ECT 3454 Engineering Practice and Professional Ethics

Contact Hours 45

Purpose of the course

The aim of this course is to enable the student to develop appreciation and understanding of
the role of professional organizations, law, ethics and professionalism in electrical
Engineering field.

Expected learning outcome

At the end of this course the student should be able to:
 Apply basic Engineering economic principles in an organization
 Explain the functional relationship between Engineering and other occupations
 Carry out production planning and management in an organization

Course content
Financial, legal, regulatory, human resource ethical and business aspects of Engineering
practice. Office organization and management. Human resource management. Professional
societies. Professional registration. The role of Engineering in development. Ethics and
integrity in Engineering practice.

Teaching Methodology
Case studies, Lectures, Tutorials, Role playing, Exposure Visits.

Instructional Materials
LCD Projector, Hand-out, Smart board/Chalkboard

Assessment
Final Examination 70%, Continuous Assessment 30%

Recommended Textbooks and journals

1. Brian B, Daniel P. 2009, Software and Systems Requirements Engineering: In
Practice, McGraw Hill, New York, USA
2. Mark MacAfee 2003, Principles and Practice of Engineering, American Society of
Civil Engineers, New York.
3. Ian S. , Pete S. 1997, Requirements Engineering: A Good Practice Guide, Wiley, New
Delhi, INDIA

Textbooks and Journal for Further Reading

1. Capers John 2009, Software Engineering Best Practices: Lessons from Successful
Projects in Top Companies, McGraw Hill, New York, USA
2. Davis M. 1998,Thinking Like and Engineer: Studies in Ethics of a Professional,
Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK
3. Stephen F.J., W. J. King 1999, Engineering and Society: Challenges of Professional
Practice, Prentice Hall, Upper saddle River, NJ, USA
Engineering Ethics - Introduction

Engineering is the process of developing an efficient mechanism which quickens and eases
the work using limited resources, with the help of technology. Ethics are the principles
accepted by the society, which also equate to the moral standards of human beings. An
engineer with ethics, can help the society in a better way.
Hence the study of engineering ethics, where such ethics are implemented in engineering by
the engineers, is necessary for the good of the society. Engineering Ethics is the study of
decisions, policies and values that are morally desirable in engineering practice and research.

Morals

The word “Morality” originates from the Latin word “mos” meaning “custom”. Morals are
the principles or habits with respect to right or wrong of one’s own conduct. They are not
imposed by anyone. Morals are what you think is good and bad personally.

Though morals are not imposed, they can be understood as the preaching of our inner self.
Depending on a few factors, our mind filters things as good or bad. These are the ideas that
help frame our personality so that we can distinguish between what is right and what is
wrong.

A moral is the code of conduct that you develop over time and set for yourself to follow, just
like

 Being good to everyone

 Speaking only the truth
 Going against what you know is wrong
 Having chastity
 Avoid cheating
 Being a nice human being etc.

Morals are always defined by one’s own personality. Morals can be changed according to
one’s beliefs as they are completely dependent on one’s perception towards the ethical
values.

Ethics

The word “Ethics” originates from the Greek word “ethos” meaning “character”. Ethics are a
set of rules or principles that are generally considered as standards or good and bad or right
and wrong, which are usually imposed by an external group or a society or a profession or so.

Ethics can be understood as the rules of conduct proposed by a society or recognized with
respect to a particular class of human actions or a particular group or culture. Ethics are
dependent on others definition. They may or may not vary from context to context.

A person who strictly follows a set of ethical principles, may not have any moral at all while
a person who violates ethical principles at times, may maintain a high moral integrity. The
ethical theories include duty ethics, right ethics, virtue ethics and so on. A best example that
can explain ethics is utilitarianism.
Utilitarianism is the philosophy which explains that the happiness or pleasure of a greatest
number of people in the society is considered as the greatest good. According to this
philosophy, an action is morally right if its consequences leads to happiness of the people and
wrong if the action leads to their unhappiness. This theory moves beyond the scope of one’s
own interests and takes into account the interests of others.

Ethics in Engineering

Ethics are principles followed depending upon the moral responsibility that a person feels.
The study of related questions about moral ideals, character, policies and relationships of
people and organizations involved in technological activity, can be termed as Engineering
ethics.

An engineer whether he works individually or works for a company, has to go through some
ethical issues, mostly under the conditions such as, conceptualization of a product, issues
arising in design and testing departments, or may be on the issues involving the
manufacturing, sales and services. Questions related to morality also arise during supervision
and team works.

The ethical decisions and moral values of an engineer need to be considered because the
decisions of an engineer have an impact the products and services - how safe they are to use,
the company and its shareholders who believe in the goodwill of the company, the public and
the society who trusts the company regarding the benefits of the people, the law which cares
about how legislation affects the profession and industry, the job and his moral
responsibilities and about how the environment gets affected, etc.

Not only an engineer, but everyone has to follow a set of morals in order to keep away from
getting morally degraded. Our behavior should include the following −

 Respecting others and ourselves.

 Respecting the rights of others.
 Keeping promises.
 Avoiding unnecessary problems to others.
 Avoiding cheating and dishonesty.
 Showing gratitude towards others and encourage them to work.

Morality commands respect for persons, both others and ourselves. It involves being fair and
just, meeting obligations and respecting rights and not causing unnecessary harm by
dishonesty and cruelty or by hubris.

Steps to Deal with Issues

Whenever there occurs an issue, one should possess a few skills in order to sort out the
problem. The issues that engineers face, have to be dealt with patience and few moral goals
have to be kept in mind while dealing with such issues. They are as follows −

 Moral Awareness − One should be able to recognize the moral problems and issues
that occur in Engineering. The analysis on the problem is necessary in order to
differentiate and judge according to ethics or according to the rules to follow.
  Cogent Moral Reasoning − In order to come to a conclusion on an issue, the
argument has to be assessed and comprehended. The argument on both sides has to be
considered with all the probabilities and the nature of the argument should be logical
and moral.
 Moral Coherence − After having gone through all the logical and moral facts,
consistent and comprehensive view points are to be formed based upon a
consideration of relevant facts.
 Moral Imagination − The moral issues and the practical issues have to be dealt
separately. Alternative responses are to be found out for dealing with moral issues
while creative solutions should be found out for practical difficulties.
 Moral Communication − The language to communicate about one’s moral views
should be so precise and clear, that the expression or words should not alter the
original meaning.

Though one has all these moral goals, the ethical reasoning for achieving moral conduct with
responsibility and commitment is obtained by a few skills that are described below.

