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Power System Dynamics with Computer-Based Modeling and Analysis

Book · December 2019

DOI: 10.1002/9781119487470

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Contents

About the Authors xxix

Preface xxxi
Acknowledgments xxxiii

Part A Power Systems Theories and Practices 1

1 Essentials of Electromagnetism 3
1.1 Overview 3
1.2 Voltage, Current, Electric Power, and Resistance 3
1.3 Electromagnetic Induction (Faraday’s Law) 4
1.4 Self Inductance and Mutual Inductance 6
1.5 Mutual Capacitance 7

2 Complex Number Notation (Symbolic Method) and the Laplace Transform 11

2.1 Euler’s Formula 11
2.2 Complex Number Notation of Electricity Based on Euler’s Formula 12
2.2.1 Case 1 13
2.2.2 Case 2 13
2.2.3 Case 3 13
2.3 LR Circuit Transient Calculation Using Complex Number Notation and the Laplace Transform 14
2.4 LCR Circuit Transient Calculation 16
2.4.1 Case 1 17
2.4.2 Case 2 18
2.4.2.1 Calculation of the Steady-State Current Component 18
2.4.2.2 Calculation of the Transient Current Component 20
2.5 Resistive, Inductive, and Capacitive Load, and Phasor Expressions 21

3 Transmission Line Matrices and Symmetrical Components 25

3.1 Overhead Transmission Lines with Inductive LR Constants 25
3.1.1 Three-Phase Single-Circuit Line Without an Overhead Grounding Wire (OGW) 25
3.1.1.1 Voltage and Current Equations, and Equivalent Circuits 25
3.1.1.2 Measurement of Line Impedances Zaa, Zab, Zac 27
3.1.1.3 Working Inductance (Laa–Lab) 27
3.1.2 Three-Phase Single Circuit Line with OGW, OPGW 28
3.1.3 Three-Phase Double-Circuit Line with LR Constants 29
3.2 Overhead Transmission Lines with Capacitive C Constants 30
3.2.1 Stray Capacitance of Three-Phase Single-Circuit Line 30

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3.2.2 Three-Phase Single-Circuit Line with OGW 31

3.2.3 Three-Phase Double-Circuit Line 31
3.3 Symmetrical Coordinate Method (Symmetrical Components) 32
3.3.1 Fundamental Concepts of Symmetrical Components 32
3.3.2 Definition of Symmetrical Components 34
3.3.3 Implications of Symmetrical Components 36
3.3.3.1 Transformation from abc Quantities to 012 Quantities 36
3.3.3.2 Inverse Transformation from 012 Quantities to abc Quantities 38
3.3.3.3 Balanced Three-Phase Condition 38
3.4 Conversion of a Three-Phase Circuit into a Symmetrical Coordinated Circuit 39
3.5 Transmission Lines by Symmetrical Components 39
3.5.1 Single-Circuit Line with LR Constants 39
3.5.2 Double-Circuit Line with LR Constants 41
3.5.3 Single-Circuit Line with Stray Capacitance C 43
3.5.4 Double-Circuit Line with C Constants 45
3.6 Generator by Symmetrical Components (Simplified Description) 47
3.6.1 Simplified Symmetrical Equations 47
3.6.2 Reactance of a Generator 48
3.7 Description of a Three-Phase Load Circuit by Symmetrical Components 49

4 Physics of Transmission Lines and Line Constants 51

4.1 Inductance 51
4.1.1 Self-Inductance L11 of a Straight Conductor 51
4.1.2 Two Parallel Conductors in Space, and the Working Inductance L11 −L12 53
4.1.3 Inductance of n-Parallel Conductors in Space 54
4.1.4 Inductance of an Overhead Single-Phase Line Conductor 56
4.1.4.1 ψ 11 Caused by Conductor 1 57
4.1.4.2 ψ 12 Caused by Conductor 2 (Imaginary Conductor, Radius H) 57
4.1.4.3 ψ 11 − ψ 12 Total Flux Linkage of Conductor 1 57
4.1.5 Inductances of Three-Phase Line Conductors 57
4.2 Capacitance and Leakage Current 59
4.2.1 Potential Voltages and Capacitance of a Single Overhead Conductor 59
4.2.2 Potential Voltages and Capacitance of a Three-Phase Overhead Line 61
4.2.3 Stray Capacitance and Leakage Current of Phase-Balanced Lines 64
4.3 Actual Configuration of Overhead Transmission Lines 66
4.3.1 Structure 66
4.3.2 Equivalent Radius req of Multi-Bundled Conductors 66
4.3.3 Line Resistance 67
4.3.4 Typical Transmission Line Constants and Summary of Impedance/Capacitance Matrices 67
4.4 Special Properties of Working Inductance and Working Capacitance 68
4.5 MKS Rational Unit System 71
4.5.1 Fundamental Concepts 71
4.5.2 Practical MKS Units for Electrical Engineering Physics 72

