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Edexcel International AS Physics Your notes

Practical Skills I: Planning

Contents
3.1 Identifying Apparatus
3.2 Range & Resolution of Instruments
3.3 Calibrating Instruments
3.4 Measuring Variables
3.5 Control Variables & Fair Tests
3.6 Repeat Readings
3.7 Health & Safety
3.8 Data Collection
3.9 Uncertainty & Systematic Errors
3.10 Wider Implications

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3.1 Identifying Apparatus

Your notes
Identifying Apparatus
When planning an experiment, the first step is to identify the apparatus required
Each experiment will have its own unique set of apparatus
The apparatus is the equipment needed to carry out the experiment
This includes both what you are measuring and how you are measuring it
Common apparatus include:
Metre rulers - to measure distance and length
Balances - to measure mass
Protractors - to measure angles
Stopwatches - to measure time
Ammeters - to measure current
Voltmeters - to measure potential difference
More complicated instruments such as the micrometer screw gauge and Vernier calipers can be
used to more accurately measure length

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Your notes

Examples of apparatus used in scientific experiments

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The apparatus required depends on what you are trying to measure

A few examples are shown in the table below
Apparatus Table Your notes

Quantity Apparatus
Length Metre ruler, Micrometer, Vernier caliper
Mass Top–pan balance
Angle Protractor
Time Stopwatch
Temperature Thermometer
Potential difference Voltmeter
Current Ammeter
Frequency Oscilloscope

An example of apparatus for measuring the specific heat capacity of an aluminium block is shown
below:

Apparatus needed to measure specific heat capacity

This includes:
A block of the substance (preferably 1kg in mass) or in the case of a fluid, a beaker containing
a known mass of the fluid
A thermometer
An appropriate heater (e.g. an immersion heater)
A power source

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A joule meter or a voltmeter, ammeter and stop-clock (I will assume we have the latter)
Wires and connectors
Your notes
Worked example
The diagram below shows one possible method for determining the Young modulus of a metal in
the form of a wire.

Describe how you can use this apparatus to determine the Young modulus of the metal. The
sections below should be helpful when writing your answers.
The measurements to be taken.
The equipment used to take the measurements.
How you would determine Young modulus from your measurements.

Step 1: State the necessary measurements to be taken

The diameter of the wire
The initial length of the wire
The extension of the wire (final length – initial length)
The mass of the hanging masses or the weight applied to the wire
Step 2: State and explain which equipment would be the most suitable
For measuring the diameter of the wire:
A micrometer screw gauge or vernier callipers
Micrometer would be best as this has the highest resolution when measuring small areas
For measuring the original length / extension of the wire:

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A metre ruler or a tape measure

The wire has a moderate length which cannot be measured using a vernier scale
Your notes
For measuring extension:
Travelling microscope
These are designed for measuring small changes in length
For measuring the mass:
Scales or a top-pan balance
A top-pan balance would be best as this has the higher resolution
W = mg equation can be used to calculate weight
For measuring the weight directly:
A newton-meter
This is useful if ‘known’ weights are used and to check if the quoted masses are accurate
Step 3: Explain how Young's modulus can be determined from these measurements
Young modulus is equal to the gradient of a stress-strain graph (in the linear region)
Stress is equal to:

Strain is equal to:

Where:
F = weight (N)
A = cross-sectional area of wire (m2 )
ΔL = extension (m)
L = original length (m)
Young's modulus for this metal is then calculated using the following equation:

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Your notes

Exam Tip
When listing the apparatus for an experiment, make sure you've referred to every last piece of
equipment, even the small parts such as wires and power supplies

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3.2 Range & Resolution of Instruments

Your notes
Range & Resolution of Instruments
All instruments have a range and resolution
The range is the highest and lowest value an instrument can measure
The resolution is the smallest increment an instrument can measure
Examples of resolutions for instruments are:
Experimental Instrument Typical Resolution Typical Range
Metre ruler 1 mm 0 – 1m
Vernier Calipers 0.1 mm 0 – 300 mm
Micrometer Screw Gauge 0.01 mm 0 – 25 mm
Top-pan Balance 0.01 g 0 – 1 kg
Protractor 1° 0 – 180°
0 – 9 hours 59 mins
Stopwatch 0.01 s
59.99 seconds
Thermometer 1 °C –10 °C – 110 °C
Voltmeter 1 mV – 0.1 V 0 – 1000 V
Ammeter 1 mA – 0.1 A 0 – 10 A
Oscilloscope 1 Hz 0 – 200 MHz

