RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

MBA18G010

1.How to frame research objectives?

● Specific. Make sure the project objective statement clearly covers the project
your team is currently working on. Avoid writing overly broad project
objectives that don’t directly connect to the result of the project.
● Measurable. At the end of the project, need a way to clearly look back and
determine if the project was a success. Make sure the project objectives are
clearly measurable things—like percentage change or a specific number of
assets.
● Achievable. Are the project objectives something that can reasonably hope
to achieve within the project? this is connected to the project scope—if your
project scope is unrealistic, the project objectives likely will be, too. Without
Achievable project goals, the project may suffer from scope creep delays, or
overwork.
● Realistic. When creating the project objectives, should have a general sense
of the project resources. Make sure the objectives are something you can
achieve within the time frame and with the resources available for this
project.
● Time-bound. The project objectives should take into account how long the
project timeline is. Make sure the factor in the time you have available to
work on your project

2.Business Research:

Business research is a process of acquiring detailed information of all the

areas of business and using such information in maximizing the sales and profit of
the business. Such a study helps companies determine which product/service is
most profitable or in demand. In simple words, it can be stated as the acquisition of
information or knowledge for professional or commercial purposes to determine
opportunities and goals for a business.
Business research can be done for anything and everything. In general, when
people speak about business research it means asking research questions to know
where the money can be spent to increase sales, profits or market share. Such
research is critical to make wise and informed decisions.

For example: A mobile company wants to launch a new model in the market. But
they are not aware of what the dimensions of a mobile are in most demand. Hence,
the company conducts a business research using various methods to gather
information and the same is then evaluated and conclusions are drawn, as to what
dimensions are most in-demand. This will enable the researcher to make wise
decisions to position his phone at the right price in the market and hence acquire a
larger market share.

3.PURE RESEARCH:

Pure research, also known as fundamental or basic research, is conducted

without any specific goal in mind. The main aim of pure research is to advance
knowledge and to identify or explain the relationship between variables. Thus, it
advances fundamental knowledge about the world, and introduces new theories,
ideas, and principals as well as new ways of thinking. Pure research is the source
of most new information and ways of thinking in the world.

Pure research is driven by curiosity, intuition, and interest, and is more exploratory
in nature than applied research. Sometimes pure research can act as a foundation
for applied research.

4.DRAWBACKS OF EMPIRICAL RESEARCH:

● It can be time-consuming depending on the research subject.

● It is not a cost-effective way of data collection in most cases because of
the possible expensive methods of data gathering. Moreover, it may
require traveling between multiple locations.
● Lack of evidence and research subjects may not yield the desired result.
A small sample size prevents generalization because it may not be
enough to represent the target audience.
 ● It isn't easy to get information on sensitive topics, and also, researchers
may need participants' consent to use the data.

5.LIMITATIONS OF DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH:

● Descriptive studies cannot be used to establish cause and

effect relationships
● Respondents may not be truthful when answering survey
questions or may give socially desirable responses.
● The choice and wording of questions on a questionnaire
may influence the descriptive findings.
● Depending on the type and size of sample, the findings
may not be generalizable or produce an accurate
description of the population of interest.

6.DEPTH INTERVIEW :

They generally use small samples and also conduct direct one to one
personal interviews. A detailed background is provided by the respondents and
elaborate data concerning the respondents opinions, values, motivation, expression,
feeling etc are obtained. Even their non-verbal expressions are observed. They take
a long time, therefore lengthy observations are involved.

These are conducted to customize individual responses. The questions will depend
on what kind of answers are given. Even the interview climate influences the
respondents. The success of interviews depends on the rapport of the interviewers
established with the respondents.

Advantages of Depth Interview

1. Lot of detail is provided.
2. Information obtained is comparatively more accurate.
3. Personal or intimate topic can also be discussed since the personal
rapport is established between the respondent and the interviewer

Disadvantages of Depth Interview

1. It is difficult to generalize since the interviewers are non-standardized
2. Since the success depends on the interviewer, there are chances of bias.
 3. Data analysis takes a lot of time.

7.RESEARCH DESIGN:

Research design is the framework of research methods and techniques

chosen by a researcher to conduct a study. The design allows researchers to
sharpen the research methods suitable for the subject matter and set up their studies
for success.

Creating a research topic explains the type of research (experimental, survey

research, correlational, semi-experimental, review) and its sub-type (experimental
design, research problem, descriptive case-study).

There are three main types of designs for research:

● Data collection
● Measurement
● Analysis

8.OBSERVATION METHOD:
The observation method involves human or mechanical observation of what
people actually do or what events take place during a buying or consumption
situation. “Information is collected by observing processes at work. ”The following
are a few situations:-

1. Service Stations-Pose as a customer, go to a service station and observe.

2. To evaluate the effectiveness of display of Dunlop Pillow Cushions-In a
departmental store, observer notes:- a) How many pass by; b) How
many stopped to look at the display; c) How many decide to buy.
3. Super Market-Which is the best location on the shelf? Hidden cameras
are used.
4. To determine typical sales arrangement and find out sales enthusiasm
shown by various salesmen-Normally this is done by an investigator
using a concealed tape-recorder.

Advantages of Observation Method

 1. If the researcher observes and records events, it is not necessary to rely
on the willingness and ability of respondents to report accurately.
2. The biasing effect of interviewers is either eliminated or reduced. Data
collected by observation are, thus, more objective and generally more
accurate.

Disadvantages of Observation Method

1. The most limiting factor in the use of observation methods is the

inability to observe such things such as attitudes, motivations,
customers/consumers state of mind, their buying motives and their
images.
2. It also takes time for the investigator to wait for a particular action to
take place.
3. Personal and intimate activities, such as watching television late at
night, are more easily discussed with questionnaires than they are
observed.
4. Cost is the final disadvantage of the observation method. Under most
circumstances, observational data are more expensive to obtain than
other survey data. The observer has to wait doing nothing, between
events to be observed. The unproductive time is an increased cost.

9. Data Collection:
Data collection is a process of collecting information from all the relevant
sources to find answers to the research problem, test the hypothesis and evaluate
the outcomes. Data collection methods can be divided into two categories:
secondary methods of data collection and primary methods of data collection.

Secondary Data Collection Methods

Secondary data is a type of data that has already been published in books,
newspapers, magazines, journals, online portals etc. There is an abundance of data
available in these sources about your research area in business studies, almost
regardless of the nature of the research area. Therefore, application of appropriate
set of criteria to select secondary data to be used in the study plays an important
role in terms of increasing the levels of research validity and reliability.

Primary Data Collection Methods

Primary data is the type of data that has not been around before. Primary data is
unique findings of your research. Primary data collection and analysis typically
requires more time and effort to conduct compared to the secondary data research.
Primary data collection methods can be divided into two groups: quantitative and
qualitative.

Quantitative data collection methods are based on mathematical calculations

in various formats. Methods of quantitative data collection and analysis include
questionnaires with closed-ended questions, methods of correlation and regression,
mean, mode and median and others.

Quantitative methods are cheaper to apply and they can be applied within a shorter
duration of time compared to qualitative methods. Moreover, due to a high level of
standardisation of quantitative methods, it is easy to make comparisons of findings.

Qualitative research methods, on the contrary, do not involve numbers or

mathematical calculations. Qualitative research is closely associated with words,
sounds, feeling, emotions, colours and other elements that are non-quantifiable.

10.Features Of Research Design:

The important features of Research Design may be outlined as follows:

i. It constitutes a plan that identifies the types and sources of information required
for the research problem;

ii. It constitutes a strategy that specifies the methods of data collection and analysis
which would be adopted; and
iii. It also specifies the time period of research and monetary budget involved in
conducting the study, which comprise the two major constraints of undertaking any
research

11. Null Hypothesis:

● A null hypothesis is a type of conjecture in statistics that proposes that there

is no difference between certain characteristics of a population or
data-generating process.
● The alternative hypothesis proposes that there is a difference.
● Hypothesis testing provides a method to reject a null hypothesis within a
certain confidence level.
● If you can reject the null hypothesis, it provides support for the alternative
hypothesis.
● Null hypothesis testing is the basis of the principle of falsification in science.
For example, if a researcher wants to test the hypothesis that the population mean
(μ) is equal to the hypothesized mean (H0) = 100, then the null hypothesis should
be stated as the population mean is equal to the hypothesized mean 100.
Symbolically it may be written as:-
H0: = μ = μ H0 = 100

12.ATTITUDE SCALE

The word ‘scale’ comes from the Latin word scala, meaning a ladder or
flight of steps, a scale represents a series of ordered steps at fixed intervals used as
a standard of measurement. An attitude scale is a special type of questionnaire
designed to produce scores indicating the intensity and direction (for or against) of
a person’s feelings about an object or event.
An attitude scale, is a tool prepared for the purpose of measuring people's attitude
to an issue called attitude scale. An attitude scale is designed to provide a valid, or
accurate measure of an individual’s social attitude.

