CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

Nigeria lies in the Pan-African mobile belt, being sandwiched

between the West African Craton to the west, eastern Saharan Craton

to the northeast and the Gabon-Congo Craton to the southeast (Kroner

et al., 2001). The Oban Massif area is in the southeastern part of

Nigeria and is underlain by Basement Complex rocks. The area is part

of the giant spur that represents the western prolongation of the

Cameroon Mountains into the Cross-River plains of southeastern

Nigeria. The mapped area, (Aningeje and its environments) is located

in the Southern part of the Oban Massif, South-Eastern Nigeria. It is a

basement terrain consisting of rocks such as biotite gneisses,

migmatite gneiss, amphibolite, granite gneiss, and schist. Due to

erosion and other activities, these rocks are exposed to the surface.

1.1 Background

This present study was carried out in order to update the

geology of Aningeje and its environs and to contribute to the geology

of the Oban Massif. It was also done as a requirement for a B.Sc.

1
degree in Geology. The mapped area is located in the Southern part of

Oban Massif, Southern-Eastern Nigeria. It is a basement terrain

consisting of rocks such as gneisses, amphibolite and schist. The

gneisses were well exposed to the surface due to erosion and the

schists were well exposed at the banks of the Kwa River.

The reconnaissance phase was carried out in order to

familiarize the students with the terrain which was later preceded by a

detailed phase. Descriptions of outcrops were done in the field and

also in the base camp with the aid of textbooks and tentative names

were given to the rocks; a more detailed description of the outcrops

was later done in the laboratory. Samples collection was also difficult

due to high degree of chemical and mechanical weathering.

Important information, measurements and descriptions were

documented in the field note book and field map in the respective

grids. Some of the information documented in the field note book

includes the location number, date, bearing, elevation, strike and dip

of foliation planes, strike and dip of linear fractures, trend and plunge

of linear features example folds. Sketches of structures (not drawn to

scale) showing major structural featured such as joints, fractures,

2
faults, veins, intrusions and their dimensions (length, width and

height) were attempted. Descriptions of the outcrop including color,

texture of grain size, modal composition as well as giving a tentative

name was also carried out. Rock types and samples were obtained for

further petrographic studies (thin section preparation).

1.2 Location and accessibility

The area of investigation (Aningeje and its environs) is situated

in Akamkpa LGA, South-Eastern Nigeria (fig. 1). It is delineated by

Longitudes 8032’E – 8035’E and Latitudes 507’N – 5012’N and covers

approximately 78.912 square kilometers. The area under investigation

is bounded on all borders by villages, wetlands and thick bushes.

Settlements within the mapped area includes: Mfamosing, Aningeje,

and Ndingane (see attached geologic map).

Accessibility is mainly through Calabar – Oban Road and

tractor roads. The interior part of the area was accessible through

untarred roads, wetlands, footpaths and farmlands (Plate 1).

Accessibility in most parts was hindered by thick vegetation and

swampy terrains.

3
FIG. 1: Map of Cross River State showing the Basement
Complex areas and study area, index map of Nigeria
(Oden et al, 2012).

4
PLATE 1: Access Road to Study Area

5
1.3 Aim and objectives

The aim of the exercise was to enable students acquire practical

knowledge on the principles and methods of geological mapping, and

the interpretation of field data collected in situ

A detailed field mapping exercise such as this, is an essential

requirement for the award of a Bachelor of Science degree, and is

targeted at the following:

1. To primarily expose graduating students to the practical aspect of

the course in principle and technique of surface geological

mapping, this is very paramount because it encompasses both field

observation and laboratory analysis.

2. To study and know the general geology of the map area, regarding

the data collected and sample gotten from the field.

3. To avail students with, if any, the economic potential of the

mapped area, and to create awareness on the hidden facts about the

environment in question.

4. Production of meaningful maps and writing a concise geologic

history of the map area based upon the features observed in the

field.

6
 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

Southeastern Nigeria consists of Precambrian basement

complex of the Oban massif, overlain by Cretaceous-Tertiary

sediments of the Calabar Flank (fig. 1). McCurry (1976) suggested

that the basement complex of Nigeria formed as a result of the

opening and closing of a small ocean. Turner (1983) and Rahaman

(1988a) have also suggested that the schist belts may represent

additional micro-continents. Geochemical evidence has been

presented to show that some of the schist belts evolved as small ocean

basins or back arc basin (Oyawoye, 1972). Closure of the ocean at the

craton margin and the intra-continental basins and oceans led to the

deformation and metamorphism of meta-sediments, partial melting of

mantle and lower crust and the emplacement of the older granites.

The study area Aningeje and its environs is a part of the Oban

Massif which is a Precambrian basement complex. The Oban Massif

is a part of the Nigerian Basement Complex which lies east of the

Congo craton in a mobile belt affected by the Pan-African orogeny.

7
Ekwueme (2003) stated that the Precambrian rocks crop out in smaller

areas of the northeastern and southeastern parts of Nigeria, notably the

Oban Massif and Obudu Plateau.

The Oban Massif occupies about 10,000km2 in Southeastern

Nigeria and includes such mappable metamorphic rock units as

phyllites, Schist, gneisses and amphibolite. Migmatite and Gneisses

were observed in the study area. These rocks are intruded by

pegmatites, granodiorites, diorites, tonalities, monzonites and

dolerites (Ekwueme, 1990).