5 The Per-Unit Method 77

5.1 Fundamental Concepts of the PU Method 77
5.2 PU Method for a Single-Phase Circuit 77
5.3 PU Method for Three-Phase Circuits 79
5.3.1 Base Quantities with the PU Method for Three-Phase Circuits 79
5.3.2 Unitization of Three-Phase Circuit Equations 80
5.4 Base Quantity Modification of Unitized Impedance 80
5.5 Unitized Symmetrical Circuit: Numerical Example 81

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6 Transformer Modeling 91
6.1 Single-Phase Three-Winding Transformer 91
6.1.1 Fundamental Equations Before Unitization 91
6.1.2 Determining Base Quantities for Unitization 91
6.1.3 Unitizing the Original Equation 92
6.1.4 Introducing the Unitized Equivalent Circuit 93
6.2 − − Δ-Connected Three-Phase, Three-Winding Transformer 95
6.2.1 Fundamental Equations Before Unitization 95
6.2.2 Determining Base Quantities for Unitization 97
6.2.3 Using the Original Equation 98
6.2.4 Symmetrical Equations and the Equivalent Circuit 99
6.3 Three-Phase Transformers with Various Winding Connections 101
6.3.1 Core Structure and Zero-Sequence Excitation Impedance 101
6.3.2 Various Winding Models 101
6.3.3 Delta Windings and Special Properties 102
6.3.3.1 Case 1: Balanced Three-Phase nth Harmonic Currents 103
6.3.3.2 Case 2: nth Harmonic Current Flow in Phase-a 104
6.3.3.3 Case 3 : nth Harmonic Current of Synchronized Delay with Power Frequency 105
6.3.4 % IZ of a Three-Winding Transformer 105
6.4 Autotransformers 105
6.5 On-Load Tap-Changing Transformer (LTC Transformer) 107
6.6 Phase-Shifting Transformer 109
6.6.1 Fundamental Equations 110
6.6.2 Application for Loop-Circuit Lines 112
6.7 Woodbridge Transformers and Scott Transformers 113
6.7.1 Woodbridge Transformers 113
6.7.2 Scott Transformers 115
6.8 Neutral Grounding Transformer 116
6.9 Transformer Magnetic Characteristics and Inrush Current Phenomena 118
6.9.1 Hysteresis Characteristics 118
6.9.2 Flux DC Offset Magnetization 121
6.9.3 Residual Flux 121
6.9.4 Transformer Inrush Current 122
6.9.5 Transformer Inrush Current-Limiting Switching Control 123

7 Fault Analysis Based on Symmetrical Components 127

7.1 Fundamental Concepts of Fault Analysis Based on the Symmetrical Coordinate Method 127
7.2 Line-to-Ground Fault (Phase-a to Ground Fault: 1ϕG) 127
7.2.1 Condition Before the Fault 129
7.2.2 Phase-a to Ground Fault 129
7.2.3 Voltages and Currents at Virtual Terminal Point f in the 012-domain 130
7.2.4 Voltages and Currents at an Arbitrary Point under Fault Conditions 131
7.2.5 Fault Under No-Load Conditions 132
7.3 Fault Analysis at Various Fault Modes 132
7.4 Conductor Opening 137
7.4.1 Single-Phase (Phase a) Conductor Opening 137
7.4.2 Two-Phase (Phase-b, -c) Conductor Opening 139
7.5 Visual Vector Diagrams of Voltages and Currents under Fault Conditions 139
7.5.1 Three-Phase Fault: 3ϕS, 3ϕG (Solidly Neutral Grounding System, High-Resistance Neutral Grounding
System) 139
7.5.2 Phase b to c Fault: 2ϕS (for Solidly Neutral Grounding System, High-Resistance Neutral Grounding
System) 141