13.Sampling error:

Sampling error refers to the random variations in the sample estimates

around the true population parameters. Because they occur randomly and likely to
be equally in either direction, they are of the compensatory type, the expected
value of which errors tend to be equal to zero. Sampling error tends to decrease
with the increase in the size of the sample. It also becomes smaller in magnitude
when the population is homogenous.
Sampling error can be computed for a given sample size and design. The
measurement of sampling error is known as ‘precision of the sampling plan’. When
the sample size is increased, the precision can be improved. However, increasing
the sample size has its own limitations. The large sized sample not only increases
the cost of data collection, but also increases the systematic bias. Thus, an effective
way of increasing the precision is generally to choose a better sampling design,
which has smaller sampling error for a given sample size at a specified cost. In
practice, however, researchers generally prefer a less precise design owing to the
ease in adopting the same, in addition to the fact that systematic bias can be
controlled better in such designs.
In sum, while selecting the sample, a researcher should ensure that the procedure
adopted involves a relatively smaller sampling error and helps to control
systematic bias.

16.Stratified Random Sampling:

A probability sampling procedure in which simple random sub-samples are drawn

from within different strata that are, more or less equal on some characteristics.
Stratified sampling is of two types:
1. Proportionate stratified sampling: The number of sampling units drawn from
each stratum is in proportion to the population size of that stratum.
2. Disproportionate stratified sampling: The number of sampling units drawn from
each
stratum is based on the analytical consideration, but not in proportion to the size of
the
population of that stratum.
Sampling process is as follows:
1. The population to be sampled is divided into groups (stratified).
2. A simple random sample is chosen.

17. Coding of Data

Coding of data refers to the process of transforming collected information

or observations to a set of meaningful, cohesive categories. It is a process of
summarizing and re-presenting data in order to provide a systematic account of the
recorded or observed phenomenon. Data refer to a wide range of empirical objects
such as historical documents, newspaper articles, TV programming, field notes,
interview or focus group transcripts, pictures, face-to-face conversations, social
media messages (e.g., tweets or YouTube comments), and so on. Codes are
concepts that link data with theory. They can either be predefined by the researcher
or emerge inductively from the coding process.

18.Objective of Data Analysis:

Data analysis can be defined as the process of gathering, modelling and

transforming data so as to get useful information, suggestions and conclusions in
decision-making.

Appropriate analytical tools are used to convert raw data into information that can
be used in marketing research. Percentile and ratios are some elementary methods
of data analysis. Some statistical methods such as mean, median, mode,
percentage, and standard deviation should be used as per requirement.

Objectives of Data Analysis

● Assessment and improvement of the quality of the data.

● Compare the target population with the population being studied (sampling
population).
● Forecast the possible areas where faults can occur (such as degree of
non-response, amount of denials, the comparison groups or the reduction or
decrease in number).
● Assessment of the measures of frequency (such as mean, median, mode,
etc.) and their amount.
● Assessing, i.e. how much strong relationship exists among the variables.
● Measurement of the degree of ambiguity.
● Observe and control the influences of other associated characteristics.
● Making inferences and taking decisions.
● To acquire insights regarding the relationships which are being observed or
not attended.
19..Discriminant Ananalysis

Discriminant Analysis can be understood as a statistical method that

analyses if the classification of data is adequate with respect to the research data. It
is implemented by researchers for analyzing the data at the time when-

● Dependent variable or criterion is categorical

● Independent variable or predictor is an interval
20.ANOVA

According to R.A. Fisher, “analysis of variance is the separation of variance

ascribable to one group of causes from the variance ascribable to other groups”.

Assumptions of ANOVA

The technique of ANOVA is mainly used for the analysis and interpretation of data
obtained from experiments. This technique is based on three important
assumptions, namely

1. The parent population is normal.

2. The error component is distributed normally with zero mean and constant
variance.

3. The various effects are additive in nature.

The technique of ANOVA essentially consists of partitioning the total variation in

an experiment into components of different sources of variation. These sources of
variations are due to controlled factors and uncontrolled factors. Since the variation
in the sample data is characterized by means of many components of variation, it
can be symbolically represented in the mathematical form called a linear model for
the sample data.

21.Research Report

A report is a well-written formal document that briefly describes the process

and findings of a research. It outlines the systematic investigation,
recommendations, and gaps that need further inquiry. A well-crafted research
report tells you about all the main areas of a research process. In this article, we
will talk about how to write a report in research methodology.

elow are some points that make the report crucial in research methodology:

1. Knowledge transfer
A report contributes to the existing knowledge. Through this report, we can
communicate effectively with the findings of the investigation.

2. Identification of knowledge gaps

A research report identifies knowledge gaps that can be investigated further. The
report shows what and how much has been done.

3. presents information precisely

A research report makes you able to show research information in a concise and
precise manner.

4. Time-efficient
A report is a time-efficient document because you don’t have to spend much time
detailing the findings. Rather, it is written briefly and you can send it through email
to the concerned people.

22.Characteristics of Research Report:

Characteristics feature is an integral part of the report. There is no hard and

fast rule for preparing a research report. The research report will differ based on the
need of the particular managers using the report. The report also depends on the
philosophy of the researcher.

Example: A report prepared for a government agency will be different from the one
prepared for a private organization.

In spite of the fact that, marketing report is influenced by the researcher, there are
certain

characteristics which the report should possess, if it is to be effectively

communicated. These characteristics can be classified as:

i. Substantive characteristics
ii. Semantic characteristics.

>>Substantive characteristics are:

Accuracy

Currency

Sufficiency

Availability

Relevancy

The more that the report possesses the above characteristics, the greater is its
practical value in decision making.

Semantic characteristics are equally important in a report. The report should be

grammatically correct. It should be free from spelling and typing errors. This will
ensure that there is no

ambiguity or misunderstanding. Assistance of a proofreader, other than the

researcher would be required to eliminate the above errors.

23.Interim Mthod:

Interim (or progress) reports present the interim, preliminary, or initial

evaluation findings.

Interim reports are scheduled according to the specific needs of your evaluation
users, often halfway through the execution of a project. The interim report is
necessary to let a project’s stakeholders know how an intervention is going. It
provides information that will help the funders and other decision-makers
determine whether to continue with the current direction, where to make
adjustments if necessary, revise goals, add more resources or in the worst-case
scenario, to shut it down.

An interim report is similar to a final report, in that it includes a summary, a brief

description of the progress, the evaluation thus far, and an overview of the financial
situation. Any delays or deviations to the plan are included and explained, as well
as any comparison between actual compared to expected results.

12 marks

1.Problems Encountered By Researchers

Research Methodology is a study subject in some of the under-graduate courses
and most of the Post-graduate courses. Still, there is a lack of awareness of the
purpose of research and the purpose of including research methodology in the
curriculum. Many students hate this subject and the hatred is increased when they
see the numerical in biostatistics when it is clubbed with research methodology.
There are several problems encountered by students and novice researchers.
Some of them are:
1.Lack of scientific training in the methodology of research
There is a paucity of competent researchers.
etent researchers. The scenario in most cases is like a blind leading the blind. Most
of the people who hold the position of research guides are themselves not thorough
with the various methodologies. They lead theresearcher/students to copy
methodology of similar studies.
2.Copying of data (Plagiarism) Some researchers (as they call themselves), merely
copy other international studies or studies which have been done by
researchers/students of other universities. This is a crime and should not be
promoted. A Researchers can re-evaluate others study by considering and
overcoming the limitations of previous study, but at no cost should be copied or
repeated. One should learn to respect others hard work. The act itself leads to lack
of awareness in research methodology

3.Manipulation of data.
Every researcher tries or does one or the other kinds of manipulation of data. May
be multiplying the sample size or to make the result in the way they want. The lack
of confidence over the result they may get after the completion of study is the
reason for manipulation of result. This never reveals the reality, as the intuition of
the researcher is guided by mere theoretical knowledge. In reality sometimes
theory and practice may be contradictory. Some researchers just finish off their
study by simply sitting in their home; they don’t even interact with their subject or
have any one.
4.Lack of availability or access to literature needed.
This is a major problem faced during the literature review. The lack of availability
of access to Internet, ignorance of the way to search needed articles from journals
and Other databases are other problems. Searching books and newspaper articles
from conventional libraries consumes a lot of time and effort. These kind of
libraries, especially which are situated away from the capital cities lack copies of
new acts/ rules published by the government. There is also timely unavailability of
published Data.
5.The outlook of the researcher/research student
All students before being selected by the guide interact with their senior students.
They already finding difficulty with research, tells the hardships they suffer or
suffered. This changes the outlook of the students. Research is the way you take it.
It can be either.
6.Lack of confidence to take up a new study especially explorative study.
This may be due to any of the above-mentioned reasons, also the fear of the result
and fear of not being able to answer questions during presentations. One should be
dare enough to disseminate the result of the study, as it is the truth he/she has come
to know after the research process. Limitations of the study are always considered
and no one is going to blame that, unless the research is re-done. This leads to
undertaking overlapping studies, as there is a want of information.
7.Unavailability of permission to do research in specific centers
Hospitals and business establishments usually don’t allow third party inside to
conduct research. This may be due to security reasons or may be due to lack of
confidence in keeping the confidentiality of the data or names. No establishments
will agree a third person to get in and find out the problems within and it being gets
published. Some organizations charge heavy fee or donation (whatever it may be)
from students to allow doing research within.
8.Research: a mere formality to fulfill course requirement
Yes, of course research is a part of the curriculum. But most of the students find it
as a
mere formality to fulfill their course requirement. They just want to finish off the
study. For this they search the shortcuts. But the fact is that once a study is done, it
will be referred in future by other researchers. They won’t be aware if the study
was sincerely done.
9.Publishing may be expensive
Research study once it is completed, the further step will be the publishing of the
same. Printing and binding may turn to be expensive. Also, it will be very
expensive the paper has to be published in any international journals or
conferences. These expenses may not be affordable by the student researchers.
10.Lack of availability of sponsors This may be due to lot of reasons.
A.Hesitation to contact sponsors
B.Not able to convince the sponsors
C.Lack of confidence of sponsors over the researcher

2.Steps you have to take to take for executing good research:

Step 1: Identify the Problem

Finding an issue or formulating a research question is the first step. A well-defined
problem will guide the researcher through all stages of the research process, from
setting objectives to choosing a technique. There are several approaches to gaining
insight into a topic and understanding it better, such as:

● A preliminary survey
● Case studies
● Interviews with a small group of people
● Observational survey

Step 2: Evaluate the Literature

A thorough examination of the relevant studies is essential to the research process.
It enables the researcher to identify the specific aspects of the problem. Once a
problem has been found, the investigator or researcher needs to learn more about it.
This stage gives problem-zone background. It teaches the investigator about
previous research, how they were conducted, and its conclusions. The researcher
can build consistency between his work and others through a literature review.
Such a review exposes the researcher to a more significant body of knowledge and
helps him follow the research process efficiently.