The geologic map of Oban massif shows it has a complex

lithology and the differentiation of the rock types has remained

difficult until the 1980’s (Rahman et al. 1981). One of these

difficulties stems from the location of the Oban Massif in the thick

equatorial rainforest which is inhabited by wildlife. Secondly, rock

outcrops in the area are generally intensely weathered and this makes

it difficult to obtain fresh rocks for geological studies. Nevertheless,

the rocks have been differentiated and various aspects of the geology

have been studied. Geochronological studies of the Oban massif have

been undertaken by Ekwueme and co-workers. The Rb-Sr and single

8
Zircon evaporation techniques were used in the radiometric dating.

The data confirms that the Oban massif belongs to the Precambrian

Basement Complex of Nigeria. Three major lithological units are

believed to compose the Nigerian basement (Oyawole, 1972).

1. Migmatite-gneiss-quartzite complex believed to be Eburnean

(2000Ma) and older.

2. Meta volcano sedimentary series of schist belts which has been

assigned Pan-African ages (600±150 Ma); and

3. Intrusive older granites also of Pan-African age.

All these rocks have been mapped in the Oban massif and the

tentative sequence of events in the area is:

i. 527 ± 16Ma - 510 ± 11Ma - Age of Migmatization.

ii. 527 ± 24Ma - 584±20Ma - Deformation/Metamorphism of

charnockite protolith.

iii. 617±2Ma - Emplacement of granodiorite

iv. 676±26Ma - Main phase of deformation and Metamorphism.

v. 784±13Ma - Metamorphism of bank amphibole

vi. 1289±153Ma - Emplacement of protolith of charnockite

vii. 1313±37Ma - Metamorphism of homogenous amphibolite

9
 The basement has undergone polymetamorphism with the grade

ranging from medium green schist facies in phyllites and schist of

western Oban massif to uppermost amphibolite facies in the Kyanite-

Sillimanite schists, garnet-sillimanite schists and migmatitic gneisses

which crop out in the eastern half of the Oban Massif (Ekwueme and

Schlag, 1989).

2.1 Present investigation

This project report covers the geologic mapping exercise which

was carried out in Aningeje and its environs. The objective of the

exercise was to enable students acquire practical knowledge on the

principles and methods of geological mapping, and the interpretation

of field data collected in situ. It was aimed at systematically

identifying the various lithological units and igneous activity of the

area, especially when less is known about the area geologically; it

involves describing the outcrops, the type locality and geologic

boundaries in order to prepare a geologic map of the area, showing

lithological units, locations and boundaries.

10
 CHAPTER THREE

MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.1 Tools and equipment used

The following field instruments were used during the course of

this mapping exercise.

a. Field or Base map of the area: The topographic map was

developed from there.

b. Compass Clinometer: This can be used to measure the orientation

of structures in the field and also to determine the bearing of a

particular location.

c. Geologic and Sledge Hammer: These were used to break rocks

and to obtain fresh samples from an outcrop.

d. Hand lens: This is used in megascopic description of the outcrop

and samples.

e. Mathematical Set: Used in the construction of the topographic

map.

f. Drawing Board: Used to mount the base map given.

11
g. Field Note Pen/Pencils: Used for collection of data and

description of outcrops found in the field.

h. Sample bags: Used to collect and transport rock samples from the

field to the camp and to the laboratory.

i. Global Positioning System (GPS): Used in determining the

bearing, amount of pacing, longitude and latitude.

j. Chisel: Used to define the edges of a sample that is about to be

collected.

k. Tracing Sheet: This is used to protect the base map from the rain

during the fieldwork and also to duplicate the main map.

l. Masking Tape/Markers: Used to label the various samples

obtained.

m. Measuring Tape: Used in measuring the length and width of

fractures, vein and outcrops.

3.2 Method

Ekwueme (1990), presented the three basic stages involved in

field mapping exercise. These are:

12
1. Planning and preparatory stage

2. Field map construction (field and base)

3. Production of the final map and writing of geological report.

With the aid of a base map, surface geological mapping was

carried out utilizing the grid pacing and compass method. The two

days was used for reconnaissance survey which was followed by the

actual field mapping exercise. During the field mapping traversing

was done along tracks, and pathways were sometimes made by

clearing bushes with a cutlass. Individual pace–distance was measured

at exposed outcrops to determine the lateral extent of the rocks. These

distances were then converted into distances on the map using the

map scale as a conversion factor and plotted using a meter rule.

At each location, samples were collected from fresh surfaces.

Care was taken to avoid collecting weathered samples as this may not

reflect the original mineralogy of the rock, after which samples were

labeled using masking tape and marker pens. The labeling system

used (UC/GLG/23/L/Sample No.) was that proposed by the

Department of Geology, University of Calabar. Photographs were also

13
taken to supplement samples and the photo number was recorded at

each location in the field note. Measurement of orientation data (strike

and dip) from fractures and outcrops was done using the compass

clinometer. Planar and linear surfaces were carefully chosen so as to

avoid collecting wrong orientation data.

Full lithologic description of each outcrop was done in the field

notebooks, Strike and dips as well as photograph numbers were also

recorded. At the close of each day, information on the field map and

notebook were being corrected, organized and transferred to the base

map and notebook. The field exercise was complemented by

laboratory studies of which thin sections for some of the rocks were

prepared for petrological analysis using a petrological microscope.

