Stratigraphic Model - The distributions of sedimentary rocks, Phanerozoic Eon - The eon of geological time spanning

involving both vertical and lateral change of rock type approximately the last 541 million years, characterized by the
presence of abundant fossil life.
Structural Models - The redistribution of rock layers by
deforming stresses produces characteristic forms  Palaeozoic Eon - ‘old life’ such as the first primitive fish
existed
GEOLOGICAL MAPS AND SECTION  Mesozoic - when ‘middle life’ forms such as the
dinosaurs were dominant
Outcrop - The area where a body of rock emerges at the surface or  Cenozoic - (or Cainozoic), when ‘new life’ forms such as
lies immediately below a cover of vegetation, soil, or other mammals and grasses
superficial deposit. flourished

Exposure - Parts of the outcrop where rock is visible at the Precambrian Eon - The eon of geological time preceding the
surface, allowing observations to be made. Phanerozoic, representing the earliest part of Earth's history.

Geological Map - A map showing locations and topography,  Priscoan—from the Earth’s origin (c. 4600 Ma) to 4000
overlaid with geological information such as rock types, Ma
boundaries between them, and geological features.  Archaean—from 4000 Ma to 2500 Ma
 Proterozoic—from 2500 Ma to the beginning of the
Outlier - An outcrop of younger strata completely surrounded by Phanerozoic eon (at c. 590 Ma)
older strata in the vertical succession of rock layers.
Radiometric Dating - A method of determining the age of rocks
Inlier - An outcrop of older strata surrounded by younger strata in and minerals by measuring the decay of radioactive isotopes.
the vertical succession of rock layers.
Half-life - The time required for half of the atoms in a radioactive
Geological Model - A representation of geological features, substance to decay into a stable daughter product.
outcrops, and structures in an area, often including both surface
topography and subsurface geology. Formation - A distinct rock unit with well-defined upper and
lower boundaries, often representing a specific period of
Topography - The surface features of an area, including its relief geological time and characterized by unique lithology and fossil
(elevation differences), landforms, and physical features. content.

Geological Boundary - The interface between different rock types Lateral Changes of Facies - Changes in rock type or
or formations, indicating a change in lithology or geological characteristics observed laterally across a region, reflecting
history variations in depositional environments.

Legend (of a Geological Map) - A key or explanatory list on a

geological map, providing information about the symbols, colors,
and rock units represented on the map.
NATURE AND USES OF STRATIGRAPHY

Doctrine (Principle) of Uniformitarianism - states that the

processes that created and molded the rocks
of the Earth in its past are by and large the same as those active
today.

Stratigraphy - The branch of geology concerned with the study of

rock layers (strata) and their relationships, used to interpret Earth's
history and past environments.

Doctrine of Superposition - The principle stating that in an

undisturbed sequence of sedimentary rocks, the oldest rocks are at
the bottom and the youngest are at the top.

Fossils - The preserved remains or traces of ancient organisms,

providing evidence of past life and environments.

Palaeontology - The branch of science concerned with the study

of fossils to understand the history of life on Earth.

Facies - The characteristics of a rock unit that reflect its

depositional environment, including lithology, sedimentary
structures, and fossil content.

Evolution - The process of gradual change in the genetic

composition of a population over successive generations, leading
to the development of new species.

Geological Timescale - A framework used to divide Earth's

history into units of time, based on significant geological events
and the fossil record.
DEFORMATION OF ROCKS Formation Mechanisms

Contour Map of Rock Head – shows the depth to solid rock and  Tensional Cracks: Radiating cracks due to stretching at
a shape of the bedrock surface. Also known as STRATUM fold hinges.
CONTOURS  Minor Shears: Small shears associated with fault
movements.
Stratification Or Bedding – original layering in sediments
Unconformity
Stratum (Strata in Plural) – it is a bed or called to each layer
 Angular Unconformity: Structural discordance due to
Bedding Planes – interfaces between beds tilting, folding, or faulting.
 Onlap and Overstep: Relationship between upper and
THE CRITERIA AND TERMS USED TO DESCRIBE lower formations due to subsidence and deposition.
FOLDS

1. The dip of the axial plane

2. The size of the angle between the limbs PLATE TECTONICS AND SEISMICITY
3. The relative lengths of both limbs
4. The style of folding EARTH’S LAYERS

Concentric folds - produced by simple buckling, and the beds are  Crust - The outermost layer of the Earth, varying in
curved concentrically by the same amount thickness beneath oceans and continents.
 Mantle - The layer beneath the crust, extending to a
Similar (Shear) Folds - all layers are deformed to a similar shape, depth of about 2900 km.
and the bed thicknesses are constant in a direction parallel to the  Core - The innermost layer of the Earth, consisting of an
axial plane inner and outer core.