Step 3: Create Hypotheses

Formulating an original hypothesis is the next logical step after narrowing down
the research topic and defining it. A belief solves logical relationships between
variables. A researcher must have a certain amount of expertise in the field to
establish a hypothesis.

Researchers need to keep in mind while formulating a hypothesis that it must be

based on the research topic. Researchers can concentrate their efforts and stay
committed to their objectives when they develop theories to guide their work.

Step 4: The Research Design

Research design is the plan for achieving objectives and answering research
questions. It outlines how to get the relevant information. Its goal is to design
research to test hypotheses, address the research questions, and provide
decision-making insights.

The research design aims to minimize the time, money, and effort required to
acquire meaningful evidence. This plan fits into four categories:

● Exploration and Surveys

 ● Experiment
● Data Analysis
● Observation

Step 5: Describe Population

Research projects usually look at a specific group of people, facilities, or how
technology is used in the business. In research, the term population refers to this
study group. The research topic and purpose help determine the study group.

Suppose a researcher wishes to investigate a certain group of people in the

community. In that case, the research could target a specific age group, males or
females, a geographic location, or an ethnic group. A final step in a study’s design
is to specify its sample or population so that the results may be generalized.

Step 6: Data Collection

Data collection is essential in obtaining the knowledge or information required to
answer the research issue. Every research collected data from the literature or the
people being studied. Data must be collected from the two categories of
researchers. These sources may provide primary data.

● Experiment
● Questionnaire
● Observation
● Interview

Secondary data categories are:

 ● Literature survey
● Official and unofficial reports
● An approach based on library resources

Step 7: Data Analysis

During research design, the researcher plans data analysis. After collecting data,
the researcher analyzes it. The data is examined based on the approach in this step.
The research findings are reviewed and reported.

Data analysis involves several closely related stages, such as setting up categories,
applying these categories to raw data through coding and tabulation, and then
drawing statistical conclusions. The researcher can examine the acquired data
using a variety of statistical methods.

Step 8: The Report-writing

After completing these steps, the researcher must prepare a report detailing his
findings. The report must be carefully composed with the following in mind:

○ The Layout: On the first page, the title, date, acknowledgments,

and preface should be on the report. A list of tables, graphs, and
charts should follow a table of contents.

● Introduction: It should state the research’s purpose and methods. This

section should include the study’s scope and limits.
 ○ Summary of Findings: A non-technical summary of findings and
recommendations will follow the introduction. The results should
be summarized if they’re lengthy.

● Principal Report: The main body of the report should make sense and be
broken up into sections that are easy to understand.
● Conclusion: The researcher should restate his findings at the end of the
main text. It’s the final result.

3.Types of Research:
Exploratory Research
This type of research is carried out at the very beginning when the problem is not
clear or is vague. In exploratory research, all possible reasons which are very
obvious are eliminated, thereby directing the research to proceed further with
limited options.

Descriptive Research
The main purpose of descriptive research is to describe the state of view as it exists
at present. Simply stated, it is a fact finding investigation. In descriptive research,
definite conclusions can be arrived at, but it does not establish a cause and effect
relationship. This type of research tries to describe the characteristics of the
respondent in relation to a particular product.

Applied Research
Applied research aims at finding a solution for an immediate problem faced by any
business organization. This research deals with real life situations.
Pure/Fundamental Research or Basic Research Gathering knowledge for
knowledge's sake is known as basic research. It is not directly involved with
practical problems. It does not have any commercial potential. There is no
intention to apply this research in practice. Tata Institute of Fundamental Research
conducts such studies.
Conceptual Research
This is generally used by philosophers. In this type of research, the researcher
should collect the data to prove or disapprove his hypothesis. The various
ideologies or 'isms' are examples of conceptual research.
Causal Research
Causal research is conducted to determine the cause and effect relationship
between the two Variables.
Historical Research
The name itself indicates the meaning of the research. Historical study is a study of
past records and data in order to understand the future trends and development of
the organisation or market. There is no direct observation. The research has to
depend on the conclusions or inferences drawn in the past.
Ex-post Facto Research
In this type of research, an examination of relationship that exists between
independent and dependent variable is studied. We may call this empirical
research. In this method, the researcher has no control over an independent
variable. Ex-post facto literally means "from what is done afterwards". In this
research, a variable "A" is observed. Thereafter, the researcher tries to find a causal
variable "B" which caused "A". It is quite possible that "B" might not have been
caused "A". In this type of analysis, there is no scope for the researcher to
manipulate the variable. The researcher can only report "what has happened" and
"what is happening".
Action Research
This type of research is undertaken by direct action. Action research is conducted
to solve a problem. For example, test marketing a product is an example of action
research. Initially, the geographical location is identified. A target sample is
selected from among the population.
Samples are distributed to selected samples and feedback is obtained from the
respondent. This method is most common for industrial products, where a trial is a
must before regular usage of the product.
Evaluation Research
This is an example of applied research. This research is conducted to find out how
well a planned programme is implemented. Therefore, evaluation research deals
with evaluating the performance or assessment of a project
Library Research
This is done to gather secondary data. This includes notes from the past data or
review of the reports already conducted. This is a convenient method whereby both
manpower and time are Saved.

4.Nature and scope of business research

Business research: It is described as the systematic and objective procedure for

producing information for help in making business decisions.
NATURE OF BUSINESS RESEARCH: i. Business Research helps you
communicate with current and potential customers in a better way. ii. It helps you
identify opportunities and threats in the marketplace. iii. It helps you minimize
risks. iv. Business research is used to plan investments and financial outcomes
effectively. v. It helps you build a better market position. vi. It can keep you
updated with current trends and innovations in the market.
SCOPE OF BUSINESS RESEARCH: i. Production Management: The research
performs an important function in product development, diversification,
introducing a new product, product improvement, process technologies, choosing a
site, new investment etc. ii. Personnel Management: Research works well for job
redesign, organization restructuring, development of motivational strategies and
organizational development. iii. Marketing Management: Research performs an
important part in choice and size of target market, the consumer behavior with
regards to attitudes, life style, and influences of the target market. It is the primary
tool in determining price policy, selection of channel of distribution and
development of sales strategies, product mix, promotional strategies, etc. iv.
Financial Management: Research can be useful for portfolio management,
distribution of dividend, capital raising, hedging and looking after fluctuations in
foreign currency and product cycles. v. General Management: It contributes greatly
in developing the standards, objectives, long-term goals, and growth strategies.

Casual Research

Causal research, also called causal study, an explanatory or analytical study,

attempts to establish causes or risk factors for certain problems.
Comparative Study

This is a study that has its main focus on comparing as well as describing groups.

In a study of malnutrition, for example, the researcher will not only describe the
prevalence of malnutrition, but by comparing malnourished or well-nourished
children, he will try to determine which socio-economic behavior and other
independent variables have contributed to malnutrition.

In analyzing the results of a comparative study, the researcher must watch out for
confounding or intervening variables that may distort the true relationship between
the dependent and independent variables.

Case-Control Study

A case-control study is a retrospective study that looks back in time to find the
relative risk between a specific exposure (e.g., second-hand tobacco smoke) and an
outcome (e.g., cancer).

The investigator compares one group of people with the problem, the cases, with
another group without a problem or who did not experience the event, called a
control group or comparison group.

The goal is to determine the relationship between risk factors and disease or
outcome and estimate the odds of an individual getting a disease or experiencing
an event.
Cohort Study

In a cohort study, also called a prospective study, we take a group of people, the
cohort, and observe whether they have the suspected causal factor.

We then follow them over time and observe whether they develop the disease. This
is a prospective study, as we start with the possible cause and see whether this
leads to the disease in the future.

It is also longitudinal, meaning that subjects are studied more than once. A cohort
study usually takes a long time, as we must wait for future event to occur. It
involves keeping track of large numbers of people, sometimes for many years.

Often it becomes necessary to include a large number of people in the sample to

ensure that sufficient numbers will develop the disease to enable comparisons
between those with and without the factor.

A study may start with one large cohort.

After the cohort is selected, the researcher may determine who is exposed to the
risk factor (e.g., smoking) and who is not and follow the two groups over time to
determine whether the study group develops a higher prevalence of lung cancer
than the control group.