14
 CHAPTER FOUR

GEOMORPHOLOGY

This is the scientific discipline concerned with surface features

of the earth, that includes landforms and forms under the oceans, and

also the physical, biological and chemical factors that act on them

(Oyawole, 1964).

A good understanding of the geomorphology of the study area

requires a physical study of some superficial phenomenon of the area

which includes relief, drainage, climate, vegetation, weathering and

soil erosion.

4.1 Relief

The lowland, highland interior planes and valleys describe the

relief of an area. The relief of Oban is usually high, up to a height of

100 meters (datum) and most of the high hill area is found on the

Eastern part of the map while the topography of the Western Flanks of

Calabar-Ikang road is low (fairly undulating).

15
4.2 Drainage

Aningeje and its environs are drained by a set of interconnected

networks of streams. The study area is dominated by streams with

most of the stream flowing in a NE-SW direction (Plate 2). Most of

the streams are seasonal and the drainage pattern is dendritic (See

Appendix 1). The water level of the streams increases during rainy

season and reduces in water level during period of low precipitation

and disappears during dry season.

16
PLATE 2: Photograph showing major drainage in study area.

17
4.3 Climate and Vegetation

The mapped area falls within the Sub-Equatorial climatic

region of Nigeria with two major seasons; the rainy and the dry

seasons respectively. The relative temperature ranges between 30 0C-

370C (Gougie, 2008). The area is characterized by dry and wet or

rainy seasons. The wet season which is longer, last from early April to

early November with a break in August while the dry season which is

shorter runs from December to March marked by dry hot weather and

a few days of little rainfall. The harmattan period is hall marked by

cool and misty atmosphere especially in the mornings and evenings.

During rainy season, the rivers and the streams swell, and flood

overflow their banks. While in dry season, the atmosphere is much

less humid which sometimes result in the drying of the streams (Iloeje

et-al;1972) Aningeje has an average annual rainfall of 2000-3000mm

and a mean annual temperature of about 300C-370C which varies from

season to season (Iloeje, 1972).

18
 The area is characterized by thick vegetation with tall trees,

bamboo, palm trees, farmland and grassland which aided in reducing

the effect of weathering and erosion in the area.

Economically valuable trees like mahogany, tropical Cedar and

Obeche are common in the thick forest of the area. Even though man

has tampered with the forest for settlement, farming and lumbering,

the extent of destruction is low as part of the forest still retains the

exceptional tall and big trees with thick foliage. The vegetation is

arranged in three distinctive zones or pattern. The ground pattern is

made up of various creepers, herbs, shrubs and some grasses. The

middle pattern consists of tall trees between 2-20m high with robust

branches and heavy dark green foliage. While the top pattern is made

up of tall trees between 30-60m high, the branches intertwine with

each other forming a continuous canopy of leaves which shut off

sunlight from the shrubs, herbs and creepers (Plate 3).

19
PLATE 3: Photograph Showing Vegetation

20
4.4 Weathering and Erosion

Weathering can be described as the process that change the

physical and chemical properties of rocks at or near the earth surface.

In other words, it is the process that breaks down large rock unit into

smaller unit. They are two major types of weathering, which includes

chemical and mechanical weathering. On the other hand, erosion is

the washing away of the top or sub soil and the subsequent

transportation of materials.

The rocks found in this are greatly affected by both chemical

and mechanical weathering. Research have shown that schists are

most erodible compared to gneiss and pegmatite. the weathering

action is what cause the flow of river and the water falls in the area.

The biological weathering in the area is due to the root of trees

growing on the rocks. Also, agent of weathering such as water and air

contribute to the breakdown of rocks found in the area. It is clear that

the topographic hills and valleys of the area result from weathering

and erosion of rocks.

21
 CHAPTER FIVE

PETROLOGY

Petrology is a science that is concerned with the study of rocks

that made up of definite mineral assemblages from which the earth is

built. It deals with the mode of occurrence, composition, classification

and origin of the rocks and their relation to geological processes and

history Ekwueme (1993). The study area is dominated by schist and

gneiss rock types (See Appendix 2)

5.1 Metamorphic petrology

5.1.1 Schist

Schist is a type of metamorphic rock characterized by its

foliated texture, which means it possesses distinct layers or bands

of minerals that have undergone significant physical and chemical

changes due to heat, pressure, and other geological processes. The

term “schist” is derived from the Greek word “schízein,” meaning “to

split,” referencing the rock’s tendency to easily break along its

foliation planes.

22
 The area under investigation (Aningeje and its environs) is

dominated by Schist occupying a larger section of the mapped area.

At the upper parts of the study area, these rocks are highly weathered

in a few locations producing large quantities of lateritic soils in the

area. Most of the gneisses show very conspicuous foliations and, in a

few locations, banding is also observed. The schist is cut by fractures

which lie perpendicular to the foliation. Pegmatite veins are the

dominant intrusions in the area with various sizes, lengths and

orientations. Some of the schist contain porphyroblasts which are

dominantly quartz and are more conspicuous in the weathered

exposures.

5.1.1.1 Mica Schist

Outcrop of Mica schist were found within the Western part of

the mapped area. This rock is usually medium-grained and foliated in

the N-W direction. Due to the local variation in metamorphic intensity

within the studied area, some of the outcrops develop alternate banded

23
schist giving rise to a form of migmatite schist. This banded schist

was referred to be restricted to the western part of the mapped area.