Flow Folding - is produced when incompetent rocks flow in a Mohorovičić Discontinuity (Moho) - The boundary separating
complex pattern of movement to accommodate either the local the crust from the mantle.
stresses related to the buckling of competent beds or lateral
changes in the loads of overburden compressing them. Gutenberg Discontinuity - The boundary separating the mantle
from the core.
Tension Fractures - Occur when displacement perpendicular to
the fracture plane happens due to tensional stress. CONCENTRIC LAYERING/SHELLS

Shear Fractures - Movement occurs parallel to the fracture plane

 Lithosphere - The rigid outermost shell of the Earth,
due to shear stress.
including the crust and uppermost mantle.
 Asthenosphere - The semi-fluid layer beneath the
Joints - Minor fractures, both tensional and shear, affecting rocks. lithosphere, capable of slow flow over geological time
scales.
Faults - Larger shear fractures with significant displacement  Mesosphere - The region of the mantle beneath the
across the fracture plane. asthenosphere, extending to the core.

Types of Fractures MAJOR LITHOSPHERIC PLATES

 Tension Gash: Elliptical tension fracture, often filled  Pacific Plate

with later minerals.  African Plate
 Extension Fractures: Type of tension fracture forming in  Indian Plate
brittle rocks under quick stress application.  Eurasian Plate
 Antarctic Plate
Fault Characteristics:  North American Plate
 South American Plate
 Slip: Displacement across a fault.  Nazca Plate
 Strike and Dip: Orientation of a fault surface.
 Strike Slip Fault: Predominantly horizontal slip. Plate Tectonics - The theory describing the movement and
 Dip Slip Fault: Dominantly vertical slip. interaction of the lithospheric plates that make up the Earth's
 Normal Fault: Dip towards the downthrown side. surface.
 Reverse Fault: Dip towards the upthrown side.
 Thrust Fault: A type of reverse fault with a shallower Mid-Ocean Ridges - Underwater mountain ranges where new
dip angle. oceanic crust is formed through volcanic activity.

Joints: Transform Faults - Faults where tectonic plates slide horizontally

past each other.
 Master Joints: Prominent, continuous joints over
hundreds of meters. Subduction Zones - Areas where one tectonic plate is forced
 Major Joints: Cross only a few beds before dying out. beneath another, typically resulting in the formation of trenches.
 Minor Joints: Confined to one layer.
 System of Joints: Sets of parallel planes. Trenches - Deep oceanic depressions formed at subduction zones,
where one tectonic plate is forced beneath another.

Island Arcs - Curved chains of volcanic islands formed at

subduction zones.
Seismicity - The occurrence and distribution of earthquakes in a THE CONTINENTAL CRUST
particular region.
Continental Crust Features
Epicenter - The point on the Earth's surface directly above the
focus of an earthquake.  Cratons - Precambrian rocks, including igneous and
metamorphic.
Focus - The point within the Earth where an earthquake originates.  Platforms - Younger sedimentary rocks covering
Precambrian basement.
Magnitude - A measure of the energy released by an earthquake,  Fold Mountain Belts - Mobile belts with rocks of
often quantified using the Richter Magnitude Scale or other scales. different ages, including younger igneous.

Fault Plane - The surface within the Earth where movement British Precambrian and Lower Palaeozoic Rocks:
occurs during an earthquake, typically along a fault line.
 Lewisian Gneissm - Metamorphic rocks in Scottish
Elastic Rebound Theory - A theory explaining the release of Highlands, altered sediments and igneous rocks.
stored elastic strain energy along faults during earthquakes,  Torridonian Sandstone - Unaltered sedimentary rocks,
leading to sudden movement and seismic waves. formed in desert basins.
 Precambrian rocks in Wales and western England -
Microfractures - Tiny cracks or fractures in rocks that can Variety of metamorphic rocks, sandstones, acid volcanic
develop as a result of stress, often preceding larger-scale fault rocks.
movement and earthquakes.
Devonian and Carboniferous Rocks:
Pore Pressure - The pressure exerted by fluids within the pores or
fractures of rock, which can influence the stability of geological  Devonian - Red sandstones similar to Torridonian, Old
formations and contribute to earthquake activity. Red Sandstone.
 Carboniferous - Coal-bearing strata, cyclic
Seismic Monitoring - The continuous observation and recording sedimentation, shale, sandstone, limestone.
of seismic activity using instruments such as seismographs to
detect and analyze earthquakes. Mesozoic Rocks

Seismic Risk - The potential for damage or loss resulting from  Triassic - New Red Sandstone, predominantly red.
earthquakes in a specific area, often assessed based on historical  Jurassic - Fossil-bearing clays, sandstones, limestones.
records, geological factors, and population density.
 Cretaceous - Chalk, significant in Britain.

Isoseismal Map - A map showing lines of equal seismic intensity

Formation of Natural Resources
or ground shaking resulting from an earthquake, used to delineate
the extent of its effects.
 Petroleum - From decay of organic material in Mesozoic
rocks.
 Natural gas - From coal degasification, migration
through rock pores.