7.Methods that can be applied for collecting primary data

Primary data collection involves gathering information before secondary or tertiary

sources are consulted.
This type of data can be collected through a variety of methods, such as interviews
and surveys.
Primary sources provide an understanding that experts rely on, even as they
support their conclusions with more extensive studies. Read all about primary data
in this blog post.

Primary data collection methods

Primary data collection is the process of collecting data from a real-world source,
like a customer or user. This can be done manually or through automated means.

There are three main types of primary data collection: qualitative, quantitative, and
mixed mode. Each has its own advantages and disadvantages.

Qualitative primary data collection is the most important type for research
because it allows you to collect rich information that can be used to improve your
products or services. However, it’s difficult to interpret and use this data in a way
that’s useful for business decisions. Quantitative primary data collection is good for
measuring how people are using your product or service, but it doesn’t allow you
to understand their thoughts and feelings very well. Mixed mode primary data
collection combines elements of both qualitative and quantitative methods; this
makes it easier to get valuable insights without sacrificing accuracy.

Qualitative primary data collection

Qualitative primary data collection is a form of research that involves collecting
data in an unstructured manner. This type of data collection can be helpful in
gaining a more in-depth understanding of a topic or phenomenon. It can be useful
when you want to explore an issue from many different perspectives. It can also be
helpful when you want to gather information about people’s opinions and feelings
about a topic or phenomenon. Additionally, qualitative primary data collection can
be helpful when you want to explore how people think about a particular issue or
problem.

Qualitative primary data collection is a type of data collection that uses interviews,
focus groups, and surveys to collect information from people. It’s often used in
research projects to gather feedback on products or services. This kind of data can
be useful for understanding how people use products or how they think about
problems. Qualitative primary data can also help you design better products or
services.

Quantitative primary data collection

Quantitative primary data collection is the process of collecting data that can be
measured.

There are two types of quantitative primary data collection: online surveys and
observation studies.
Quantitative primary data collection has several advantages, including the ability to
measure how people behave in natural settings, the ability to track changes over
time, and the potential for large-scale studies.

It has its own set of drawbacks, including low response rates and difficulty getting
accurate results.

Quantitative primary data collection refers to any form of research where you
collect information that can be measured (usually using a numeric scale). There are
two main types – Online Surveys & Observational Studies – both with their own
set of benefits and drawbacks. With Online Surveys in particular there’s no need
for respondents to leave their homes or face any awkward questions – they’re able
to take part from anywhere with an internet connection! But while response rates
may be high due to this accessibility, it’s often difficult getting accurate results as
many people choose not answer surveys because they find them intrusive or
inconvenient rather than ignorant/uninterested in the topic at hand! Lastly whilst
observational studies have been around for a long time, they often suffer from low
response rates as people are less likely to volunteer for them or feel comfortable
about being observed.

Example of primary data

Primary data is data that is collected directly from the users of a product or service.
It includes information such as how people use the product or service, what they
say about it, and what they buy.

Primary data collection can be used to improve your products and services by
understanding how people use them. This data can help you make changes to the
product or service that will improve user experience services in order for you to
make improvements.

Businesses can benefit from primary data collection in a number of ways: by

improving customer satisfaction rates, by identifying new revenue opportunities,
and by making better product decisions.

Advantages and disadvantage of primary data collection

What are the advantages?
Primary data collection has many advantages over traditional data collection
methods. Primary data is collected directly from the people who are experiencing
the problem or issue you’re trying to solve. This means that it’s more accurate and
reliable than other types of data, which can be collected through surveys or
interviews.

Traditional data collection methods rely on asking questions of a sample of people

in order to get an understanding of the problem or issue. However, this method
isn’t always as accurate as primary data because it doesn’t allow for feedback from
the people who are experiencing the problem.

By collecting primary data, you’re able to gather information from those who are
affected by the issue at hand. This allows you to get a better understanding of how
they’re feeling and what needs to be done in order to address their concerns.

It also makes research more efficient since there’s no need for a large number of
respondents—just enough people who have experienced the issue firsthand will do
fine.

Plus, primary data is often more relevant because it considers all aspects of an
individual’s experience rather than just one aspect (like with survey results).
Ultimately, this leads to better solutions that reflect everyone’s reality accurately
and efficiently.

What are the disadvantages?

There are a few disadvantages to primary data collection. One disadvantage is that
it can be time-consuming and difficult to collect accurate information. Another
disadvantage is that it can be invasive and disruptive, often requiring people to take
time away from their normal activities. And finally, it may not be representative of
your entire audience, and you may not have access to all the relevant information.

The advantages and disadvantages of different types of primary data collections

should be considered when designing a study or when selecting a sampling method
for your research project.

8.Non probability sampling method:

Non-probability sampling is defined as a method of sampling in which samples are

selected according to the subjective judgment of the researcher rather than through
random sampling. Unlike probability sampling, each member of the target
population has an equal chance of being selected as a participant in the research
because you cannot calculate the probability of selecting anyone.
Non-probability sampling is commonly used in qualitative or exploratory research
and it is conducted by observation.

This is because non-probability sampling is a less difficult technique and the

outcome depends largely on the expertise of the researcher.

This sampling technique is also used by researchers to save cost or time, especially
when it is impossible to use random probability sampling.

1. Convenience sampling
This is one of the non-probability sampling techniques where the samples that are
readily available in the entire population get selected by the researcher.
Convenience sampling is used by researchers because the samples are easy to
recruit, and not necessarily because the researcher considers selecting a sample that
represents the entire population.

In research, it is important to test the sample that will represent the targeted
population. But, in some cases where the population is too large, the researcher
may not be able to conduct a test for the entire population. This is why researchers
focus on convenience sampling. It is also the most common non-probability
sampling method because it is cost-efficient and time-saving.

For example, you ask your students to complete a survey after each of your classes
with them. However, the response from your students’ survey does not represent
the whole school population.

2. Consecutive sampling
Consecutive sampling is similar to convenience sampling in method, although
there are a few differences. In this type of non-probability sampling, the researcher
selects a person or a group from the population and conducts research with them
over a period of time.

Thereafter, the result from the research is analyzed and then the researcher goes on
to another group from the population and conducts another research if necessary.
The consecutive sampling technique gives the researcher an opportunity to study
diverse topics and gather results with vital insights.

3. Quota sampling
To understand quota sampling, let us look at this example. A researcher wants to
study the career growth of the employees in an organization with 400 employees.
To better understand the population, the researcher will select a sample from the
population to represent the total employees or population.

If the researcher is interested in a particular department within the population the

researcher will use quota sampling to divide the population into strata or groups.
So quota sampling is the division of the larger population into strata according to
the need of the research.

For example, if there are 400 women and 100 men, So you will have to select 40
women and 10 men to represent the strata.

4. Judgmental or Purposive sampling

In a judgmental sampling technique, the samples are selected based on the
credibility and knowledge of the researcher. This means that only those deemed fit
by the researcher are selected to participate in the research.

It is worthy of note that purposive or judgmental sampling is not scientific and it

can easily accommodate influence or bias from the researcher. For example, if you
want to conduct research about the experience of disabled employees in your large
organization, you can select people with special needs in a few departments.
Although they serve the purpose, they do not represent your entire employees.

5. Snowball sampling
Snowball sampling is useful for finding samples that are difficult for the researcher
to locate. Researchers make use of snowball sampling techniques when their
sample size is not readily available and also small.

So this is carried out like a referral program where the researcher finds suitable
members and solicits help in finding similar members so as to form a considerably
good sample size.

For example, If you want to research the experience of homeless people,

considering there is no data to determine their numbers, you can meet one and ask
for an audience. If one person agrees, you can ask to be introduced to other
homeless people.
9.Construction of questionnaire:

A questionnaire is a self-report data-collection instrument that each research

participant fills out as part of a research study. Researchers use questionnaires so
that they can obtain information about the thoughts, feelings, attitudes, beliefs,
values, perceptions, personality, and behavioral intentions of research participants.
In other words, researchers attempt to measure many different kinds of
characteristics using questionnaires. We view the term questionnaire broadly,
meaning that questionnaires are not restricted to a single research method.
Questionnaires can be used to collect data with multiple research methods
(quantitative, qualitative, mixed, etc.). Furthermore, the content and organization of
a questionnaire will correspond to the researcher’s research objectives.The key
point is that the questionnaire is a versatile tool available to you and other
educational researchers. Questionnaires typically include many questions and
statements.For example,a researcher might ask a question about the present (Do
you support the use of corporal punishment in elementary schools?), the past (Have
you ever used corporal punishment with one of your students?), or the future (Do
you think that you will use corporal punishment sometime in the future?

PRINCIPLES OF QUESTIONNAIRE CONSTRUCTION Take a moment to

examine this list of 15 principles so that you will have an overview of what is
important to consider when constructing a questionnaire.We explain each of these
principles in more detail. Remember that the goal of the questionnaire is to tap into
and understand the opinions of your participants about variables related to your
research objectives.As you construct the questionnaire, you must constantly ask
yourself if your questions will provide clear data about what your participants think
or feel.
Principles of Questionnaire Construction: Testing Reliability and Validity

One way to measure a questionnaire's reliability is the test-retest method. The

process involves the same participants completing the same questionnaire but on
different days. If there is a high correlation between test scores on each data, then it
has high internal reliability.

