My - Unit3 SE
My - Unit3 SE
• The pattern simply means a repeated form or design in which the same shape is repeated
several times to form a pattern.
• The pattern in the design process means the repetition of a solution to a common
recurring problem within a certain context.
Software Design Concepts: Information Hiding- hide
the information
• Information hiding simply means to hide the information so that it cannot be accessed by
an unwanted party.
• In software design, information hiding is achieved by designing the modules in a manner
that the information gathered or contained in one module is hidden and it can't be
accessed by any other modules.
Software Design Concepts: Refactoring- reconstruct
something
• Refactoring simply means to reconstruct something in such a way that it does not affect
the behavior or any other features.
• Refactoring in software design means to reconstruct the design to reduce and complexity
and simplify it without affecting the behavior or its functions.
• Fowler has defined refactoring as “the process of changing a software system in a way
that it won’t affect the behavior of the design and improves the internal structure”.
Levels of Software Design
• Architectural/ Conceptual
Design
• Preliminary or high-level design
• Detailed design
Levels of Software Design: Architectural Design
• The architecture of a system can be viewed as the overall structure of the system & the way in
which structure provides conceptual integrity of the system.
• The architectural design identifies the software as a system with many components interacting
with each other.
• At this level, the designers get the idea of the proposed solution domain.
Levels of Software Design: High-level Design
• Here the problem is decomposed into a set of modules, the control relationship among various
modules identified and also the interfaces among various modules are identified.
• The outcome of this stage is called the program architecture. Design representation techniques
used in this stage are structure chart and UML.
Levels of Software Design: Detailed Design
Ex- VALIDATE_PRODUCT_REC
IF TRANS_TYPE NOT = ‘0’ THEN
WRITE _ERR_REPORT
ENDIF
IF CUST_NO NOT NUMERIC THEN
WRITE_ERR_REPORT
ENDIF
IF PRODUCT_NO = BLANKS
WRITE_ERR_REPORT
ENDIF
END
Procedural Cohesion
• A procedurally cohesive module contains elements that belong to a common procedural unit.
• For example, a loop or a sequence of decision statements in a module may be combined to form a
separate module.
• Procedurally cohesive modules often occur when modular structure is determined from some form
of flowchart.
• Procedural cohesion often cuts across functional hues.
• A module with only procedural cohesion may contain only part of a complete function or parts of
several functions.
Ex- READ_STUD_REC _AND_TOTAL_STUDENT _AGES
NO_OF_REC = 0
TOTAL_AGE = 0
READ STUD_REC
DO WHILE MORE_REC_EXIST
ADD AGE TO TOTAL_AGE
ADD 1 TO NO_OF_REC
READ STUD_REC
ENDDO
END
Temporal Cohesion
• Modules that perform activities like "initialization," "clean-up," and "termination" are
usually temporally(with regard to time) bound.
• Even though the elements in a temporally bound module are logically related, temporal
cohesion is higher than logical cohesion, because the elements are all executed together.
• This avoids the problem of passing the flag, and the code is usually simpler.
• – INITIALIZATION
OPEN TRANS_FILE
ISSUE PROMPT ‘ENTER DATE – DDMMYY’
READ TODAYS_DATE
SET TRANS_COUNT TO 0
SET REPORT_TOTAL TO 0
OPEN REPORT_FILE
END
Logical Cohesion
• The instructions are hardly related to each other at all
• The instructions are grouped together due to certain classes or activities.
• A flag that is passed from outside will determine which set of instructions is to be executed.
Ex – READ_ALL_FILES
CASE OF FILE_CODE
1: READ CUST_TRAN_REC
IF NOT EOF
INCREMENT CUST_TRAN_COUNT
ENDIF
2: READ CUST_MASTER_REC
IF NOT EOF
INCREMENT CUST_MASTER_COUNT
ENDIF
END CASE
END
Coincidental Cohesion
• The instructions have no relationship to each other at all, it is just a coincidence they fall in the same
module.
• It is the worst type of cohesion.
Ex- FILE PROCESSING
OPEN EMPLOYEE_UPDATE FILE
READ EMPLOYEE REC
PRINT_PAGE_HEADING
OPEN MASTER FILE(EMPLOYEE)
SET PAGE_COUNT TO 1
SET ERR_FLAG TO FLASE
END
Difference between Coupling and Cohesion
COHESION COUPLING
Cohesion is the concept of intra module. Coupling is the concept of inter module.
2. Input/Output: A parallelogram denotes any function of input/output type. Program instructions that
take input from input devices and display output on output devices are indicated with parallelogram in a
flowchart.
