English Parts of Speech Edited v2 (Special Grammar Class)

Aryana Professional Academy
DEL Department
Special Grammar
Parts of Speech
Edited by: Nazirullah Muhsin Page 1

Table of Contents
What is Grammar? .................................................................................................................................5
English Parts of Speech......................................................................................................................... 7
Noun...........................................................................................………………………………………………………10
Types of Noun .................................................................................................................................... 10
Common Nouns: ................................................................................................................................ 10
Proper Nouns: .................................................................................................................................... 10
Abstract Nouns: .................................................................................................................................. 12
Concrete Nouns: ................................................................................................................................. 13
Countable Nouns: ............................................................................................................................... 14
Uncountable Nouns: .......................................................................................................................... 14
Compound Nouns .............................................................................................................................. 16
Regular Nouns: .................................................................................................................................. 17
Irregular Nouns: ................................................................................................................................ 18
Collective Nouns: .............................................................................................................................. 19
Material Nouns: ................................................................................................................................ 19
Genders of Noun ............................................................................................................................... 20
What Is Case in Grammar? ................................................................................................................ 21
How to make nouns plural? .............................................................................................................. 23
List of Nouns ..................................................................................................................................... 28
Pronoun ............................................................................................................................................ 30
Types of Pronoun .............................................................................................................................. 31
Subject Pronouns .............................................................................................................................. 31
Object Pronouns ................................................................................................................................ 35
Possessive Pronouns .......................................................................................................................... 38
Demonstrative Pronouns .................................................................................................................... 40
Interrogative Pronouns ...................................................................................................................... 42
Indefinite Pronouns ........................................................................................................................... 43
Reflexive Pronouns ............................................................................................................................. 46
Intensive (Empathic) Pronouns .......................................................................................................... 49
Reciprocal Pronouns ........................................................................................................................... 49
Distributive Pronouns ......................................................................................................................... 50
Relative Pronouns ................................................................................................................................ 52
Adjectives ........................................................................................................................................... 54

Cases of Adjective ........................................................................................................................... 55
Types of Adjective ........................................................................................................................... 56
Quality/Descriptive Adjectives ........................................................................................................ 56
Proper Adjectives ............................................................................................................................ 56
Possessive Adjectives: ..................................................................................................................... 57
Adjectives of Quantity...................................................................................................................... 59
Adjectives of Number ...................................................................................................................... 62
Demonstrative Adjectives ................................................................................................................ 63
Interrogative Adjectives ................................................................................................................... 63
Distributive Adjectives ...................................................................................................................... 64
Determiners ...................................................................................................................................... 64
The Rules of Ordering Adjectives ...................................................................................................... 65
Comparison of Adjectives ................................................................................................................. 67
Positive Degree ................................................................................................................................. 67
Comparative Degree ......................................................................................................................... 67
Superlative Degree ............................................................................................................................ 68
Rules for Comparatives and Superlatives .......................................................................................... 69
List of Adjectives ................................................................................................................................ 72
Classification of Verb .......................................................................................................................... 75
Helping Verbs ...................................................................................................................................... 76
Types of Helping (Auxiliary) Verbs ....................................................................................................... 77
Primary Auxiliary Verbs ........................................................................................................................ 77
Modal Auxiliary Verbs .......................................................................................................................... 79
Semi-modal Auxiliary Verbs ................................................................................................................. 82
Semi-auxiliary Expressions ................................................................................................................... 83
Main (Ordinary) Verbs .......................................................................................................................... 86
Types of Main Verb ............................................................................................................................... 87
Stative (non-progressive) Verbs ............................................................................................................ 87
Dynamic (action) Verbs ......................................................................................................................... 89
Transitive Verbs .................................................................................................................................... 89
Intransitive Verbs .................................................................................................................................. 90
Formation of Verb .......................................................................................................................
Regular Verbs ....................................................................................................................................... 94

Irregular Verbs .................................................................................................................................... 100

List of Verbs...................................................................................................................................... 103
Adverb .............................................................................................................................................. 105
Formation of Adverbs ...................................................................................................................... 105
Types of Adverbs ............................................................................................................................... 108
Adverbs of Time ................................................................................................................................ 108
Adverbs of Place................................................................................................................................. 109
Adverbs of Manner ............................................................................................................................ 110
Adverbs of Frequency ........................................................................................................................ 111
Adverbs of Certainty and Negation.................................................................................................... 112
Adverbs of Degree ............................................................................................................................. 113
Interrogative Adverbs ........................................................................................................................ 114
List of Adverbs .................................................................................................................................... 115
Preposition .......................................................................................................................................... 116
Types of Preposition ............................................................................................................................ 116
Simple Prepositions.............................................................................................................................. 116
Compound prepositions....................................................................................................................... 117
Prepositions or Adverbs? .................................................................................................................... 117
Prepositions of Place ........................................................................................................................... 118
Prepositions of Time ............................................................................................................................ 119
List of Prepositions ............................................................................................................................... 121
Conjunction .......................................................................................................................................... 122
Coordinating Conjunctions ................................................................................................................... 122
Subordinating Conjunctions ................................................................................................................. 125
Correlative Conjunctions....................................................................................................................... 127
Interjection ........................................................................................................................................... 130
Articles .................................................................................................................................................. 131
Definite Article: (the) ............................................................................................................................ 132
Indefinite Articles: (a/an) ...................................................................................................................... 136

Grammar
Grammar (noun): The structure and system of a language or languages is called grammar.
What is Grammar?
Grammar is the system of a language. People sometimes describe
grammar as the "rules" of a language; but in fact no language has rules.
If we use the word "rules", we think that somebody created the rules first
and then spoke the language, like a new game, but languages did not start
like that. Languages started by people making sounds which evolved into
words, phrases and sentences. No commonly-spoken language is fixed.
All languages change over time. What we call "grammar" is simply the
reflection of a language at a particular time.
Do we need to study grammar to learn a language? The short answer is "No". Very many people in
the world speak their own, native language without studying its grammar. Children start to speak
before they even know the word "grammar", but if you are serious about learning a foreign language,
the answer is “Yes” Grammar can help you to learn a language more quickly and more efficiently. It's
important to think of grammar as something that can help you, like a friend. When you understand the
grammar (or system) of a language, you can understand many things yourself, without having to ask
a teacher or look in a book.
So think of grammar as something good, something positive, and something that you can use to find
your way - like a map.
Most non-native English Speakers make grammatical mistakes while speaking in English.
Improving grammar takes time and effort but it is well worth it. Here are some tips which will
help you improve your English Grammar.

• Understand the building blocks of grammar (Parts of Speech)
As a first step, it is important to know the different building blocks of grammar like nouns,
pronouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, interjections and articles. The
internet is full of resources about these and it is usually a good idea to understand them well.
• Pay attention to sentence structures

When you read an article or watch a movie, it is important to pay attention to how sentences are
constructed. This practice can help you in gaining different sentence structures and will help your
spoken and written English.
• Practice when you can

This tip can never be overemphasized. As an English learner, it is extremely important for you to
talk in English at any given opportunity. If you do not have partners to practice with, then try to
speak in front of the mirror.
• Grammar exercises will help you

Try doing different grammar exercises and find out your weaknesses. These exercises are freely
available on the internet. By doing the exercises, you can measure your weaknesses that you will
be able to rectify them. Join a course

Many students find that an English improvement course is the quickest way to improve English
grammar. If joining a classroom program is difficult, then an online course is a great option.

Important Building Blocks
Or
English Parts of Speech
There are thousands of words in any language, but not all words have the same job. For example,
some words express "action". Other words express a "thing". Other words "join" one word to
another word. These are the "building blocks" of the language.
We can categorize English words into 8 basic types or classes. These classes are called "parts of
speech". Or the classification of basic words of a language according to their function are
called parts of speech.

 Open Elements (Parts of Speech)
Are those elements which can accept addition or deduction.
They are:
Noun presentation present
Adjective beautiful beautifully
Verb study studied
Adverb strongly strong
 Close Elements (Parts of Speech)

Are those elements which cannot accept addition or deduction.
They are:
Pronoun he, she it, they, mine, hers
Preposition in, on, at, under, next to, up
Conjunction but, and, so, if, although, as
Interjection wow, what, no, yes, hey
Articles a, an, the

NOUN
A noun is the name of a person, place, thing or idea. Or in other words, the every naming word is
called noun.
Examples: king, city, computer, knowledge, animal, heat, weather…
PRONOUN
A pronoun is a word which is used instead of a noun.
Examples: he, she, it, they, theirs, them, his…
ADJECTIVE
An adjective is a word which is used to describe a noun or pronoun.
Examples: beautiful, tall, intelligent, happy, healthy, important…
VERB
A verb is a word that describes an action or state of being.
Examples: talk, speak, study, go, come, play, watch, is, am, are, was, were…
ADVERB
An adverb is a word which adds something to the meaning of a verb, adjective or another adverb.
Examples: fast, well, honestly, bravely, easily, strongly, importantly, wrong…
PREPOSITION
A preposition is a word which shows the relationship of a noun or pronoun with other words in
the sentence and usually comes before a noun or pornoun. Examples: in, on, at, under, up, of,
to, into, beside, behind…
CONJUNCTION
A conjunction is a word which joins two words, two phrases, two clauses and two sentences to
complete their meaning.
Examples: and, or, so, but, because, although, as, even, since…
INTERJECTION
An interjection is a word which expresses a sudden feeling or emotion.
Examples: Hello!, Alas!, Hurray!, Oh!
ARTICLES
The words „a‟, „an‟ and „the‟ are called articles. They are used before the nouns or
adjectives and limit the nouns. Examples: a, an, the

Noun
Noun is simply the name we give to everything around us, whether it is a person, place, thing, idea,
animal, quantity, quality, time or event. Or simply we can say “the every naming word is called
noun”.
Example:
Ali person
Country place
Computer thing
Power idea
Cat animal
Kilo quantity
Beauty quality
Week time
Explosion event
Types of Noun
Common Nouns
These are the names of any person, place thing or ides. Or in other words, common nouns are those
nouns which can be commonly used for any person place thing or idea.
• They are capitalized only when they are at the beginning of a sentence.
• Common Nouns cannot be used for something specific.
Examples:
Boy, girl, student, teacher, school, university, city, country, mobile, computer…
Proper Nouns
These are the names of specific people, places and things. Or in other words, proper nouns are those
nouns which can be used for particular people, places, things and ideas.
• These nouns can also be used for days of the week and months of the year etc.
• Proper nouns basically refer to the names that are specific and particular.
Examples:
Afghanistan, Jalalabad City, Ahmad, Wali, Kareem, Mohammad, Kabul University, Monday,
November, Nokia, Sony, etc…

Differences between Proper Nouns and Common Nouns
• Proper Nouns are always capitalized at any part of the sentence, but common nouns are capitalized
only at the beginning of the sentence.
Examples:
The holy book of Islam is the Quran.
Teachers are respected everywhere.
• We usually cannot use articles (a, an, the) with proper nouns, but we can use them with common
nouns. Examples: a Jalalabad, an Ahmadullah the Kunar a city, an engineer, a province
• Proper nouns usually come in the singular form, but common nouns can be in singular or plural
form.
Examples:
Afghanistan, Kabul, Ahmad, Layla…
Country, countries, city, cities, boy, boys, girl, girls…
• We usually cannot use numbers before proper nouns, but we can use numbers before common
nouns.
Examples:
One Omar, two Mirwais, three Jalalabads…
One boy, two boys, three cities…
• Proper nouns can be derived from common nouns. Examples:
Common Nouns Proper Nouns
Man Omar
Woman Maryam
Country Afghanistan
City London
Company Panasonic
Restaurant Aryana Restaurant
Month of the year January
Day of the week Sunday
Film Titanic
Language Pashto
Nation Afghan

Exercise for Common Nouns and Proper Nouns
Directions: List the following nouns into proper categories (Common or Proper).
Time/ Sunday/ Person/ Ali/ Year/ Way/ Watch/ Thing/ Man / Life/ Hand/ Part/ Child/ Eye/ Woman/
Place/ Work/ Week/ Government/ Sony/ Company/ Samsung/ Group/ Problem/ Jalalabad/ Kabul
University/ English/ Titanic/ India/ Aryana/ Day/ Month/ Sister/ Star/ Oil/ Education/ Teacher/ Girl/
Friend/ Enemy/ Night/ Research/ Information/ School/
Common Nouns Proper Nouns
Abstract Nouns
An abstract noun is a noun that you cannot feel with the five senses; it is the name which we give it
to an emotion, or idea.
• Abstract nouns have no physical existence, you can't see, hear, touch, smell or taste them.
• The opposite of an abstract noun is a concrete noun.
• Abstract Nouns do not have physical shapes or structures and cannot be touched.
Examples:
Beauty
Honesty
Friendship
Relationship
Information
Education
Fatherhood
Childhood
Brotherhood

Concrete Nouns
A concrete noun is the name of something or someone that we experience through our five senses
(sight, hearing, smell, touch or taste).
• Concrete nouns are the opposite of abstract nouns.
• These nouns have physical shapes or structure and can be touched. Examples:
Book
Computer
Stone
Wood
Glass
Sand
Iron
Exercise for Abstract Nouns and Concrete nouns

Directions: List the following nouns into proper categories (Abstract or Concrete).
Beauty/ Bravery/ Brutality/ Chair/ Computer/ Stone/ Charity/ Coldness/ Compassion/ Confidence/
Courage/ Paper/ Water/ Glass/ Dedication/ Enthusiasm/ Sand/ Fear/ Generosity/ Goodness/ Cloth/
Wood/ Iron/ Cotton/ Honesty/ Honor /Hope/ Intelligence/ Jealousy/ Corn/ Milk/ Sugar/ Kindness/
Loyalty/ Maturity/ Patience/ Stupidity/ Sympathy/ Talent/ Tolerance/ Honey/ Oil/ Trust/ Weakness/
Wisdom/ Air-conditioner/ Refrigerator/ Car/ Temperature/ Wood/ Nail/ Soap
Abstract Nouns Concrete Nouns

Countable Nouns
The nouns that fall under this category are the ones that can be counted and have both singular and
plural forms. They can also be expressed in numerical terms. Examples:
Singular Plural
Student students
Boy boys
Girl girls
Computer computers
Book books
Classroom classrooms
Shopkeeper shopkeepers
Teacher teachers
Brother brothers
Uncountable Nouns
These nouns are the opposite of Countable Nouns. These nouns are the names of things that cannot
be counted and have only singular form. These nouns use singular verbs in a sentence. Examples:
Milk
Sugar
Honesty
Furniture
Equipment
Information
Oil
Wheat
Corn
Salt