A common way to measure the validity of a questionnaire is to distribute a

questionnaire to two groups:

1. One group consists of experts.

2. The other has limited knowledge about the phenomenon under investigation.
If the two groups have similar results, the questionnaire is easy to understand, and
the questions are not open to interpretation. Therefore, the questionnaire has high
validity.

Another way to measure the validity of a questionnaire is to check whether it has

concurrent validity. It is verified by inspecting whether the new questionnaire's
results match those of a previously created questionnaire that measures a similar
concept.

Questionnaire Construction: Strengths and Issues

Overall, questionnaires are an inexpensive and quick way to collect data for
analysis, and as they are usually, anonymous respondents are more likely to be
truthful. Additionally, a higher response rate is likely in comparison to interviews.

It becomes problematic when questions are not carefully constructed, as it can lead
to biased, invalid and unreliable results.

Ultimately, questionnaires should avoid influencing or suggesting the correct

answers (to avoid participants making the socially desirable choice).

Social desirability refers to when respondents respond in a way that they think is
how the ideal society member would respond; it is often a result of perceived social
pressure and wanting to be seen in a positive light.

Questionnaire Construction: Example

Let's look at an example of what type of questions may be asked when researchers
are trying to measure how depressed respondents' are.

There are previously well-established questionnaires that measure depression, so it

is unlikely that researchers would need to construct a new questionnaire to measure
it.

10. Sources in Identifying Research Problem:

Sources of Problems The identification of a problem to study can be
challenging, not because there's a lack of issues that could be investigated, but due
to the challenge of formulating an academically relevant and researchable problem
which is unique and does not simply duplicate the work of others. To facilitate how
you might select a problem from which to build a research study, consider these
sources of inspiration: Deductions from Theory This relates to deductions made
from social philosophy or generalizations embodied in life and in society that the
researcher is familiar with. These deductions from human behavior are then placed
within an empirical frame of reference through research. From a theory, the
researcher can formulate a research problem or hypothesis stating the expected
findings in certain empirical situations. The research asks the question: “What
relationship between variables will be observed if theory aptly summarizes the
state of affairs?” One can then design and carry out a systematic investigation to
assess whether empirical data confirm or reject the hypothesis, and hence, the
theory. Interdisciplinary Perspectives Identifying a problem that forms the basis for
a research study can come from academic movements and scholarship originating
in disciplines outside of your primary area of study. This can be an intellectually
stimulating exercise. A review of pertinent literature should include examining
research from related disciplines that can reveal new avenues of exploration and
analysis. An interdisciplinary approach to selecting a research problem offers an
opportunity to construct a more comprehensive understanding of a very complex
issue that any single discipline may be able to provide. Interviewing Practitioners
The identification of research problems about particular topics can arise from
formal interviews or informal discussions with practitioners who provide insight
into new directions for future research and how to make research findings more
relevant to practice. Discussions with experts in the field, such as, teachers, social
workers, health care providers, lawyers, business leaders, etc., offers the chance to
identify practical, “real world” problems that may be understudied or ignored
within academic circles. This approach also provides some practical knowledge
which may help in the process of designing and conducting your study. Personal
Experience Don't undervalue your everyday experiences or encounters as
worthwhile problems for investigation. Think critically about your own
experiences and/or frustrations with an issue facing society, your community, your
neighborhood, your family, or your personal life. This can be derived, for example,
from deliberate observations of certain relationships for which there is no clear
explanation or witnessing an event that appears harmful to a person or group or
that is out of the ordinary. Relevant Literature The selection of a research problem
can be derived from a thorough review of pertinent research associated with your
overall area of interest. This may reveal where gaps exist in understanding a topic
or where an issue has been understudied. Research may be conducted to: 1) fill
such gaps in knowledge; 2) evaluate if the methodologies employed in prior studies
can be adapted to solve other problems; or, 3) determine if a similar study could be
conducted in a different subject area or applied in a different context or to different
study sample [i.e., different setting or different group of people].Also, authors
frequently conclude their studies by noting implications for further research; read
the conclusion of pertinent studies because statements about further research can
be a valuable source for identifying new problems to investigate. The fact that a
researcher has identified a topic worthy of further exploration validates the fact it is
worth pursuing.

11.Steps in sample design while executing research

Steps in Sampling Process

An operational sampling process can be divided into seven steps as given below:

1. Defining the target population.

2. Specifying the sampling frame.
3. Specifying the sampling unit.
4. Selection of the sampling method.
5. Determination of sample size.
6. Specifying the sampling plan.
7. Selecting the sample.

1. Defining the Target Population:

Defining the population of interest, for business research, is the first step in
sampling process. In general, target population is defined in terms of element,
sampling unit, extent, and time frame. The definition should be in line with the
objectives of the research study. For ex, if a kitchen appliances firm wants to
conduct a survey to ascertain the demand for its micro ovens, it may define the
population as ‘all women above the age of 20 who cook (assuming that very few
men cook)’. However this definition is too broad and will include every household
in the country, in the population that is to be covered by the survey. Therefore the
definition can be further refined and defined at the sampling unit level, that, all
women above the age 20, who cook and whose monthly household income exceeds
Rs.20,000. This reduces the target population size and makes the research more
focused. The population definition can be refined further by specifying the area
from where the researcher has to draw his sample, that is, households located in
Hyderabad.

A well defined population reduces the probability of including the respondents

who do not fit the research objective of the company. For ex, if the population is
defined as all women above the age of 20, the researcher may end up taking the
opinions of a large number of women who cannot afford to buy a micro oven.

2. Specifying the Sampling Frame:

Once the definition of the population is clear a researcher should decide on the
sampling frame. A sampling frame is the list of elements from which the sample
may be drawn. Continuing with the micro oven ex, an ideal sampling frame would
be a database that contains all the households that have a monthly income above
Rs.20,000. However, in practice it is difficult to get an exhaustive sampling frame
that exactly fits the requirements of a particular research. In general, researchers
use easily available sampling frames like telephone directories and lists of credit
card and mobile phone users. Various private players provide databases developed
along various demographic and economic variables. Sometimes, maps and aerial
pictures are also used as sampling frames. Whatever may be the case, an ideal
sampling frame is one that entire population and lists the names of its elements
only once.

A sampling frame error pops up when the sampling frame does not accurately
represent the total population or when some elements of the population are missing
another drawback in the sampling frame is over —representation. A telephone
directory can be over represented by names/household that have two or more
connections.

3. Specifying the Sampling Unit:

A sampling unit is a basic unit that contains a single element or a group of

elements of the population to be sampled. In this case, a household becomes a
sampling unit and all women above the age of 20 years living in that particular
house become the sampling elements. If it is possible to identify the exact target
audience of the business research, every individual element would be a sampling
unit. This would present a case of primary sampling unit. However, a convenient
and better means of sampling would be to select households as the sampling unit
and interview all females above 20 years, who cook. This would present a case of
secondary sampling unit.

4. Selection of the Sampling Method:

The sampling method outlines the way in which the sample units are to be selected.
The choice of the sampling method is influenced by the objectives of the business
research, availability of financial resources, time constraints, and the nature of the
problem to be investigated. All sampling methods can be grouped under two
distinct heads, that is, probability and non-probability sampling.

5. Determination of Sample Size:

The sample size plays a crucial role in the sampling process. There are various
ways of classifying the techniques used in determining the sample size. A couple
those hold primary importance and are worth mentioning are whether the technique
deals with fixed or sequential sampling and whether its logic is based on traditional
or Bayesian methods. In non-probability sampling procedures, the allocation of
budget, thumb rules and number of sub groups to be analyzed, importance of the
decision, number of variables, nature of analysis, incidence rates, and completion
rates play a major role in sample size determination. In the case of probability
sampling, however, formulas are used to calculate the sample size after the levels
of acceptable error and level of confidence are specified. The details of the various
techniques used to determine the sample size will be explained at the end of the
chapter.

6. Specifying the Sampling Plan:

In this step, the specifications and decisions regarding the implementation of the
research process are outlined. Suppose, blocks in a city are the sampling units and
the households are the sampling elements. This step outlines the modus operandi of
the sampling plan in identifying houses based on specified characteristics. It
includes issues like how is the interviewer going to take a systematic sample of the
houses. What should the interviewer do when a house is vacant? What is the
recontact procedure for respondents who were unavailable? All these and many
other questions need to be answered for the smooth functioning of the research
process. These are guide lines that would help the researcher in every step of the
process. As the interviewers and their co-workers will be on field duty of most of
the time, a proper specification of the sampling plans would make their work easy
and they would not have to revert to their seniors when faced with operational
problems.

7. Selecting the Sample:

This is the final step in the sampling process, where the actual selection of the
sample elements is carried out. At this stage, it is necessary that the interviewers
stick to the rules outlined for the smooth implementation of the business research.
This step involves implementing the sampling plan to select the sampling plan to
select a sample required for the survey.