Important Skills for Ethical Reasoning

Let us now discuss the important skills for ethical reasoning −

 Moral Reasonableness − The ability and willingness to be morally reasonable that

one should have while dealing such issues. Unless one is willing and improve such
ability, justice cannot be done.
 Respect for Persons − The persons involved in the issue, should be treated with
genuine concern by one. Such concern should also be there with oneself along with
being there for others.
 Tolerance of diversity − One should have a broader perspective towards ethnic and
religious differences that the people have. Every person differs with another when
compared on grounds of moral reasoning. The acceptance of those differences is
really important.
 Moral hope − The moral conflicts can be resolved by using better communication
and having rational dialogue which is evident-based and open-ended which is
acceptable and appreciable by both the parties.
 Integrity − The moral integrity has to be maintained. Being honest and having strong
moral principles helps one to resolve an issue in an efficient manner. An individual
also needs to consider other’s professional life and personal convictions while solving
a problem.
The Engineer deals with the creation, improvement, and protection of the communal
environment, providing facilities for living, industry and transportation, including large
buildings, roads, bridges, canals, railroad lines, airports, water-supply systems, dams,
irrigation, harbors, docks, aqueducts, tunnels, and other ...

The Role of Engineers in National Development

The national development strategy of The Democratic Republic of Kenya centers around the
Big Four Development Agenda. This plan put in place by the ruling government led by H. E.
Uhuru Kenyatta desires to bring dignity to the lives of everyday Kenyans, to put enough food
on our tables and to substantially lower the cost of living. The four pillars of this national
development plan are;

1. Enhancing Manufacturing _9.2% to 20% GDP by 2022

2. Food Security and Nutrition _ 100% food security and nutrition commitment
3. Universal Health coverage _ 100% Health coverage by enhancing NHIF services
4. Affordable Housing _ 500,000 affordable housing developments

But what man dreams engineers create. The reasons engineers are essential in the modern day
and age is because

1) Engineers are the ones responsible for pushing the limitations of possibility;

2) The ones constantly making advancements in any form of development and technology
imaginable;

3) The ones that think of an idea, take that idea and make it a reality. This then becomes the
role of the engineer in the national development agenda. To create the possibility to fulfill the
promise of the national government.

The members of the Institution of Engineers of Kenya (IEK) recently discussed the topic; "Are
Egineers in Kenya playing their rightful role in national development?"

Community Development.

The Engineer deals with the creation, improvement, and protection of the communal
environment, providing facilities for living, industry and transportation, including large
buildings, roads, bridges, canals, railroad lines, airports, water-supply systems, dams,
irrigation, harbors, docks, aqueducts, tunnels, and other engineered constructions within a
given community.

Engineers and Politics.

Decision making for National Development is made at the highest level of Government.
Involvement of Engineers in politics affords them the opportunity to be at these policy/decision
making bodies. Engineers at these levels, use their professional knowledge to attract and defend
important engineering infrastructural development projects. Similarly, Engineers in politics
contribute to the enhancement of the welfare of other Engineers thereby motivating them to
higher productivity for national development
Engineers in Public Service
Most of the Engineering Development Projects are being conceptualized, designed, supervised,
evaluated and certified by the Engineers in the Public Service. These Engineers also ensure
that these projects are executed according to specifications. They also make necessary input
towards the procurement of Engineering Projects.

The emergence of engineers, engineering practice, and engineering education has a close
connection to the development of countries

National Development refers to the ability of a country to improve the social welfare of the
people by providing social amenities like good education, infrastructure, medical care and
social services.

The role of Engineer in national development refers to the application of the knowledge of the
mathematical and natural sciences, gained by study, experience, and practice in the provision
of social amenities like good education, infrastructure, medical care and social services

Engineers in Sustainable development

What is Sustainable Development?

Definition of sustainable development is:

Meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to
meet their own needs.”

Engineers can play an important role in sustainable development by planning and building
projects that preserve natural resources, are cost-efficient and support human and natural
environments. A closed-loop human ecosystem can be used to illustrate the many activities of
engineers that support sustainable development.