These are just examples of ranges and resolutions for these devices
For example, some multimeters may have a bigger or smaller range depending on their model
The resolution of an instrument gives its absolute uncertainty for a digital device
For an analogue device, such as a thermometer, ruler or top-pan balance, the uncertainty is ±
half the resolution

Worked example
Two digital thermometers display a reading in °C.
Thermometer 1: 80.13 °C
Thermometer 2: 42.0 °C
Which thermometer has the better resolution?

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The resolution is given by the smallest increment that the thermometer can read
For thermometer 1 this is 0.01 °C
For thermometer 2 this is 0.1 °C Your notes
Therefore, thermometer 1 has the better resolution

Exam Tip
Exam questions can refer to different instrument with various ranges and resolutions, for
example, ammeters with resolution of 0.2 mA instead. Always use the information given in the
question, and look carefully at the scales given. Never just assume the resolution of a piece of
instrument given in an exam question.

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3.3 Calibrating Instruments

Your notes
Calibrating Instruments
Calibration is a comparison between a known measurement and the measurement you achieve
using the instrument
This checks the accuracy of the instrument, especially for higher readings
An example is checking whether a meter (e.g., voltmeter, micrometer, ammeter) reads zero
before measurements are made
This helps avoid z ero error
To calibrate a thermometer means to put the correct mark of readings at the correct place so
that other temperatures can be deduced from these marks
An uncalibrated thermometer may not read 0 °C for the freez ing point of water, or 100 °C for
its boiling point, but we know these values to be accurate

Calibration Curves
Calibration curves are used to convert measurements made on one measurement scale to
another measurement scale
These are useful in experiments when the instruments used have outputs which are not
proportional to the value they are measuring

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e.g. e.m.f and temperature (thermocouple) or resistance against temperature (thermistor)

For example, the calibration curve for a thermocouple, in which the e.m.f varies with temperature, Your notes
is shown below:

A curve of voltage against temperature can be used as a temperature sensor

The calibration curve for a thermistor looks like:

Thermistor calibration curve

The accuracy of all measuring devices degrades over time. This is typically caused by normal wear
and tear
Calibration improves the accuracy of the measuring device

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Worked example
Your notes
A voltmeter gives readings that are larger than the true values and has a systematic error that
varies with voltage.Which graph shows the calibration curve for the voltmeter?

ANSWER: A
The voltmeter has a systematic error as the reading it gives is always greater than the true value
If the true value is z ero, the voltmeter would give a value greater than z ero
Therefore, the curve doesn’t pass through the origin (0,0) as this would indicate that the reading
is the same as the true value, and not greater - this rule out graph C
So, when the true value is z ero, the meter would give a reading greater than z ero. This is either
graph A or B
The systematic error varies with voltage
So, the amount by which the meter reading is greater than the true value changes

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Therefore, graph A is correct, because the difference between the meter reading and the true
value increases with voltage
Your notes
Exam Tip
You will be expected to use a calibration curve for the Core Practical 12: Calibrate a thermistor in a
potential divider circuit as a thermostat

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3.4 Measuring Variables

Your notes
Measuring Variables
When measuring a variable in an experiment, it is important to use the most appropriate instrument
and measuring technique to achieve the most accurate value for that measurement
A list of the common apparatus and their purpose is shown in the table below:
Apparatus and Their Purpose Table