12.TYPE 1 AND TYPE 2 ERROR

Errors in Hypothesis Testing

There are two types of errors:
1. Hypothesis is rejected when it is true.
2. Hypothesis is not rejected when it is false.
(1) is called Type 1 error (a), (2) is called Type 2 error (b). When a = 0.10 it means
that true hypothesis will be accepted in 90 out of 100 occasions. Thus, there is a
risk of rejecting a true hypothesis in 10 out of every 100 occasions. To reduce the
risk, use a = 0.01 which implies that we are prepared to take a 1% risk i.e., the
probability of rejecting a true hypothesis is 1%. It is also possible that in
hypothesis testing, we may commit Type 2 error (b) i.e., accepting a null
hypothesis which is false.
13.Probability Sampling Techniques:

Sampling is divided into two types:

Probability sampling: In a probability sample, every unit in the population has
equal chances for being selected as a sample unit.
Non-probability sampling: In the non-probability sampling, the units in the
population have unequal or negligible, almost no chances for being selected as a
sample unit.
Probability Sampling Techniques
1. Random sampling.
2. Systematic random sampling.
3. Stratified random sampling.
4. Cluster sampling.
5. Multistage sampling.
Random Sampling
Simple random sample is a process in which every item of the population has an
equal probability of being chosen.
There are two methods used in the random sampling: Notes
1. Lottery method: Take a population containing four departmental stores: A, B, C
and D. Suppose we need to pick a sample of two stores from the population using a
simple random procedure. We write down all possible samples of two. Six different
combinations, each containing two stores from the population, are AB, AD, AC,
BC, BD, CD. We can now write down six sample combination on six identical
pieces of paper, fold the piece of paper
so that they cannot be distinguished. Put them in a box. Mix them and pull one at
random.This procedure is the lottery method of making a random selection.
2. Using random number table: A random number table consists of a group of
digits that are arranged in random order, i.e., any row, column, or diagonal in such
a table contains digits that are not in any systematic order.

Systematic Random Sampling

There are three steps:
1. Sampling interval K is determined by the following formula:

2. One unit between the first and Kth unit in the population list is randomly chosen.
3. Add Kth unit to the randomly chosen number.

Stratified Random Sampling

A probability sampling procedure in which simple random sub-samples are drawn

from within different strata that are, more or less equal on some characteristics.
Stratified sampling is of two types:
1. Proportionate stratified sampling: The number of sampling units drawn from
each stratum is in proportion to the population size of that stratum.
2. Disproportionate stratified sampling: The number of sampling units drawn from
each stratum is based on the analytical consideration, but not in proportion to the
size of the population of that stratum.
Sampling process is as follows:
1. The population to be sampled is divided into groups (stratified).
2. A simple random sample is chosen.

Cluster Sampling
The following steps are followed:
1. The population is divided into clusters.
2. A simple random sample of a few clusters is selected.
3. All the units in the selected cluster are studied.

Multistage Sampling
The name implies that sampling is done in several stages. This is used with
stratified/cluster
Designs.

An illustration of double sampling is as follows.

The management of a newly-opened club is solicits new membership. During the
first rounds, all corporates were sent details so that those who are interested may
enroll. Having enrolled, the second round concentrates on how many are interested
to enroll for various entertainment activities that club offers such as billiards,
indoor sports, swimming, gym etc. After obtaining this information, you might
stratify the interested respondents. This will also tell you the reaction of new
members to various activities. This technique is considered to be scientific, since
there is no possibility of ignoring the characteristics of the universe.

14.Types of Interview:

Types of Interviews used in Research

There are different types of interviews used in the research data collection. An
interview is either structured or unstructured, depending upon whether a formal
questionnaire has bean formulated and the questions asked in a prearranged order
or not. An interview is also either direct or indirect as a result of whether the
purposes of the questions asked are plainly stated or intentionally disguised.
Cross-classifying these two characteristics provides four different types of
interviews. That is, an interview may be: (1) structured and direct, (2) unstructured
and direct, (3) structured and indirect, or (4) unstructured and indirect. Types (1)
and (2) are basically objective types; (3) and (4) are subjective types.

1. Structured-Direct Interview: The usual type of interview conducted during a

consumer survey to obtain descriptive information is one using a formal
questionnaire consisting of non-disguised questions, a questionnaire
designed to “get the facts”. If the marketing search manager of a television
set manufacturer wants to find out how many and what kinds of people
prefer various styles of television cabinets, for example, he may have a set of
questions drawn up that asks for these facts directly. Assuming that personal
interviewing is being used, each interviewer will be instructed to ask the
questions in the order given on the questionnaire and to ask only those
questions. The resulting interviews will be structured-direct in nature.
2. Unstructured-Direct Interview: In the unstructured-direct method of
interviewing, the interviewer is given only general instructions on the type
of information desired. He is left to ask the necessary direct questions to
obtain this information, using the warding and the order that seems most
appropriate in the context of each interview. Unstructured-direct interviews
are often used in exploratory studies. Many research projects that use a
formal questionnaire for the final interviews go through an exploratory
phase in which respondents are contacted and unstructured interviews are
held. These interviews are useful in obtaining a clearer understanding of the
problem and determining what areas should be investigated.
3. Structured-indirect interview: In the case of structured indirect interview the
questions are pre-decided and arranged in a structured way. However the
purpose of the study is not revealed.
4. Unstructured-indirect interview: In the case of unstructured indirect
interview the questions aren’t pre-decided and neither the purpose of the
study made known explicitly.
5. Focus-Group Interviews: Perhaps the best-known and most widely used type
of indirect interview is the one conducted with a focus group. A focus-group
interview is one in which a group of people jointly participate in an
unstructured-indirect interview. The group, usually consisting of 8 to 12
people, is generally selected purposively to include persons who have a
common background or similar buying or use experience that relates to the
problem to be researched. The interviewer, moderator, as he or she is more
often called, attempts to focus the discussion on the problem areas in a
relaxed, nondirected manner. The objective is to foster involvement and
interaction among the group members during the interview will lead to
spontaneous discussion and the disclosure of attitudes, opinions, information
on present or prospective buying and use behavior.
6. Focused Interviews: This is a semi-structured interview where the
investigator attempts to focus the discussion on the actual effects of a given
experience to which the respondents have been exposed. It takes place with
the respondents known to have involved in a particular experience, e.g,
seeing a particular film, viewing a particular program on TV., involved in a
train/bus accident, etc. The situation is analyzed prior to the interview. An
interview guide specifying topics relating to the research hypothesis used.
The interview is focused on the subjective experiences of the respondent,
i.e., his attitudes and emotional responses regarding the situation under
study. The focused interview permits the interviewer to obtain details of
personal reactions, specific emotions and the like. The merits of using this
type of interview is that, it’s free from the inflexibility of formal methods,
 yet gives the interview a set form and insured adequate coverage of all the
relevant topics. The respondent is asked for certain information, yet he has
plenty of opportunity to present his views. The interviewer is also free to
choose the sequence of questions and determine the extent of probing.
7. The Third-Person Technique: The simplest way of obtaining information
through indirect questioning of a respondent is to ask for the view of a
neighbor, an (unnamed) associate, or some other person whose views on the
subject at hand might reasonably be known. This permits the respondent to
project his own views with no feeling of social pressure to give an
“acceptable” answer.
8. The Depth Interview: There is substantial use of the unstructured, informal
interview in marketing research to explore the underlying predispositions,
needs, desires, feelings, and emotions of the consumer toward products and
services. This method of interviewing is referred to as a “depth interview”.
The depth interview in marketing research may consist of either direct or
indirect questions, or some combination of the two. The skilled interviewer
will generally employ both types of questions, A direct, free answer question
such as “What are the major reasons why you bought your iPhone? Might
well be followed up, for example, with an indirect question such as “Why do
you think people who own smart phones bought them?” By following leads
and cues provided by respondents, phrasing questions to continue the flow
and pattern of the conversation and to maintain the rapport established, the
competent interviewer can explore and probe the underlying motivations of
the respondent.
9. The Personal Interview: As the name implies, the personal interview consists
of an interviewer asking questions of one or more respondents in a
face-to-face situation. The interviewer’s role is to get in touch with the
respondent(s), ask the desired questions, and to record the answers obtained.
The recording of the information obtained may be done either during or after
the interview. In either case, it is a part of the interviewer’s responsibility to
ensure that the content of the answers is clear and unambiguous and that it
has been recorded correctly.
10.The Telephone Interview: Telephone interviews are sometimes used in lieu
of personal interviews, especially when the information must be collected
quickly and inexpensively and the amount of information required is limited.
The telephone interview is well suited to such research problems as
determining “coincidental” viewing of television or listening to radio
programmes. In this type of study, calls are placed to a sample of telephone
subscribers during the time the programme is on the air. The person received
the call is simply asked “Are you now watching television?” and, if so,
 “What programme you are watching?” Other questions such as “How often
do you watch this programme?” “Who sponsors this programme?” and the
like may also be asked. The result is a rapid and inexpensive measurement
of audience level. Either a structured or an unstructured interview may be
held. Since the amount of information sought is usually well defined,
non-confidential in nature, and limited in amount, virtually all telephone
interviews are structured in nature. This medium does not lend itself well to
indirect interviews and has not been used for this purpose.