Engineering for SD
Engineers play a crucial role in creating infrastructure in the world. Engineers are problem
solvers who apply their knowledge and experience to building projects that meet human
needs, and to cleaning up environmental problems. They work on a wide range of issues and
projects, and as a result, how engineers work can have a significant impact on progress
toward sustainable development.
Engineers can contribute to sustainable development along the entire chain of modern
production and consumption, including the following:
• Extracting and developing natural resources
• Processing and modifying resources
• Designing and building transportation infrastructure
• Meeting the needs of consumers
• Recovering and reusing resources
• Producing and distributing energy
The Roles of Engineers
Approximately 15 million engineers populate the world today. As in many other professions,
there are different kinds of engineers, including civil, environmental, mechanical, electrical,
chemical, industrial, agricultural, mining, petroleum and computer engineers.
Engineers are involved with two kinds of projects:
1. They design and build projects that meet basic human needs (potable water, food, housing,
sanitation, energy, transportation, communication, resource development and industrial
processing).
2. They solve environmental problems (create waste treatment facilities, recycle resources,
clean up and restore polluted sites and protect or restore natural ecosystems).
Engineers are problem solvers. They use skills or information that include the following:
• The results of scientific discoveries
• Empirical experience gained from centuries of construction
• Innovative approaches gained from recent projects
• Analyses of costs versus benefits over the life of projects
• Evaluation of environmental impacts versus benefits
• Consideration of political, cultural and social environments at project locations
Engineers are involved in many functions in their work. These include the following:
• Baseline studies of natural and built environments
• Analyses of project alternatives
• Feasibility studies
• Environmental impact studies
• Assistance in project planning, approval and financing
• Design and development of systems, processes and products
• Design and development of construction plans
• Project management
• Construction supervision and testing
• Process design
• Startup operations and training
• Assistance in operations
• Management consulting
• Environmental monitoring
• Decommissioning of facilities
• Restoration of sites for other uses
• Resource management
• Measuring progress for sustainable development
Sustainable Engineering
Engineers can play an important role in sustainable development by planning and building
projects that
preserve natural resources, are cost-efficient and support human and natural environments. A
closed-loop
human ecosystem can be used to illustrate the many activities of engineers that support
sustainable
development.
Resource Development and Extraction
Engineers are involved in developing and extracting natural resources in many different
ways:
• Discovering and evaluating deposits of industrial minerals such as sand and gravel
• Planning open-pit and underground mining operations
• Petroleum engineering and designing offshore oil platforms
• Water resource planning of all kinds including dams, irrigation systems and wells
• Agricultural engineering in land reclamation, drainage and improved farm operations
• Designing tree plantations and managing forests
• Designing fish farms and supporting aquaculture
• Improved land planning to protect the best farmland and natural resources from the impact
of urban
sprawl
Processing and Modifying Resources
In the past, many industries generated waste products that were toxic and not easily degraded
under natural conditions. In the last 100 years, this has led to environmental pollution and
new laws and regulations to help protect the environment. Because of improved measuring
and monitoring technologies, pollution has been identified that was previously unknown.
Many industries are now making major changes in the ways they use raw materials to
produce products—by reducing their waste to a minimum, many are finding that
improved processing leads to increased profits.
Engineers play the following roles in processing and modifying resources:
• Developing instrumentation to measure and monitor pollution
• Changing industrial processes to reduce the use of energy and other resources and to
eliminate waste wherever possible
• Considering the total input/output of operations over their complete life-cycles
• Designing products and packaging for re-use or resource recovery
• Collaborating with other industries by creating “eco parks” or applied industrial ecology.
With this approach, several industries work together so that each industry’s waste products
can be used as the raw materials for others. This also makes possible more efficient use of
waste heating and cooling water and using combined waste treatment facilities.
• Restoring and modifying old industrial sites for other uses
Transportation
In the past 200 years, engineers have made continuous breakthroughs in developing
transportation
systems:
• Building canals, locks and improving river navigation
• Designing and building all-weather roads and highways
• Constructing pipelines that move liquid and gas products
• Designing engines and transportation vehicles
• Building bridges and tunnels
• Constructing railroads and high-speed rail systems
• Creating ports and harbors
• Designing airplanes, airports and air traffic control systems
In the future, engineers will design these transportation systems so that they will:
• Be more energy efficient
• Create fewer adverse environmental impacts
• Encourage sound urban and rural planning with less urban sprawl
• Create longer-life facilities that can be maintained at lower costs
Meeting Consumer Needs
By the year 2020, there may be 8 billion people in the world. Over 80 percent of this
population will be in countries that we describe as “less developed” or “developing.” About
half the world’s population lives in cities today; within 15 years, there may be more than 20
cities with populations of 10 million or more, and 500 cities will have more than a million
inhabitants. In the next 25 years most of the population is expected to live in “mega-cities” in
developing nations. The engineering profession will be under continuing pressure
to help provide the food and other resources to this growing population, and the traditional
roles of engineers will be stretched to satisfy the future needs of mega-cities.
The roles of engineers in meeting human needs include the following:
• Creative land planning and development to minimize negative environmental impacts
• In emerging mega-cities, helping to establish local organizations that can provide the
necessary infrastructure
• Providing treatment facilities and distribution systems for potable water
• Designing systems to collect and store food and other supplies
• Designing housing and commercial buildings
• Developing streets, utility lines, public transportation and other infrastructure
• Using underground space for recreation and other uses
• Providing technologies and facilities for heating and air conditioning
• Creating high-quality treatments for liquid and solid waste
• Reducing the risks of damage and loss of life from natural hazards such as hurricanes,
floods and earthquakes
Resource Recovery and Reuse
According to a World Resources Institute report, the USA currently produces more than 20
billion metric tons of materials per year, about 80 tons per person. The direct input into the
built environment is over 3 billion metric tons. A high proportion of the materials used
consists of industrial minerals such as sand, gravel and crushed stone.
In 1990 the average North American produced over 1500 pounds of municipal solid waste,
compared to about 700 pounds by the average Western European. Eighty percent of all
products in the USA are thrown away after one use. For sustainable development to be
possible, our human activities will have to be redesigned to reuse our raw materials and
consumer products many times over.
Engineers can assist in this process in several ways:
• Improving ways to recycle and reuse domestic waste
• Designing better solid waste collection and storage facilities
• Improving methods to collect and reuse construction materials such as concrete and asphalt
from roads, and ways to reuse scrap metal and other natural and synthetic materials.
• Improving treatment facilities for urban organic waste and human waste so that the treated
fluids and solids may be used safely for agriculture and other purposes.
• Recovering, reusing and remanufacturing byproducts from resource development and
industrial processing
Environmental Restoration
Some environmental pollution is inevitable in the future, resulting from resource extraction,
industrial processing and transportation, and from wastes generated by humans wherever we
live. In the future, the impacts of residual wastes should be offset by a variety of
environmental restoration projects.
Engineers can assist in restoring environments in several ways:
• Treating and restoring old industrial waste sites
• Reclaiming old mine properties
• Treating polluted groundwater, lakes and streams
• Restoring the ecology of lakes and wetlands
• Renewing aging urban areas in large cities
• Reclaiming and restoring eroded or damaged farmlands
Energy Production and Use
We now use 80 times more energy than we did in 1850, with attendant emissions of carbon,
sulfur and nitrogen byproducts creating unacceptable levels of pollution. Humans consume
more fossil fuels per year than nature produces in a million years. The long-term effects of
increased energy use may produce major changes in the earth’s climate.
The American Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) has estimated that energy use in
America could be reduced by 50% without any reduction in the country’s standard of living.
One of the greatest engineering challenges for the future will be to develop less
environmentally damaging sources of energy while simultaneously reducing total energy
consumption.
In the future, the roles of engineers in energy production may include the following:
• More efficiently extracting and processing remaining petroleum and gas reserves.
• Improving the efficiency of electric power stations and using superconductors for power
distribution.
• Reconsidering the use of nuclear power, assuming that safer facilities can be developed for
generating power and handling nuclear wastes.
• Expanding the use of hydroelectric, solar, geothermal, wind, and biomass energy
Engineers can also play a role in conserving and reducing the use of energy in the following
ways:
• Designing energy-efficient buildings
• Designing industrial processes that are more energy efficient
• Using low-energy lighting systems
• Designing more efficient automobiles and public transportation systems
• Increasing the use of underground construction
Professional Registration
Professional Registration is a key milestone in your career and is open to all engineers and
technicians. Professional Registration demonstrates that you have reached an internationally
recognised standard of competence and acknowledges your commitment to maintaining that
competence in the future.

Benefits of Professional Registration:

 Use of an internationally protected title, e.g. Chartered Engineer (CEng)

 Recognition as a professional in your field
 Improved career opportunities and salary prospects
 Greater influencer within your organisation
 Opportunities to connect with influential and inspirational people
 International recognition of your professional competence and commitment.

Four categories of Professional Registration

There are four licensed categories of Professional Registration:

1. Chartered Engineer

Chartered Engineers develop solutions to engineering problems using new or existing

technologies, through innovation, creativity and change and/or they may have technical
accountability for complex systems with significant levels of risk.

When you become a Chartered Engineer (CEng), it demonstrates to your employers and clients
that you have had your competence independently assessed, your credentials verified, and have
made a commitment to Continuous Professional Development (CPD).

Become a Chartered Engineer (CEng) offers many benefits

 Use of an internationally protected title, e.g. Chartered Engineer

 Recognition as a professional in your field
 Improved career opportunities and salary prospects
 Greater influence within your organisation
 Opportunities to connect with influential and inspirational people
 International recognition of your professional competence and commitment

2. Incorporated Engineer

Incorporated Engineers maintain and manage applications of current and developing

technology, and may undertake engineering design, development, manufacture, construction
and operation.

When you become an Incorporated Engineer (IEng), it demonstrates to your employers and
clients that you have had your competence independently assessed, your credentials verified,
and have made a commitment to Continuous Professional Development (CPD).
Become an Incorporated Engineer (IEng) offers many benefits

 Use of an internationally protected title, e.g. Incorporated Engineer

 Recognition as a professional in your field
 Improved career opportunities and salary prospects
 Greater influence within your organisation
 Opportunities to connect with influential and inspirational people
 International recognition of your professional competence and commitment

Competence and commitment standards

The IEng competence and commitment standards are assessed against the UK-SPEC and
require you to produce evidence of experience to progress in your application.