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7.5.3 Phase-a to Ground Fault: 1ϕG (Solidly Neutral Grounding System) 143
7.5.4 Double Line-to-Ground (Phases b and c) Fault: 2ϕG (Solidly Neutral Grounding System) 146
7.5.5 Phase-a Line-to-Ground Fault: 1ϕG (High-Resistance Neutral Grounding System) 148
7.5.6 Double Line-to-Ground (Phases b and c) Fault: 2ϕG (High-Resistance Neutral Grounding System) 150
7.6 Three-Phase-Order Misconnections 151
7.6.1 Phase-abc to acb Misconnection 152
7.6.2 Phase-abc to bca Misconnection 153

8 Fault Analysis with the αβ0-Method 155

8.1 αβ0-Method (Clarke-Components) 155
8.1.1 Definition of the αβ0-Coordinate Method (αβ0-Components) 155
8.1.2 The Transformation of Arbitrary Waveform Quantities 156
8.1.3 Interrelation Between αβ0-Components and Symmetrical Components 159
8.1.4 Circuit Equation and Impedance with the αβ0-Coordinate Method 160
8.1.5 Single-Circuit Transmission Lines 162
8.1.6 Double-Circuit Transmission Lines 163
8.1.7 Generators 164
8.1.8 Transformer Impedances and Load Impedances in the αβ0-Domain 166
8.2 Fault Analysis with αβ0-Components 166
8.2.1 Line-to-Ground Fault (Phase a to Ground Fault: 1G) 166
8.2.2 The Phase-bc Line to Ground Fault 168
8.2.3 Other Mode Short-Circuit Faults 170
8.2.4 Open-Conductor Mode Faults 170
8.3 Advantages of the αβ0-Method 171
8.4 Fault-Transient Analysis with Symmetrical Components and the αβ0-Method 171
8.4.1 Transmission-Line Equations for Transient Analysis 171
8.4.2 Comparison of Transient Analysis with Symmetrical Components and the αβ0-Method 172

9 Power Cables 175

9.1 Structural Features of Power Cables 175
9.1.1 Structures of CV(XLPE) Cable and OF Cable 175
9.1.2 Features of Power Cables 179
9.1.2.1 Insulation 179
9.1.2.2 Production Processes 179
9.1.2.3 Environmental Layout Conditions and Stresses 180
9.1.2.4 Metallic Sheath Circuits and Outer-Covering Insulation 181
9.1.2.5 Electrical Specifications and Factory Testing Levels 181
9.2 Circuit Constants of Power Cables 183
9.2.1 Cable Inductance 183
9.2.2 Cable Capacitance and Surge Impedance 187
9.3 Metallic Sheaths and Outer Coverings 190
9.3.1 Role of Metallic Sheaths and Outer Coverings 190
9.3.2 Double Sheath-End Terminal Grounding Method (Solid-Sheath-Bonding Method) 190
9.3.3 Single Sheath-End Terminal Grounding Method (Single-Sheath-Bonding Method) 191
9.3.4 Cross-Bonding Metallic-Shielding Method 191
9.3.5 Surge Protection at Jointing Boxes 193

10 Synchronous Generators, Part 1: Circuit Theory 195

10.1 Generator Model in a Phase abc-Domain 195
10.1.1 Stator and Rotor Windings Structure 195
10.1.2 Relative Angular Position Between Rotor and Stator 197
10.1.3 Three-Phase abc-Domain Circuit Equations and Inductance Matrices 197
10.1.4 Introduction of Stator Inductance Matrix: labc(t) 200
10.1.4.1 Introduction of the Stator and Rotor Mutual Inductance Matrix labc–F(t), lF–abc(t) 202

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10.2 dq0 Method (dq0 Components) 203