5.1.1.1.1 Petrography of Mica Schist

The petrographic study of the rock sample collected at Location

UC/GLG/2023/L029 (Plate 4) revealed the presence of muscovite,

Biotite, Hornblende, and Quartz. The modal composition of Mica

Schist is presented in Table 1.

24
 Q H
M

PLATE 4: Photomicrograph of Mica Schist (Sample Number

UC/GLG/2023/L029) MG: X5

M- Muscovite
B- Biotite
H- Hornblende
Q- Quartz

25
 TABLE 1

The Modal Composition of Mica Schist

Mineral Modal Composition

Muscovite 45

Biotite 30
Hornblende 15
Quartz 10
Total 100%

26
Muscovite: The most dominant mineral in the rock sample is

muscovite, under plane polarized light, the muscovite mineral crystals

appears colourless, medium and fine grains in size showing low relief,

perfect cleavage, absent of alteration, weak pleochroism and

moderately developed crystal formed (subhedral) under cross

polarized light, the Muscovite mineral show parallel extinction on

stage rotation in an angle of 90 degrees with white to pale brown

interference colour with simple twinning and absence of zoning.

Biotite: The second dominant mineral found in the sample found in

the sample in Biotite. Under plane polarized light, the biotite mineral

appears dark brown in colour, medium and fine grains in size,

showing weak pleochroism, low relief, absence of alteration, perfect

cleavage and poorly developed crystal formed (anhedral). Under

cross polarized light, the biotite mineral grains show parallel

extinction in an angle of 90 degrees with brownish interference colour

with absence of twinning and zoning.

Hornblende: The third mineral found in the sample is Hornblende.

Under plane polarized light, the hornblende mineral grains appear

27
yellowish brown in colour, medium grains in size showing strong

pleochroism, perfect cleavage, high relief, absence of alteration and a

well-developed crystal formed (euhedral). Under cross polarized light,

the mineral grain shows symmetrical extinction on stage rotation with

greenish brown interference colour with lamellar twining and absence

of zoning.

Quartz: The least mineral found in the sample is Quartz. Under plane

polarized light, the quartz mineral grains appear colourless, medium

and fine grain in size, showing absence of pleochroism, low relief,

absence of cleavage and poorly developed crystal formed (anhedral).

Under cross polarized light, the mineral grains undergo parallel

extinction in an angle of 0 degrees with white to dark brown

interference colour with absence of twining and zoning.

5.1.1.1.2 Petrogenesis of Mica Schist

Mica Schist is believed to formed by regional metamorphism

where clay minerals and mudstone are converted to very fine-grained

metamorphic rock called Slate. The slate by metamorphic activities is

28
converted into another fine-grained rock called Phyllite. The phyllite

through recrystallization produces medium grained rock called Mica

Schist. The name Mica Schist given to the rock sample is subject to

the index mineral found in composition of the rock sample.

5.1.1.2 Petrography of Biotite Schist

The petrographic study of the rock sample collected at Location

UC/GLG/2023/L024 and UC/GLG/2023/L023 (Plate 5) revealed the

presence of Biotite, Muscovite, Hornblende, Siderite and Quartz. The

modal composition of Biotite Schist is presented in Table 2.

29
 F M

O B
H

PLATE 5: Photomicrograph of Biotite Schist (Sample Number

UC/GLG/2023/L024) MG: X5

B- Biotite
H- Hornblende
Q- Quartz
M- Muscovite
S- Siderite
P- Plagioclase
O- Opaque Mineral

30
 TABLE 2

The modal Composition of Biotite Schist

Mineral Modal Composition

Biotite 35
Siderite 15
Muscovite 28
Hornblende 5
Quartz 10
Plagioclase 5
Opaque Mineral 2

Total 100%

31
Biotite: The most dominant mineral found in the sample is Biotite.

Under Plane Polarized light, the mineral crystal appears dark brown in

colour, medium grain in size, showing weak pleochroism, Perfect

cleavage, absence of alteration, low relief and poorly developed

crystal formed. Under cross polarized light, the mineral grains

undergo parallel extinction at an angle of 90 degrees with reddish

brown interference with the absence of twining and zoning.

Siderite: The second most dominant mineral is siderite. Under plane

polarized light, the mineral appears grayish white, medium grains in

size, showing perfect cleaving, weak pleochroism, absence of

alteration, high relief and moderately developed crystal formed

(subhedral). Under cross polarized light, the siderite mineral grains

show incline extinction on stage rotation with dark brown interference

colour, with absence of twining and zoning.

Muscovite: The next mineral found in the sample is muscovite. Under

plane polarized light, the mineral grains appear colourless, medium-

grained, showing perfect cleavage, weak pleochroism, low relief,

absence of alteration and moderately developed crystal formed. Under

32
cross polarized light, the muscovite mineral undergoes parallel

extinction in an angle of 90 degrees with white to pale brown

interference colour with simple twining and absence of zoning.

Hornblende: Hornblende is also found in the sample. Under plane

polarized light, the mineral crystal pale yellowish brown in colour,

medium-grained, showing perfect cleavage, strong pleochroism, high

relief, absence of alteration and a well-developed crystal formed.