Differences between Countable and Uncountable Nouns
Count Nouns
 Count Nouns have a physical individual Shapes.
 Count Nouns can be counted.
 Count Nouns have both singular and plural forms.
 Count Nouns can take singular and plural verbs.
 Numbers can be used with Count Nouns.
 The articles (a/an) are used with Count Nouns.
Non-count Nouns
 Non-count Nouns don‟t have physical individual shapes.
 Non-count Nouns cannot be counted but can be measured.
 Non-count Nouns have just one form considered singular.
 Non-count Nouns can take only singular verb.
 Numbers are cannot be used with Non-count Nouns.  The articles (a/an) are not used.
Exercise for Countable and Uncountable Nouns

Directions: List the following nouns into proper categories (Count or Non-count).
Water / apple / man / oil / butter / window / cup / pencil / rice / computer / time / friend / money /
snow / table / enemy/ sugar/ ice/ information/ school/ education/ honey/ book/ woman/ teacher/
yogurt/ cream/ glass/ lesson
Count Nouns Non-count Nouns

Compound Nouns
Compound nouns are those nouns which are made up of more than one word.
Examples: Newspaper, shopkeeper, school student, white house, courtroom, classroom, etc.
Types of Compound Noun

There are three types of compound nouns in English: 1.Open
compound nouns (the elements are spaced) Examples:
Bus driver, school student, college teacher, interesting story
2.Close compound nouns (the elements are not spaced) Examples:

Housekeeper, housewife, classroom, homework, classmate
3.Hyphenated compound nouns (the elements are hyphenated) Examples:

Brother-in-law, sister-in-law, non-smoking room
Formation of Compound Noun

In English Language compound noun has the following forms:
1.Noun+ Noun Examples:
College student, Kabul University, project manager
2.Gerund+ Noun Examples:

Driving school, cooking course, dancing club, washing machine
3.Noun+ gerund Examples:

Birds watching, mount climbing, window-shopping
4.Noun+ preposition+noun Examples:

Father-in-law, sister-in-law, daughter-in-law
5.Adjective+ Noun Examples:

Interesting book, easy lesson, boring class, tall building

Exercise for Compound Nouns
Directions: Match the words from the following columns and create compound nouns.
A B
1. Hair a. Ball
2. Heart b. House
3. News c. Room
4. Bed d. Club
5. Guide e. Food
6. Night f. Paper
7. Green g. Book
8. Sea h. Beat
9. House i. Work
10. Base j. Brush
Regular Nouns
Regular nouns are those nouns which can be made plural by adding “s, es”. Examples:
Singular plural
Student students
Watch watches
Pen pens
Computer computers
Cloth clothes
Book books
Brush brushes
Class classes
Box boxes

Irregular Nouns
Irregular nouns are those nouns which cannot be made plural by adding “s, es”. They have special
forms.
Examples:
Singular Plural
Child children
Tooth teeth
Foot feet
Ox oxen
Man men
Woman women
Mouse mice
Louse lice
Person people
Exercise for Regular and Irregular Nouns

Directions: List the following nouns into proper categories (Regular or Irregular).
Work / apple / man / organization / tooth / foot/ cup / pencil / mouse/ computer / woman/ friend/
watch/ child / ox/ enemy/ school/police/ sheep/ doctor/ teacher/ glass/ lesson/ deer/ tuna
Regular Nouns Irregular Nouns

Collective Nouns
Collective nouns are those nouns which are singular in form but plural in meaning. Collective
nouns denote a group of people, family, team, etc. They usually come in singular form and can
take both singular and plural verb forms.
Examples:
Army
Audience
Committee
Community
Council
Crew
Enemy
Family
Government
Group
Herd
Jury
Media
Opposition
Team
Material Nouns
Material nouns are those nouns from which other things are made and can answer the question
(What is something made of?) Examples:
Iron
Cotton
Milk
Plastic
Cloth
Wool
Silk
Earth
Flour
Cement Wood

Gender of Noun
It is a grammatical term which indicates the sex or status of nouns. There are four types of gender
in English.
1.Masculine gender: (nouns for male living beings) Examples:

Brother, father, uncle, bull, tiger, leopard
2.Feminine gender: (nouns for female living beings) Examples:

Girl, woman, wife, sister, mother, cow, tigress, leopardess
3.Common gender: (nouns for both male and female living beings) Examples:
Teacher, student, animal, driver, lawyer, employee
4.Neuter gender: (nouns for things that are not alive) Examples:
Book, stone, computer, school, city, knowledge, mobile

What Is Case in Grammar?
It is a grammatical term which shows the position of a noun or pronoun in the sentence.
The main cases in English are:

Subjective Case (or Nominative Case)
Objective Case (or Accusative Case)
Object of Preposition (or Dative Case)
Possessive Case (or Genitive Case)
Vocative Case (or Addressing Case)
 Subjective (Nominative) Case

The subjective case is a case in which a noun or pronoun comes before the verbs and functions as
the subject of a sentence.
Examples:
Ali went to the shop.
He went to the shop.
Ali and Wali are my best friends.
They live in Jalalabad City.
Note: A part of the sentence which comes after the linking verb (to be, seem, become, sound,
feel, look, smell, taste) and describes or identifies the subject is called subject complement.
Examples:
He will be fine.
Bilal is a policeman.
I am with him.
That food looks burnt.
He became old.
It sounds really interesting.
I feel tired.
The street smells bad.
The food tastes delicious.

 Objective (Accusative) Case
The objective case is a case in which a noun or pronoun comes after verb and functions as the
object of the sentence. Examples:
I saw Palwasha.
I saw her.
My friend bought a car.
He sent an email yesterday.
The teacher helps his students.
She likes her job.
 Object of Preposition (Dative) Case

The object of a preposition is a noun or pronoun which is governed by a preposition. The
object of a preposition is usually (but not always) the noun or pronoun immediately to the
right of the preposition.
Examples:
This is a small gift for a man.
The police came into the room.
He is sitting next to me.
She is in the yard.
I am talking with my friend now. The
guests are with me now.
 Possessive (Genitive) Case

The possessive case is used to show possession or ownership. With nouns, it is shown with an
apostrophe (‟).
Examples:
This is Ali's bag.
This is students‟ bus.
That is a student‟s car.
These are my child‟s toys.
These are my children‟s toys. This
is boys‟ game not girls‟.
Note: the teacher had better explain the usage of apostrophe with enough details.

 Vocative (Addressing) Case
Is a case in which a noun or pronoun is being addressed directly. In spelling, it is identical to
subjective case; however, words in the vocative case should be separated from the remaining of
the sentence with comma.
Examples:
Parwaiz, is this your book?
You, go away!
Come here, doctor!
Students, keep quite!
Brothers, help me please!

How to make nouns plural?
1. For most of the countable nouns, add an „s‟ at the end.
Singular Plural
Car Cars
Desk Desks
Tree Trees
Ball Balls
Hand Hands
Student Students
Mobile Mobiles
Computer Computers
2. For nouns that end with (s, ss, sh, ch, o, x, z), add „es‟ at the end.
Singular Plural
Bus Buses
Boss Bosses
Dish Dishes
Watch Watches
Potato Potatoes
Box Boxes
Buzz Buzzes
3. Exception: Some nouns that end with „o‟, add „s‟ at the end.
Singular Plural
Photo Photos
Piano Pianos
Logo Logos
Radio Radios
Video Videos
Kilo Kilos
Zoo Zoos
Audio Audios

4. Nouns which end with „f‟, or „fe‟ replace „f‟ or „fe‟ with „v‟ and add „es‟ at the end.
Singular Plural
Thief Thieves
Loaf Loaves
Half Halves
Calf Calves
Leaf Leaves
Shelf Shelves
Wolf Wolves
Knife Knives
Wife Wives
5. Exception: Some nouns end with „f‟, or „fe” but in plural form we just add „s‟ at the end.
Singular Plural
Safe Safes
Roof Roofs
Chef Chefs
Cliff Cliffs
Giraffe Giraffes
Surf Surfs

6.Nouns which end with consonant followed by „y‟, replace „y‟ with „i‟ and add „es‟ at the end.
Singular Plural
City Cites
Fly Flies
Baby Babies
Duty Duties
Responsibility Responsibilities
University Universities
Country Countries
Buddy Buddies
Butterfly Butterflies
Body Bodies
Sky Skies
Army Armies
Family Families
7. Nouns which end with vowel followed by „y‟, just add „s‟ at the end.
Singular Plural
Boy Boys
Play Plays
Toy Toys
Key Keys
Way Ways
Tray Trays
Donkey Donkeys
Monkey Monkeys

Day Days
8. Some nouns remain the same in both forms.
Singular Plural
Fish Fish
Sheep Sheep
Deer Deer
Tuna Tuna
Police Police
Offspring Offspring
Aircraft Aircraft
9.For some nouns, other letters must be replaced or added, sometimes changing the words
completely.
Singular Plural
Person People
Ox Oxen
Child Children
Mouse Mice
Man Men
Foot Feet
Tooth Teeth
Woman Women
Medium Media
10. Some of the nouns do not have singular forms; they are always plural.
Singular Plural
Glasses Glasses
Clothes Clothes
Pants Pants
Scissors Scissors
Trousers Men
Economics Economics
Physics Physics
Mathematics Mathematics

List of Nouns
Actor Doctor Helmet Match Rose
Advertisement Dog Holiday Microphone Sandwich
Afternoon Dream Honey Monkey School
Airport Dress Horse Morning Shampoo
Ambulance Elephant Hospital Motorcycle Shoe
Animal Egg House Nail Soccer
Answer Eggplant Hydrogen Needle Spoon
Apple Egypt Ice Nest Stone
Balloon Energy Insurance Night Teacher
Banana Engine Iron Notebook Telephone
Battery Evening Island Ocean Television
Beach Eye Judge Oil Tent
Beard Family Jewelry Orange Tomato
Bed Fish Jordan Oxygen Toothbrush
Boy Flag Juice Orange Traffic
Branch Flower Kangaroo Painting Train
Breakfast Football King Parrot Truck
Brother Forest Kitchen Pencil Uganda
Camera Fountain Kite Piano Umbrella
Candle France Knife Pillow Vase
Car Furniture Lamp Pizza Vegetable
Carpet Garage Lawyer Planet Victim
Cartoon Garden Leather Plastic Wall

China Gas Library Potato Whale
Church Ghost Lighter Queen Window
Cake Girl Lion Rain Wire
Crowd Glass Lizard Rainbow X-ray
Daughter Gold Lock Raincoat Year
Death Grass Lunch Refrigerator Zebra
Diamond Greece Machine Restaurant Zoo

Dinner Guitar Magazine River
Disease Hair Magician Rocket
Helicopter Market Room
Pronoun
Pronoun is a word that is used instead of a noun in order to stop the repetition of a noun.
Examples:

Jameel is an intelligent student.
He goes to school daily.
He studies a lot.
He is making preparation for exams.
He will get high marks.
In the above examples pronoun “he” is used instead of noun “Jameel”. If we did not use the
pronoun “he” in above examples, we would have to use the noun “Jameel” again and again in
each sentence. So, the purpose of pronoun is to avoid the repetition of a noun.
Examples: (He, she, it, I, we, you, they, who, whom, whose, him, her, it, me, us, you, them, his,
her, its, their, mine, ours, yours, theirs, himself, herself, itself, myself, ourselves, yourself,
yourselves, themselves, what, which, this, that, these, those, each other, one another, etc.)

Types of Pronoun
• Subject Pronouns
• Object Pronouns
• Possessive Pronouns
• Demonstrative Pronouns
• Interrogative Pronouns
• Indefinite Pronouns
• Reflexive Pronouns
• Intensive (Emphatic) Pronouns
• Reciprocal Pronouns
• Distributive Pronouns
• Relative Pronouns
Subject Pronouns
Subject pronouns are those pronouns which come instead of subject nouns in the sentence and
usually come at the beginning of the sentence before the verb.
These are the subject pronouns we use in English:

Subject Pronoun Singular or Plural Masculine or Feminine
I Singular - first person masculine or feminine
We Plural - first person masculine or feminine
You Singular/Plural - second person masculine or feminine
He Singular - third person only masculine
She Singular - third person only feminine
It Singular - third person thing / animal
They Plural - third person masculine or feminine

Examples:
I study at Khurasan University.
You used to work in a bank.
Ali and Wali are from Saudi Arabia. They can speak Arabic very well.
Ali goes to university every day. He wants to learn English Language.
Layla is from Kandahar. She teaches at Kabul University.
The cat is hungry. It is mewing now.
The Subject Pronoun “it:

 It can be used for neuter gender.
Examples:
It is a book.
It can help you a lot.
 It can be used for baby whose sex is not known.
Examples:
It is a baby.
It is very heavy.
 It can be used for animals.
Examples:
It is a cat.
It is a dog.
 It can be used for emphasis on a particular word.
Examples:
It is me who can help you.
It is Ali who cheated you.
• It used for time.
Examples:
It is Sunday today.
It is very late now.

• It is used for weather.
Examples:
It is sunny today.
It will be cloudy tomorrow.
Grammatical Persons:
(There are three persons in English Grammar.)
First person (I, we): (The person who speaks.)
Examples:
I am teaching you now.
We are speaking English.
• Second person (you): (The person who listens to the first person.)
Examples:
You are a student. (singular)
You study at Khurasan University. (singular)
You are students. (plural)
You study at Khurasan University. (plural)
• Third person (he, she, it, they): (The person about whom the first person and second
person talk.) Examples:
He is a teacher.
She is a housewife.
It is a university.
They are our good friends.
Exercise for Subject Pronouns

Part A.
Directions: Use proper subject pronouns for the following bold words in the blanks.
1. Sama is from Kunar. __________ speaks Pashto.
2. Parwaiz and Sameem are friends. ______________ are in a party.
3. Jameel is in the street. ________________has got an umbrella.
4. Parwaiz has got a computer. _________________is black.
5. Tahir and Bilal are boys. _________________ are very happy now.
6. You and I are friends. ________________are very happy.