Experimental Instrument Purpose Example

To measure the length of an object
Metre ruler Length of a wire
of a length between 1 cm - 1 m
To measure short lengths between
Vernier Calipers Extension of a wire
0.1 mm - 1 cm
To measure very short lengths
Micrometer Screw Gauge Diameter of a wire
between 0.01 mm – 0.1 mm
Top-pan Balance To measure the mass of an object Weight of a block
Measuring angle of
Protractor To measure angles refraction of a beam of
light
Time taken for an
Stopwatch To measure time
oscillation
Temperature increase for
Thermometer To measure temperature specific heat capacity of a
material
Potential difference
Voltmeter To measure potential difference
across a bulb
Ammeter To measure current Current through a bulb
To display waves and measure their
Oscilloscope Frequency of a signal
frequencies
To provide a monochromatic, Investing the interference
Laser
coherent source of light of light

The key factor associated with choosing the appropriate instrument is its resolution
If the resolution of an instrument is too big, then it won't be able to measure small
measurements

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Exam Tip
Your notes
When planning experiments, make sure to really think about which instrument you need to
measure the length of something. A rough rule could be:
Length will be between a few cm – 1 cm, use a ruler
Length will be between 0.1 mm – few cm, use a vernier caliper
Length will be between 0.01 mm – 0.1 mm, use a micrometer

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3.5 Control Variables & Fair Tests

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Control Variables & Fair Tests
In an experiment, a variable is any factor that could change or be changed
There are different types of variables within an experiment
The independent variable: the only variable that should be changed throughout an
experiment
The controlled variables: any other variables that may affect the results of the experiment
that need to be controlled or monitored
The dependent variable: the variable that is measured to determine the outcome of an
experiment (the results)
It is essential that any variable that may affect the outcome of an experiment is controlled in order
for the results to be valid and to have a fair test
A fair test is one in which only the independent variable has been allowed to affect the
dependent variable
Preliminary research and preliminary studies can be used to identify variables within an experiment
and to determine ways of controlling these variables effectively
The science surrounding the issue / problem being investigated is likely to contain
information about different factors or variables that may exist
A common control variable in circuits (unless using a thermistor) is temperature
The temperature of a wire or electrical component increases as current goes through for a
long period of time (think of a laptop charger)
Therefore, to keep temperature (the control variable) constant, it is common to disconnect
components from the power supply to cool down between readings
Identifying Control Variables: An Example - Science Surrounding Ideal Gases
There are several experiments that can be carried out to investigate the properties of ideal gases
Factors that can be changed include:
Temperature
Pressure
Volume
Number of moles of gas
The key point with ideal gas experiments is to ensure that only one of these variables is changed
during a particular experiment
This is known as the independent variable
All other variables must be controlled (they must stay the same)
These are known as the control variables

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When investigating Charles’ law:

The temperature varies (independent variable)
The volume is measured (dependent variable) Your notes
The pressure and number of moles must be kept the same (control variables)
When investigating Boyle’s law
The pressure varies (independent variable)
The volume is measured (dependent variable)
The temperature and number of moles must be kept the same (control variables)
If these control variables are not kept constant, they could affect the results of the experiment
This would make the results unreliable

Worked example
A student carries out an experiment to measure how the rate of cooling of a beaker depends on
its initial temperature.
List the control variables in this experiment.

The control variables are:

Using the same beaker (this implies the same siz e and material)
Volume of water
Position in the room
Surrounding temperature

Exam Tip
When answering practical questions, try and use scientific terms where possible. For example,
avoid saying 'amount' of water and instead say 'volume', as this is technically the variable that you
can measure in a beaker.

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3.6 Repeat Readings

Your notes
Repeat Readings
Experiments commonly require repeat readings
This improves the accuracy of a measurement, that is dependent on the quality of the measuring
instruments used to determine it, as well as the skill of the scientists involved
Repeat readings also means the data is considered reliable
The spread of the readings should be as small as possible to be precise
This ensures the measurements are not just by luck or random
Repeat readings also allows you to identify any anomalous results
This is a result that doesn't fit in with the pattern of readings
It is appropriate to have repeat readings where possible in an experiment, and to leave sufficient
space in data tables to accommodate these
The average value of that variable should always be found from the repeat readings to use in
further calculations

A table of results with space for repeat readings

It may not be best to repeat readings every time for all experiments
This should be decided on how easy it is to take the readings in the first place
For example, electrical components heat up from current after a while which could affect the
results
Therefore, for each reading the components should be disconnected from the power
supply to cool down

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When they are reconnected again, the whole experiment needs to be repeated to get the
repeat reading. This could take too long, especially for a wide range for the independent
variable Your notes
There could also be difficulty getting repeat readings for a time dependent variable
This is because time will pass between the readings
For example, if you want to measure a dependent variable at certain time of day (e.g.,
between 6am-7am), the whole experiment will have to be repeated the following day, and the
next and so on, which may not be in the scope of the time allowed for the experiment

Worked example
A student is asked to determine the power of another student who runs up some stairs.
Comment on whether repeat readings are appropriate in this case.