Under cross polarized light, the hornblende mineral grains show

symmetrical extinction on stage rotation with greenish-brown

interference colour with lamellar twining and absence of zoning.

Quartz: The next mineral found in the sample is Quartz. Under plane

polarized light, the quartz mineral grains appear colourless, medium-

grained showing absence of pleochroism, absence of alteration, low

relief, absence of cleavages and poorly developed crystal formed

(anhedral). Under cross polarized light, the mineral show parallel

extinction in an angle of 90 degrees with pale yellow to dark brown

interference colour with absence of twining and zoning. Plagioclase

and opaque minerals were insignificantly present in the rock sample,

33
both minerals portray respective optical properties under plane and

cross polarized light.

5.1.1.2.1Petrogenesis of Biotite Schist

Biotite Schist is believed to form from clay or mudstone in the

convergent plate and any environment; where heat and chemical

activities transformed the clay minerals into shales, slate and

subsequently into the Biotite Schist. The name Biotite Schist given to

the rock sample is due to the mineral composition and Biotite being

the most dominant mineral found in the sample.

5.1.2 Gneiss

The word gneiss is a name used in describing moderately

coarse-grained quartz feldspathic rocks of different origin, banded or

foliated crystalline rocks in which granular minerals are most

abundant (Ekwueme, 1993).

The area under investigation (Aningeje and its environs) is

dominated by Gneisses occupying a larger section of the mapped area.

At the upper parts of the study area, these rocks are highly weathered

34
in a few locations producing large quantities of lateritic soils in the

area. Most of the gneisses show very conspicuous foliations and, in a

few locations, banding is also observed. The gneiss is cut by fractures

which lie perpendicular to the foliation. Pegmatite veins are the

dominant intrusions in the area with various sizes, lengths and

orientations. Some of the gneisses contain porphyroblasts which are

dominantly quartz and are more conspicuous in the weathered

exposures.

5.1.2.1 Petrography of Biotite Gneiss

The petrographic study of the rock sample collected at location

UC/GLG/2023/L018 revealed the presence of quartz, muscovite,

hornblende, biotite and plagioclase. The modal composition of Biotite

Gneiss is presented in Table 3.

35
 Q

B M

PLATE 6: Photomicrograph of Biotite Gneiss (Sample Number

UC/GLG/2023/L018)
MG: X5

Q- Quartz
M- Muscovite
B- Biotite
H- Hornblende
P- Plagioclase

36
 TABLE 3

The Modal Composition of Biotite Gneiss

Mineral Modal Composition

Quartz 35
Muscovite 20
Biotite 20
Hornblende 15
Plagioclase 10
Total 100%

37
Quartz: Quartz is the most dominant mineral found in the rock

sample, under plane polarized light, the mineral grains appear

colourless, medium-grained showing absence of pleochroism, low

relief, absence of alteration, absence of cleavage and poorly

developed crystal formed (anhedral). Under cross Polarized light, the

mineral undergoes parallel extinction at an angle of 0 degrees with

grey to black interference colour with absence of twining and zoning.

The ability of the quartz mineral grains to undergo extinction profess

that it has more than one index of reflection hence it is an Anisotropic

mineral.

Muscovite: The second dominant mineral in the sample is muscovite.

Under plane polarized light, the mineral appears colourless, medium

grain in size, showing absence of pleochroism, present of good

cleavage, low relief, absence of alteration and moderately developed

crystal (subhedral). Under cross polarized light the mineral undergoes

parallel extinction at an angle of 90 degrees with brown interference

colour with simple twining and absence of a well define zone.

38
Hornblende: Hornblende also occurred in the sample. Under plane

polarized light, the mineral grains appear yellow brown in colour,

medium-grained, showing presence of strong pleochroism, medium

relief, absence of alteration, perfect cleavages and moderately

developed crystals (subhedral). Under cross polarized light, the

mineral shows parallel extinction on stage rotation at an angle of 0

degree with light green interference colour with absence of twining

and zoning.

Biotite: The next mineral is biotite. under plane polarized light, the

mineral grains appear dark brown in colour, medium-grained,

showing weak pleochroism, low relief, good cleavages, absence of

alteration, and poorly developed crystals (anhedral). Under cross

polarized light, the biotite mineral grains show parallel extinction on

stage rotation at an angle of 90 degrees with brown interference

colour with absence of twining and zoning.

Plagioclase: The leas mineral found in the sample is Plagioclase.

Under plane polarized light, the mineral grains appear colourless,

medium-graineed, showing absence of pleochroism, absence of

39
alteration, low relief and perfect cleavage and moderately developed

crystal (subhedral). Under cross polarized light, the plagioclase

mineral grains show inclined extinction on stage rotation with gray

interference colour with multiple twining and absence of zoning.

5.1.2.1.1 Petrogenesis of Biotite Gneiss

Biotite Gneiss is believed to form from clay or mudstone in the

convergent plate and any environment; where heat and chemical

activities transformed the clay minerals into shales, slate and

subsequently into the Biotite Schist. The name Biotite Schist given to

the rock sample is due to the mineral composition and Biotite being

the most dominant mineral found in the sample.

5.1.2.2 Petrography of Hornblende Biotite Gneiss

The Petrographic study of the rock sample collected at Location

UC/GLG/2023/L007 revealed the presence of Quartz, Muscovite,

Hornblende, Biotite and Plagioclase. The modal composition of

Hornblende Biotite Gneiss is presented in Table 4.