7. Maryam has got a radio. ____________________ is new.
8. Sharifa is my friend. __________________ can cook very well.
9. Tassal should be careful. ______________can fall down!
10. The F1 cars are fast. _____________run very much.
Part B.
Directions: Complete each sentence with the correct subject pronouns. The words in
brackets will help you in choosing the correct pronoun.
1. ______ is a student. (a man)
2. ________ are students (a boy and a girl)
3. Is ______ a good car? (a thing)
4. ________ are at home. (two people)
5. ______ is from Laghman. (a woman)
6. ________ are not very good computers. (a group)
7. ______ am at work. (oneself)
8. Is _______ cold today? (the weather)
9. Are _______ members of the website? (people)
10. _____ and I are in the same class. (a woman)
Object Pronouns
Are pronouns are those pronouns which come instead of object nouns in the sentence and usually
come after the main verb or preposition and functions as the object of verb or preposition.
Object Pronouns
PRONOUNS
Subject Pronoun Object Pronoun

I Me
We Us
You (singular or plural) You
He Him

She Her
It It
They Them
We normally use object pronouns after a verb or a preposition.

Examples
I like my teachers; they help me every time. Object Pronoun
They teacher teach us many thing. Object Pronoun
I will invite you to my wedding party. Object Pronoun
Fatima has a good life with her husband. She loves him a lot. Object Pronoun
Ali has a good life with her wife. He loves her a lot. Object Pronoun
I have an old car; I like it. Object Pronoun
Ali and Wali work in the movies; you can watch them on TV. Object Pronoun
Exercise for Object Pronouns Part

A.
Directions: Choose the best answer for the following bold words.
1. I can't see Maryam. I can't see ________. She
her
2. Ali is next to Ahamd. Ahmad is next to ________.
He
Him

3. Can you help Ali and Ahmad? Can you help ________?
They
Them
4. Drink your apple juice! Drink ________!
It
Its
5. These are my bananas. You can't eat ________
They
Them
6. The cat is under the chair. Can you see __________?
He
It
7. Omar can't swim. Help ________!
Him
He
8. It is Marwa’s birthday today. This is a present for ________
Her
She
9. Where are you? I can't see ________
You
Your
10. The windows are opened. Please lose ________
They
Them

Part B.
Directions: Fill in the blanks with the correct object pronouns. The words in parentheses
will help you in choosing the correct word.
1. I see ___________ every day. (a man)
2. Please give __________ the information. (a woman)
3. He calls ____________ on the weekends. (his parents)
4. Throw ________ to me. (a ball)
5. I will help _________. (a boy)
6. He is in love with ____________. (a woman)
7. We told __________ not to go to that restaurant. (two people)
8. The boss hired _________ last year. (you)
9. The teacher asked ___________ to clean the desks. (a boy)
10. Do you know how __________ works? (a computer)
11. He really likes ___________. (his job)
12. My accountant called _________ yesterday. ( I )
13. The teacher helped ________ after school. (a girl and a boy)
14. Don't eat ___________! (rotten apples)
15. I asked all of ____________ to finish this assignment. (you)
16. She gave __________ too much work to do. (you and I)
17. Do you know _____________? (a male teacher)
18. Do you know ___________? (a woman teacher)
19. We need to finish _________ next week. (an assignment)
20. Please help _________! (you and I)

Possessive Pronouns
Possessive Pronouns are those pronouns which are used to show possession or ownership.
Examples:
That car is hers.
Your book is old. Mine is new.
The pen on the table is mine.
The smallest cup is yours. The
voice is hers.
The car is ours not theirs.
I have lost my camera. May I use yours?
They received your letter. Did you receive theirs?
Note: Possessive adjectives may be confused with possessive pronouns. Both possessive
adjectives and possessive pronouns show possession or ownership, but possessive adjectives are
followed by nouns and possessive pronouns are not followed by nouns.
Examples:
This is my book. (Possessive adjective)
This book is mine. (Possessive pronoun)

Exercise for Possessive Pronouns
Part A.
Directions: Write the correct possessive pronoun for the bold words in the blanks.
Example: This pen is her pen. hers
1. This classroom is my classroom. __________
2. Are these books your books? ____________
3. He has his own car and I have my own car. _________
4. Her English is good, and his English is good too. ________
5. I think this money is her money. __________
6. Your children are smart, and so are our children. _________
7. Our work is finished; their work isn't. ___________
8. Those tickets are his tickets. ___________
9. Your garden looks great, but my garden doesn't. _________
10. Her song was good, and I liked your song, too. _________
Demonstrative Pronouns
Demonstrative Pronouns are those pronouns which are used to point out to a noun or number of
nouns which are far or near from the speaker in distance or time.
They are: (This, that, these and those)

This: Is used to point out to a noun which is close to the speaker in distance or time. Examples:
This is a nice house.
This is very interesting book.
That: Is used to point out to a noun which is far from the speaker in distance or time. Examples:
That is a nice house.
That was very interesting book.
These: Is the plural form of this and is used to point out to a number of nouns which are near to
the speaker in distance or time.
Examples:
These are nice houses.
These are very interesting books.
Those: Is the plural form of that and is used to point out to a number of nouns which are far in
distance or time from the speaker.
Examples:
Those are nice houses.
Those were very interesting books.
Note: Difference between demonstrative pronouns and demonstrative adjectives is this that
demonstrative pronouns are not followed by nouns but demonstrative adjectives are always
followed by nouns.

Exercise for Demonstrative Pronouns Part
A.
Directions: Underline demonstrative pronouns in the following sentences.
1. Parwaiz bought those for two dollars.

2. These are the best shoes I have ever worn.
3. Can you believe that?
4. This is what I meant.
5. I know, those were really terrible jokes.
6. This is the human nature.
7. That was not sufficient.
8. The cookies do not taste good. I think these are expired.
9. He will help us. This is not impossible.
10. These are my children. I love them a lot.
Part B.
Directions: Underline demonstrative pronouns in the following sentences and put an
S for singular and a P for plural.
1. ___ I like those.
2. ___ That is fantastic.
3. ___ Bring me that.
4. ___ These are fun games.
5. ___ I can’t believe this.
6. ___ This is the only way to protect ourselves.
7. ___These are very serious problems.
8. ___ Those really didn’t want to help us.
9. ___ He said that he liked that.
10. ___ This is the greatest news.

Interrogative Pronouns
Interrogative pronouns are those pronouns which are used to ask questions about a person or thing
that we don‟t know about.
They are: Who, Whom, Whose, What and Which Who,
whom and whose are used to ask for people.
What and which are used to ask for things.
 Who: Is used to ask for the subject of a sentence.

Example:
S1: Who is your teacher?
S2: Ali is our teacher.
 Whom: Is used to ask for the object of a sentence.

Example:
S1: Whom did you call last night?
S2: I called Mr. Ali.
 Whose: Is used to ask for possession or ownership.

Example:
S1: Whose is this book?
S2: This is my book.
 What: Is used to ask for things or general choice.

Example:
S1: What do you usually have for lunch?
S2: I usually have beans for lunch.
S1: What is your favorite color?
S2: My favorite color is red.
 Which: Is used to ask for a specific thing or choice.

Example:
S1: Which subject is more difficult, math or chemistry?
S2: Math is more difficult than chemistry.
S1: Which is your favorite color, white or black?
S2: My favorite color is white.
Note: Informally, who can be also used to ask for the object of a sentence.
Example:
S1: Who are you talking about?
S2: I am talking about Ahmad.

Indefinite Pronouns
These pronouns are used for unknown person, place and thing whether in singular or plural.
Some common indefinite pronouns are as follow:

(Everyone, everybody, everything, everywhere, someone, somebody, something, somewhere,
anyone, anybody, anything, anywhere, no one, no body, nothing, nowhere)
 Everyone, everybody, everything, everywhere (+, -, ?)

Examples:
Everyone comes on time.
Everyone does not come on time. Does
everyone come on time?
Everybody comes on time.

Everybody does not come on time. Does
everybody come on time?
Everything is ready.
Everything is not ready. Is
everything ready?
These things are available everywhere.

These things are not available everywhere.
Are these things available everywhere?
 Someone, somebody, something, somewhere (+)

Examples:
Someone is talking on the phone.
Somebody is talking on the phone.
Something is wrong here.
I saw you somewhere.

 Anyone, anybody, anything, anywhere (-, ?)
Examples:
I didn‟t see anyone.
Did you see anyone?
I didn‟t see anybody.
Did you see anybody?
I didn‟t see anything.
Did you see anything?
I haven‟t seen you anywhere.
 No one, no body, nothing, nowhere (+, meaning -)

Examples:
No one was absent yesterday.
Nobody was absent yesterday.
Nothing is impossible.
I saw you nowhere.
That's Not My Job!

This is a story about four people named Everybody, Somebody, Anybody and Nobody.
There was an important job to be done and Everybody was sure that Somebody would
do it. Anybody could have done it, but Nobody did it. Somebody got angry about that, because
it was Everybody's job. Everybody thought Anybody could do it, but Nobody realized that
Everybody wouldn't do it.
It ended up that Everybody blamed Somebody when Nobody did what Anybody could
have done.

Exercise for Indefinite Pronouns Part
A.
Directions: Fill in the blanks with the best answer!
1. There is ---------------- in the closet. It is empty.

Anything
Nothing
2. I've tried phoning but every time I tried there was -------------- in.
No one
Anyone
3. I have prepared -------------- for dinner which you will like very much.
Something
Anything
4. He sat at the table but didn't have ---------------- to eat.
Something
Anything
5. I met -------------- last night. He told me that he had missed you very much.
Someone
No one
6. That's a very easy job. --------------------- can do it.
No one
Anyone
7. Did you turn the oven off? I can smell ----------------- burning.
Anything
Something
8. ----------------------- offered help. They probably didn't have time.
Nobody
Someone
9. When the show finished there was complete silence. ------------------ clapped.
Nobody
Everyone

10. Of all the people I met in my life, -------------- is more important to me than you.
Anyone
No one
Reflexive Pronouns
Reflexive pronouns are those pronouns which turn the action back to the subject of the sentence.
We use a reflexive pronoun when we want to refer back to the subject of the sentence or clause.
Reflexive pronouns end in "-self" (singular) or "-selves" (plural). There are eight reflexive
pronouns:
Myself
Ourselves
Yourself/yourselves
Himself
Herself
Itself
Themselves
Look at these examples:

Reflexive Pronouns
The underlined words are NOT the same The underlined words are the SAME
person/thing person/thing
Jamal saw me. I saw myself in the mirror.
Why does he blame you? Why do you blame yourself?
Dilawar sent him a copy. Jamal sent himself a copy.
Dilawar sent her a copy. Maryam sent herself a copy.
My dog hurt the cat. My dog hurt itself.
We blame you. We blame ourselves.
Can you help my children? Can you help yourselves?
They cannot look after the babies. They cannot look after themselves.

Exercise for Reflexive Pronouns Part
A.
Directions: Fill in each blank with the correct reflexive pronoun:
1. You can’t do this for me; I have to do it by ____________.
2. Why doesn’t she do it ______________?
3. She saw __________________ in the mirror.
4. We can’t do this _______________.
5. They don’t like __________________.
6. Are you going to the market by _________________?
7. He likes to think of ___________________as a good person.
8. I can’t see _________________doing that.
9. They talk about _________________ all the time.
10. You don’t respect ____________________.

Part B.
Directions: Fill in the blanks with the correct reflexive pronoun. The subject in
each sentence will help you to make the correct decision.
1. She hurt _____________ when she fell off of the swing.
2. Try not to blame _____________ for that mistake.
3. I cut ___________ almost every morning when I shave.
4. He taught ______________ how to play the cricket.
5. I told _____________ that I would get that job, and I did!
6. We entertained ________________ with video games.
7. You're going to hurt _____________ with that knife.
8. My mother burned _____________ while she was cooking.
9. The cat hurt ____________ when it jumped off the fence.
10. Some girls spend hours looking at _______________ in front of a mirror.
11. We need to protect _______________ so I bought a gun.
12. The boy killed _______________ with drugs and alcohol.
13. The car is so hi-tech it can drive _______________.
14. Kids, don't hurt ________________ on the playground.
15. I did the work all by _________________.

Intensive (Emphatic) Pronouns
Notice that all the above reflexive pronouns can also act as intensive pronouns, but the function
and usage are different. An intensive pronoun emphasizes its antecedent (subject).
Example: My friend himself paid for my books.
Here, the intensive pronoun himself is referring to my fried which is the subject of the sentence.
Since an intensive pronoun is used for emphasis, it is not necessary to the sentence structure; it
does not give us any new information.
Examples:
Have you yourself seen the accident?
The President himself promised to stop the war.
She herself spoke to me.
The exam itself wasn't difficult, but the exam room was horrible.
Never mind. We ourselves will do it.
You yourselves asked us to do it.
They recommend this book even though they themselves have never read it.
Reciprocal Pronouns
Reciprocal Pronouns are those pronouns which are used to show mutual actions. We use reciprocal
pronouns when each of two or more subjects acting in the same way towards the other.
For example, A is talking to B, and B is talking to A. So we say: A
and B are talking to each other.
There are two reciprocal pronouns:

• Each Other (two)
• One Another (more than two)

Jamal and Maryam love each other.
Parwaiz and Deena hate each other.
The ten prisoners were all blaming one another.
Both teams played hard against each other.
We gave gifts to each other.
Why don't you believe each other?
They can't see each other.
The gangsters were shooting one another.
You probably notice that each other is used in more examples above than one another. That's
because in general we use each other more often than one another, which sounds a little formal.
Also, some people say that we should use one another only for three or more people or things,
but there is no real reason for this.

Distributive Pronouns
Distributive Pronouns are those pronouns which are used to talk about nouns individually. They
are:
 Each: (every individual from a group)
Examples:
There are five questions; each has 5 marks.
There are two types of drink; each is my favorite one.
 Either: (one of two. It doesn‟t matter which one.) Examples:

There are two options for you now; either is acceptable.
My two brothers are classmates; either will get first position.
 Neither: (no one or none of)

Examples:
You answered both questions but neither is correct.
He has 5 cars in his garage but neither is his.