Basic Symbols used in Flowchart Designs
3. Processing: A box represents arithmetic instructions. All arithmetic processes such as
adding, subtracting, multiplication and division are indicated by action or process symbol.
4. Decision Diamond symbol represents a decision point. Decision based operations such
as yes/no question or true/false are indicated by diamond in flowchart.
Basic Symbols used in Flowchart Designs
5. Connectors: Whenever flowchart becomes complex or it spreads over more than one
page, it is useful to use connectors to avoid any confusions. It is represented by a circle.
6. Flow lines: Flow lines indicate the exact sequence in which instructions are executed.
Arrows represent the direction of flow of control and relationship among different symbols
of flowchart.
Flowchart: Benefits
• Logic understanding
• Effective analysis
• Useful in coding
• Proper testing and debugging
• Appropriate documentation
Flowchart: Limitations
1. Complex
2. Costly
3. Difficult to modify
4. No update
Pseudo Code
• Pseudo code is a term which is often used in programming and algorithm-based fields.
• It is a methodology that allows the programmer to represent the implementation of an algorithm.
• It is the cooked-up representation of an algorithm.
• Often at times, algorithms are represented with the help of pseudo codes as they can be
interpreted by programmers no matter what their programming background or knowledge is.
• It’s simply an implementation of an algorithm in the form of annotations and informative text
written in plain English. It has no syntax like any of the programming language and thus can’t be
compiled or interpreted by the computer.
Pseudo Code
• Advantages of Pseudocode
• Improves the readability of any approach. It’s one of the best approaches to start implementation
of an algorithm.
• Acts as a bridge between the program and the algorithm or flowchart. Also works as a rough
documentation, so the program of one developer can be understood easily when a pseudo code
is written out. In industries, the approach of documentation is essential. And that’s where a
pseudo-code proves vital.
• The main goal of a pseudo code is to explain what exactly each line of a program should do, hence
making the code construction phase easier for the programmer.
Pseudo Code
Function Oriented Design
• The design process for software systems often has two levels. At the first level the focus is on
deciding which modules are needed for the system based on SRS (Software Requirement
Specification) and how the modules should be interconnected.
• Function Oriented Design is an approach to software design where the design is decomposed
into a set of interacting units where each unit has a clearly defined function.
• Generic Procedure: Start with a high-level description of what the software / program does.
Refine each part of the description one by one by specifying in greater details the functionality of
each part. These points lead to Top-Down Structure.
Function Oriented Design Strategies
1. Data Flow Diagram (DFD):
A data flow diagram (DFD) maps out the flow of information for any process or system. It uses
defined symbols like rectangles, circles and arrows, plus short text labels, to show data inputs,
outputs, storage points and the routes between each destination.
2. Data Dictionaries:
Data dictionaries are simply repositories to store information about all data items defined in
DFDs. At the requirement stage, data dictionaries contains data items. Data dictionaries include
Name of the item, Aliases (Other names for items), Description / purpose, Related data items,
Range of values, Data structure definition / form.
3. Structure Charts:
It is the hierarchical representation of system which partitions the system into black boxes
(functionality is known to users but inner details are unknown). Components are read from top to
bottom and left to right. When a module calls another, it views the called module as black box,
passing required parameters and receiving results.
4. Pseudo Code:
Pseudo Code is system description in short English like phrases describing the function. It use
keyword and indentation. Pseudo codes are used as replacement for flow charts. It decreases the
amount of documentation required.
Object Oriented Design
• In the object-oriented design method, the system is viewed as a collection of objects (i.e.,
entities).
• The state is distributed among the objects, and each object handles its state data. For example, in
a Library Automation Software, each library representative may be a separate object with its data
and functions to operate on these data.
• The tasks defined for one purpose cannot refer or change data of other objects. Objects have
their internal data which represent their state. Similar objects create a class. In other words, each
object is a member of some class. Classes may inherit features from the superclass.
Object Oriented Design
1. Objects: All entities involved in the solution design are known as objects. For example, person,
banks, company, and users are considered as objects. Every entity has some attributes associated
with it and has some methods to perform on the attributes.
2. Classes: A class is a generalized description of an object. An object is an instance of a class. A class
defines all the attributes, which an object can have and methods, which represents the
functionality of the object.
3. Messages: Objects communicate by message passing. Messages consist of the integrity of the
target object, the name of the requested operation, and any other action needed to perform the
function. Messages are often implemented as procedure or function calls.
4. Abstraction In object-oriented design, complexity is handled using abstraction. Abstraction is the
removal of the irrelevant and the amplification of the essentials.
5. Encapsulation: Encapsulation is also called an information hiding concept. The data and
operations are linked to a single unit. Encapsulation not only bundles essential information of an
object together but also restricts access to the data and methods from the outside world.