40
 H

M
Q

PLATE 7: Photomicrograph of Hornblende Biotite Gneiss

(Sample Number UC/GLG/2023/L007)
MG: X5
Q- Quartz
M- Muscovite
H- Hornblende
B- Biotite
P- Plagioclase

41
 TABLE 4

The Modal Composition of Hornblende Biotite Gneiss

Mineral Modal Composition

Quartz 35

Muscovite 25

Hornblende 15

Biotite 15

Plagioclase 10

Total 100%

42
Quartz: The most dominant mineral found in the sample is quartz.

Under plane polarized light, the mineral grains appear colourless,

medium-grained showing absence of pleochroism, absence of

alteration, low relief, absence of cleavage and poorly developed

crystal (anhedral). Under cross polarized light, the quartz mineral

grains show parallel extinction at an angle of 90 degrees with brown

interference colour with absence of zoning and twining.

Muscovite: Muscovite was also found in the sample, under plane

polarized light the mineral grains appear colourless, medium-grained

showing perfect cleavage, low relief, weak pleochroism, absence of

alteration and moderately developed crystal (subhedral). Under cross

polarized light, the mineral show parallel extinction on stage rotation

with pale brown interference colour with simple twining and absence

of well-defined zone.

Hornblende: The third mineral to be seen in the sample is

Hornblende. Under plane polarized light, the mineral grains appear

pale greenish brown in colour, medium-grained, showing presence of

strong pleochroism, high relief, absence of alteration, good cleavages

43
and well developed crystal (euhedral).Under cross polarized light, the

mineral grains show symmetrical extinction on stage rotation with

brownish green interference colour with lamellar twining and absence

of a well-defined zone.

Biotite: Biotite was also seen in the sample, under plane polarized

light the mineral grains appear dark brown in colour, medium-grained

showing moderate pleochroism, perfect cleavage, medium relief,

absence of alteration and poorly developed crystal (anhedral). Under

cross polarized light, the biotite mineral crystal shows parallel

extinction at an angle of 90 degrees on stage rotation with brown

interference colour with absence of twining and zoning.

Plagioclase: The least mineral found in the sample is plagioclase.

Under plane polarized light, the mineral grains appear colourless,

medium grain in size showing absence of pleochroism, absence of

alteration, low relief, perfect cleavage, and moderately developed

crystal (subhedral). Under cross polarized light, the plagioclase

mineral grains show incline extinction on stage rotation with gray

44
interference colour with multiple twining and absence of well-defined

zone.

5.1.2.2.1 Petrogenesis of Hornblende Biotite Gneiss

Biotite-Hornblende Gneiss is believed to form from

metamorphism of sedimentary or granitic rocks under high

temperature and pressure. The name Biotite-Hornblende Gneiss given

to the rock sample is due to the equal in proportional composition of

Biotite and Hornblende in the rock sample backed up with the index

minerals common to Gneiss.

45
 CHAPTER FOUR

STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY

The Nigerian Precambrian Basement Complex is made up of

migmatitic banded gneisses and migmatites, weakly migmatized to

unmigmatized paraschists also referred to as "Younger

Metasediments" or "Schist belts", and the Older Granite suite

comprising mainly granites/granitoids, granodiorites, charnockites

(hypersthene granites), syenites, as well as minor gabbroic and dioritic

rocks. Unmetamorphosed dolerite and rhyolite porphyry dykes,

pegmatite dykes, and numerous veins of quartzo-feldspathic

composition are intrusions commonly found in the Basement

Complex (Obiora 2005, 2006). It covers about 60% of Nigeria's total

landmass and extends to some neighbouring countries like Cameroun

(Rahman et al., 1981). The Nigerian Precambrian Basement Complex

rocks are believed to be the results of at least four major orogenic

cycles of deformation, metamorphism, reactivation, and

remobilisation corresponding to the Liberian (2650 ± 150 Ma), the

Eburnean (2000 ± 50 Ma), the Kibaran (1100 ± 200 Ma), and the Pan-

African cycles (600 ± 150 Ma). Using the International Geologic

46
Time Scale (2002), these ages can be referred to as, Paleoarchean to

Mesoproterozoic (3600 to 1600 Ma) for Liberian and Eburnean,

Mesoproterozoic to Neoproterozoic (1600 to 1000 Ma) for Kibaran,

and Neoproterozoic to Early Paleozoic (1000 to 545 Ma) for Pan-

African (Obiora, 2006). Each of these orogenies left its structural

imprints on the Basement. Hence, complex structures are associated

with the Nigerian Basement (Ekwueme, 1994). The opinion is,

however, divided on the occurrence of these structural imprints. Some

authors, McCurry (1976) and Rahaman (1976) are of the view that the

last tectonothermal event (Pan African) was so pervasive that it

obliterated earlier structures. Others advance the opinion that though

pervasive, the Pan African event did not wholly homogenise the rocks

in the Basement; hence, traces of earlier/structures remain (Grant

1978; Onyeagocha and Ekwueme 1982; Ekwueme 1987; Oluyide

1988). It is a consensus among the latter that the different orogenies

produced distinct structural trends. Egesi and Ukaegbu (2011, 2013)