Exercise for Distributive Pronouns Directions:
Complete the following sentences. 1. Each new
………………………… is different in some way.
a) day
b) days
2. I enjoy …………………………….. moment I spend with you.
a) each
b) either
3. There are two cars in the garage. You can take…………………….. of them.
a) each
b) either
4. …………………………… of them lives in Pakistan. They live in Afghanistan. a)
neither
b) every
5. ………………………. of the children wants to win the prize but only one can win it. a)
each
b) neither
6. There are five questions in the pater. ……………………… question has 5 marks. a)
every
b) either
7. There were two teams but …………………………… played well.
a) neither
b) either
8. There were five students …………………… of them has brought the homework. a)
each
b) both
9. ……………….proposal has some advantages and disadvantages.
a) every
b) neither
10. My room has two keys and I will give you one. You can have…………………. of them. a)
either
b) neither

Relative Pronouns
Relative Pronouns are those pronouns which introduce relative clauses.
There are five relative pronouns: who, whom, whose, which, that*
Who (subject) and whom (object) are generally only for people.
Whose is for possession.
Which is for things.
That can be used for things and people.
Relative pronouns can refer to singular or plural, and there is no difference between male and
female.
Example Sentences
Notes
The person who phoned me last night was my That is preferable

teacher.
The person that phoned me last night was my
teacher.
The car which hit me was yellow. The That is preferable

car that hit me was yellow.
The person whom I phoned last night was my Whom is correct and formal.
teacher. The relative pronoun is optional.
The people who I phoned last night were my
teachers.
The person that I phoned last night was my
teacher.
The person I phoned last night was my teacher.
The car which I drive is old.

The car that I drive is old.
The car I drive is old. That is preferable to which. The
relative pronoun is optional.

The student whose phone just rang should stand
up.
Students whose parents are wealthy should pay
extra.
The police are looking for the car whose driver Whose can be used with things Of
was masked. which is also possible
The police are looking for the car the driver of
which was masked.
*Not all grammar sources count "that" as a relative pronoun. Some people claim that we cannot use
"that" for people but must use "who/whom". There is no good reason for such a claim; there is a long
history of "that" for people.
Exercise for Relative Pronouns
Directions: Put in the proper relative pronoun (who, whom, whose, which or that) in the
following blanks.
1) This is the boy………………………had an accident.
2) Yesterday I saw a car………………………..was really old.
3) Maryam is the girl…………………………. I helped on Friday.
4) I haven't seen Freed………………………brother is a doctor.
5) The robber stole the car……………………….the lady parked in front of the supermarket.
6) This is the man………………………………house is on fire.
7) Can I talk to the boy…………………………is sitting on this chair?
8) The book……………………………you gave me is great.
9) She can cook Manto…………………….. is very delicious.
10) Hamid Karzai………………………was President of Afghanistan, has only one daughter.

Adjectives
Adjective is a word which is used to describe or give more information about a noun or pronoun
in a sentence. Adjectives describe nouns by giving some information about its quality, size, shape,
age, color, origin, material and purpose.
Examples:
• It‟s a nice table. (opinion/quality)
• It‟s a big table. (size)
• It‟s a round table. (shape)
• It‟s an old table. (age)
• It‟s a brown table. (color)
• It‟s an Afghan table. (origin)
• It‟s a wooden table. (material)
• It‟s a coffee table. (purpose)
More Examples of Adjectives:
Good, bad, nice, intelligent, hard, easy, important, interesting, expensive, cheap, small, big,
essential, effective, attractive, cute, handsome, beautiful, ugly, black, white, smooth, rough,
easygoing, extremist, etc.

Cases of Adjective
In English grammar, an adjective has four cases:
 Attributive Case: (The adjectives are used before nouns.) Examples:
The old man cannot run fast.
She met a young girl.
The product does not deserve this high price.
The sick man was treated in the special ward.
 Predicative Case: (The adjectives come after linking verbs like: be, seem,
look, feel, taste, become, smell, sound) Examples:
I am tired.
She seems interested in the lesson.
Ali looks handsome in this picture.
I really feel bad today.
The food tastes delicious.
He became old.
The flower smells good.
Your success sounds interesting.
 Abridging Case: (The adjective is used between a linking verb and a noun.)
Examples:
My friend is an intelligent student.
He is a young boy.
It is a delicious food.
My friend is a good cook.
 Post Indefinite Case: (The adjective is used after some indefinite pronouns.)
Examples:
I met someone special.
She bought something expensive.
They learnt something important.

Types of Adjective
Quality/Descriptive Adjectives
These kinds of adjectives are used to describe the characteristics of a noun or pronoun. They
can usually answer the question.
Here are some examples of quality adjectives like: (beautiful, sweet, good, strong, easy,
difficult, important, interesting, awful, bitter, handsome, kind, cruel, cute, ugly etc.)
Examples:
This piece of candy is sweet.
My husband is handsome.
My daughter is beautiful.
The cat is hungry.
This shirt is expensive.
The question is difficult.
The book is interesting.
Proper Adjectives
Are those adjectives which are formed from some proper nouns; proper adjectives can be usually
used for languages and nationalities.
Examples:
Proper Nouns Proper Adjectives
America American
Afghanistan Afghan
Japan Japanese
Pakistan Pakistani

China Chinese
India Indian
France French
Greece Greek
Pashto Pashtoon
Possessive Adjectives:
Possessive Adjectives are those adjectives which are used to show possession or ownership. They
are always followed by nouns.
They are:
Subject Pronoun Possessive Adjective
I My
We Our
You Your
They Their
He His
She Her
It Its
Examples:
My brother has a yellow car.
Our home is near to the market.
Your book is with me.
The students did their homework.
Ahmad cleaned his car.
I have her book.
This is its fault.

Exercise for Possessive Adjectives
Part A.
Directions: Use the correct possessive adjective. The subject in each sentence will
help you with your decision.
1. I have a computer on …………………… desk.
2. You have a computer on……………………desk.
3. He likes to play with …………………… dog.
4. We don't know …………………… neighbors very well.
5. The cat doesn't like……………………food.
6. The students left……………………classroom very quickly.
7. I really want to see …………………… friends this weekend.
8. Rohullah is very happy with ……………………new job.
9. Maryam thinks that ……………………apartment is too small.
10. Where are you going on……………………vacation?
11. The city has…………………… own fire department.
12. You and I are having lunch with……………………teacher.
13. Did you finish……………………work on time?

14. Jameel and his wife love……………………new house.
15. Does Maryam have……………………keys?
Adjectives of Quantity
Are those adjectives which are used to show the amount or number of nouns and pronouns.
These adjectives do not provide exact numbers. They are:
all/ enough/ some / any / much / many/ a few/ few/a little/ little etc.
All: (whole)
• All is used with countable and uncountable nouns to mean the complete amount or number of.
Examples:
All the students are intelligent in this class.
He drank all the milk.
He comes to class late all the time.
Enough: (As much as necessary, some)
• Enough is used with countable and uncountable nouns to mean the adequate amount or number.
Examples:
We have enough students in the class today.
The students still have enough problems in the new lesson.
The teacher has enough time to explain the topic well.
He drank enough milk today.
Some: (a little, a few or adequate)

• We usually use some in positive sentences for countable and uncountable nouns.
Examples:
I have some friends in London.
I usually drink some water with my meal.
• Sometimes we use some in a question, when we expect a positive “YES” answer.

Examples:
Would you like some more tea?
Could I have some more sugar please?
Any: (some, none)

• It is used in negative sentences. Examples:
My computer doesn‟t have any problems.
He doesn‟t have any enemies here.
My brother never does any chores.
• Is used in question sentences.

Examples:
Do you have any questions for me? Don‟t
you have any problem?
• We use any for both countable and uncountable nouns.

Examples:
Do you have any cheese?
He doesn't have any friends in Paris.
Much: (not less in amount)

• It is used with uncountable nouns.
Examples:
They don't have much money to buy a car.
He does have much information about this topic.
Many: (not less in number)

It is used with countable nouns.
Examples:
I don't have many English books in my collection. My
friend has many children (almost a dozen).
Note: Much and Many are used to express that there is a large quantity of something.

A few: (some/adequate)
It is used with countable plural nouns to mean a small number or some.
Examples:
A few students are absent today.
We have a few empty chairs in this classroom.
Few: (not many, almost none)

• It emphasizes how small the number is.
• We use 'few' before plural countable nouns.
• 'Few' has a negative meaning. We can also use 'very few or just few'.
Examples:
Few people understand the difference. I
have just studied very few chapters.
A little: (some/adequate)
It is used with uncountable nouns to mean a small amount or some.
Examples:
I saw him a little time ago.
He needs a little more money.
Little: (not much almost none)

• Is used before uncountable nouns.
• 'Little' has a negative meaning. We can use also 'very little or
just little'.
Examples:
I can't help you. I speak very little French.
There is little milk in the bottle.
Exercise for Quantity Adjectives Part

A.
Directions: Complete each sentence with "much" or "many."
1. How ______ time is there to finish our work today?
2. There aren't ______ students in class today.
3. I like her very _______.
4. How ______ money do you have?
5. Are there _______ cars in the parking lot?
6. You don't make _______ mistakes, do you?

7. There isn't very _______ tea left in the teapot.
8. She doesn't like too _______ sugar in the tea.
9. How ________ students are there in your class?
10. There isn't very _______ oil left in the world.
Adjectives of Number
Adjectives of number are used to show the number of nouns and their place in an order. There are
two different sections within adjectives of number. They are:
Definite Numeral Adjectives:
Indefinite Numeral Adjective:
Definite Numeral Adjectives: Are those adjectives which clearly denote an exact number of
nouns or the order of nouns.
Definite numeral adjectives are further divided into two types:
 Cardinal Numbers: (One, Two, Twenty, Thirty-Three etc.)
 Ordinal Numbers: (First, Second, Third, Fourth, Fifth, Sixth, Seventh etc.)
Indefinite Numeral Adjectives: Are those adjectives which do not show an exact number
but just give a general idea of the amount.
They are like:
Some, Many, Few, Enough, Several, All etc…

Demonstrative Adjectives
Demonstrative adjectives are used to point out to a noun or number of nouns which are near or
far away from the speaker in distance or time.
They are: (This, That, These and Those)
This: Is used to point out to a noun which is close to the speaker.

Examples:
This house is a nice.
This book is very interesting.
That: Is used to point out to a noun which is far away from the speaker.
Examples:
That house is a nice.
That book is very interesting.
These: Is the plural form of this and is used to point out to a number of nouns which are near to
the speaker.
Examples:
These houses are very nice.
These books are very interesting.
Those: Is the plural form of that and is used to point out to a number of nouns which are far away
from the speaker.
Examples:
Those houses are nice.
Those books were very interesting.

Interrogative Adjectives
Interrogative adjectives are those adjectives which are used to ask questions about nouns.
They are: (What, Which and Whose). Examples:
What assignment did I miss?
What colors do you like the best?
Which room is empty?
Which car is more expensive yours or mine?
Whose pen is this?
Whose car was stolen yesterday?
Distributive Adjectives
Distributive adjectives are used to talk about nouns individually. They
are: (each, every, either, and neither).
Each: (every individual from a group)

Examples:
There are five questions; each question has 5 marks.
There are two kinds of drinks; each drink is my favorite one.
Every: (all from a group)

Examples:
Every student is interested in this topic.
Every teacher teaches well here.
Either: (one of two. It doesn’t matter which one.) Examples:

There are two options for you now; either option is acceptable. There
are tea and coffee; you can have either tea or coffee.
Neither: (no one or none of)

Examples:
You answered both questions but neither answer is correct. He
has five cars in his garage, but neither car is his.

Determiners
Determiners are words which come before nouns and limit the followed nouns.
They are like: articles, demonstrative adjectives, possessive adjectives, numbers, distributive
adjectives and quantity adjectives.
(A, an, the, this, that, these, those, my, our, your, their, his, her, its, one, two, three, each, every,
some, any, enough, several, less, little, a little, few, a few, many, more, much, both, all, half, whole,
etc.)
Examples:
This is a book.
We have enough students in our class.
Each student is very intelligent in this class.
Still several students are absent.
Some students are outside in the lawn.
My brother has two children.
Note: The difference between an adjective and determiner is this that we can use only one
determiner at a time but we can use more than one adjective consecutively in a sentence.
Now that we know the different kinds of adjectives, it would be better to

know the rules about the order of placing certain adjectives.
The Rules of Ordering Adjectives

When writing a sentence using a number of different adjectives, it’s important to know which
ones you should have first in the sentence. You should know that you can easily use just one
adjective to have a complete sentence; however, if you want to use more than one adjective,
you should know in what order to use the adjectives.
Here are the rules:
1. Determiners
The first adjective in your sentence should be a determiner. Example:
She has a good car.
Now, to give you an example as to why it’s important that the determiner comes first, the
sentence will be rewritten with the quality adjective written first.
Example: She has good a car.
As you can see, writing the quality adjective before the determiner doesn’t make any
grammatical sense.

2. Opinion
After adding the determiner, you can add the opinion adjective. Example:
She has a good car.
In this sentence, “good” would be the quality or opinion adjective.
3. Size
After adding the opinion adjective, you can add the size adjective. Example:
She has a good, small car.
4. Shape
After adding the size adjective, you can add the shape adjective. Example:
She has a good, small, round car.
5. Age
After adding the shape adjective, you can add the age adjective.
Example: She has a good, small, round old car.
6. Color
After adding the age adjective, you can add the color adjective.
Example: She has a good, small, round old, red car.
7. Origin
After adding the color adjective, you can add the origin adjective.
Example: She has a good, small, round, old, red, Chinese car.
8. Material
After adding the origin adjective, you can add the material adjective.
Example: She has a good, small, round, old, red, Chinese, plastic car.

Comparison of Adjectives
An adjective has three degrees in English Language.
Positive Degree
Comparative Degree
Superlative Degree
When we want to compare two or more nouns/pronouns, we use the comparative and superlative
forms of the adjective to show the comparison between them.
Example:
Honey is sweet, sugar is sweeter but victory is the sweetest.
In this sentence, we are comparing the three nouns using the positive, comparative and superlative
forms of the word „sweet‟.
Positive Degree
Positive Degree is a degree which simply describes the noun/pronoun without comparing it to
another.
Like: big, sweet, clean, important, easy, difficult, interesting, etc.
Examples:
She has a big black dog.
He is a sweet baby.
The cupboard is clean.

Comparative Degree
Comparative degree is a degree in which we compare one person with another person, one thing
with another thing, and one place with another place.
Note: In comparative degree we usually use the conjunction “than”.
Examples:
This lesson is easier than the previous lesson.
The previous lesson was more difficult than this lesson.
Jalalabad is hotter than Kabul.
My computer is newer that your computer.
Superlative Degree
Superlative degree is used to compare one person with more than one person, one thing with more
than one thing and one place with more than one place.
We usually add „the‟ before the superlative form.
Like: biggest, sweetest, cleanest, easiest, most difficult, most interesting, hottest, tallest, etc.
Examples:
This is the easiest lesson of this week.
Jalalabad is the hottest city in Afghanistan.
My child is the sweetest child in the world.
That was the most interesting book I had ever read.

