support or refute the model
• explains how cognitive processes interact
• memory is active rather than passive
• provides explanation/treatments for processing deficits
• highlights different memory tasks that STM can deal with by identifying separate
components
• explains results of dual task studies
• vague, untestable nature of the central executive
• supported by highly controlled lab studies which may undermine the validity of the model
• comparison/contrast with alternative models of memory is creditworthy, but description, eg
of MSM is not.

Credit other relevant evaluation.

Only credit evaluation of the methodology used in studies when made relevant to the model.
[8]

[AO1 = 4]
15.
Level Marks Description

Explanation of the internal working model in Bowlby’s monotropic

2 3-4 theory of attachment is clear and has some detail. The answer is
generally coherent with effective use of terminology.

Explanation of the internal working model in Bowlby’s monotropic

1 1-2 theory of attachment is evident but lacks clarity and/or detail.
Terminology is either absent or inappropriately used.

0 No relevant content.

Possible content:
• attachment to primary caregiver provides a child with a schema/understanding of
relationships (Bowlby)
• the model represents/gives a mental view/template of the relationship with the primary
figure and acts as a template for future relationships (continuity hypothesis)
• someone with a positive internal working model will become a consistent/sensitive
/responsive caregiver; someone with a negative internal working model will become
inconsistent in caregiving or neglectful
• credit knowledge and research into the consequence of the internal working model on later
childhood/adult relationships/bullying behaviour/parenting styles, eg McCarthy 1999;
Myron-Wilson & Smith 1989; Hazan & Shaver 1987; Bailey et al., 2007.

Credit other relevant content.

[4]

Rivers Academy West London Page 20 of 23

 [AO2 = 6]
16.
Level Marks Description

Explanation of the difference(s) between Katti’s and Cema’s

development is explicit, clear, detailed and generally accurate, with
3 5-6 clear application of knowledge of the Romanian orphan studies. The
answer is generally coherent and specialist terminology is used
appropriately.

There is some effective and explicit explanation of the difference(s)

between Katti’s and Cema’s development with evidence of some
2 3-4 application of knowledge of the Romanian orphan studies. The
answer may lack clarity and/or detail in places. Terminology is used
appropriately on occasions.

Explanation of how Katti’s development is likely to have differed

from Cema’s is either limited or implicit with limited application of
1 1-2 knowledge of the Romanian orphan studies. The answer as a whole
lacks clarity and has inaccuracies. Terminology is either absent or
inappropriately used.

0 No relevant content.

Possible content:
• Katti was adopted at five years and therefore any effects may be more severe/long
term/harder to overcome than the effects on Cema, who was adopted before six months
• delayed intellectual development/lower IQ/problems with concentration – Katti may struggle
more at school than Cema/may not learn new behaviours, concepts as quickly
• impaired language and social skills – Katti may find it harder to learn her language/social
skills than Cema
• Katti is less likely to be classified as securely attached than Cema
• Katti is more likely to show insecure/disinhibited/disorganised attachment than Cema: Katti
may not know what counts as ‘appropriate’ behaviour towards strangers
• emotional development – Katti may experience more temper tantrums/ show more
attention seeking behaviour
• lack of internal working model – Katti may have more difficulty interacting with peers,
forming close relationships, etc
• quasi-autism – Katti may have a problem understanding the meaning of social contexts,
may display obsessional behaviour, etc.

Credit content that reverses the order, eg Cema is more likely to have a secure attachment.
Credit other relevant content.
[6]

Rivers Academy West London Page 21 of 23

 [AO1 = 2]
17.
2 marks for a clear and coherent explanation of an implication of the findings of research into the
role of the father.
1 mark for a muddled/limited explanation.

Possible content:
• increasingly fathers remain at home and therefore contribute less to the economy
consequently more mothers may return to work and contribute more to the economy
• changing laws on paternity leave/shared parental leave – government-funded so affects
the economy; impact upon employers
• gender pay gap may be reduced if parental roles are regarded as more equal
• early attachment research, eg Bowlby suggests fathers should provide an economic rather
than an emotional function.

Accept other relevant points.

Answers may refer to personal/household or national/global economy.

Answers that focus on the economic costs of doing research into the role of the father are not
creditable.
[2]

[AO1 = 6 AO3 = 6]
18.
Level Marks Description

Knowledge of the learning theory explanation of attachment is

accurate and generally well detailed. Discussion is effective. Minor
4 10-12
detail and/or expansion is sometimes lacking. The answer is clear
and coherent. Specialist terminology is used effectively.

Knowledge of the learning theory explanation of attachment is

evident but there are occasional inaccuracies/omissions. There is
3 7-9
some effective discussion. The answer is mostly clear and
organised. Specialist terminology is mostly used appropriately.

Limited knowledge of the learning theory explanation of attachment

is present. Focus is mainly on description. Any discussion is of
2 4-6 limited effectiveness. The answer lacks clarity, accuracy and
organisation in places. Specialist terminology is used
inappropriately on occasions.

Knowledge of the learning theory explanation of attachment is very

limited. Discussion is limited, poorly focused or absent. The answer
1 1-3 as a whole lacks clarity, has many inaccuracies and is poorly
organised. Specialist terminology is either absent or inappropriately
used.

0 No relevant content.

Rivers Academy West London Page 22 of 23

Possible content:
• idea of ‘cupboard love’ – children learn to become attached to their caregiver because they
give them food
• secondary drive/drive reduction in relation to feeding and attachment
• learning can be due to associations (classical conditioning) – outline of how this process
works in attachment: association of caregiver (NS) with food (UCS) causes conditioned
response of pleasure
• learning can be due to patterns of positive/negative reinforcement (operant conditioning) –
outline of how this process works in attachment, eg being fed when they cry – crying is
positively reinforced by the caregiver; caregiver receives negative reinforcement when
crying stops.

Credit other relevant content.

The explanation must be directly linked to attachment. Unrelated descriptions of classical or

operant conditioning are not creditworthy.

Possible discussion points:

• plausible and scientific as founded in established theory
• use of evidence, eg Schaffer and Emerson - the primary attachment figure is not always
the person who feeds the child; Harlow – rhesus monkeys attach for comfort not food
• other factors may act as reinforcers and not food – attentiveness and responsiveness
(Ainsworth)
• comparison with alternative explanations, eg Bowlby
• reductionist – the focus on basic processes (S-R links, reinforcement) is too simplistic to
explain complex attachment behaviours
• environmentally deterministic such that early learning determines later attachment
behaviours.

Credit other relevant discussion.

Methodological evaluation of evidence must be linked to the learning explanation of attachment

to gain credit.
[12]

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