and Obioha and Ekwueme, (2011) have studied the Precambrian

basement rocks in the Obudu, Obalinku and Boki areas, which is in

the north and western parts of the study area. Oban massif covers

47
about 100,000 km2 (Ekwueme, 1990) who considered it to have such

mappable metamorphic rock units as phyllites, schists, gneisses,

amphibolites with associated rocks such as charnockite. These rocks

are intruded by pegmatite, granodiorite, granites, dolerites, diorite,

monzonites and tonalities. Structurally, Rahaman (1976) opined that

two phases of folding related to the Older granite orogeny (Pan

African age 600±125 Ma) occurred in the Nigerian Basement

complex. He also maintained that a N-S foliation trend characterises

the Pan-African Orogeny due to persistent E-W stress. Major

structural features include polyphase deformations involving foliation,

major and minor folds, joints, faults and lineation. The Oban massif

basement has undergone polyphase deformation involving folding,

faulting, shearing, and fracturing. The dominant trend of the structural

features of planar and linear types is N-S to NE-SW (0-30). Minor

trends in the NW-SE and E-W also occurred and have been

interpreted as relicts of Pre Pan African deformation episodes

(Ekwueme, 1994). Ekwueme (1987) reported that the crustal

evolution of the Oban massif was affected by Kibaran orogeny, which

was dated 1313 – 1315 Ma and that this event imprinted a weak NW-

48
SE trending foliation on the rock. Thus, the Pan-African event

partially overprinted the rocks in these areas, thereby leaving relics of

the Kibaran.

6.1 Foliation

Foliation is penetrative planar structures in the rock which may

be defined by fabric, compositional layering or pervasive fractures.

Foliation is laminated planer feature formed by segregation of

different minerals into layers that are parallel to the gneiss (Kearey,

1996).

In the study area, foliation is commonly observed in the

outcrops of gneiss and the gneisses are referred to as banded gneiss.

The N-S to NE-SW trending foliation was recognized and very visible

in most rocks especially in the rock at the banks of the streams in

Aningeje area (Plate 8), which depicts the Kibaran orogeny which

created this weak imprint on the rock via crustal evolution (Ekwueme,

1987). The plate below shows the foliation in the study area, Table 6

and 7 shows the strike and dip values and frequency distribution of

foliation respectively while figures 3 and 4 showed rose diagram and

histogram of the foliation respectively.

49
PLATE 8: Photograph of Foliation in the study area

50
 TABLE 5

Foliation Reading from Study Area

S/N STRIKE DIP (O)

1. 162 40SE
2 231 40SE
3 30 6SW
4 262 19SE
5 346 16SE
6 190 62SW
7 118 30SW
8 218 12SE
9 336 24SE
10 70 40SW
11 32 50SW
12 118 50SE
13 58 12SW
14 86 23NE
15 46 40SW
16 50 12SW

51
 TABLE 6

Frequency Distribution of Foliation trends

Range Frequency % Frequency

0-30 1 6.7
31-60 4 26.7
61-90 2 13.3
91-120 2 13.3
121-150 0
151-180 1 6.7
181-210 1 6.7
211-240 2 13.3
241-270 0
271-300 0
301-330 0
331-360 2 13.3
Total 15 100%

52
FIG. 2: Rose diagram of fractures and joints and fractures in the

study area

53
 5

3
Frequency

0
0-30 31-60 61-90 91- 121- 151- 181- 211- 241- 271- 301- 331-
120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360

FIG 3: Histogram representation of foliation

54
6.2 Joints and fractures

Fractures were very common structures found in the area

(Aningeje and its environs). The gneisses, biotite and migmatite have

been highly fractures and in some cases these fractures may or may

not be filled with mineralization, however most of the fractures in the

study area were mineralized. From field observations and structural

analysis of the gneisses, it was observed that the fractures are of high

density and are perpendicular to the foliations (Plate 9).

55
PLATE 9: Photograph of fracture mineralized by pegmatite in the

study area

56
 The arrow shows the fracture direction which is mineralized by

quartz. Occurrence of joints was quite minimal in the study area; this

was as a result of weathering and erosion of the outcrops. The joints

were perpendicular to the foliation planes as shown in the plate 10.

57
PLATE 10: Photograph of Joint in the study area

58
 The fracture patterns and joints in the mapped area suggest that

the area suffered brittle or cataclastic deformation. The trend of the

fracture is variable depending on the deformational episodes that

produced them. Fractures trending N-S to NE-SW (0-30º) have been

attributed to Pan African thermotectonic event (Ekwueme, 1994).

The dominant trend in the mapped area displays NE-SW and

NW-SE directions, typical of Pan African and Pre-Pan African events

respectively. The measured fractures were dipping at about 40-80 0.

Tables 8 and 9 show the strike and dip values and frequency

distribution of fractures respectively while figures 5 and 6 show the

rose diagram and histogram of fractures and joints respectively.