16.Prcedure in Hypothesis Testing:

Procedure for hypothesis testing means to tell (on the basis of the data the
researcher has collected) whether or not the hypothesis seems to be valid. In
hypothesis testing the main question is: whether to accept the null hypothesis or
not to accept the null hypothesis? Procedure for hypothesis testing refers to all
those steps that we undertake for making a choice between the two actions i.e.,
rejection and acceptance of a null hypothesis. The various steps involved in
hypothesis testing are stated below:

1. Making a formal statement: The step consists in making a formal

statement of the null hypothesis (H0) and also of the alternative
hypothesis (Ha). This means that hypotheses should be clearly stated,
considering the nature of the research problem. For instance, Mr. Mohan
of the Civil Engineering Department wants to test the load bearing
capacity of an old bridge which must be more than 10 tons, in that case he
can state his hypotheses.
Take another example. The average score in an aptitude test administered
at the national level is 80. To evaluate a state’s education system, the
average score of 100 of the state’s students selected on random basis was
75. The state wants to know if there is a significant difference between
the local scores and the national scores.
The formulation of hypotheses is an important step which must be
accomplished with due care in accordance with the object and nature of
the problem under consideration. It also indicates whether we should use
a one-tailed test or a two-tailed test. If Ha is of the type greater than (or of
the type lesser than), we use a one-tailed test, but when Ha is of the type
“whether greater or smaller” then we use a two-tailed test.
2. Selecting a significance level: The hypotheses are tested on a
pre-determined level of significance and as such the same should be
specified. Generally, in practice, either 5% level or 1% level is adopted
for the purpose. The factors that affect the level of significance are: the
magnitude of the difference between sample means, the size of the
samples, the variability of measurements within samples; and whether the
hypothesis is directional or non-directional (A directional hypothesis is
one which predicts the direction of the difference between, say, means).
In brief, the level of significance must be adequate in the context of the
purpose and nature of enquiry.
3. Deciding the distribution to use: After deciding the level of significance,
the next step in hypothesis testing is to determine the appropriate
sampling distribution. The choice generally remains between normal
distribution and the t-distribution. The rules for selecting the correct
distribution are similar to those which we have stated earlier in the
context of estimation.
4. Selecting a random sample and computing an appropriate value: Another
step is to select a random sample(s) and compute an appropriate value
from the sample data concerning the test statistic utilizing the relevant
distribution. In other words, draw a sample to furnish empirical data.
5. Calculation of the probability: One has then to calculate the probability
that the sample result would diverge as widely as it has from
expectations, if the null hypothesis were in fact true.
6. Comparing the probability: Yet another step consists in comparing the
probability thus calculated with the specified value for a , the significance
level. If the calculated probability is equal to or smaller than the a value
in case of one-tailed test (and a /2 in case of two-tailed test), then reject
the null hypothesis (i.e., accept the alternative hypothesis), but if the
calculated probability is greater, then accept the null hypothesis. In case
we reject H0, we run a risk of (at most the level of significance)
committing an error of Type I, but if we accept H0, then we run some risk
(the size of which cannot be specified as long as the H0 happens to be
vague rather than specific) of committing an error of Type II.
17.Different Types of scales adopted during Research

Types of Measurement Scales used in Research

There are four different scales of measurement used in research; nominal, ordinal,
interval and ratio. The rules used to assign numeral objects define the kind of scale
and level of measurement. A brief account of each scaling type is given below;

1. Nominal Scales: Nominal scale is the simplest form of measurement. A

variable measured on a nominal is one which is divided into two or more
categories, for example, gender is categorized as male or female, a question
as to whether a family owns a iPhone can be answered ‘Yes’ or ‘No’. It is
simply a sorting operation in which all individuals or units or answers can be
placed in one category or another (i.e. the categories are exhaustive). The
essential characteristic of a nominal scale is that in terms of a given variable,
one individual is different from another and the categories are discriminated
against (i.e. the categories are mutually exclusive). This characteristic of
classification is fundamental to all scales of measurement. Nominal scales
that consist of only two categories such as female-male,
agree-disagree,aware-unaware, yes-no, are unique and are called
dichotomous scales. Such dichotomous nominal scales are important to
researchers because the numerical labels for the two scale categories can be
treated as though they are of interval scale value.
2. Ordinal Scales: Ordinal scales have all the properties of a nominal scale, but,
in addition, categories can be ordered along a continuum, in terms of a given
criterion. Given three categories A, B and C, on an ordinal scale, one might
be able to say, for e.g., that A is greater than B and B is greater than C. If
numerals are assigned to ordinal scale categories, the numerals serve only as
ranks for ordering observations from least to most in terms of the
characteristic measured and they do not indicate the distance between scale
that organizes observations in terms of categories such as high, medium and
low or strongly agree, agree, not sure, disagree, and strong disagree.
3. Interval Scales: Interval scales incorporate all the properties of nominal and
ordinal scales and in addition, indicate the distance or interval between the
categories. In formal terms one can say not only that A is greater than B and
B is greater than C but also that (A-B)=(B-C) or (A-C)=(A-B)+(B-C).
Examples of interval scale include age, income and investments. However,
an interval scale is one where there is no absolute zero point. It can be
 placed anywhere along a continuum e.g., the age can be between 20 to 60
years and need not necessarily start from 0 years. This makes ratio
comparison, that A is twice that of B or so wrong.
4. Ratio Scales: A special form of interval scale is the ratio scale which differs
in that it has a true zero point or a point at which the characteristic that is
measured is presumed to be absent. Examples of ratio scales include, weight,
length, income, expenditure and others. In each there is a concept of zero
income, zero weight, etc. Since ratio scales represent a refinement of interval
scales, generally these scales are not distinguished and both the terms are
used inter-changeably.

Each of the above four types of scales have a unique method of measurement. Both
nominal and ordinal scales consist of discrete number of categories to which
numbers are assigned. Thus, a variable such as number of families owning a BMW
or iPhone can only take values of 0, 1, 2 3 4 etc. It cannot have values such as 1.5
or 2.5 as the units are integers and indivisible. But interval and ratio scales take any
value between two integers, as the variables are continuous. For example, given
any ages however close, it is possible to find a third which lies in between. Interval
and ratio scales are superior to normal and ordinal scales and a wealth of statistical
tools can be employed in their analysis. The different statistical tools are related to
these different measurement scales in research, in that there is usually a
correspondence between mathematical assumptions of the statistical tool and the
assumptions of the scale of measurement. Care must be always taken to match the
tools used with the scale of measurement of variables and to use a method which
implies a higher scale measurement than the variable allows.

18.What is a Rating Scale and Ranking Scale

Rating scale questions are a variation of multiple choice. They ask the respondent
(or members, as we refer to our consumer panel at Suzy™) to assign a value to a
particular object or subject. Rating scales are close-ended questions that can help
you gain quantitative data – information you can measure, hard facts. Rating scales
allow you to collect data in a way that is easier to analyze and use.

Say, for example, you want to determine how your customers feel about your new
soda branding. Using a rating scale question, you can show them a photo of the
newly branded soda bottle and ask how likely they are to choose your item: very
likely, neutral, or not at all likely.
Rating scales can take on many different forms. A numerical scale gives
respondents a series of numbers to choose from, each representing a different
rating.

Comparison scales, on the other hand, ask respondents to compare two or more
items, rating them according to a defined scale. For example, if you want to
determine how the cost of your soda compares to a competing brand, you would
ask respondents to determine if yours is priced higher, about the same, or lower. In
this way, you are using a rating scale to compare two items.

The Likert scale is one of the most often used rating scales and one you probably
recognize. In this method, members are asked to agree or disagree with a
statement. Combined with a numerical list, it can often look like this:

“On a scale of 1 to 7 (one being strongly disagree and seven being strongly agree),
rate your opinion of each of the following statements.”

What is a Ranking Scale?

Ranking scales offer a different approach to gathering data—these questions ask

respondents to compare items to one another, rather than rating them on a common
scale. When trying to negotiate which items to remove from your dessert menu, for
example, you might ask customers to rank the seven desserts you offer from their
most favorite to least favorite, giving you insight into customer preferences.

Let’s consider your hypothetical soda brand. Say you want to collect data on how
people respond to several different branding options. You present respondents with
five different images of your branding options and ask them to rank the images in
order of most preferred to least preferred.

This style of question gives you insight into what your customers like or dislike
and provides you with feedback of how your products (or branding, in this case)
compares alongside others.

A rating scale question allows you to measure strength of response. A ranking

scale question allows you to measure priority of options. Using the two in tandem
can give you very powerful insights into consumer preferences.

For example, if you were to ask a member to rate five different product concepts
and she rated three of the five with a score of “7,” you do not know which of the
three is most important. Following this question up with a ranking question of the
five options would give you this critical information.

19.Tests of Sound measurement implies the tests of validity, reliability and

practicality.

Tests of validity: It is the most important criterion of Tests of sound measurement

and means the degree to which an instrument measures what it is suppose to

measure. It can also be taken as utility. There are three types of validity to be

considered in this connection:

Content validity-this provides ample coverage of the current study. If the

representative sample of universe is contained in the instrument, the content

validity is considered to be good.

Criteria-related validity– this implies the ability to predict result or estimate the

existence of present situation. The concerned criteria should possess the following

characteristics:

■ Relevance
■ Freedom from bias
■ Reliability
■ Availability

Constructability: is termed as the most complex and abstract. If the measure

confirms to the degree that it relates to predicted correlations with the other

theoretical propositions. In order to determine construct validity the researcher

associates a set of propositions with the results that are received from making use

of the measurement instrument. It could be concluded that there is some construct

validity if the measurement on the devised scale correlates with the other

propositions.