Object Oriented Design
6. Inheritance: OOD allows similar classes to stack up in a hierarchical manner where the lower or
sub-classes can import, implement, and re-use allowed variables and functions from their
immediate super classes. This property of OOD is called an inheritance. This makes it easier to
define a specific class and to create generalized classes from specific ones.
7. Polymorphism: OOD languages provide a mechanism where methods performing similar tasks
but vary in arguments, can be assigned the same name. This is known as polymorphism, which
allows a single interface is performing functions for different types. Depending upon how the
service is invoked, the respective portion of the code gets executed.
FUNCTIONAL PROGRAMMING OBJECT ORIENTED PROGRAMMING
This programming paradigm is based on object oriented
This programming paradigm emphasizes on the use of
concept. Classes are used where instance of objects are
functions where each function performs a specific task.
created
Fundamental elements used are variables and
Fundamental elements used are objects and methods and
functions.The data in the functions are immutable(cannot
the data used here are mutable data.
be changed after creation).
Importance is not given to data but to functions. Importance is given to data rather than procedures.
The statements in this programming paradigm does not The statements in this programming paradigm need to
need to follow a particular order while execution. follow a order i.e., bottom up approach while execution.
Has three access specifiers namely, Public, Private and
Does not have any access specifier.
Protected.
To add new data and functions is not so easy. Provides and easy way to add new data and functions.
Provides data hiding. Hence, secured programs are
No data hiding is possible. Hence, Security is not possible.
possible.
Software Measurement which is done by
Metrics
• A measurement is a manifestation of the size, quantity, amount or dimension of a
particular attributes of a product or process. Software measurement process is defined
and governed by ISO Standard.
• Need of Software Measurement:
Software is measured to:
1.Create the quality of the current product or process.
2.Anticipate future qualities of the product or process.
3.Enhance the quality of a product or process.
4.Regulate the state of the project in relation to budget and schedule.
Classification of Software Measurement:
• There are 2 types of software measurement:
1.Direct Measurement:
In direct measurement the product, process or thing is measured directly using standard
scale.
2. Indirect Measurement: In indirect measurement the quantity or quality to be measured is
measured using related parameter i.e. by use of reference.
The weighting factors are identified for all functional units and multiplied with the functional units
accordingly.
Function Point Metric Computation:
Unadjusted Function Point
• The procedure for the calculation of UFP in mathematical form is given below:
Wij : It is the entry of the ith row and jth column of the table 1
Zij : It is the count of the number of functional units of Type i that have been classified as having
the complexity corresponding to column j.
Function Point
• Organizations that use function point methods develop a criterion for determining whether a
particular entry is Low, Average or High.
• Nonetheless, the determination of complexity is somewhat subjective.
• FP = UFP * CAF
• Where CAF is complexity adjustment factor and is equal to [0.65 + 0.01 x Fi]. The Fi (i=1 to 14) are
the degree of influence and are based on responses to questions noted
Function Point
• Functions points may compute the following important metrics:
• Productivity = FP / persons-months
• Quality = Defects / FP
• Cost = Rupees / FP
• Documentation = Pages of documentation per FP
• These metrics are controversial and are not universally acceptable. There are standards issued by
the International Functions Point User Group (IFPUG, covering the Albrecht method) and the
United Kingdom Function Point User Group (UFPGU, covering the MK11 method). An ISO
standard for function point method is also being developed.
Example
• Consider a project with the following functional units:
• Number of user inputs = 50
• Number of user outputs = 40
• Number of user enquiries = 35
• Number of user files = 06
• Number of external interfaces = 04
• Assume all complexity adjustment factors and weighting factors are average. Compute the function
points for the project.
• UFP = 50 x 4 + 40 x 5 + 35 x 4 + 6 x 10 + 4 x 7
• = 200 + 200 + 140 + 60 + 28 = 628
• CAF = (0.65 + 0.01 Fi)
• = (0.65 + 0.01 (14 x 3)) = 0.65 + 0.42 = 1.07
• FP = UFP x CAF
• = 628 x 1.07 = 672
Question
• An application has the following:
• 10 low external inputs, 12 high external outputs, 20 low internal logical files, 15 high external
interface files, 12 average external inquiries, and a value of complexity adjustment factor of 1.10.
• What are the unadjusted and adjusted function point counts ?
Solution
Halstead’s Software Metrics
• A computer program is an implementation of an algorithm considered to be a collection of tokens
which can be classified as either operators or operands. Halstead’s metrics are included in a
number of current commercial tools that count software lines of code. By counting the tokens
and determining which are operators and which are operands, the following base measures can
be collected :
▪ n1 : Number of distinct operators.