10.2.1 Definition of the dq0 Method and Its Physical Meaning 203
10.2.2 Mutual Relation of the dq0-, abc-, and 012-Domains 204
10.2.3 Characteristics of dq0-Domain Quantities 205
10.3 Transformation of Generator Equations from the abc-Domain to the dq0-Domain 206
10.3.1 Transformation of Stator Voltage Equations to the dq0-Domain 206
10.3.2 Transformation of the Rotor Voltage Equation 208
10.3.3 Transformation of the Stator Flux Linkage Equation 208
10.3.4 Transformation of the Rotor Flux Linkage Equation 209
10.4 Physical Meanings of Generator Equations in the dq0-Domain 210
10.4.1 Main Fluxes and Leakage Fluxes 210
10.4.2 Self-Inductance Ld, Lq 211
10.5 Generator dq0-Domain Equations 213
10.5.1 Setting Base Quantities for s-Coils, f-Coils, and k-Coils 213
10.5.1.1 Capacity Base (VA or MVA Base) 214
10.5.1.2 Voltage Base and Current Base of the Stator d-, q-, 0-Coils 214
10.5.1.3 Unitization of Time t to Radians 214
10.5.2 Unitization of Generator dq0-Domain Equations 214
10.5.2.1 Unitization of the Stator Voltage edq0 Equation 214
10.5.2.2 Unitization of the Rotor Voltage Equation 215
10.5.2.3 Unitization of the Stator Flux Linkage ψ dq0 Equation 215
10.5.2.4 Unitization of the Rotor Flux Linkage Equation 217
10.6 Generator dq0-Domain Equivalent Circuit 218
10.7 Generator Operating Characteristics and Vector Diagram on the d- and q-Axes Plane 220
10.8 Generator Transient Reactance 223
10.8.1 Initial Condition Just Before Sudden Disturbance 223
10.8.2 Assorted d-axis and q-axis Reactance for Transient Phenomena 224
10.8.2.1 Time Interval t = 0–3 Cycles (50 ms) 224
10.8.2.2 Time Interval t = 3 to Approximately 60 Cycles (50 ms to 1 sec) 224
10.8.2.3 Time Interval t = 1 sec to Steady-State Condition 225
10.9 Symmetrical Equivalent Circuits of Generators 225
10.9.1 Positive-Sequence Circuit 225
10.9.1.1 Subtransient Period: t = 0–3 cycles (0–50 ms) 226
10.9.1.2 Transient Period: t = 3–60 cycles (50 ms to 1 sec) 227
10.9.1.3 Steady-State Period: After 1 sec 228
10.9.1.4 Evaluation of the Positive-Sequence Equivalent Circuit 228
10.9.2 Negative-Sequence Circuit 229
10.9.3 Positive-Sequence Current Behavior in the d-axis Circuit 229
10.9.4 Negative-Sequence Current Behavior on the d-axis Circuit 229
10.9.5 Zero-Sequence Circuit 231
10.10 Laplace-Transformed Generator Equations and Time Constants 231
10.10.1 Laplace-Transformed Equations 231
10.10.2 Open-Circuit Transient Time Constants T d0 , T d0 , T q0 , T q0 232
10.10.3 Short-Circuit Transient Time Constants T d ,T d ,T q , T q 233
10.10.4 Short-Circuit Time Constant of the Stator (Armature) Winding T a 234
10.11 Measuring Generator Reactance 235
10.11.1 Measuring d-axis Reactance xd and Short-Circuit Ratio SCR 235
10.11.2 Measuring Negative-Sequence Reactance X 2 237
10.11.3 Measuring Zero-sequence Reactance X 0 238
10.12 Relations Between the dq0-Domain and αβ0-Domain 239
10.13 Calculating Generator Short-Circuit Transient Current Under Load 239
10.13.1 Calculating Transient Current with Laplace Transform 239
10.13.2 Transient Short-Circuit Current Calculation for a No-Load Generator 243

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11 Synchronous Generators, Part 2: Characteristics of Machinery 251