Rules for Comparatives and Superlatives
There are certain rules that should be followed in the making of comparatives and superlatives of
the adjectives.
1. With one syllable adjective, we use „er‟ to make the comparative and „est‟ to make the
superlative.
Positive Comparative Superlative
Black Blacker Blackest
Tall Taller Tallest
Short Shorter Shortest
Small Smaller Smallest
Strong Stronger Strongest
2. If one syllable adjective ends by single „e‟, we just add „r‟ in the comparative and „st‟ in the
superlative forms.
Nice Nicer Nicest
Late Later Latest
Wide Wider Widest
Large Larger Largest

3. When the adjective ends with a „y‟, and preceded by a consonant, we convert „y‟ into „i‟ and
add „er‟ in the comparative and „est‟ in the superlative forms.
Pretty Prettier Prettiest
Lazy Lazier Laziest
Happy Happier Happiest
Healthy Healthier Healthiest
Heavy Heavier Heaviest
4. If one syllable adjective ends by a single consonant and is preceded by a single vowel, we
double the last consonant and add „er‟ in the comparative and „est‟ in the superlative forms.
Hot Hotter Hottest
Wet Wetter Wettest
Fat Fatter Fattest
Thin Thinner Thinnest
Slim Slimmer Slimmest
5. Adjectives with more than two syllables, we use more and most to form the comparatives and
superlatives.
Difficult More difficult The most difficult
Careful More careful The most careful
Handsome More handsome The most handsome
Interesting More interesting The most interesting
Important More important The most important
Beautiful More beautiful The most beautiful
6. There a few adjectives that can use both „er and est‟ and „more‟ and „most‟ to form their
comparative and superlative forms.
Positive Comparative Superlative Example
He is cleverer than her.
Cleverer/ More
Clever Cleverest/Most Clever
Clever He is more clever than her.
This is the most quiet place.
Quiet Quieter/ More Quiet Quietest/ Most Quiet
This is the quietest place.
She is braver than the other girl.
Brave Braver/ More Brave Bravest/ Most Brave
She was more brave than the other girl.

This question is simpler than that one.
Simpler/More
Simple Simplest/Most simplest
Simple This question is more simple than that
one.
7. These adjectives do not make their comparative and superlative forms by using the rules above.
Their comparative and superlative forms are different words.
Bad Worse Worst
Good Better Best
Far (place) Farther Farthest
Little (amount) Less Least
Late (order) Latter Latest
Much More Most
Many More Most
Exercise for the Degrees of Adjectives
Part A.
Directions: Fill in the correct form of the words in brackets (comparative or superlative).
1. My house is (big)………………………than yours.
2. This flower is (beautiful) ……………………………….than that one.
3. This is the (interesting) ……………………………………….book I have ever read.
4. Non-smokers usually live (long)……………………………………….than smokers.
5. Which is the (dangerous) ……………………………………….animal in the world?
6. A holiday by the sea is (good) ……………………………………...than a holiday in the mountains.
7. Who is the (rich) …………………………………………woman on earth?
8. The weather this summer is (bad) ………………………………..than last summer.
9. He was the (clever) …………………………………………. thief of all.
10. His job is (easy)………………………………………..than my job.

List of Adjectives
Accurate Clean Fearless Lonely Sharp
Addicted Clever Fertile Loud Shiny
Adorable Cold Filthy Lovely Shocking
Advanced Colorful Foolish Lucky Short
Afraid Comfortable Forgetful Masculine Shy
Aggressive Concerned Friendly Magical Silly
Alcoholic Confused Funny Magnificent Sincere
Alert Crowded Gentle Massive Skinny
Ancient Cruel Good Mature Slim
Angry Curly Graceful Mean Slow
Animated Cute Grateful Messy Small

Annoying Damaged Great Modern Soft
Anxious Dangerous Greedy Narrow Spicy
Arrogant Dark Green Nasty Spiritual
Ashamed Deep Handsome Naughty Strong
Attractive Defective Happy Nervous Successful
African Delicious Harsh New Sweet
Awesome Depressed Healthy Noisy Talented
Awful Different Heavy Obedient Tall
Bad Dirty Helpful Old Tasty
Beautiful Disgusting Historical Overconfident Terrible
Busy Dry Horrible Peaceful Terrific
Beneficial Dusty Hot Pink Thick
Best Early Huge Polite Thin
Big Educated Humorous Poor Tiny
Bitter Efficient Hungry Powerful Ugly
Black Elegant Ignorant Precious Unique
Blue Embarrassed Illegal Pretty Untidy
Boring Empty Imaginary Proud Upset
Bright Encouraging Impolite Quick Victorious
Broad Enthusiastic Important Quiet Warm
Broken Excellent Impossible Rapid Weak
Calm Exciting Innocent Remarkable Wealthy
Capable Expensive Intelligent Responsible Wide
Careful Fair Interesting Rich Wise
Careless Faithful Jealous Romantic Wonderful

Charming Famous Large Royal Worried
Cheap Fancy Legal Rude Young
Cheerful Fantastic Literate Selfish Zealous

Fast Little Serious
Verb
Verb is the most important component of any sentence. It shows an action, state/condition,
possession, fact or existence.
Examples:
Ali studies at collage. (action)
He is a student. (state)
He has a car. (possession)
His car is red. (fact)
He is at school now. (existence)
The verb is king in English. The shortest sentence contains a verb. You can make a
oneword sentence with a verb, for example: "Stop!" You cannot make a one-word
sentence with any other type of word.
There is something very special about verbs in English. Most other words (adjectives, adverbs,
prepositions etc.) do not change in form (although nouns can have singular and plural forms), but
almost all verbs change in form.

For example, the verb work has the following forms:
Work
Works
Worked
Working

Classification of Verb
Verb
According to
According to Function
Formation
Regular Irregular
Auxiliary/Helping Verbs Verbs
Main/Ordinary Verbs
Verbs
Stative Verbs
Primary
Auxiliary Verbs
Dynamic Verbs
Modal Auxiliary
Verbs Transitive Verbs
Intransitive
Semi-modal Verbs
Auxiliary Verbs
Phrasal Verbs
Semi-auxiliary
Expressions Casutive Verbs
We divide verbs into two broad classifications:

According to Function
According to Formation
According to function we have two types of verbs:
Auxiliary/Helping Verbs
Main/Ordinary Verbs
Helping Verbs
Imagine that a stranger walks into your room and says:
• I can.
• People must.
• The Earth will.
Do you understand anything? Has this person communicated anything to you? Probably not! That's
because these verbs are helping verbs and have no meaning on their own. They are necessary for
the grammatical structure of the sentence, but they do not tell us very much alone. We usually use
helping verbs with main verbs. They "help" the main verb. (The sentences in the above examples
are therefore incomplete. They need at least a main verb to complete them.)
Helping (Auxiliary) verbs: Auxiliary are those verbs which support the main verb to form
the structure of the sentence and give us information about the time of an action.
Examples: (be, is, am, are, was, were, been, being, have, has, had, do, does, did, can, could,
shall, should, will, would, may, might, must, ought to etc.)
Types of Auxiliary (Helping) Verbs

Primary Auxiliary Verbs Modal
Auxiliary Verbs
Semi-modal Auxiliary Verbs
Semi-modal Auxiliary Expressions

Primary Auxiliary Verbs
Primary auxiliary verbs are those verbs which can be used as helping verbs as well as main verbs.
They are: (to be verbs, to have verbs and to do verbs)
To be verbs: (be, is, am, are, was, were, been, being) o

Are used in all continuous tenses:
Examples:
Ali was watching cricket yesterday.
He is watching now.
He will be watching it tomorrow.
o To make the sentences negative:

Examples:
Ali was not watching cricket yesterday.
He is not watching today.
o To make the sentences interrogative:

Examples:
Was Ali watching cricket yesterday?
Is he watching cricket today?
o To show state of being:

Examples:
Mr. Ali was my best friend.
He is my best friend.
He will be my best friend forever.
o To make the passive:

Examples:
English was taught by me.
English is taught by me.
English will be taught by me.
To have verbs: (have, has, had, having) o

Are used in all perfect tenses:
Examples:

Mr. Ali had learned English before 2010.
He has learned English.
He will have learned English before 2020.
o To make the sentences negative:

Examples:
Mr. Ali had not learned English before 2010.
He has not learned English.
o To make the sentences interrogative:

Examples:
Had Mr. Ali learned English before 2010?
Has he learned English yet?
o To show possession/ownership:
Examples:
Mr. Ali had a car.
He has a car.
He will have a car.
To do verbs: (do, does, did, done, doing) o

To make sentences negative:
Examples:
Mr. Ali did not study hard.
He does not study hard.
We do not study hard.
o To ask questions:
Examples:
Did Mr. Ali study hard?
Does he study hard?
Do we need to study hard?
o To show emphasis:
Examples:
Mr. Ali did study hard for the exam.
He does study hard for the exam.
We do study hard for the exam.

Modal Auxiliary Verbs
The modal verbs are a type of auxiliary verbs which are used for many different purposes like for
showing: Ability
Possibility
Obligation
Permission
Advisability
Suggestion
Note:
• Modal auxiliary verbs do not come alone; they are followed by other verbs.
• Modal auxiliary verbs are always followed by base form of the verb.
• Modal auxiliary verbs are usually used for all the subjects in the same way.
Let‟s take a look at them and find out what each one is used for.
 Can
Is used to show present:
Ability:
Examples:
Ali can drive a car.
We cannot help you.
You can help us.
I can teach English.
Can you help the poor people?
Present/Future Possibility:
Examples:
Ali can be in his car.
He can‟t be home this time.
She is going to the hospital. She can be sick.
They can be at home.
The weather can be hot over
there. Permission:
Examples:
You can use my car.
Can I use your computer?
You cannot use my computer.


Could
Is the past of can and is used to show:
Past ability:
Examples:
I could drive a car when I was 20.
I could not drive a car when I was 20.
If you told me, I could help you.
Present polite request:

Examples:
Could I use your computer please?
Could you please help me?
Could we leave the party now?
 May
Is used to show:
Present/Future Possibility:
Examples:
It may rain tomorrow.
The students may not come to class today.
I may get first position.
Permission or polite request:

Examples:
May I use your mobile please?
May I come in Sir?
May we go now?
Used to express wishes and hopes:

Examples:
May Allah bless you.
May you live long.
May his soul be in peace.
 Might
Is the past of may and is used to show:
Present or past possibility:
Examples:
He might arrive here on time.
We might have helped you.
My friend might get first position.


Polite Request:
Examples:
Might I use your phone?
Might we go home now?
Must
Must is used to show that something is very important or necessary. Examples:
The students must come to class on time.
You must not smoke inside the campus.
We must offer the prayers five times a day.
 Will
Is used to form:
The future tenses:
Examples:
Mr. Ali will buy a car next week.
He will be driving very fast.
He will have sold his car buy the end of this year.
He will have been driving his car for 5 hours before he arrives.
 Shall
We use “shall” in British English for first person pronouns (I, we) to show:
Future time:
I shall call you tomorrow.
We shall come to the party.
Suggestions:
Examples:
Shall we go now?
Shall I call you later?
 Would
Is the past of will and is used in:
Conditional clauses:
Examples:
If you studied hard, you would pass the test.
If I had money, I would buy this car.
If you came on time, you would see the scene.


Polite request/suggestion:
Examples:
Would you please bring me a glass of water?
Would you mind leaving this seat for me?
Would you have dinner with me on Friday?
Should
Is used to show:
Soft obligation or advice:
Examples:
You should study hard.
If he is sick, he should see the doctor.
I should respect you and you should respect me.
We should not stay here anymore. They
shouldn‟t have missed the chance.
 Ought to
Is used to show:
Soft obligation or advice:
Examples:
You ought to study hard.
If he is sick, he ought to see the doctor.
I ought to respect you and you ought to respect me.
We ought not to stay here anymore.
Semi-modal Auxiliary Verbs

Dare
Need Used
to
Dare: (shows courage)

Examples:
They dare come late. (auxiliary verb)


They dare not come late. (auxiliary verb)
Dare they come late? (auxiliary verb)
He dares to talk to his boss frankly. (ordinary verb)
Need: (shows necessity)

Examples:
I need discuss with you. (auxiliary verb)
You needn‟t worry about me. (auxiliary verb)
Need you worry about me? (auxiliary verb)
I need to know about this secret. (ordinary verb)
Note: „dare‟ and „need‟ are usually used as auxiliary verbs in negative and interrogative
sentences.

Used to: (shows past habits or action)
I used to fly kites when I was child.
He used to live in Pakistan.
She used to be shy.
Ali used to talk a lot.
I didn‟t use to study hard.
She used to cook very well. They
didn‟t use to help us.
Semi- modal Auxiliary Expressions

Semi-modal auxiliary expressions are almost the same as modal auxiliary verbs. They are: Be
going to
Be able to
Be supposed to
Be about to
Have to/has to
Have got to/has got to
Had better
Would rather
 Be going to: (shows future intention)

Examples:
He is going to come tomorrow.
Is he going to come tomorrow?
He is not going to come tomorrow.
We are going out for dinner tonight.
Are we going out for dinner tonight?
We are not going out for dinner tonight.
I am going to call you tomorrow.
Am I going to call you tomorrow?
I am not going to call you tomorrow.
 Be able to: (shows ability)

Examples:
I am able to drive a car.
Am I able to drive a car?
I am not able to drive a car.
He was able to speak English.
Was he able to speak English?
He was not able to speak English.

We will be able to solve our problems by ourselves.
Will we be able to solve our problems by ourselves?
We will not be able to solve our problems without their help.
 Be supposed to: (be expected to or required to do something)

Examples:
All the students are supposed to show up on time.
Are all the students supposed to show up on time?
They are not supposed to show up late.
You were supposed to attend the meeting.
Were you supposed to be absent?
You were not supposed to be absent.
 Be about to: (to be close to doing something)

Examples:
We are about to finish this lesson.
He is about to arrive.
I am about to have dinner.
She was about to fall down.
They were about to miss the train.
Have to/has to
 (show obligation)
Examples:
The students have to show their ID‟s at the entrance.
He has to do his homework or his teacher will punish him.
You had to study hard for the exam.
We will have to come to class on time.
 Have got to/has got to (shows obligation)

Examples:
I have got to go now.
She has got to wash her clothes.
They have got to finish their work on time.
Note that (have got to & has got to) are used the same as (have to & has to) but ( have got to & has
got to) are a little informal than (have to & has to).