What is competence?

Competence is your ability to carry out a task to a high standard. It is a combination of the
right level of knowledge, understanding and skills. You can develop competence with a
combination of formal and informal learning, training and experience.

When you apply, there are five general areas of competence that are assessed:

 Knowledge and understanding

 Design, development and solving engineering problems
 Responsibility, management or leadership
 Communication and interpersonal skills
 Professional commitment.

What is commitment?

Commitment is the demonstration of dedication and engagement to the engineering

profession, society and environment. When you apply you will need to show you have
adopted a set of values and behaviours that uphold the high reputation of your profession.

You will be required to provide evidence of:

 Maintaining public and employee safety

 Undertaking work in a way that protects the environment and contributes to
sustainable development
 Complying with codes of conduct, codes of practice and the legal and regulatory
framework
 Managing, applying and improving safe systems of work
 Carrying out the CPD necessary to maintain and enhance competence in relation to
duties and responsibilities
 Exercising responsibilities in an ethical manner
 Recognising inclusivity and diversity
 Adopting a security-minded approach
 Actively participating within the profession
We believe in the value of experience as well as education. That’s why we’ll consider your
application if you don’t meet the educational requirements but can prove you have the same
level of knowledge and understanding.

3. Engineering Technician

Engineering Technicians apply proven techniques and procedures to the solution of practical
engineering problems.

When you become an Engineering Technician (EngTech), it demonstrates to your employers

and clients that you have had your competence independently assessed, your credentials
verified, and have made a commitment to Continuous Professional Development (CPD).

Becoming an Engineering Technician (EngTech) offers many benefits

 Use of an internationally protected title, e.g. Engineering Technician

 Recognition as a professional in your field
 Improved career opportunities and salary prospects
 Greater influence within your organisation
 Opportunities to connect with influential and inspirational people
 International recognition of your professional competence and commitment

4. ICT Technician

If you work in an area that involves the support or use of ICT equipment and you want to
gain official recognition for your hard work and skills, you could apply to become an ICT
technician with the IET.

Graduates of IET approved apprenticeship are eligible to apply for ICTTech. Find out more
about the benefits and how to apply.

What are the benefits?

 You’ll be awarded an internationally recognised qualification.

 Your expertise and hard work will be recognised by colleagues, clients and
employers.
 You’ll be a greater influence in your organisation and industry.
 You’ll have access to life-long learning.
 You’ll get acknowledgement for your transferable skills.
Professional Society
A professional association (also called a professional body, professional
organization, or professional society) usually seeks to further a particular
profession, the interests of individuals and organisations engaged in that
profession, and the public interest.
Here below is the list of Professional bodies and/or Associations in Kenya

 Architectural Association of Kenya;

 Association of Chartered Certified Accountants;
 Association of Private Universities in Kenya;
 Association of Professional Societies of East Africa;
 Association of Public Universities in Kenya;
 What is professional societies in teaching profession?
 Professional organizations are a healthy source of information and
curricular and instructional materials. They are a source of advice and
networking with other educators through their conferences and interest
groups – and they are sources for job openings!

Role of Professional Society

The mission of the professional societies is primarily educational and
informational. Their influence flows from their continuing and highly visible
functions: to publish professional journals, to develop professional excellence, to
raise public awareness, and to make awards. Through their work, they help to
define and set standards for their professional fields and to promote high
standards of quality through awards and other forms of recognition.
FIGURE 7-1 Growth in numbers of professional societies, 1880-1985.

NOTES: Many national professional associations were founded over the

period 1880-1985; founding dates are grouped into 20-year periods.

A VISION FOR PROFESSIONAL SOCIETIES THAT WISH TO

FACILITATE IDR

In some ways, professional societies have a clearer overview of trends in their

fields than do agencies, universities, and funding organizations. The central
position of professional societies brings excellent leverage with which to design
and promote change, including through publications, policy statements, meetings,
committees, lectureships, and awards.

One particularly important function of professional societies relative to IDR—

publishing professional journals—is shared with commercial publishers, some of
which are large and influential forces in their own right. Because commercial
publishers are for-profit ventures, however, their mission differs in an important
way from that of the societies, which address the full gamut of concerns and
achievements of their scientist and engineer members.

PUBLICATION BARRIERS ENCOUNTERED BY RESEARCHERS

With the exception of a few leading general journals—such as Science, Nature,

and the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences—the prestigious outlets
for research scholars tend to be the high-impact, single-discipline journals
published by professional societies. Although the number of interdisciplinary
journals is increasing, few have prestige and impact equivalent to those of single-
discipline journals, so students and faculty who publish in them might not receive
the recognition they need for professional advancement.

Interdisciplinary researchers may find some recognition by publishing in single-

discipline journals (journals to which part of their work is relevant), but the truly
integrated portion of their research may not be clear too much of the audience or
be noticed by peers who do not read those journals.

A general concern of researchers is the need to produce evidence of appropriate

productivity at the time of tenure review. Members of a review panel usually want
to know which journals a researcher publishes in and what impact those
publications have had on other researchers. A person working on an
interdisciplinary project may be publishing in an interdisciplinary journal that is
unfamiliar to some reviewers.
SUPPORT FOR PEOPLE AND PROGRAMS

The policies of professional publications have a strong influence on researchers

who must gain public recognition to advance in their careers. Those published by
professional societies have an opportunity to lower barriers to researchers by
revising policies. In the committee’s survey, the top two recommendations for
journal editors were to incorporate interdisciplinary expertise in review panels
(38.8 percent) and to feature novel innovations and initiatives (36.2 percent); 17.3
percent of respondents reported that they were satisfied with the current situation.

Research Publications

Disciplinary societies have a great deal of influence through their journals in

terms of their willingness to publish, their review procedures for papers submitted
to a journal, and their ability to create new journals for subdisciplines. In addition,
disciplinary society newsletters can be used to facilitate communication among
disciplines.

Disciplinary societies could help their members by founding or promoting new

journals, new sections, and other kinds of homes for emerging interdisciplinary
subjects. They can also help researchers by giving awards

The Role of Journals in Fostering IDR

Publishing journals that support interdisciplinary research

The creation of journals that are dedicated to publishing research at the

intersection of two or more fields is critical to the development of IDR and is
another way that societies can foster this type of investigative approach.