The student may become tired so their speed could change as they lose energy
The experiment will have to be repeated after rest, after their heart rate gets back to a regular level
The height of the stairs should be measured before each reading to check whether it stays the
same
There could be difficulty of starting and stopping the stopwatch to measure the time because of
reaction time

Exam Tip
When asked to discuss repeat readings, think about how easy it would be to take those repeat
readings (commonly between 3-5 times). If it is just connecting up a circuit, or letting a pendulum
oscillate, this could be quite simple. If there are possible changes that could happen to the
apparatus or environment of the experiment between taking these repeat readings, then taking
repeats straight away would not make it a fair test, therefore it could be best not to do so.

Remember that you will always need to take a wide range of readings (between 5-10) and
experiments will have to be completed in a certain amount of time. If each reading takes 1 minute,
and you are taking 10 readings, if these are all repeated 3 times this could make the experiment
30 minutes long, compared to 10 minutes!

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3.7 Health & Safety

Your notes
Health & Safety
All experiments must be carried out safely to protect the scientists from injury and the equipment
from damage
There are some common health and safety precautions in practicals
When working with masses, wires or springs:
Wear safety goggles when required (e.g., when using wires, in case it snaps)
A support stand should be weighted or clamped to prevent it falling over (commonly with a G
clamp)
Do not overload springs with masses so they stretch past their elastic limit or break
when oscillating
Provide a soft surface, such as a cushion, underneath anything falling (such as a ball bearing
when calculating g), to protect surfaces
When using electrical circuits:
Don't have liquids kept around the apparatus, as these could spill and cause a fire
Turn off the power supply in between readings so the components, especially thin wires,
don't become too hot. This could cause a burn or affect the results of the experiment from
the change in temperature affecting resistance
Do not exceed the voltage rating for all the appliances in the circuit
General lab health and safety practice includes:
Always keeping bags and chairs tucked away under desks to avoid someone tripping over in
the classroom
Stand up for the duration of the experiment, in case something goes wrong with a piece of
apparatus and need to react quickly
Don't eat and drink when conducting experiments
Wear comfortable clothing and a lab coat when necessary
Long hair to be tied back
Spills can cause slips, mop this up
Do not leave an experiment, or piece of apparatus, unsupervised (especially Bunsen burners)
Let hot glass cool down, or wear gloves when handling (e.g., for investigating specific heat
capacity)
Let a supervisor know about any spills or problems with equipment as soon as possible

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Exam Tip
Your notes
The common way a question on health and safety is asked in the Edexcel International exam
papers is 'comment on safety' and will often be 1 mark.
In your answer, think about how the issue should be dealt with to gain the full mark. For example, it
may not be enough to just state that 'wires can become too hot', but also explain how it this is
dealt, with by turning off the power supply between readings to cool down. Or, there could be
spills whilst using a liquid, remember to mop this up to prevent anyone getting injured or
damaging equipment.

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3.8 Data Collection

Your notes
Data Collection
After an experiment has been carried out, sometimes the raw results will need to be processed
before they are in a useful or meaningful format
Sometimes, various calculations will need to be carried out in order to get the data in the form of
a straight line
This is normally done by comparing the equation to that of a straight line: y = mx + c

A straight life graph showing the y-intercept and gradient, m

The mathematical skills required for the analysis of quantitative data include:
Using standard form
Quoting an appropriate number of significant figures
Calculating mean values
Using Standard Form
Often, physical quantities will be presented in standard form
For example, the speed of light in a vacuum equal to 3.00 × 108 m s −1This makes it easier to
present numbers that are very large or very small without having to repeat many z eros
It will also be necessary to know the prefixes for the numbers of ten
Prefixes Table