 Had better: (shows obligation/recommendation/advice)
Examples:
You had better take an umbrella with you.
I had better buy a new car.
She had better marry Ali.
They had better attend the party.
If you are sick, you had better go to the doctor.
Note: Had better is often pronounces “better” in spoken English.
 Would rather: (shows preference)

Examples:
I would rather stay at home than go out.
I would rather not stay at home tonight.
Would I rather stay at home tonight?
He would rather study BCS.
Would he rather study BCS?
He would rather not study BCS.
She would rather marry Ali.
She would rather not marry Wali.
Would she rather marry Ali?

Main (Ordinary) Verbs
Now imagine that the stranger walks into your room and says:
• I teach.
• People eat.
• The Earth rotates.
Do you understand something? Has this person communicated something to you? Probably yes!
Not a lot, but something. That's because these verbs are main verbs and have meaning on their
own. They tell us something.
Main (Ordinary) Verbs: Main verbs are those verbs which have major meaning in the
sentence and can stand alone.
Examples: (write, buy, eat, speak, walk, work, study, etc.)
The examples below will help you in better understanding.

She is eating an apple. (“eat” is main verb while “is” is helping verb) She
was eating an apple. (“eat” is main verb while “was” is helping verb)
Types of Main Verb

Stative (state) Verbs
Dynamic (action) Verbs
Transitive Verbs
Intransitive Verbs
Causative Verbs

Phrasal Verbs
Stative (non-progressive) Verbs

These verbs show the state of subject in the sentence. Stative Verbs usually do not show actions
and cannot be usually used in continuous tenses.
Examples:
She knows me very well.
She is knowing me very well.
I need your help now.
I am needing your help.
He wants to get promotion.
He is wanting to get promotion.
I like your qualification.
I am likening your qualification.
She loves her husband a lot.
She is loving her husband a lot.
Stative (State) Verbs List

like know belong
love realize fit
hate suppose contain
want mean seem
need understand depend

prefer believe see
agree remember look (=seem)
mind recognize smell
own taste impress
sound astonish surprise
hear please feel (=have an opinion)
disagree promise concern
satisfy think (=have an opinion) have
deserve imagine include
be want
Dynamic (action) Verbs

Dynamic verbs are those verbs which show actions and can be used in any tense. Like:
(study, eat, walk, speak, run, sleep, come, enjoy, help, buy, sell, etc.) Examples:
I study English.
I am studying English.
Ali eats three times a day.
He is eating lunch now.
My brothers usually walk to school.

They are walking to school now.
Out teacher speaks English.
He is speaking English now.
My father runs every morning.
He is running now.
You usually sleep a lot.
You are sleeping now.
Transitive Verbs
Transitive verbs are those verbs which need an object for the completion of meaning and can be
changed into passive voice. Like: (study, buy, teach, read, bring, show, help, etc.) Examples:
I study English.
He bought a car yesterday.
I teach English.
She reads a story every night.
He always brings his books to class.
They showed us their pictures.
My friends usually help me in my homework.
Intransitive Verbs
Intransitive verbs are those verbs which do not need object for the completion of meaning and
cannot be changed into passive voice. Like: (go, come, run, sleep, swim, live, etc.) Examples:
I go to university every day.
She always comes to class late.
Ali can run fast.
I usually sleep a lot.
He swims in the river.
We live in Afghanistan.
Note:
Some verbs can be used as transitive verbs or intransitive verbs (Ergative Verbs.) Examples:

(Open, move, start, wake, change, begin, borrow, choose, dance, eat, fail, fill, grow, help, know,
leave, marry, meet, obey, see, read, touch, wash, win, write etc.)
Phrasal Verbs
Verb plus preposition or adverb or the combination of both which creates a meaning different from
the original verb is called phrasal verb. Like many other verbs, phrasal verbs often have more than
one meaning.
Look at these:
Break down= verb+ adverb (stop working)
Look up= verb+ adverb (searching something in a book)
Take on+ verb+ preposition (to wear something)
Get into= verb+ preposition (to enter to a place)
Look down on= verb+ adverb+ preposition (to think that you are better than others)
Look out for= verb+ adverb+ preposition ( looking around for something/someone)
Examples:
I broke down on the way. (stopped working)
He is looking up a word in the dictionary. (searching a specific word)
The weather is very cold; you had better take on your coat. Let‟s get
into the room now!
He always looks down on anyone who hasn‟t studied collage. The
police are looking out for the criminals.
Kinds of Phrasal Verbs
There are mainly two kinds of phrasal verbs. (Separable and Non-separable)
• Phrasal verbs made with prepositions are usually non-separable. That means the verb and the
preposition always go together.
Examples:
We set off for the beach. (NOT We set for the beach off.)
He fell off the ladder. (NOT He fell the ladder off.)
• Phrasal verbs made with adverb particles are usually separable. That means the particle can go
before or after the object.
Examples: I picked up the baby. OR I picked the baby up. She
switched off the light. OR She switched the light off.

Note: The two parts of a separable phrasal verb are always separated when the object is a
pronoun. Example:
I picked her up. (NOT I picked up her.)
List of phrasal verbs is available!
Causative Verbs
Causative verbs are those which indicate that the subject doesn‟t do the action but it causes another
person to perform the action. They are:
• make
• have
• let
• get
• help
Make:
Make means to force, to compel or to stress someone to do something.
Make as a causative verb is followed by base form of the verb: Structure:
Subject + make + object + verb + rest of sentence
Examples:
They make their son go to school daily.

I made him study English.
She made her husband go to masjid.
She also made her children do their homework.
Have:
Have means to hire, to choose, to request or give someone the responsibility to do something.
According to grammar (have) is a causative verb followed by base form of the verb. Structure:
Subject + have + object + verb + rest of sentence
Examples:
They have the mechanic fix their car.
She had her daughter wash her clothes. I
have him give me the report.
The doctor had her nurse check the patient‟s temperature.
Let:
Let means to allow, to permit or to leave someone to do something.
According to grammar (let) is a causative verb followed by base form of the verb. Structure:
subject + let + object +verb + rest of sentence
Examples:
They let their small brother go home.
Let me do it for you.
I never let you go to a foreign country.
Could you please let us drive your new car?
Get:
Get means to persuade or motivate someone to do something.
According to grammar (get) is a causative verb followed by (to + verb) called infinitive. Structure:
subject + get + object + to + verb + rest of sentence

Examples:
They get the students to study hard for the final examination.
She got her son to take the medicine even though it tasted terrible.
I always get my students to come to class on time.
My uncle got me to study in Afghanistan.
Help:
Help means to assist someone to do something.
According to grammar (help) is a causative verb followed by either base form or (to + verb).
Structure: subject + help + object + base form verb/to + verb + rest of the sentence Examples:
I helped my brother to wash the car.
I helped my brother wash the car. She
helps her children to do their homework. She
helps her children do their homework.
Verb According to Formation

Regular Verbs
Irregular Verbs
Regular Verbs
Regular verbs are those verbs which take „d‟ or „ed‟ in their second and third forms and their
second and third forms are always the same.
Examples:
1st form 2nd form 3rd form
Move moved moved
Walk walked walked
Study studied studied

Help helped helped
Watch watched watched
Wash washed washed
Divide divided divided
Rules for Adding “d, ed” to Regular Verbs

1. If a regular verb ends with “e”, only „d‟ is added to the end of verb.
Present Tense Past Tense Past Participle
Share Shared Shared
Scare Scared Scared
Dare Dared Dared
Divide Divide Divided
Move Moved Moved
Combine Combined Combined
2. If a regular verb ends with a consonant, „ed‟ is added at the end.

Want Wanted Wanted
Shout Shouted Shouted
Kill Killed Killed

Cook Cooked Cooked
Walk Walked Walked
3. If a regular verb ends by „y‟ and preceded by consonant, change „y‟ to „i‟ and add „ed‟.
Present tense Past tense Past participle
Study Studied Studied
Cry Cried Cried
Try Tried Tried
Carry Carried Carried
Marry Married Married
Worry Worried Worried
Bury Buried Buried
Copy Copied Copied
4. If a regular verb ends by „y‟ and preceded by vowel, just add „ed‟ at the end.
Present tense Past tense Past participle
Play Played Played
Enjoy Enjoyed Enjoyed
Pray Prayed Prayed
Stay Stayed Stayed
Employ Employed Employed
Here is a list of commonly used regular verbs with their base form, simple past form and past
participle form.
Base Form Simple Past Past Participle
Accept Accepted Accepted
Achieve Achieved Achieved
Add Added Added
Admire Admired Admired

Admit Admitted Admitted
Adopt Adopted Adopted
Advise Advised Advised
Agree Agreed Agreed
Allow Allowed Allowed
Announce Announced Announced
Appreciate Appreciated Appreciated
Approve Approved Approved
Argue Argued Argued
Arrive Arrived Arrived
Ask Asked Asked
Assist Assisted Assisted
Attack Attacked Attacked
Bake Baked Baked
Beg Begged Begged
Behave Behaved Behaved
Boil Boiled Boiled
Borrow Borrowed Borrowed
Brush Brushed Brushed
Bury Buried Buried
Call Called Called
Challenge Challenged Challenged
Change Changed Changed
Chase Chased Chased
Cheat Cheated Cheated
Chew Chewed Chewed
Clap Clapped Clapped
Clean Cleaned Cleaned
Collect Collected Collected
Compare Compared Compared
Complain Complained Complained
Confess Confessed Confessed

Construct Constructed Constructed
Control Controlled Controlled
Copy Copied Copied
Count Counted Counted
Create Created Created
Cry Cried Cried
Cycle Cycled Cycled
Damage Damaged Damaged
Dance Danced Danced
Deliver Delivered Delivered
Destroy Destroyed Destroyed
Divide Divided Divided
Drag Dragged Dragged
Earn Earned Earned
Employ Employed Employed
Encourage Encouraged Encouraged
Enjoy Enjoyed Enjoyed
Establish Established Established
Estimate Estimated Estimated
Exercise Exercised Exercised
Expand Expanded Expanded
Explain Explained Explained
Fry Fried Fried
Gather Gathered Gathered
Greet Greeted Greeted
Guess Guessed Guessed
Hate Hated Hated
Help Helped Helped
Hope Hoped Hoped
Identify Identified Identified
Interrupt Interrupted Interrupted
Introduce Introduced Introduced
Irritate Irritated Irritated

Joke Joked Joked
Jump Jumped Jumped
Kick Kicked Kicked
Kill Killed Killed
Kiss Kissed Kissed
Laugh Laughed Laughed
Lie Lied Lied

Like Liked Liked
Listen Listened Listened
Love Loved Loved
Marry Married Married
Measure Measured Measured
Move Moved Moved
Murder Murdered Murdered
Need Needed Needed
Obey Obeyed Obeyed
Offend Offended Offended
Offer Offered Offered
Open Opened Opened
Paint Painted Painted
Park Parked Parked
Phone Phoned Phoned
Pick Picked Picked
Play Played Played
Pray Prayed Prayed
Print Printed Printed
Pull Pulled Puled
Punch Punched Punched
Punish Punished Punished
Purchase Purchased Purchased
Push Pushed Pushed
Question Questioned Questioned

Race Raced Raced
Relax Relaxed Relaxed
Remember Remembered Remembered
Reply Replied Replied
Retire Retired Retired
Return Returned Returned
Rub Rubbed Rubbed
Select Selected Selected
Smoke Smoked Smoked
Snore Snored Snored
Start Started Started
Study Studied Studied
Talk Talked Talked
Thank Thanked Thanked
Travel Travelled Travelled
Trouble Troubled Troubled
Type Typed Typed
Use Used Used
Visit Visited Visited
Wait Waited Waited
Walk Walked Walked
Want Wanted Wanted
Warn Warned Warned
Wink Winked Winked
Worry Worried Worried
Yell Yelled Yelled

Irregular Verbs
Are those verbs which do not take “d, ed” in their second and third forms and their second and
third forms are not always the same.
Go Went Gone
Run Ran Run
Think Thought Thought
Bring Brought Brought
Speak Spoke Spoken
Write Wrote Written
Come Came Come
Here is a list of commonly used irregular verbs with their base form, simple past form and the past
participle form.
Base Form Simple Past Past Participle
Be Was, Were Been
Beat Beat Beaten
Become Became Become
Begin Began Begun
Bite Bit Bitten
Break Broke Broken
Bring Brought Brought
Build Built Built
Burn Burnt Burnt

Buy Bought Bought
Catch Caught Caught
Choose Chose Chosen
Come Came Come
Cut Cut Cut
Do Did Done
Dream Dreamt Dreamt
Drink Drank Drunk

Drive Drove Driven
Eat Ate Eaten
Fall Fell Fallen
Feel Felt Felt
Fight Fought Fought
Find Found Found
Fly Flew Flown
Forget Forgot Forgotten
Forgive Forgave Forgiven
Get Got Got
Give Gave Given
Go Went Gone
Grow Grew Grown
Hang Hung Hung
Have Had Had
Hear Heard Heard
Hide Hid Hidden
Hit Hit Hit
Hold Held Held
Hurt Hurt Hurt
Keep Kept Kept
Know Knew Known

Learn Learnt Learnt
Leave Left Left
Lend Lent Lent
Lose Lost Lost
Make Made Made
Meet Met Met
Pay Paid Paid
Put Put Put
Read Read Read
Ride Rode Ridden
Ring Rang Rung
Run Ran Run
Say Said Said
See Saw Seen
Sell Sold Sold
Send Sent Sent
Sing Sang Sung
Sleep Slept Slept
Speak Spoke Spoken
Stand Stood Stood
Sweep Swept Swept
Swim Swam Swum
Take Took Taken
Teach Taught Taught
Tear Tore Torn
Tell Told Told
Think Thought Thought
Throw Threw Thrown
Understand Understood Understood
Wake Woke Waken
Wear Wore Worn
Win Won Won
Write Wrote Written

List of Verbs
Accept Catch Expand Lie Select
Achieve Challenge Explain Like Sell
Add Change Fear Listen Send
Admire Cheat Feel Lose Sing
Admit Chew Fight Love Snore
Adopt Choose Find Make Stand
Advise Clap Fly Marry Stare
Agree Clean Forget Measure Start
Allow Collect Forgive Meet Stink
Announce Compare Fry Move Study
Appreciate Complain Gather Murder Sweep
Approve Confess Get Obey Swim
Argue Confuse Give Offend Take
Arrive Construct Greet Offer Talk
Ask Control Grow Open Teach
Assist Copy Guess Paint Tear
Attack Count Harass Pay Tell
Bake Create Hate Pick Thank

Bathe Cry Hear Play Travel
Be Damage Help Pray Type
Beat Dance Hit Print Understand
Become Deliver Hope Pull Use
Beg Destroy Identify Punch Visit
Behave Disagree Interrupt Punish Wait
Boast Drag Introduce Purchase Walk

Boil Drive Irritate Push Want
Borrow Drop Jump Quit Warn
Breathe Earn Keep Race Wed
Bring Eat Kick Read Weep
Build Employ Kiss Relax Wink
Burn Encourage Laugh Remember Worry
Bury Enjoy Learn Reply Write
Buy Establish Leave Retire Yell

Adverb
Adverbs are words which add something to the meaning of a verb, adjective and even another
adverb or sometimes to the whole sentence. Examples:
He walked slowly.
(slowly describes the verb walking)
He is very slow in walking.
(very describes the adjective slow)
He always walks very slowly.
(slowly describes the verb walking but very describes the adverbs slowly) Now,
this is the time for studying.
(now is adverb of time which explains the whole sentence.)
Formation of Adverbs
1. In a large number of cases, the adverbs are formed by adding „ly‟ to the end of adjectives.
Adjective Adverb
Cheap Cheaply
Quick Quickly
Strong Strongly
Easy Easily
Happy Happily
Nice Nicely
2. If the adjective ends with „y‟, replace „y‟ with „i‟ and add „ly‟ at the end.