Here is a selected list of recently established journals that represent research

fields arising from the combination of disciplines :

 Archaeoastronomy (University of Texas Press for The Center for

Archaeoastronomy in cooperation with ISAAC, the International Society
for Archaeoastronomy and Astronomy in Culture)
 Astrobiology (Mary An Liebert)
 Biogeochemistry (Kluweronline)
 Computation Geosciences (Kluweronline)
 Ethnomusicology (Society of Ethnomusicology)
 Internet Mathematics (AK Peters)
 Journal of Neuroscience (Society for Neuroscience)
 Neuropsychopharmacology (American College of
Neuropsychopharmacology)
  Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems (American Geophysical Union)
 Transactions in Mechatronics (IEEE/ASME)

The emerging field of bioeconomics has the Journal of Bioeconomics, which was
created in 1999 “to encourage alternative approaches and creative dialogues
between economists and biologists and a transfer of concepts, theories, and tools,
and data bases in both directions by extending and integrating economics and
biology.” The journal “is interdisciplinary in spirit and open to various schools of
thought and methodologies.

Highlighting important research in other fields

In some journals, there is a regular and committed effort to expose readers to

research and news in other fields. For example, the journal Cell includes a section
that highlights recent findings on signaling mechanisms with article summaries
from such journals as Neuron, Immunity, Molecular Cell, and Current Biology
and another section that highlights cancer biology findings with article summaries
from such journals as Cancer Cell, Current Biology, Immunity, and Chemistry &
Biology. The interdisciplinary journal Science has a regular feature called
“Editor’s Choice” that highlights recent publications in many fields and journals.

Program Initiation

Societies have taken and will continue to take a direct and active role in initiating
IDR programs.In particular, the sponsorship of interdisciplinary groups (such as
biochemistry in a chemistry society or biogeochemistry in a geophysical society)
may constitute a proving ground for new disciplines as they emerge.

In addition, societies are able to

 Award prizes to students and faculty for excellent IDR proposals or

projects. Such awards and other professional recognition can be important
in helping an interdisciplinary researcher to gain tenure. For example, the
American College of Neuropsychopharmacology gives many such awards
that can enhance the careers of researchers in a field of considerable
complexity. In the American Geophysical Union, all disciplinary awards
include a sentence indicating that IDR investigators can qualify for the
award.
 Target stipends, awards, or scholarships that permit students to spend time
in other laboratories or with collaborators at various institutions.
 Invite interdisciplinary experts to serve on standing committees when that
is appropriate.
 Reward outstanding mentors of interdisciplinary activities.
Professional Societies Have Fostered IDR through a Number of Initiatives

Hosting Workshops on Emerging Subjects

Professional societies often host seminars, meetings and colloquiums that bring together
scientists in different disciplines to learn about diverse fields and research topics, to learn the
languages of different fields, and to discover where these research topics overlap. In
December 2000, for example, the American Academy of Microbiology held a colloquium
titled “Geobiology: Exploring the Interface Between the Biosphere and the Geosphere.” a The
colloquium participants outlined a number of challenges facing this emerging field and called
for interdisciplinary training of researchers and funding of research projects in the new field.
Similarly, both the American Geophysical Union and the Geological Society of America
have held special sessions on geobiology at their annual meetings since 2000.

Organizing Interdisciplinary Society Panels or Divisions

Organizations that support researchers often foster IDR through the creation of groups or
divisions in the society. For example,

 In 2000, the American Geophysical Union formed a section on Biogeosciences. b The

Geological Society of America created the Geobiology and Geomicrobiology
Division in May 2001.
 The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers has an Engineering in Medicine
and Biology Society, which has a Sensors Council.
 The American Institute of Chemical Engineers has a Food, Pharmaceutical, and
Bioengineering Division.

There is also an increasing trend toward intersociety collaborations, such as the joint
meetings on interdisciplinary topics sponsored by SIAM (Society for Industrial and Applied
Mathematics) and the American Statistical Association.

SUPPORT FOR IDEAS AND INITIATIVES

After publications, the second important forum of professional societies is their regional and
national meetings. By bringing the right people for the Advancement of the Disciplinec
awarded by the American Sociological Association “provide scholars with venture capital
that has the potential for challenging the discipline, stimulating new lines of research, and
creating new networks of scientific collaboration.” It provides up to $7,000 in unrestricted
funds “to provide opportunities for substantive and methodological breakthroughs, broaden
the dissemination of scientific knowledge, and provide leverage for acquisition of additional
research funds.” Recent winners include Charles Kurzman of the University of North
Carolina-Chapel Hill for a series of workshops to bring together scholars in three overlapping
fields (Islamic movements, social movement studies, and social network analysis) in two sets
of workshops designed to stimulate intellectual cross-fertilization among them; and Marjorie
L. DeVault of Syracuse University for a conference that will bring together distinguished
senior scholars, mid-level scholars, and graduate students to develop Institutional
Ethnographic (IE) approaches for studying the workings of economic restructuring.
Interdisciplinary Recognition Awards and Lectureships

Professional societies can recognize and encourage IDR by granting awards to researchers
whose interdisciplinary work has advanced the field. For example, at its annual meeting, the
Materials Research Society presents one member with the von Hippel Award for “brilliance
and originality of intellect, combined with vision that transcends the boundaries of
conventional scientific disciplines.”d Esteemed lectureships, such as the George A. Miller
lectureship of the Cognitive Neuroscience Society, can also highlight researchers’ IDR and
provide a venue for recipients to describe their work to others outside the field. e

together, these meetings and the activities that grow out of them can nourish new ideas and
initiatives.

Professional-Society Meetings

Meeting organizers have opportunities to devise many kinds of strategies that promote
interdisciplinary research and education. Society meet ings are effective venues for
interdisciplinary researchers to get together with potential collaborators, interested employers, and
sympathetic institutions (see Box 7-3). Searches for interdisciplinary positions can be facilitated
through formal presentations, informal drop-in rooms, and coffee sessions. Funding agency
representatives can discuss grant mechanisms and topics of high funding priority, allowing graduate
students, postdoctoral scholars, and faculty to plan programs and partnerships. Organizers can hold
topical interdisciplinary symposiums or colloquiums that are sponsored jointly by other societies.

Promoting the Integration of Disciplines

Societies can plan special activities to facilitate communication between disciplines. They
can form alliances with other professional societies to help researchers in different disciplines
to become more familiar with one another and one another’s research (see Box 7-4). To help
to encourage familiarity, they can develop a lexicon that explains the vocabulary of the field
in general scientific terms. Communication becomes more important as some older
disciplines become more interdisciplinary; for example, biogeosciences recently became the
subject of a new section of the American Geophysical Union. In addition, they might offer
joint awards with other associations.

Models for Collaboration between Professional Societies

Often, societies that support individual disciplines recognize the importance of

interdisciplinary collaboration. Because of the representation of diverse populations of
researchers in their membership, societies hold a unique position: they can be the collective
mouthpiece of researchers and identify research subjects or fields that are weaker both in
numbers of people involved and in the current body of knowledge. When societies team up to
try to strengthen these neglected subjects or fields, they build on the experience of their
society members and hold a dialogue that includes people in different fields (see Box 6-9).