▪ n2: Number of distinct operands.
▪ N1: Total number of occurrences of operators.
▪ N2: Total number of occurrences of operands.
▪ In addition to the above, Halstead defines the following:
▪ n1*: Number of potential operators.
▪ n2*: Number of potential operands.
• Halstead refers to n1* and n2* as the minimum possible number of operators and operands for a
module and a program respectively.
Halstead’s Software Metrics
• This minimum number would be embodied in the programming language itself, in which the
required operation would already exist (for example, in C language, any program must contain at
least the definition of the function main()), possibly as a function or as a procedure: n1* = 2, since
at least 2 operators must appear for any function or procedure : 1 for the name of the function
and 1 to serve as an assignment or grouping symbol, and n2* represents the number of
parameters, without repetition, which would need to be passed on to the function or the
procedure.
Halstead’s Metrics
• Halstead's metrics are all defined based on its set of base quantities (n1, n2, N1, N2, n1* and n2*).
• The length (N) of a program P is :
• N = N1 + N2
• The vocabulary (n) of a program P is :
• n = n1 + n2
• The volume (V) of a program P is defined as :
• V = N * log2n
Halstead’s Metrics
• Difficulty level (D) = ( n1 / 2 ) * ( N2 / n2 )
• Program level (L) = 1/D
• Effort to implement (E) = V * D
Halstead’s Software Metrics
• Comments are not considered.
• The identifier and function declarations are not considered
• All the variables and constants are considered operands.
• Global variables used in different modules of the same program are counted as multiple
occurrences of the same variable.
• Local variables with the same name in different functions are counted as unique operands.
• Functions calls are considered as operators.
• All looping statements e.g., do {…} while ( ), while ( ) {…}, for ( ) {…}, all control statements e.g., if (
) {…}, if ( ) {…} else {…}, etc. are considered as operators.
• In control construct switch ( ) {case:…}, switch as well as all the case statements are considered as
operators.
• The reserve words like return, default, continue, break, sizeof, etc., are considered as operators.
Halstead’s Software Metrics
• All the brackets, commas, and terminators are considered as operators.
• GOTO is counted as an operator and the label is counted as an operand.
• The unary and binary occurrence of “+” and “-” are dealt separately. Similarly “*” (multiplication
operator) are dealt separately.
• In the array variables such as “array-name [index]” “array-name” and “index” are considered as
operands and [ ] is considered as operator.
• In the structure variables such as “struct-name, member-name” or “struct-name -> member-
name”, struct-name, member-name are taken as operands and ‘.’, ‘->’ are taken as operators.
Some names of member elements in different structure variables are counted as unique
operands.
• All the hash directive are ignored.
S.No. Operator Frequency Operand Frequency
1 main 1 a 3
2 () 4 b 3
3 int 1 c 3
4 {} 1 avg 3
5 , 7 “%d%d%d” 1
6 ; 4 3 1
7 scanf 1 “avg=%d” 1
8 printf 1
9 = 1
10 + 2
11 / 1
12 & 3
total 27 15
Halstead’s Software Metrics
▪ n1 : Number of distinct operators =12
▪ n2: Number of distinct operands =7
▪ N1: Total number of occurrences of operators =27
▪ N2: Total number of occurrences of operands=15
• The length (N) of a program P is :
• N = N1 + N2=27+15=42
• The vocabulary (n) of a program P is :
• n = n1 + n2=12+7=19
• The volume (V) of a program P is defined as :
• V = N * log2n=42*4.25 =178.5
Halstead’s Software Metrics
• Difficulty level (D) = ( n1 / 2 ) * ( N2 / n2 ) = (12/2)*(15/7)=12.85
• Program level (L) = 1/D=1/12.85=.077
• Effort to implement (E) = V * D =178.5*12.85=2293.75
int BinSearch (char *item, char *table[], int n)
{
int bot = 0;
int top = n - 1;
int mid, cmp;
while (bot <= top) {
mid = (bot + top) / 2;
if (table[mid] == item)
return mid;
else if (compare(table[mid], item) < 0)
top = mid - 1;
else
bot = mid + 1;}return -1; // not found}
operator occurrences operands occurrences
int 5 item 3
char* 2 table 2
BinSearch() 1 n 2
, 2 bot 4
[] 3 0 2
= 5 top 4
; 8 1 3
- 2 mid 6
while() 1 cmp 1
<= 1 -1 1
{} 1
+ 2
() 4
/ 1
if() elseif else 1
return 2
compare() 1
< 1
n1:18 N1:43 n2:10 N2:28
Measure N (Length of a program) : N = N1 + N2.
= 43 + 28
= 71