20.Data Analysis techniques in Research Methodology:

a)Descriptive Analysis

The descriptive analysis method is the starting point to any analytic reflection, and
it aims to answer the question of what happened? It does this by ordering,
manipulating, and interpreting raw data from various sources to turn it into
valuable insights for your organization.

Performing descriptive analysis is essential, as it allows us to present our insights

in a meaningful way. Although it is relevant to mention that this analysis on its
own will not allow you to predict future outcomes or tell you the answer to
questions like why something happened, it will leave your data organized and
ready to conduct further investigations.

b) Exploratory analysis - How to explore data relationships.

As its name suggests, the main aim of the exploratory analysis is to explore. Prior
to it, there was still no notion of the relationship between the data and the
variables. Once the data is investigated, the exploratory analysis enables you to
find connections and generate hypotheses and solutions for specific problems. A
typical area of ​application for it is data mining.

c) Diagnostic analysis - Why it happened.

Diagnostic data analytics empowers analysts and executives by helping them gain
a firm contextual understanding of why something happened. If you know why
something happened as well as how it happened, you will be able to pinpoint the
exact ways of tackling the issue or challenge.

Designed to provide direct and actionable answers to specific questions, this is one
of the world’s most important methods in research, among its other key
organizational functions such as retail analytics, e.g.
c) Predictive analysis - What will happen.

The predictive method allows you to look into the future to answer the question:
what will happen? In order to do this, it uses the results of the previously
mentioned descriptive, exploratory, and diagnostic analysis, in addition to machine
learning (ML) and artificial intelligence (AI). Like this, you can uncover future
trends, potential problems or inefficiencies, connections, and casualties in your
data.

With predictive analysis, you can unfold and develop initiatives that will not only
enhance your various operational processes but also help you gain an all-important
edge on the competition. If you understand why a trend, pattern, or event happened
through data, you will be able to develop an informed projection of how things
may unfold in particular areas of the business.

e) Prescriptive analysis - How will it happen.

Another of the most effective types of analysis methods in research. Prescriptive

data techniques cross over from predictive analysis in the way that it revolves
around using patterns or trends to develop responsive, practical business strategies

21/25.Steps to follow while preparing research report:/Contents in Research

Report:

Preparation of Research Report

Having decided on the type of report, the next step is report preparation. The
following is the format of a research report:

1. Title Page

2. Page Contents

3. Executive Summary

4. Body
5. Conclusions and Recommendations

6. Bibliography

7. Appendix

1. Title Page: Title Page should indicate the topic on which the report is prepared.
It should include the name of the person or agency who has prepared the report.

2. Table of Contents: The table of contents will help the reader to know "what the
report contains". The table of contents should indicate the various parts or sections
of the report.It should also indicate the chapter headings along with the page
number.

3. Executive Summary: If your report is long and drawn out, the person to whom
you have prepared the report may not have the time to read it in detail. Apart from
this, an executive summary will help in highlighting major points. It is a condensed
version of the whole report. It should be written in one or two pages. Since top
executives read only the executive summary, it should be accurate and
well-written. An executive summary should help in decision-making.

An executive summary should have,

(a) Objectives

(b) Brief methodology

(c) Important findings

(d) Key results

(e) Conclusion

4. The Body: This section includes:

(a) Introduction

(b) Methodology
(c) Limitations

(d) Analysis and interpretations

Introduction: The introduction must explain clearly the decision problem and
research objective. The background information should be provided on the product
and services provided by the organisation which is under study. Methodology:
How you have collected the data is the key in this section. For example, Was
primary data collected or secondary data used? Was a questionnaire used? What
was the sample size and sampling plan and method of analysis? Was the design
exploratory or conclusive? Limitations: Every report will have some shortcoming.
The limitations may be of time, geographical area, the methodology adopted,
correctness of the responses, etc. Analysis and interpretations: collected data will
be tabulated. Statistical tools if any will Notes be applied to make analysis and to
take decisions.

5. Conclusion and Recommendation:

(a) What was the conclusion drawn from the study?

(b) Based on the study, what recommendation do you make?

6. Bibliography: If portions of your report are based on secondary data, use a

bibliography section to list the publications or sources that you have consulted. The
bibliography should include, title of the book, name of the journal in case of
article, volume number, page number, edition, etc.

7. Appendix: The purpose of an appendix is to provide a place for material which

is not absolutely essential to the body of the report. The appendix will contain
copies of data collection forms called questionnaires, details of the annual report of
the company, details of graphs/charts, photographs, CDs, interviewers' instructions.
Following are the items to be placed in this section.

(a) Data collection forms

(b) Project related paper cuttings

(c) Pictures and diagrams related to project

(d) Any other relevant things.

Bibliography, the last section of the report comes after appendices. Appendices
contains questionnaires and other relevant material of the study. The bibliography
contains the source of every reference used and any other relevant work that has
been consulted. It imparts an authenticity regarding the source of data to the reader.

8.Bibliography are of different types viz., bibliography of works cited; this

contains only the items referred in the text. A selected bibliography lists the items
which the author thinks are of primary interest to the reader. An annotated
bibliography gives brief description of each item.

The method of representing bibliography is explained below.

Books

Name of the author, title of the book (underlined), publisher's detail, year of
publishing, page

number.

Single Volume Works. Dube, S. C. "India's Changing Villages", Routledge and

Kegan Paul Ltd.,

1958, p. 76.

Chapter in an Edited Book

Warwick, Donald P., "Comparative Research Methods" in Balmer, Martin and

Donald Warwick

(eds), 1983, pp. 315-30.

22.Types of report:

Eight types of report. The types are: 1. Formal or Informal Reports 2. Short or
Long Reports 3. Informational or Analytical Reports 4. Proposal Report 5. Vertical
or Lateral Reports 6. Internal or External Reports 7. Periodic Reports 8. Functional
Reports.

Type # 1. Formal or Informal Reports:

Formal reports are carefully structured; they stress objectivity and organization,
contain much detail, and are written in a style that tends to eliminate such elements
as personal pronouns. Informal reports are usually short messages with natural,
casual use of language. The internal memorandum can generally be described as an
informal report.

Type # 2. Short or Long Reports:

This is a confusing classification. A one-page memorandum is obviously short, and

a twenty page report is clearly long. But where is the dividing line? Bear in mind
that as a report becomes longer (or what you determine as long), it takes on more
characteristics of formal reports.

Type # 3. Informational or Analytical Reports:

Informational reports (annual reports, monthly financial reports, and reports on

personnel absenteeism) carry objective information from one area of an
organization to another. Analytical reports (scientific research, feasibility reports,
and real-estate appraisals) present attempts to solve problems.

Type # 4. Proposal Report:

The proposal is a variation of problem-solving reports. A proposal is a document
prepared to describe how one organization can meet the needs of another. Most
governmental agencies advertise their needs by issuing “requests for proposal” or
RFPs. The RFP specifies a need and potential suppliers prepare proposal reports
telling how they can meet that need.

Type # 5. Vertical or Lateral Reports:

This classification refers to the direction a report travels. Reports that more upward
or downward the hierarchy are referred to as vertical reports; such reports
contribute to management control. Lateral reports, on the other hand, assist in
coordination in the organization. A report traveling between units of the same
organization level (production and finance departments) is lateral.

Type # 6. Internal or External Reports:

Internal reports travel within the organization. External reports, such as annual
reports of companies, are prepared for distribution outside the organization.

Type # 7. Periodic Reports:

Periodic reports are issued on regularly scheduled dates. They are generally
upward directed and serve management control. Preprinted forms and
computer-generated data contribute to uniformity of periodic reports.

Type # 8. Functional Reports:

This classification includes accounting reports, marketing reports, financial reports,

and a variety of other reports that take their designation from the ultimate use of
the report. Almost all reports could be included in most of these categories. And a
single report could be included in several classifications.
23.Layout in Research Methodology
24.Ethical behaviour in Research
CASE STUDY 1

>>Identification of Problem:
The main problem identified in this case of the BATA HR problem is that it has
employees trust issues and downsizing of the company. There are various other
reasons like wage hike, workers participation in management, increase in work
hours and change in management.
>>Product market structure
>>7 step model
>>Two hypothesis
IDENTFYING ALTERNATIVE SOLUTION: 1. The company should have
focused on the employees working in India besides getting expatriate employees.
2. The company should have hired skilled employees from India who would better
understand the position of the company 3. The company should have downsized
their employees by providing them other job sources or slowly downsized the
company. 4. The company should have started their own manufacturing unit
instead of outsourcing. 5. They should have brought new styles in shoes and
improved the comfort. (new ideas) 6. Change in the marketing strategy
CHOOSING THE BEST SOLUTION After all the problem identification, solution
identification with pro’s and con’s It is important to choose the best alternative
solution for the case study According to my research and study the best alternative
to be applied for a healthy functioning of a company is to earn trust from its
customers and the employees. The employees help smooth working of a company
as they promote our business and help us earn our motives and goals. We need to
fulfill the employee’s personal goals and needs in order to gain their trust by
providing certain bonuses or medical facilities depending on the need. Customers'
demand should be satisfied and new trends should be brought to the market to
attract them. By this, customers will opt for bata rather than other brands.
Implementation of this will help gain the company their sales and keeps the
employees satisfied.
Case Study 3:
>>Quantitative Research
Case Study 4:
>>Develop a questionnaire
Case Study 5:
>>Likert 5 point scale
Primary and secondary data collection
Questionnaire preparation to know the competency