Recently, the Coalition for Bridging the Sciencesa identified the interface of biology with
physics, mathematics, engineering, and computer science as having great potential. The
coalition is made up of nine research societies that represent 126,000 scientists in academe
and industry. Members of each society emphasized the importance of their disciplines in the
progress of biomedical research. In this specific example, the member societies called for a
review of federal funding of these “supporting” disciplines and asked that a new funding
entity be created to focus on long-term research in subjects not covered by existing funding
mechanisms.b In particular, it would support basic research to develop technology and
innovations necessary for the advance of biomedicine.

The synergy of research societies in fostering IDR is powerful. Disciplinary societies are a
convenient medium for researchers to voice their opinions, and such initiatives as regular
focus groups on emerging research concerns can promote the recognition of topics ripe for
interdisciplinary collaboration. The collaboration of disciplinary societies can allow their
members to interact and develop a common language and to learn more about research in
other fields. Finally, collaboration between societies can have more influence on the support
of IDR topics because they present a unified front that comprises the memberships of the
participating societies.

SUPPORT FOR INSTITUTIONS AND FACILITIES

Although the missions of professional societies do not ordinarily include direct support for
institutions in which research is performed, the societies strongly influence practices and
attitudes related to IDR.

Developing Norms for Interdisciplinary Activities

One of the overarching needs for research is better mechanisms to evaluate the quality and
success of interdisciplinary activities. Professional societies can be leaders in proposing and
developing norms for interdisciplinary practice. For example, they might suggest appropriate
skills and standards that should be mastered by students and faculty who participate in
interdisciplinary research and education. They could publicize practices found to promote
success, such as inclusion of funding in research grants to support substantial startup time
during which participants can absorb the language and culture of multiple disciplines. They
can invite the members of successful IDR teams to write or talk about their experiences in the
society journals and at meetings.

CONCLUSIONS

Most researchers are members of professional societies. When these societies choose to
support a particular policy, they convey the “voice” of the research enterprise with a unique
degree of legitimacy. They now have the opportunity to raise that voice on behalf of
interdisciplinary research and education: to broaden the interdisciplinary outlook of scientists,
to recognize young interdisciplinary scientists of talent, and to facilitate the interdisciplinary
strengths of their society.
MEANING OF OFFICE MANAGEMENT
Office management refers to the process of planning, organizing, guiding,
communicating, directing, coordinating and controlling the activities of a group
of people who are working to achieve business objectives efficiently and
economically.
ELEMENTS OF OFFICE MANAGEMENT
Elements of office management are termed as pillars of a building. If pillar is
strong, certainly, the building is also strong. Hence, efficient functioning of
office management is based on the elements of office management. Following
are the essential elements of office management.
1. Personnel
Office personnel are actually performing the office work. Generally, the
selection and placement of office personnel is carried on by the office
manager in small organization. In large organization, staffing is carried
on by the human resource management department.
In both the case, the office work is to be performed by allocating the
work to each individual according to their efficiency, guide the personnel
to do the work with the help of means available in an office within a
specified time and control the activities of office personnel. The office
manager has to do all these
activities.
2. Means
Means refers to tools used to perform the office work. Means include
pen, pencil, eraser, paper, ink, office forms, typewriter, computer,
printer, calculator and the like. Adequate tools have been supplied in an
office and put them to the most efficient and economical use for
achieving objectives.
3. Environment
The nature of business determines the environment of an office. The
various office works have to be carried on under a particular condition
or environment.
A working environment is created and maintained for the smooth
performance of office work. It is the duty and responsibility of an office
manager to bring suitable environment by adopting various procedures
and practice.
4. 4. Purpose
The office personnel must be aware of the purpose for which a
 particular work is carried on and the impact of such work on others’
performance. The office manager teaches the purpose to office
personal. If not so, the performance of office work does not bring the
most efficient and economical use of office resources and achieve the
objectives.
Seven Major Functions of Office Management
Office management is the profession where you are responsible for the design,
implementation, evaluation and maintenance of work within an office or an
organisation. The aim is to improve productivity and efficiency and people who
undertake the roles have gone through an Office Management Course in order
to learn the seven major functions of office management.
Planning
Planning is the first step in the process, as well as the first step in office
management. It is the creation of a well-defined course for future actions and
lays out what people within the office need to do. It creates stages or methods
for people to follow to ensure consistency and improve productivity.
Staffing
Staffing is a function of management so in this context, it is about selection,
recruitment, compensation and training of staff. It can also include areas such
as promotion and retirement of staff and managers to ensure the right balance
of staff is maintained.
Directing
Creating plans is one thing but you need to implement them and that means
directing staff in what is required of them. This involves training as well as
continued guidance to ensure that processes are understood and followed. It
can also cover any systems in place to handle people who don’t follow the
processes.
Communicating
In order to direct people to follow processes laid out in the plan,
communicating with staff is key. It is about building good human relations and
understanding what staff need to, therefore, enable them to follow the office
management plan. Clarity, integrity and the strategic use of information
organisation are three key points that should be mastered within this skill.
Controlling
Controlling isn’t about micro-managing but ensuring that the high-level plans
are followed while allowing room for people to do things as they find best
within it. It can apply to the physical processes that are carried out, the
computerised processes or even areas such as financial processes to ensure
consistency. There should also be a firm basis in the principle of flexibility and
the needs and nature of the office that are applied to any controlling actions.
Coordinating
Coordinating can be one of the trickier principles of office management – the
need to coordinate within the team but also with other areas of the business
to ensure everyone is working harmoniously. There are several key principles
used to guide actions in this area including that of direct contact – reducing the
red tape involved with processes and ensuring they are clear and easy to
follow. Continuity is another principal – ensuring everyone is following the plan
laid out.
Motivating
Motivating staff is definitely the hardest role of the office manager. There is
self-motivation and external motivation and these both need to be used to
achieve aims and goals. Keeping morale high while maintaining discipline is
important and setting examples of subordinates should also be done – leading
by example.
Conclusion
These seven major functions of office manager show that it is about more than
simply getting the office to run smoothly. The aim to have a plan, ensure it is
applied to consistently and to offer support to staff to help them do this.

OFFICE ORGANIZATION, CHARACTERISTICS AND Definition:

―Office management is an STEPS
integral part of general management.
It refers to the process of planning, organizing, guiding, communicating,
directing, coordinating and controlling the activities of a group of people who
are working to achieve business objectives efficiently and economically.