11.1 Apparent Power P + jQ in the abc-, 012-, dq0-Domains 251
11.1.1 Definition of Apparent Power 251
11.1.2 Expanded Apparent Power for Arbitrary Waveform Voltages and Currents 252
11.1.3 Apparent Power of a Three-Phase Circuit in the 012-Domain 253
11.1.4 Apparent Power in the dq0-Domain 255
11.2 Mechanical (Kinetic) Power and Generating (Electrical) Power 257
11.2.1 Mechanical Input Power and Electrical Output Power 257
11.2.1.1 The First Term for Steady-State Power 258
11.2.1.2 The Second Term for Transient Power 258
11.2.1.3 The Third Term for Joule Loss Power 258
11.2.2 Steady-State Condition 259
11.2.3 Transient Condition Due to Sudden Disturbance 259
11.3 Kinetic Equation for Generators 259
11.3.1 Dynamic Characteristics of Generator (Kinetic Motion Equation) 259
11.3.2 Dynamic Equation for Generators as an Electrical Expression 261
11.3.3 Power Conversion between Rotor Mechanical Power and Stator Electrical Power 261
11.3.3.1 Step 1: Power Transmission from Prime Mover to Rotor Shaft 262
11.3.3.2 Step 2: Power Transmission from Generator Rotor to Stator Coil 262
11.3.3.3 Step 3: Power Transmission from the Stator Coil to the Impedance Load 262
11.3.4 Speed Governors 267
11.3.5 Generator Excitation System 267
11.4 Generator Operating Characteristics with P-Q (or p-q) Coordinates 269
11.5 Generator Ratings and Capability Curves 271
11.5.1 Upper-Limit Curve of Apparent Power P + jQ or p + jq (Curve ②−③) 272
11.5.2 Upper-Limit Curve of Excitation Voltage Efd (Equivalent to if) (Curve ①–②) 272
11.5.3 Stability-Limit Curve (Curve ⑤−⑦) 274
11.5.4 Limit Curve against Extraordinary Local Heating on the Stator Coil End (Curve ③−④) 274
11.6 Generator’s Locus in the pq-Coordinate Plane under Various Operating Conditions 275
11.6.1 The Locus under Fixed Excitation Efd 275
11.6.2 Locus under Fixed Terminal Voltage eG 275
11.6.3 Locus under Fixed Effective Power P 276
11.6.4 Locus under Fixed Terminal Current iG 276
11.7 Leading Power-Factor (Under-Excitation Domain) Operation, and UEL Function by AVR 277
11.7.1 Generator as a Reactive Power Generator 277
11.7.2 Under-Excitation (Leading Power-Factor Operation) and the Problem of Overheating at the Stator Core
End 277
11.7.3 Under-Excitation Limit Protection by AVR 282
11.8 Operation at Over-Excitation (Lagging Power-Factor Operation) 282
11.9 Thermal Generators’ Weak Points (Negative-Sequence Current, Higher Harmonic Current, Shaft-Torsional
Distortion) 282
11.9.1 Generator Volume Size and Unit Capacity 282
11.9.2 Critical I2-Withstanding Capability 283
11.9.3 Rotor Overheating Caused by DC and Higher Harmonic Currents 285
11.9.3.1 nth-Order Harmonic Current Flowing into a Phase-a Coil of a Generator 285
11.9.3.2 DC Current Flow 285
11.9.3.3 Three-Phase nth-Order Current Flow 286
11.10 Transient Torsional Twisting Torque of a TG Coupled Shaft 287
11.10.1 Transient Torsional Torque Caused by a Sudden Network Disturbance 287
11.10.2 Amplification of Torsional Torque 288
11.10.3 Subsynchronous Resonance 290
11.11 General Description of Modern Thermal/Nuclear TG Units 290
11.11.1 ST Unit for Thermal Generation 290

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11.11.2 Combined Cycle System with Gas and Steam Turbines 292
11.11.3 ST Unit for Nuclear Generation 295