59
 TABLE 7

Dip and strike measurements on Joints and Fractures

S/N STRIKE DIP(O)

1. 62 43SE
2. 128 26SE
3. 264 18SW
4. 20 46SE
5. 40 48SE
6. 34 58SW
7. 32 19NE
8. 38 20SE
9. 148 26SW
10. 27 40SW
11. 53 50SE
12. 22 82NE
13. 28 84SW
14. 06 68SE
15. 34 72SW
16. 24 78NE
17. 120 68SW
18. 122 62SW
19. 118 72NW
20. 106 58SE

60
 TABLE 8

Frequency Distribution of Joints and Fractures

Range Frequency % Frequency

0-30 6 30
31-60 6 30
61-90 1 5
91-120 3 15
121-150 3 15
151-180 0
181-210 0
211-240 0
241-270 1 5
271-300 0
301-330 0
331-360 0
Total 20 100%

61
FIG 4: Rose diagram of fractures and joints and fractures in
the study area

62
FIG 5: Histogram representation of joints and fractures

63
6.3 Veins

In geology, a vein is a distinct sheet like body of crystallized

minerals within a rock. Veins form when mineral constituents carried

by an aqueous solution within the rock mass are deposited through

precipitation. The hydraulic flow involved is usually due to

hydrothermal circulation (Schroeter, 2013).

The veins that were encountered in the study area were quartz

veins and pegmatite veins. The quartz veins are leucocratic as well as

the pegmatite veins which consist predominantly of quartz,

plagioclase and subordinate number of Muscovites. The plate below

shows a typical quartz vein in the study area (Plate 11).

64
PLATE 11: Photograph of quartz vein in the study area.

65
 CHAPTER SEVEN
APPLIED GEOLOGY
7.1 Economic Geology

The mapped area possesses abundant valuable minerals which

are of economic importance. The minerals are contained in the rocks

and soils in the area. They include; quartz, biotite, muscovite (mica)

and plagioclase. They occur in association with the gneisses and the

intrusive (pegmatite). These minerals have both

engineering/construction and industrial importance. Quartz, for

instance, is a good raw material for the production of all sort of

glasses, abrasives, sand-papers, and for road construction. Mica

minerals (biotite and muscovite) could be used in the manufacture of

electrical insulators and as foil papers. Pegmatite rock has limited use

as an architectural stone. However, pegmatite deposits often contain

gemstones, industrial minerals and rare. Granites and gneiss can be

used in buildings, bridges, paving, monuments and many other

exterior projects.

These minerals and rocks are fit for these purposes because they

possess certain geological and physical properties such as strength,

durability, ease of processing and quarrying.

66
7.2 Hydrogeology

The hydrogeological potentials of the study area involve all the

geologic factors that control the occurrence of ground water, and also

take into consideration, the physical laws which describe

mathematically the movement of ground water. The ground water

occurrence in the basement complex is entirely dependent on the

fractured and jointed areas, and also on the weathered overburden

sediments. According to Petters (1989) and Plummer (1999), recharge

to the weathered zones and joint system have been greatly restricted

where there is significant lateritic cover because of low permeability

of the laterite.

The people of Aningeje and environs tend to rely on streams

and hand dug wells for their daily supplies of water. Because the area

is a basement terrain, water in the area is mainly contained in the thick

weathered regolith and conducted by the fractures in the basement.

Although, motorized borehole was found in the study area

(Government Secondary School, Aningeje), although very shallow

wells were dug by the villagers to assist them meet their daily need.

67
 CHAPTER EIGHT

GEOLOGIC HISTORY OF THE AREA

The study area consists of Precambrian basement complex of

the Oban massif which is a part of the Precambrian Basement

Complex of Nigeria. The major rocks in the area were Gneiss and

Schists, which occurred as Mica and Biotite Schist and biotite Gneiss.

Pegmatitic Granite also occurred as intrusion in the area.

From field mapping, map production and structural analysis of

the area, the three major events can be summarized as follows:

Rocks which are characterized by high grade metamorphism

(gneiss and schist) makes up the basement in the area and are

therefore the oldest rocks in the area. Gneisses in the area belong to

the Migmatite-gneiss-quartzite complex believed to be Eburnean

(2000Ma) and older, while schist in the area belongs to the

Metavolcanosedimentary series of schist belts which has been

assigned Pan-African ages (600±150 Ma) (Oyawole, 1972).

The processes involved in each cycle include deposition of

supracrustal sediments and volcanics, followed by deformation and

68
metamorphism, basement rock activation and emplacement of granitic

intrusions (Ekwueme and Ekwere 1989).

The area under investigation is a basement terrain which is part

of the Oban Massif and consists of Metamorphic rocks (Gneiss and

Schist). From the cross section attached to this work, the rocks are all

dipping in the NE– SW direction, this is so as a result of the Pan

African orogeny.

69
 CHAPTER SEVEN

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

In summary, the study area (Aningeje and its environs) is

located in the Southern part of Oban Massif. It is a basement terrain

consisting of rocks such as mica schist, biotite schist, biotite gneiss,

hornblende biotite gneiss and pegmatitic granite. It is delineated by

Longitudes 8032’E – 8035’E and Latitudes 507’N – 5012’N and covers

approximately 78.912 square kilometers.

The area has two seasons and an average annual rainfall of

2000-3000mm, a mean annual temperature of 280C-370C which varies

from season to season and the drainage pattern in this area is

dendritic. The geologic structures in the area include foliation, veins,

joints and fractures, which are trending NW-SE due to the Pan African

orogeny.

In conclusion, the petrographic analysis reveals the major

minerals in the igneous and metamorphic rocks include quartz,

feldspar (plagioclase, microcline, orthoclase), biotite, hornblende etc.

which are of great economic importance.

70
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