OFFICE ORGANIZATION, CHARACTERISTICS AND STEPS

Definition:
Office management is an integral part of general management. It refers to the
process of planning, organizing, guiding, communicating, directing,
oordinating and controlling the activities of a group of people who are working
to achieve business objectives efficiently and economically.
Objectives and Purpose.
The very purpose of any office organization is to
avoid waste of time and duplication of work. ...
Division of Work or Specialization. ...
Principle of Efficiency. ...
Unity of Command. ...
Principle of Definiteness. ...
Scalar Principle. ...
 Principle of Span of Management. ...
 Principle of Authority.
TYPES OF ORGANIZATIONS
There are several types of organizational structures, each of which work
best for certain sizes or types of business.
 Flat Organizational Structure. ...
 Functional Organizational Structure. ...
 Product Organizational Structure. ...
 Geographical Organizational Structure. ...
 Matrix Organizational Structure.
Office Administrator
An Administrator provides office and administrative support to either a team
or individual. This role is vital for the smooth-running of a business.Duties may
include fielding telephone calls, receiving and directing visitors, word
processing, creating spreadsheets and presentations, and filing.Additionally,
Administrators are often responsible for specific projects and tasks, as well as
overseeing the work of junior staff.
Administrator job description duties and responsibilities
Extensive software skills, internet research abilities and strong communication
skills are required. An Administrator job description may also have the title of
Department Assistant, Coordinator or Personal Assistant. The job description
should feature:
 Answering incoming calls; taking messages and re-directing calls as
required
 Dealing with email enquiries
 Taking minutes
 Diary management and arranging appointments, booking meeting rooms
and conference facilities
 Data entry (sales figures, property listings etc.)
 General office management such as ordering stationary
 Organising travel and accommodation for staff and customers
 Arranging both internal and external events
 Possibly maintaining the company social media accounts
 Providing administration support to Sales Reps, Property Managers and
Senior Management
 Administrator job qualifications and requirements
Although an undergraduate degree isn’t required for an Administrator role in
every company, some employees do prefer to hire graduates. The following
degrees would be valuable:
Administrators are required to use a variety of software packages including
Microsoft Word, Outlook, PowerPoint and Excel. Aside from this,candidates
will need to have excellent communication, organisational abilities and time
management skills.
As Administrators are likely to be liaising with both internal and external
stakeholders, it’s important that the Administration job description includes
being well-presented and maintaining a sense of professionalism at all times.

**** UNIT III ****

OFFICE RECORD MANAGEMENT
OFFICE RECORD MANAGEMENT – IMPORTANCE
What is Records Management?
• The systematic and administrative control of records throughout their life
cycle to ensure efficiency and economy in their creation, use, handling,
control, maintenance, and disposition.
What is a ―Record‖?
• Records: Recorded information, in any format, that allows an office to
conduct business
o This includes emails
o Also documents business processes
• Value of Record determined by content, not format!
Records vs. Non-records
Not everything produced by an office is a record
• Duplicate Copies
• Drafts and Informal Notes
• Routing Slips
• Personal Correspondence
How do I tell the difference?
Do your records:
• Support or document a transaction?
• Document the formulation or execution of a policy, interpretation of a
policy, or change of policy?
• Document Actions taken in response to an inquiry?
Records vs. Non-Records: Examples
• E-mail to contractor clarifying terms: Record!
• Memo notifying a subordinate of committee assignment: Record!
• Sender must retain as record; recipient may delete as appropriate
• Draft of a report: Non-Record!
• The final report will be a record, however
What is a ―Record Series‖?
• A group of similar records that are arranged according to a filing system
and that are related as the result of being created, received, or used in the
same activity or function
• Copies of same record may belong to different series– determine which is
original!
• Functional unit of Records Schedules
What is a Records Schedule?
• Also known as Records Retention/Disposition Authorization (RRDA)
• Prescribes length of time to keep records in an office– this is known as
the Retention Period
• Provides instructions for disposition (destroy or transfer)
THE RECORDS LIFE CYCLE
THE RECORDS LIFE CYCLE

LIFE CYCLE: CREATION AND USE

• Record is created
• Record is organized into a record series
• Group of similar records related by creator or function
• Record is distributed throughout office or used, as appropriate
LIFE CYCLE: RECORDS MAINTENANCE
• Records are Filed in office
• Inactive Records may be Transferred to Off-site storage
• For records which must be retained, but which are of little/no
archival value
FILING ESSENTIALS
A BRIEF NOTE ON FILING
• Be Consistent– File similar records in similar ways
• Establish a system early—Alphabetic? Numeric? Chronological?
Subject?
• Keep track of dispositions– Mark files by date and type
• Keep records series separate
CLASSIFICATION AND ARRANGEMENT OF FILES
The filing method under which files and folders are arranged in order of
number is called numerical classification. All files and folders are given
separate numbers. It is an indirect method of classification of filing. ... It
includes name, address, phone number, subject and other information
along with file number.
Files are used for storing the Information of the user. Generally
for arranging all the Files directories or Folders are used. A Folder or
Directory is also called as the Container of the Files in which many Sub
directors and Files are Stored. So that Files System Specifies the Arrangement
of the Files in the System.
THERE ARE 5 METHODS OF FILING:
 Filing by Subject/Category.
 Filing in Alphabetical order.
 Filing by Numbers/Numerical order.
 Filing by Places/Geographical order.
 Filing by Dates/Chronological order.
The classification levels are the degrees of specificity, with a file classification
scheme usually having three major components:
 Broad, encompassing categories, called FUNCTIONS.
 Narrower subsets of each function, called ACTIVITIES.
 Yet narrower and more specific subsets of activities, called
TRANSACTIONS.
LIFE CYCLE: DISPOSITION
Disposition: when records have reached the end of their useful life for a
particular office.
TYPICALLY ONE OF THREE OPTIONS:
• Destruction
• Confidential Destruction
• Permanent Archival Retention
• Destruction of Records
• Between 95-98 percent of all records should eventually be destroyed
• Disposition step for records with no enduring value
• Confidential Destruction is necessary when records contain sensitive
information, such as student or personnel information
LITIGATION HOLDS
• An important exception to retention schedules!
• Under litigation holds, NO RECORDS in that series may be
destroyed for duration
• Legal Affairs and/or Public Record Custodian will inform your office if a
hold is placed
MODERN METHODS OF FILING – MODERN FILING DEVICES
 Modern Filing System.
 Horizontal Filing System: Horizontal Filing system is a modern type
of filing. ...
 Flat file: A flat file is made of cardboard or thick paper. ...
 Arch Lever File: ...
 Advantage:
 Disadvantage:
 Vertical System of Filling:
ELECTRONIC RECORDS