12 Steady-State, Transient, and Dynamic Stability 297

12.1 P-δ Curves and Q-δ Curves 297
12.2 Power Transfer Limits of Grid-Connected Generators (Steady-State Stability) 299
12.2.1 Apparent Power of Generators 299
12.2.2 Power-Transfer Limits of Generators (Steady-state Stability) 301
12.2.3 Power Cycle Diagram 302
12.2.4 Mechanical Analogy to Steady-State Stability 304
12.3 Transient Stability 306
12.3.1 Definitions of Steady-State Stability, Transient Stability, and Dynamic Stability 306
12.3.1.1 Steady-State Stability 306
12.3.1.2 Transient Stability 306
12.3.1.3 Dynamic Stability 306
12.3.2 Mechanical Acceleration Equation for a Two-Generator System 306
12.3.3 Transient Stability under Fault Condition (Equal-Quadrant Method) 308
12.3.3.1 Case Study 1: Transient Stability Is Successfully Maintained 308
12.3.3.2 Case Study 2: The System Condition Exceeds the Transient Stability Limit 309
12.3.3.3 Case Study 3: High-Speed Reclosing Is Conducted 309
12.4 Dynamic Stability 309
12.4.1 Quick Excitation Control with an AVR 309
12.4.2 Quick Driving-Power Adjustment with a Speed-Governor Control 310
12.5 Four-Terminal Circuit and the P − δ Curve under Fault Conditions 310
12.5.1 Four-Terminal Circuits 310
12.5.2 Four-Terminal Circuit in a Transmission Line Before Fault 311
12.5.3 Four-Terminal Circuit in a Transmission Line under Fault 311
12.6 P-δ Curve under Various Fault-Mode Conditions 312
12.6.1 Three-Phase Fault Mode (3ϕS) 312
12.6.2 Double-Phase Fault Mode (2ϕS) 312
12.6.3 Single-Phase Fault Mode (1ϕG) 313
12.6.4 Double-Phase Opening Mode (2ϕOp) 313
12.6.5 Single Phase Opening Mode(1ϕOp) 313
12.7 PQV Characteristics and Voltage Instability (Voltage Avalanche) 313
12.7.1 Apparent Power at the Sending Terminal and Receiving Terminal 313
12.7.2 Voltage Sensitivity Characteristics with a Small Disturbance ΔP, ΔQ 314
12.7.3 Circle Diagram for Apparent Power 315
12.7.4 PQV Characteristics, and PV and QV Curves 316
12.7.5 PQV Characteristics of Load 316
12.7.6 PV Mode Voltage Collapse (PV Avalanche) 318
12.7.7 QV Mode Voltage Collapse (QV Avalanche) 318
12.7.8 PQV Steady-State Stability 319
12.8 Generator Characteristics with an AVR 319
12.8.1 VQ Control (Voltage and Reactive Power Control) of Power Systems 319
12.8.2 Generator Transfer Function 320
12.8.3 Transfer Function of a Generator Plus Load 322
12.8.4 Transfer Function of a Generator under Special Load Conditions 323
12.8.5 Duties of an AVR 324
12.8.6 Transfer Function of a Generator Plus an AVR 325
12.8.7 Transfer Function of the Total Power System Including an AVR and Load 327
12.9 Generator Operation Limit With and Without an AVR in PQ Coordinates 330
12.9.1 Generator Operation without an AVR 330
12.9.2 Generator Operation with an AVR 330

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12.9.3 Charging Transmission Lines with a Generator with and without an AVR 331
12.9.3.1 Charging Lines with a Generator without an AVR 331
12.9.3.2 Charging Lines with a Generator with an AVR 331
12.10 VQ (Voltage and Reactive Power) Control with an AVR 332
12.10.1 Reactive Power Distribution for Multiple Generators and Cross-Current Control 332
12.10.2 Pf Control and VQ Control 334

13 Induction Generators and Motors (Induction Machines) 337

13.1 Introduction to Induction Motors and Generators 337
13.2 Doubly Fed Induction Generators and Motors 337
13.2.1 abc-Domain Voltages and Currents Equations 337
13.2.2 dq0-Domain Transformed Equations 342
13.2.3 Phasor Expressions for dq0-domain Transformed Equations 349
13.2.4 IM Driving Power and Torque 351
13.2.5 Steady-State Operation 354
13.3 Squirrel-Cage Induction Motors 355
13.3.1 Circuit Equations 355
13.3.2 Torque-Speed Characteristics Equation for a Squirrel-Cage Induction Machine 358
13.3.3 Reverse, Startup, and Ordinary Running and Overspeed Operating Ranges 359
13.3.4 Torque, Air-Gap Flux, Speed, and Power as the Basis of Power-Electronic Control 360
13.3.5 Startup Operation 365
13.3.6 Rated-Speed Operation 365
13.3.7 Overspeed Operation and Braking Operation 365
13.4 Proportional Relations of Mechanical Quantities and Electrical Quantities as a Basis of Power-Electronic
Control 367