Adjective Adverb
Ready Readily
Crazy Crazily
Easy Easily
Happy Happily
Heavy Heavily
Healthy Healthily
Dirty Dirtily
3. If the adjective ends with „le‟, just replace t the final „e‟ with „y‟.
Adjective Adverb
Understandable Understandably
Forcible Forcibly
Possible Possibly
Visible Visibly
Probable Probably
Remarkable Remarkably

4. Some adjectives do not change theirs forms at all.
Adjective Adverb
Fast Fast
Straight Straight
Hard Hard
Well Well
Enough Enough
Wrong Wrong
Right Right

Types of Adverbs
Adverbs are used in sentences to answer many questions about the Verbs/Adjectives/Adverbs. The
different types of Adverbs are as follow:
Adverbs of Time
Adverbs of Place
Adverbs of Manner
Adverbs of Frequency
Adverbs of Certainty and Negation
Adverbs of Degree Interrogatives
Adverb
Adverbs of Time
Are those adverbs which show the time of an action or state and can answer the question
“When?”.
Like: (today, yesterday, now, tomorrow, last year, last decade, ago, lately, before, already,
ten o‟clock etc.) Examples:
The results were announced yesterday.
She will visit the hospital tomorrow.
She died two years ago.
I wrote to him yesterday.
Have you seen him before?
May I leave now?
He will come tomorrow.
I have warned him already.
I haven‟t read anything lately.
Position1:
Sentence +Adverb of Time
Examples:
I study English today.
He met his friends last night. We
will come tomorrow.
Position2:
Adverb of Time + Sentence

Examples:
Yesterday, she went to Paghman.
Now, I‟m learning English.
Tomorrow, we will have a quiz.

Adverbs
of Place
Are those adverbs which show the location or place of an action or state and can answer the
question “Where?”.
Like: (here, there, over there, inside, outside, somewhere, upstairs, downstairs, far, near, at school,
at home, in the park etc.) Examples:
They will meet you there.
In spring, flowers bloom everywhere.
We have been living here for several years.
I searched for him everywhere.
They went upstairs.
May I come in?
She came forward.
I decided to go there.
Position:
Sentence + Adverb of Place
Examples:
My children are playing outside.
We have the meeting in a hotel.
I saw Ali right here.

Adverbs
of Manner
Are those adverbs which show how or in which manner the action happens and can answer the
question “How?”.
Like: (Badly, beautifully, carefully, quickly, softly, hard, truly, fast, easily, automatically,
honestly, joyfully, carelessly, nicely, simply, etc.) Examples:
He slipped quietly.
She works fast.
The soldiers fought bravely.
Walk carefully!
She can speak English well.
He always runs slowly.
I can solve these questions easily.
Position:
Sentence+ Adverb of Manner
Examples:
Layla sings beautifully.
He runs quickly.
My friend always helps me honestly.

Adverbs
of Frequency
Adverbs of frequency show the repetition of an action and tell us how often something happens.
They can answer the question: "How
frequently?" or "How often?"
We have two types of Adverbs of Frequency:

Adverbs of Definite Frequency Adverbs
of Indefinite Frequency
 Adverbs of Definite Frequency

Are those adverbs which show the exact repetition of an action or state. Examples:
• once, twice, once or twice, three times, four times
• hourly, daily, weekly, monthly, yearly
• every second, once a minute, twice a year
Adverbs of definite frequency usually go in END position.

Most companies pay taxes yearly.
The manager checks the account every hour.
The directors meet weekly to review progress.
Sometimes, usually for reasons of emphasis or style, some adverbs of definite frequency may go
at the FRONT, for example:
Every day, more than five thousand people die on our roads. Daily,
he comes here.

Adverbs

 Adverbs of Indefinite Frequency
Are those adverbs which do not show the exact repetition of an action or state.
Examples:
(Always, usually, often, normally, generally, frequently, regularly, constantly, sometimes,
occasionally, seldom, rarely, hardly ever, never)
Always= 100%
Usually= 90-99%
Often= 75-90%
Sometimes= 25-75%
Seldom= 5-10%
Rarely= 1-10
Never= 0%
Adverbs of indefinite frequency mainly go in MID position in the sentence. They go before the
main verb (except "to be").
Examples:
We usually go shopping on Saturday.
I often have dinner at 8 o‟clock. She
is always late.
They can also go at the beginning or end of a sentence:

Examples:
Sometimes, they come and stay with us.
I play tennis occasionally.
We see them rarely.
Jameel eats meat very seldom.
Adverbs of Certainty and Negation

These adverbs are used to show how sure we are when we do something.
Probably, perhaps, definitely, obviously, certainly, truly, exactly, surely, possibly, yes, no, surly,
not, indeed, by all means, not at all, by no means.....
Examples:
I will not come.
We will certainly help you.
Definitely, he is a good man.
Indeed, my fried helped me a lot.
It is by no means possible that we will finish this project by the June.
Note: Using only yes or no represents a whole sentence.
Will you come? Yes. (Yes, I will come.)

Have you finished the work? No. (No, I haven‟t finished the work.)
Adverbs of Degree
Adverbs of degree are used to give information about the extent or degree of something.
They are like:
(Very, quite, extremely, little, much, more, most, too, enough, so, fully, partly, almost, really,
pretty, enough, a lot...)
Examples:
This problem is very serious.

Solution to this problem is quite important.
The teacher is extremely angry today.
The questions are too easy.
He is quite strong.
She is very beautiful.

I am fully prepared.
My work is almost finished.
This is good enough.
You are absolutely right.
He is entirely wrong.

Adverbs of Degree List
Almost Most
Absolutely Much
Completely Nearly
Deeply Perfectly
Enough Pretty
Enormously Quite
Entirely Rather
Extremely Really
Fairly Simply
Fully So
Highly Strongly
Incredibly Thoroughly
Less Too
Little Totally
Lots Very
Interrogative Adverbs
Interrogative adverbs are those adverbs which are used to ask questions.
They are like: (When? Where? How? Why? How often?) Examples:
When was the last time you saw the accused?
Where have you been for all the time?
How could I overlook all these mistakes?
Why do you have to do such a stupid thing?
How often do you go home?

List of Adverbs
Accidentally Eventually Jealously Poorly Suddenly
Always Exactly Joyfully Positively Surprisingly
Angrily Excitedly Kindly Properly Sweetly
Arrogantly Extremely Lazily Quickly Terribly
Badly Fairly Less Quietly Thankfully
Beautifully Faithfully Loudly Rarely Thoughtfully
Bitterly Fast Lovingly Really Tomorrow
Blindly Foolishly Loyally Regularly Unexpectedly
Boldly Fortunately Madly Reluctantly Unfortunately
Bravely Frankly More Repeatedly Urgently
Briefly Generally Mysteriously Rudely Usually
Busily Generously Naturally Sadly Very
Carefully Gently Nearly Safely Violently
Certainly Gracefully Nervously Seldom Well
Clearly Happily Never Selfishly Wisely
Courageously Highly Obediently Seriously Yearly
Cruelly Honestly Officially Silently Yesterday
Curiously Hopelessly Often Slowly

Daily Immediately Openly Softly
Delightfully Innocently Painfully Sometimes
Easily Instantly Patiently Soon

Enthusiastically Interestingly Politely Strictly
Preposition
Preposition is a word(s) which connect the different nouns, pronouns and phrases in a sentence.
Preposition is usually used before a noun or pronoun and shows the relationship of noun or pronoun to the
other words in sentence.
Examples:
(in, on, at, to, with, under, above, into, by, of, without, inside, outside, between, among, against etc.)
Types of Preposition
Simple prepositions
Compound prepositions
Simple Prepositions:
Simple prepositions are made up of one word like: (in, on, at, over, about, under, between, above,
near, out, up, over, per, since, till, until, upon, against, through, from, across, with, of, for, beside,
to, etc.)
Examples:
She sat on the sofa.
He is going to the market.
He fell off the ladder.
There is some water in the bottle.
She is talking about you.
They sat around the table.
The cat was hiding under the bed.

Compound Prepositions:
Compound prepositions are made up of more than one word like: (without, within, inside, outside, into,
out of, from behind, according to, up to, next to, inside of, outside of, due to, because of, by means
of, based on, on behalf of, instead of, in opposition to, for the sake of, apart from, ahead of, along
with, in front of, etc.) Examples:
He fell into the river.
She sat next to her kids.
He sat outside the room.
There is nothing inside the jar.
Suddenly he emerged from behind the curtain.
He walked out of the compound.
We will discuss this issue outside the room.
You are considered guilty according to my opinion.
I am standing here on behalf of my friends and colleagues.
The match was cancelled because of the rain.
He succeeded by means of his diligence.
Please, forgive him for the sake of me.
The teacher stood in front of the desk.
Based on the rules, you are wrong in your idea.
Prepositions or Adverbs?
There are some words which can be used both as prepositions and as adverbs.
If a word is used as a preposition, it will have a noun or pronoun as its object.
Adverbs, on the other hand, do not have objects; they are used to modify a verb, adjective or another
adverb.
Compare!
She sat in the armchair. (In is preposition and armchair is its object)
Please come in. (In is adverb which has no object)
He stood before me. (Before is a preposition and the object is me)
I have seen him before. (Before is adverb which has no object)
She put the book on the table. (On is preposition and the object is the table)
Let‟s move on. (On is adverb which has no object)
He will return after a month. (After is a preposition and the object is a month) He
came soon after. (After is adverb which has no object)

Prepositions which can be used both for place and time are (at, in on).
Prepositions of Place
Prepositions of place refer to those prepositions that can be used to show where something is located.
There are three prepositions of place: (at, in & on)
 At
„At‟ is used for a specific place or location.
Examples:
At Khurasan University
At Nangarhar Province
At Bost Hospital
Note: There are many standard expressions that are exceptions to this rule like: At
home
At work
At school/college/university
At the park
 In
„In‟ is used for enclosed spaces. Examples:
In the room
In the store
In my pocket/bag
In the building/tower
In the cup
Note: There are some standard expressions that are an exception to this rule like:
In the book/magazine/newspaper
In the sky
In Afghanistan
In the city

 On
„On‟ is used for surfaces. Examples:
On the table
On the rug
On the floor
On the cover
On the page
Note: There are many standard expressions that are exceptions to this rule like:
On the bus/train/plane/ship
On the radio/television
On the left/right On
the way
Prepositions of Time
There are three prepositions of time: (at, in & on)
 At
„At‟ is used for clock/watch time. Examples:
At ten o‟clock At
10.30am
At one o‟clock
Note: There are many standard expressions that are exceptions to this rule like:
At the moment/present/same time
At sunrise/sunset/noon/dinnertime/bedtime/dusk/dawn
 In
„In‟ is used for months, years, decades, centuries, and long periods of
time. Examples: In January In 1991
In the 70s‟
In this century
In the Dark Ages
Note: there are standard expressions that are exceptions in this case.
In the morning(s)/afternoon(s)/evening(s)

 On
„On‟ is used for specifice days and dates.
Examples:
On Wednesday
On Friday
On 10th of January
On Independence Day
Note: „on‟ is also used when you specify the day followed by the part of the day.
For example on Wednesday mornings
More Examples
1. They have come to meet you.
2. We are going after money.
3. The dog is under the table.
4. He is looking at me.
5. The car is going towards the canal.
6. We have to stay in USA.
7. They stand before your father.
8. The cat is under the table.
9. The toys are on the table.
10. Rose reaches to school at 8 o’clock.
11. The mouse ran to the hole.
12. The thief escaped from the police station last night.
13. My mother is cutting vegetables with a knife.
14. These stories are interesting for children.
15. Haroon was looking for his friend.
16. Aisha comes from school.
17. Seena is going to the library.
18. The pen is on the table.
19. She will come on Sunday.
20. India won freedom in 1947.
21. They will return at sunset.
22. He went to school by walk.
23. She writes with the pen.
24. He is the son of an Engineer.

List of Prepositions
above in spite of
according instead of
to across into like
after near next
against of off on
along along out out of
with among outside
apart from over
around as regarding
at because round
of before since
behind through
below throughout
beneath till
beside to toward
between under
beyond by underneath
despite unlike until
down up upon up
during to with
for within
without
from in in
back of in
case of in
front of in
place of
inside

Conjunction
Conjunctions are words which connect two words, two phrases, two clauses and two sentences.
Example:
Intelligent and smart
(two words)
Early in the morning but not at night
(two phrases)
I came late because it was raining.
(two clauses)
I am studying my lessons and my brother is watching TV. (two
sentences)
There are three main categories of conjunctions:

Coordinating conjunctions
Subordinating conjunctions
Correlative/Pair conjunctions
Transitions/conjunctive adverbs
Coordinating Conjunctions
These short conjunctions are used to link or join two independent clauses or words, phrases, clauses, and
sentences which are grammatically equal or the same.
Example sentences with "and":

• They are hungry and thirsty. (two adjectives)
• He asked us to clean our rooms and wash the dishes. (two verbs)
• Jameel works as a teacher, and Tamim works as a nurse. (two nouns) The mailman is running ,
and the dog is chasing him. (two clauses)
There are seven coordinating conjunctions in English language.