Electronic Record Paper Analog

E-mail message Memo, typed letter
E-Form template Form master copy
Museum accessions
database
Accession card catalog
Student paper (emailed or D2Lsubmitted)
Student paper submitted in class
or via mail
Instant message log Memorandum of conversation
**** UNIT- IV ****
OFFICE COMMUNICATION
Office communication is the process of sharing knowledge and ideas between
one person or group and another person or group within an organization both
verbally and non-verbally. It is important to get the job done, as well as
developing a sense of trust and increasing employee productivity.
Communication in the workplace is very important for companies to work
efficiently and be productive. ... Employers who spend time and energy to
create open communication lines will quickly create trust
among employees, resulting in productivity, performance and overall
morale.
FIVE TYPES OF COMMUNICATION
 Verbal Communication. Verbal communication occurs when we engage in
speaking with others. ...
 Non-Verbal Communication. What we do while we speak often says more
than the actual words. ...
 Written Communication. Whether it is an email, a memo, a report, a
Facebook post, a Tweet, a contract, etc. ...
 Listening. ...
 Visual Communication.
COMMUNICATION SKILLS FOR WORKPLACE SUCCESS
 Listening. Being a good listener is one of the best ways to be a good
communicator. ...
 Nonverbal Communication. Your body language, eye contact, hand
gestures, and tone of voice all color the message you are trying to convey.
...
 Clarity and Concision. ...
 Friendliness. ...
 Confidence. ...
 Empathy. ...
 Open-Mindedness. ...
 Respect.
CORRESPONDENCE AND REPORT WRITING
TIPS AND TEMPLATES FOR EFFECTIVE CORRESPONDENCE!
 The first sentence should get right to the point. Do not ramble.
 Use short and concise sentences to express your ideas.
 This is a method of official communication so practice standard format
and avoid slang.
 Tone is very important. ...
 Be aware of the audience.
 Edit, edit, edit.
 Keep your report concise – remember, people typically don't have much
reading time. Keep your sentences short, clear and easy to read, with the
minimum of jargon. If you write the way you speak, your readers may
find it easier to grasp what you want to communicate. Break up your text
with headings and subheadings.
"Legal drafting" can mean the preparation of any written legal document--a
motion, a letter, a brief, a memo, or a contract. Lawyer’s and law teachers use
the phrase in this way all the time: "Draft a brief" or"draft a letter." "Legal
drafting" can mean the writing of binding legal text
In this way, a report is a formal communication written for a specific
purpose. It includes a description of procedures followed by collection and
analysis of data, their significance, the conclusions drawn from them, and
recommendations, if required.
REPORT WRITING FORMAT
 Title Section – This includes the name of the author(s) and the date
of report preparation.
 Summary – There needs to be a summary of the major points, conclusions,
and recommendations. ...
 Introduction – The first page of the report needs to have an introduction.
...
 Body – This is the main section of the report.
MEANING OF OFFICE COMMUNICATION AND MAILING
 Mail may be described as any written communication which passes
through the messenger, courier or the post office. There is need of
continuous contacts with the customers, suppliers, branches, departments,
banks, financial institutions, government agencies, non — government
organization, and the like.
 Workplace communication is the process of exchanging information and
ideas, both verbal and non-verbal between one person/group and another
person/group within an organization. It includes e-mails, text messages,
notes, calls, etc.
 Office communication is necessary to make contacts, understand the
goals and objectives, share ideas, convey information, give instructions,
and remove misunderstandings among the employees. ... It is a bridge
that connects the employees and management of an organization

FORM LETTERS - MEANING, PRINCIPLES AND FACTORS TO

BE CONSIDERED IN DESIGNING OFFICE FORMS
Form is very similar to the element of design shape. The difference is that the
term is form is used in art work that has three dimensions instead of two as
shapes. The three dimensions are length, width and depth. The seven elements
are line, color, value, shape, form, space, and texture.
TYPES OF LETTERS
 Formal Letters.
 Informal Letters.
 Semi-formal Letters
SAMPLE LETTER FORMAT
1. Contact Information (Include your contact information unless you
are writing on letterhead that already includes it.) Your Name. Your
Address. ...
2. Date.
3. Contact Information (The person or company you are writing to) Name.
Title. ...
4. Greeting (Salutation Examples)
5. Body of Letter.
6. Closing.
7. Signature.
8. Typed Signature
FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED IN FORMS DESIGNING
Suitable for the Purpose: Easy clerical operation is the main purpose
of designing an office form. ...
 Ease in Use: The forms should be designed that they are easy to use. ...
 Simple Design: Simple form facilitates the user in use and requires less
time in completion.
 AESTHETICS. ...
 ERGONOMICS. ...
 MATERIALS. ...
 MANUFACTURE. ...
 MODULARITY. ...
 SUSTAINABILITY. ...
 PROTECTION. ...
 PACKAGING & ASSEMBLY.
TYPES OF REPORT WRITING
 Long Report and Short Reports: These kinds of reports are quite clear, as
the name suggests. ...
 Internal and External Reports: ...
 Vertical and Lateral Reports: ...
 Periodic Reports: ...
 Formal and Informal Reports: ...
 Informational and Analytical Reports: ...
 Proposal Reports: ...
 Functional Reports:
It is a concise document based on research that typically analyses a situation
and sometimes makes recommendations. Types of reports include memos,
meeting minutes, expense reports, audit reports, closure reports,
progress reports, justification reports, compliance reports, annual reports,
and feasibility reports.
ECT 3454: ENGINEERING PRACTICE AND PROFESSIONAL ETHICS
Instructions: Answer question ALL the questions
CAT 1
Discuss the following terms
i) Engineering Ethics (5marks)
ii) Morals (5marks)
iii) Ethics (5marks)
iv) Utilitarianism (5marks)
v) Describe Five functions of office management (6marks)
vi) Discuss Professional society (4marks)\
 MERU UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
P.O. Box 972-60200 – Meru-Kenya.
Tel: +254 (0)799529958, +254 (0)799529959, +254 (0)712524293
Website: www.must.ac.ke Email: [email protected]

University Examinations 2021/2022

FOURTH YEAR, SECOND SEMESTER EXAMINATION FOR THE DEGREE OF BACHELOR

OF TECHNOLOGY IN CIVIL ENGINEERING

ECT 3454: ENGINEERING PRACTICE AND PROFESSIONAL ETHICS

DATE: OCTOBER 2022 TIME: 2 HOURS

INSTRUCTIONS:
• Answer question one and any other two questions

QUESTION ONE
a) Discuss the following terms
i) Engineering Ethics (5marks)
ii) Morals (5marks)
iii) Ethics (5marks)
iv) Utilitarianism (5marks)
b) List five general areas of competence that are assessed in registration of Engineers
(10 marks)
QUESTION TWO
a) Discuss the following essentials element in office management
i) Personnel (3marks)
ii) Means (3marks)
iii) Environment (3marks)
iv) Purpose (3marks)
b) Discuss the following roles that an engineer plays in National Development
i) Community Development (2marks)

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 ii) Politics (2marks)
iii) Public service (2marks)
iv) Sustainable Development (2marks)
QUESTION THREE
a) Discuss four steps followed when dealing with Ethical issues (8marks)
b) Explain duties of an office administrator (2marks)
c) Describe Five functions of office management (10marks)
QUESTION FOUR
a) Discuss Professional society (2marks)
b) Describe the roles of a professional society (9 marks)
c) Describe Record management (3marks)
d) Discuss 3 reasons why engineers are essential in the modern day and age. (6marks)
QUESTION FIVE
a) Describe office management (4marks)
b) Discuss the following Professional registration
i) Chartered Engineer (5marks)
ii) Incorporated Engineer (5mark)
c) List the six set of morals that keeps away Engineers from getting morally degraded. (6marks)

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