14 Directional Distance Relays and R–X Diagrams 371

14.1 Overview of Protective Relays 371
14.1.1 The Missions and Duties of Protective Relays 371
14.1.2 Classification of Relays 372
14.2 Directional Distance Relays (DZ-Ry) and R–X Coordinate Plane 372
14.2.1 Fundamental Algorithms of Directional Distance Relays 373
14.2.2 R–X Coordinates (R–X Diagram) and P–Q Coordinates 374
14.2.3 R–X Characteristics and Algorithms of Distance Relays 374
14.3 R–X Diagram Locus under Fault Conditions 375
14.3.1 Directional Distance Relay(44S-1, 2, 3 Relays) for Line-to-Line Fault Detection 375
14.3.2 Directional-Distance Relay(44G-Relays) for Line-to-Ground Fault Detection 378
14.3.3 Behavior of 44G-Relays against Line-to-Line Short-Circuit Faults 381
14.3.4 Directional-Grounding Relay (67G-Relays) for a High-Impedance Neutral Grounded System 381
14.4 Impedance Locus under Ordinary Load Conditions and Step-Out Conditions 381
14.4.1 Impedance Locus under Ordinary Load Conditions 381
14.4.2 Impedance Locus under Transient Conditions 383
14.4.2.1 The Circle Locus When k = Er/Es Is Changed Under Fixed δ (the k-circles) 384
14.4.2.2 The Circle Locus When δ Is Changed from 0 to 360 under Fixed k (the δ-circles) 384
14.4.3 The Impedance Locus under Step-Out Conditions 384
14.4.4 Step-Out Detection with Directional Distance Relays 385
14.5 Impedance Locus Under Faults with Load-Flow Conditions 385
14.6 Loss of Excitation Detection by Distance Relays (40-Relay) 386

15 Lightning and Switching Surge Phenomena and Breaker Switching 391

15.1 Traveling Wave on a Transmission Line, and Equations 391
15.1.1 Traveling-Wave Equations 391
15.1.2 The Ideal (No-Loss) Line 393
15.1.3 The Distortion-Less Line 394

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15.1.4 Laplace Transformed Solution of Voltage and Current 396

15.2 Four-Terminal Network Equations between Two Arbitrary Points 398
15.3 Examination of Line Constants 399
15.3.1 Overhead Transmission-Line Constants 399
15.3.2 Power-Cable Constants 400
15.3.3 Approximation of Distributed-Constants Circuits and Accuracy of
Concentrated-Constants Circuits 401
15.4 Behavior of Traveling Waves at Transition Points 401
15.4.1 Incident Wave, Transmitted Wave, and Reflected Wave at a Transition Point 401
15.4.2 Voltage and Current Traveling Waves at Typical Transition Points 403
15.5 Surge Overvoltages and Their Three Different, Confusing Notations 404
15.6 Behavior of Traveling Waves at a Lightning-Strike Point 406
15.7 Traveling Wave Phenomena of Three-Phase Transmission Lines 408
15.7.1 Surge Impedance of Three-Phase Lines 408
15.7.2 Symmetrical Coordinate Analysis of Lightning Strikes 409
15.7.3 Line-to-Ground and Line-to-Line Traveling Waves 410
15.8 Reflection Lattices and Transient Behavior Modes 413
15.8.1 Reflection Lattices 413
15.8.2 Oscillatory and Non-oscillatory Convergence 414
15.9 Switching Surge Phenomena Caused by Breakers Tripping 415
15.9.1 Calculating Fault-Current Tripping (Single-Phase, Single-Source Circuit) 416
15.9.2 Calculating Fault-Current Tripping (Double Power Source Circuit) 419
15.9.3 Breaker TRV and RRRV 423
15.10 Breaker Phase Voltages and Recovery Voltages after Fault Tripping 424
15.11 Three-Phase Breaker TRVs across Independent Poles 426
15.11.1 First Pole Tripping 426
15.11.2 Second- and Third-Pole Tripping 429
15.12 Circuit Breakers and Switching Practices 432
15.12.1 Fundamentals of Breakers 432
15.12.2 Terminology of Switching Phenomena 433
15.12.3 Short-Circuit Current (Lagging Power-Factor Current) Tripping 435
15.12.4 Leading Power-Factor Small-Current Tripping 436
15.12.5 Short-Distance Line Fault Tripping (SLF) 441
15.12.6 Current-Chopping Phenomena with Small Current Tripping and Lagging Power Factor 442
15.12.7 Step-Out Tripping 444
15.12.8 Current-Zero Missing 444
15.12.9 Overvoltages Caused by Breaker Closing (Close-Switching Surge) 445
15.12.10 Resistive Tripping and Resistive Closing by Circuit Breakers 447
15.12.11 Standardized Switching Surge Level Requested by EHV/UHV Breakers 447
15.12.12 Overvoltage Reduction with Resistive Tripping 448
15.12.13 Overvoltage Reduction with Resistive Closing 450
15.13 Switching Surge Caused by Line Switches (Disconnecting Switches) 452
15.14 Surge Phenomena Caused on Power Cable Systems 454
15.15 Lightning Surge Caused on Cable Lines 456
15.16 Switching Surge Caused on Cable Lines 458
15.17 Surge Voltages Caused on Cables and GIS Jointed Points 459