An easy way to remember the coordinating conjunctions is to remember the word (FANBOYS).
F = for (reason/cause)
A = and (addition)
N = nor (negative choice)
B = but (contrast)
O = or (choice)
Y = yet (contrast)
S = so (result/effect)

Coordinating conjunctions always go between the words, phrases or sentences that they are
connecting.
Examples:
I will be late to the party, for I am working until seven.
Ttamim studied hard and he got first position.
Sara does not like the mountains, nor she likes the ocean.
I wanted to ride my bike, but its tire was flat.
Farid can go to America, or he can go to France.
Ali studied hard, yet he failed the test.
She was late to work, so her boss made her stay after five.
When to Use Each Coordinating Conjunction?

 For
It explains a reason or purpose (just like “because”). It
is used to join two independent clauses.
Example:
I know he is in the party, for I saw him there.
It was raining, for I got an umbrella.
 And
It is used to join two positive words, phrases or independent clauses. Examples:
My book is black and white.
Early in the morning and late at night
I am a doctor, and I always treat the patients.
 Nor
It is used to join two negative ideas.
Example:
Marwa didn‟t eat meat, nor ate the vegetables.
I do not want to study here, nor I want to study in Kabul.

 But
It is used to join a positive idea with a negative one.
Example:
He is intelligent but not smart.
My friend doesn‟t like watching movies, but I like watching movies.
My brother is a teacher, but I am a student.
 Or
It is used to introduce another choice or possibility.
Examples:
Would you like tea or coffee?
You have to go to the job interview, or you will not get it.
He has to pass the exam, or he will be very upset.
 Yet
It is used to join a positive idea with a negative one (similar to “but”).
Examples:
My aunt died last year, yet I remember her a lot.
It is evening, yet the children are playing outside.
I am tired, yet I am teaching.
 So
It is used to show the result for something.
Examples:
The film was very bad, so we left after 10 minutes.
My friend studied hard, so he got first position.

Subordinating Conjunctions
Subordinating Conjunctions connect a dependent clause with an independent clause and establish a
relationship between them.
Basically, a subordinating conjunction connects a main clause and a subordinate one. If the main
clause comes first in the sentence, it won‟t be separated from the subordinate clause by a comma. If the
subordinate clause comes first, we will separate the clauses with a comma.
The most common subordinating conjunctions are:
After: (later than that time)

Examples:
Call me after you arrive to the airport.
After I graduated from the university, I found a job.
Although:(despite that) Examples:

Although she was tired, she couldn‟t sleep.
I came to the university although it was raining.
Because: (for the reason that)

Examples:
He got first position because he studied hard. Because
it was raining, I didn‟t come to class.
Before: (earlier than the time)

Examples:
Come and visit me before you leave.
Before the teacher came, Ali had already left the class.
If: (shows condition) Examples:

It would be fantastic if you could come to the party.
If I can do anything for you, let me know.
Since: (is used to show reason)

Examples:
Since you have studied so well, you can go outside and play. I
may help you since you are my best friend.

When: (during the time that something happened) Examples:
A teacher is good when he inspires his students.
When I came to class, the students had already gone.
Where: (in the place that something happened) Examples:

We went to visit him where he lived.
Where you went to school, that is my hometown.
While: (during the time that something was happening) Examples:

While we were in Paris, it snowed a lot.
My brother was watching TV while I was studying my lessons.
Until: (up to the time or point that something happened) Examples:

We stayed up talking until the sun came up. Until
you arrive, I will be waiting here.

Correlative Conjunctions
Correlative Conjunctions are simply pair conjunctions which are used to join different words or group
of words in a sentence together. Correlative Conjunctions are generally not used to link sentences
themselves, instead they link two or more words of equal importance within the sentence itself.
Examples:
(both…and, either…or, neither…nor, not only…but also, and whether… or not….)
These pair conjunctions require equal (parallel) structure after each one.
Examples:
You can study either engineering or medical.
You can study neither engineering nor medical.
In the mean time you can study both engineering and medical.
You can study not only engineering but also medical.
Both… and…
• Is a correlative conjunction.
• Both… and… : Means “not only one but both of them”.
• Both… and… : Is used to join two positive ideas.
Note that after (both… and…) plural verb is used.
Examples:

Ali and Wali like to play football.
Both Ali and Wali like to play football.
She likes Indian movies and American movies.
She likes both American movies and Indian movies.
Either… or…
• Either… or… : Means “one of the two”.
• Either… or… : Is used to join two positive sentences carrying the same tense.
Note that the verb after (Either… or…) used according to the noun or pronoun used second or after
(or).
Examples:
She wants to study journalism, or she wants to study BCS.
She wants to study either journalism or BCS.
My brother tries to get first position; my cousin also tries to get first position. Either
my brother or my cousin will get first position.
Neither… nor…
• Neither… nor… : Means “None of the two”.
• Neither… nor… : Is used to join two negative sentences carrying the same tense.
Note that the verb after (Neither… nor…) is used according to the noun or pronoun used second or after
(or).
Examples:
My brother doesn‟t study hard. My cousin doesn‟t study hard. Neither
my brother nor my cousin studies hard.
Our neighbor doesn‟t want to go to America. He doesn‟t want to go to England. Neither
my neighbor wants to go to America nor he wants to go to England.
Not only… but also…

• Not only… but also…: Means “All of them”.
• Not only… but also…: Is used to combine either two negative or two positive sentences. Examples:
Ali and Sama are politicians.

Not only Ali but also Sam is a politician.
The teacher and students were absent.
Not only the teacher but also the students were absent.
Whether… or not…
• Whether… or not…: Is used to introduce two or more possibilities. Examples:
Whether you come to the party or not we will enjoy it.
Whether you agree or not I will go to Kabul tomorrow In Shah Allah.
Transitions
Transitions are words or phrases which take us from one idea to another and can join different sentences and
paragraphs in writing.
Like: (furthermore, in addition, finally, in the meantime, afterwards, however, on the other hand, at the same
time, for instance, in the same way, therefore, thus, hence, as a result, etc.)
Examples:
My brother studies in the university. Furthermore he works in a bank.
My brother works in a bank; in addition, he studies in the university.
My brother studies in the university. He, in the meantime, works in a bank.
My brother goes to bank in the morning. He goes to university, afterwards.
My brother studies in the university. However, he is very busy in his job.
My brother works in a bank; on the other hand, he studies in the university.
At the same time, my brother studies in the university and works in a bank.

Interjection
Interjections are short words which show strong/sudden feeling or emotions.
Examples: (oh, ah, wow, hurrah, alas, ouch, Oops, aha, hey, etc.)
Interjections are short exclamations which express strong or sudden feeling of:
Joy
Sorrow
Pain
Wonder
Exclamation mark or comma is used after interjections.
Examples:
Hurrah! We won the competition.
Ouch! It hurts.
Wow! What a nice shirt.
Hey! What are you doing?
Alas! His parents are dead.
Oh! I forgot to bring my purse.
Yes, I will come.
No, he is not my friend.
Well, everything will be all right.
Besides these specific interjections, a normal word can also be used as an interjection if it is used to
express feeling or emotion.
No! Don‟t touch it, it‟s hot.
What! I am selected for the job?
Help! I am about to fall.
Well! I will try my level best.
Note: We normally don‟t use interjections a lot in writing.

Articles
What is an article?
An article is a word that modifies or describes the Noun. It is used before a noun or adjective to show
whether something specific or general. So articles can also be described as a type of adjectives as they
also tell us something about the nouns like adjectives.
English language has three articles, “the and a/an”.
Examples: (a book, the book, a cup, the cup, an umbrella, the umbrella…)
Types of
Article
Definite Indefinite Zero

Article Articles Article
“The” “a, an” “0”
“a and an” mean one. They We use zero article when

It is used before specific
are used before singular we talk about something
nouns.
unspecified nouns. in general.
There are three types of articles in English language.

Indefinite article: (a/an)
Definite article: (the)
Zero article: (0)

Definite Article: (the)
The definite article "the" is used for a definite, specific or particular noun.
Examples:
The students, the teachers, the books, the computers, the classrooms, the boy, the girl, the man, the
woman, the elephant, the ant, etc…
Rules for Using Definite Article (the)

The article “the” can be used both before a singular and plural noun according to the following
grammatical rules.
1. Before the place, object or group of objects which are unique or considered to be unique. Examples:
the earth, the world, the moon, the sky, the stars, the North Pole, the south Pole ,the equator
2. For a noun which is already mentioned and is being mentioned as a second time.
Example:
The teacher helped a student and the student became happy.
3. When both the speaker and listener know what is being talked about, even if it has not been mentioned
before.
Example:
Where's the kitchen? It's on the first floor.
4. In sentences or clauses where we define or identify a particular person or object.

Examples:
The man who wrote this book is famous.
Which car did you scratch the red one or the white one? My
house is the one with a blue door.
5. Article „the‟ is used before superlatives, and ordinal numbers. Examples:

The best day of my life
The first day of my work
The second month
6. It is used with adjectives which refer to a whole group of people or nation.

Examples:
the Japanese, the Afghans, the Chinese, the Indians etc.

7. It is used with names of geographical areas and oceans. Examples: the Caribbean, the Sahara desert
, the Atlantic ocean
8. It is used with decades or group of years: Examples:

She grew up in the seventies He
was born in the nineties.
9. It is used before the names of some organizations like:

Examples:
The Association of youth,
The World Health Organization
Zero Article: (0)

1. We do not use any article when we talk about things in general.
Examples:
Women love it when men send them flowers!
Houses are expensive in that neighborhood.
People think all Canadians speak English and French, but they’re wrong!
I love reading books.
I love chocolate!
She is a vegetarian. She doesn’t eat meat.
2. We do not use any article before proper names. Examples:

a) Holidays
I got a beautiful new dress for Christmas.
I gave my mom a gift for Mother’s Day. What
are you doing on Valentine’s Day?
b) Geography
Articles are not used before countries, states, cities, continents and single mountains.
I live in Canada.
We visited them in New Mexico.
He lives in London.
I’m going to Europe next month on vacation.
K2 is the highest mountain in Pakistan.

c) Companies
Bill Gates founded Microsoft.
Wal-Mart is the largest employer in the U.S.
McDonald’s has restaurants in 119 countries.
I use Twitter and Facebook every day.
d) Universities
Her son graduated from Harvard.
She goes to Oxford.
He applied to Cambridge and Stanford.
However, if the name of the university begins with ‘University,’ then you must use ‘the’
He has a master’s degree from the University of Toronto.
e) Languages I am
studying Russian.
I speak French.
In Brazil people speak Portuguese.
I teach people how to speak English.
3. We do not use any article for the names of countries or places.

Examples:
The New York, the America, the Mexico, the Japan, the London But, article “the” is used for a name,
if it expresses a group of places, states, or land.
Examples:
The United States
The Philippines
The Netherlands
The Russian Federation etc…
4. Sports and other physical activities do not need an article.

I love to go skiing in the winter.
I play football every day after school.
He loves watching hockey on TV.
She tries to do yoga at least 3 times a week.

5. Noun + number do not need any article.
He is staying at Hilton hotel in room 221.
My English class is in room 6 on the first floor.
6. An acronym is an abbreviation (a short form) of a name. It uses the first letter of each
word to form a new word.
If the acronym is pronounced as a word (not individual letters), don’t use any article with it.
Examples:
NATO ambassadors met to discuss the situation.
NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization) UNESCO
was formed in 1946.
UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization)
Exception:
You need to use article ‘the’ before acronyms of organizations & countries when the letters
are pronounced individually, not as a word.
The UN was created after the Second World War.
Other acronyms that need ‘the’:

the US the
CIA the
FBI
Indefinite Articles: (a/an)

The indefinite articles “a/an” are used for a singular, indefinite, non-specific or non-particular noun.
Examples:

a student, a teacher, a book, a computer, a classroom, a boy, a girl, a man, a woman, an
elephant, an ant, an engineer, an egg, an umbrella, etc…
Rules for Using Indefinite Articles (a/an)

1. Article “a” is used before a noun or adjective which begins with a consonant or a vowel with a
consonant sound.
Examples:
a book, a cat, a camera, a university, a European country, a computer, a box, a boy, a man
2. Article “an” is used before a noun or adjective which begins with a vowel (a, e, i, o, u) or consonant
with vowel sound.
Examples: an apple, an elephant, an umbrella, an hour, an egg, an engineer, an honest boy,
an orange
Note: Vowel sound is important not the vowel letters because in some conditions the vowel letters do
not have vowel sound.

References
Books:
Practical English Usage

By: Michael Swan
A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language

By: Randolph Quirk
An Introduction to English Grammar

By: Sidney Green Baum
How English Works

By: Michael Swan
English Grammar in Use

By: Raymond Murphy
Websites:
https://www.tesol-direct.com/guide-to-english-grammar
http://www.talkenglish.com http://www.perfect-english-
grammar.com http://www.myenglishgrammar.com
http://www.englishpage.com

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Aryana Professional Academy

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Regular Verbs ....................................................................................................................................... 94

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• Pay attention to sentence structures

• Practice when you can

• Grammar exercises will help you

be able to rectify them. Join a course

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Adjective beautiful beautifully

Verb study studied

Adverb strongly strong

 Close Elements (Parts of Speech)

Preposition in, on, at, under, next to, up

Conjunction but, and, so, if, although, as

Interjection wow, what, no, yes, hey

Articles a, an, the

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Restaurant Aryana Restaurant

Month of the year January

Day of the week Sunday

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Exercise for Abstract Nouns and Concrete nouns

Abstract Nouns Concrete Nouns

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Exercise for Countable and Uncountable Nouns

Count Nouns Non-count Nouns

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Types of Compound Noun

2.Close compound nouns (the elements are not spaced) Examples:

3.Hyphenated compound nouns (the elements are hyphenated) Examples:

Formation of Compound Noun

2.Gerund+ Noun Examples:

3.Noun+ gerund Examples:

4.Noun+ preposition+noun Examples:

5.Adjective+ Noun Examples:

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10. Base j. Brush

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Exercise for Regular and Irregular Nouns

Regular Nouns Irregular Nouns

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1.Masculine gender: (nouns for male living beings) Examples:

2.Feminine gender: (nouns for female living beings) Examples:

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The main cases in English are:

 Subjective (Nominative) Case

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 Object of Preposition (Dative) Case

 Possessive (Genitive) Case

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