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Your notes

Using Significant Figures

Calculations must be reported to an appropriate number of significant figures
Also, all the data in a column should be quoted to the same number of significant figures

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Your notes

It is important that the significant figures are consistent in data

Calculating Mean Values
When several repeat readings are made, it will be necessary to calculate a mean value
When calculating the mean value of measurements, it is acceptable to increase the number of
significant figures by 1

Graph Skills
In several experiments during A-Level Physics, the aim is generally to find if there is a relationship
between two variables
This can be done by translating information between graphical, numerical, and algebraic forms
For example, plotting a graph from data of displacement and time, and calculating the rate of
change (instantaneous velocity) from the tangent to the curve at any point

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Graph skills that will be expected during A-Level include:

Understanding that if a relationship obeys the equation of a straight-line y = mx + c then the
gradient and the y-intercept will provide values that can be analysed to draw conclusions Your notes
Finding the area under a graph, including estimating the area under graphs that are not linear
Using and interpreting logarithmic plots
Drawing tangents and calculating the gradient of these
Calculating the gradient of a straight-line graph
Understanding where asymptotes may be required

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Worked example
Your notes
A student measures the background radiation count in a laboratory and obtains the following
readings:

The student is trying to verify the inverse square law of gamma radiation on a sample of Radium-
226. He collects the following data:

Use this data to determine if the student’s data follows an inverse square law.

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Your notes

Step 1: Determine a mean value of background radiation

The background radiation must be subtracted from each count rate reading to determine the
corrected count rate, C
Step 2: Compare the inverse square law to the equation of a straight line
According to the inverse square law, the intensity, I, of the γ radiation from a point source
depends on the distance, x, from the source

Intensity is proportional to the corrected count rate, C, so

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Your notes
The graph provided is of the form 1/C–1/2 against x
Comparing this to the equation of a straight line, y = mx
y = 1/C–1/2 (counts min–1/2 )
x = x (m)
Gradient = constant, k
If it is a straight-line graph through the origin, this shows they are directly proportional, and the
inverse square relationship is confirmed
Step 3: Calculate C (corrected average count rate) and C –1/2

Step 4: Plot a graph of C –1/2 against x and draw a line of best fit

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Your notes

The graph shows C –1/2 is directly proportional to x, therefore, the data follows an inverse
square law

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3.9 Uncertainty & Systematic Errors

Your notes
Predicting Uncertainty & Systematic Errors
Predicting Uncertainties
The uncertainty is an estimate of the difference between a measurement reading and the true
value
In other words, it is the interval within which the true value can be considered to lie with a given
level of confidence or probability
Any measurement will have some uncertainty about the result, this will come from variation in
the data obtained and be subject to systematic or random effects
In reality, it is impossible to obtain the true value of any quantity as there will always be a degree of
uncertainty
This can be seen when you repeat a measurement and you often get different results
Uncertainties are not the same as errors
An error is the difference between the measurement result and the true value if a true value is
thought to exist
This is not a mistake in the measurement
The error can be due to both systematic and random effects and an error of unknown siz e is a
source of uncertainty.
They can be thought of as issues with equipment or methodology that cause a reading to be
different from the true value
The uncertainty is a range of values around a measurement within which the true value is expected
to lie, and is an estimate
For example, if the true value of the mass of a box is 950 g, but a systematic error with a
balance gives an actual reading of 952 g, the uncertainty is ±2 g
The most common ways to reduce uncertainties are:
Take repeat readings (about 3 – 5) and calculate the mean of a value
For a wire, measure the diameter in different places, to make sure it's fully uniform
Use the appropriate piece of apparatus for the measurement e.g., do not use a ruler for a very
small distance of a few mm, a micrometer or vernier scale would be better for this
Systematic errors
Systematic errors arise from the use of faulty instruments or from flaws in the experimental
method
This type of error is repeated consistently every time the instrument is used or the method is
followed, which affects the accuracy of all readings obtained
Systematic errors can clearly be seen on graphs

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If the line of best fit of a straight-line graph is expected to go through the origin (0,0) but the
results collected actually pass through the y or x axis instead, then all the points are offset by
the same amount Your notes
The amount they are offset by is the amount of systematic errors

Systematic errors on graphs are shown by the offset of the line from the origin
To reduce systematic errors:
Instruments should be recalibrated, or different instruments should be used
Corrections or adjustments should be made to the technique
An example of a systematic error is a z ero error
A common method for measuring small distances, such as the fringe spacing on an interference
pattern, is measuring a larger distance (multiple fringe spacings) and divide by the number of
fringe spacings
A fringe spacing is a very small measurement and it is often difficult to see the middle of each
bright fringe (the maxima can be broad)
The same can be done for oscillations
Measuring the time for 10 oscillations, then dividing by 10 is more accurate than just timing 1
oscillation

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Your notes

Measuring the distance between multiple fringes reduces the uncertainty in the fringe spacing

Exam Tip
Extremely small or large measurements tend to have the largest uncertainties. When evaluating an
experiment, think of which measurements are the most subjective, as these will provide the
largest uncertainties e.g. trying to distinguish between two lines of a diffraction pattern when it is
blurry or, the instrument used that has the worst resolution

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3.10 Wider Implications

Your notes
Wider Implications
An implication of physics is a consequence of scientific knowledge
The implications could be:
Commercial - concerning money e.g., the funding for a scientific experiment
Legal - concerning law e.g., copyright protection for data collections
Ethical - concerning moral principles e.g., using animals, humans
Social - concerning society e.g., how the results affect all members of society (children,
elderly, disabled etc.)
For example, when building a new power station, although this will provide an appropriate energy
source, the implications could be:
Commercial - who pays to run and maintain the power station and how much will this cost
Legal - planning permissions to build the power station which requires a lot of land
Ethical - is it safe for the wildlife that live around the area when the power station is built
Social - how will the power station affect the people that live in the surrounding area in both
health and economic prospects (e.g., providing more jobs)
All applications of science will have benefits and risks
For developing a new type of radiotherapy, designed to treat cancer, the benefits are clear that
the treatment could potentially save lives
However, there are also risks with accidents occurring when using harmful radiation that
could cause injury or death to the doctors or the patient
All new technologies are therefore always tested thoroughly
Society makes decisions based on scientific evidence
This is why the evidence must be thoroughly tested and trusted
Scientific work leads to important discoveries that benefit humankind
E.g. rigorous testing for medication means we trust that medication is safe consumption to
treat symptoms of an illness
The results are used by society to make decisions about the way we live, what we eat, what we
drive, how we work etc.
All sections of society use scientific evidence to make these decisions
This is mostly done by policy makers, politicians and government
Most individuals making these decisions may not be scientists themselves, so they will be
trusting the research to base their opinions on
Other factors can influence decisions about science or the way that it is used
Economic Factors
The economy is based around money and the cost of implementing changes based on scientific
conclusions

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Not only can experiments be very expensive to run, but the cost of buying technology based on
science to provide for healthcare or transport costs a lot of taxpayer money
Therefore, when research is expensive, the Government must justify spending money on new Your notes
equipment, such as a telescope, instead of another area of society such as schools or the
healthcare system
However, the long-term benefits should also be taken into account
For example, reducing carbon emissions to limit the human contribution to climate change
In this case, the current human contribution to climate change will be provided from scientific
research, as well as methods to reduce carbon emissions (e.g., solar power)
Social Factors
Social factors are considered for decisions that affect people's daily life
This could be how it affects the surrounding area where people live, such as noise pollution
These factors should take into account all members of society, whether they're young, old,
disabled and for all genders
An example of this is scientific knowledge of a healthy lifestyle informing the choices we make
E.g., Cycling to work instead of driving in order to exercise and reduce carbon footprints
Environmental Factors
Environmental factors are taken into account for any decisions that could affect the environment
This is primarily nature such as plants and animals and the geography of the area
An example of this is wind farms
Although they are cheap and environmentally friendly (wind is a sustainable energy source)
way to generate electricity, the turbines can harm birds and bats

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