16 Overvoltage Phenomena 463

16.1 Neutral-Grounding Methods 463
16.2 Arc-Suppression Coil (Petersen Coil) Neutral-Grounded Method 467
16.3 Overvoltages Caused by a Line-to-Ground Fault 467
16.4 Other Low-Frequency Overvoltage Phenomena (Non-resonant Phenomena) 469
16.4.1 Ferranti Effect 469
16.4.2 Overvoltage Due to Transmission Line Charging 469

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16.4.3 Self-Excitation of Generators 471

16.4.4 Sudden Load Tripping or Load Failure 471
16.5 Lower-Frequency Resonant Overvoltages 472
16.5.1 Positive-Sequence Series Resonance 472
16.5.2 Series Resonance under Temporary Conditions (Faults, Phase Opening, Reclosing Time, etc.) 473
16.5.3 Transformer Winding Resonant Oscillation Triggered by Switching Surges 474
16.5.4 Ferroresonance Caused by Core Saturation 474
16.6 Interrupted Ground Fault of a Cable Line in a Neutral-Ungrounded System 475
16.7 Switching Surge Overvoltages 475
16.7.1 Overvoltages Caused by Breakers Closing (Breaker-Closing Surge) 476
16.7.2 Overvoltages Caused by Breakers Tripping (Breaker-Tripping Surge) 476
16.7.3 Switching Surges Caused by Line Switches 477
16.8 Overvoltage Phenomena Caused by Lightning Strikes 477
16.8.1 Direct Strike on Phase Conductors (Direct Flashover) 477
16.8.2 Direct Strike on an OGW or Tower Structure (Inverse Flashover) 478
16.8.3 Induced Strokes (Electrostatic-Induced Strokes and Electromagnetic-Induced Strokes) 479
16.8.4 Capacitive Induced Lightning Surges 479
16.8.5 Inductive Induced Lightning Surges 480

17 Insulation Coordination 481

17.1 Overvoltages as Insulation Stresses 481
17.2 Classification of Overvoltages 483
17.2.1 Maximum Continuous (Power-Frequency) Overvoltages: Us 483
17.2.2 TOVs and Representative TOVs: Urp 484
17.2.2.1 Single Line-to-Ground Faults 484
17.2.2.2 Load Rejection 484
17.2.2.3 Loss of Neutral Grounding 484
17.2.3 Slow-Front Overvoltages 485
17.2.4 Fast-Front Overvoltages 485
17.2.5 Very Fast-Front Overvoltages 485
17.3 Fundamental Process of Insulation Coordination 486
17.3.1 Insulation Coordination 486
17.3.2 Specific Principles of Insulation Strength and Breakdown 486
17.3.2.1 Insulation Design Criteria for Overhead Transmission Lines 486
17.3.2.2 Insulation Design Criteria for Substation and Substation Apparatus 487
17.3.2.3 Insulation Design Criteria for Power Cable Line 487
17.4 Countermeasures on Transmission Lines to Reduce Overvoltages and Flashover 487
17.4.1 Using Plural OGWs and OPGWs 487
17.4.2 Reasonable Allocation and Air Clearances for Conductors and Grounding Wires 488
17.4.3 Reduction of Tower Surge Impedance 488
17.4.4 Using Arcing Horns (Arcing Rings) 488
17.5 Tower-Mounted Arrester Devices 489
17.6 Using Unequal Circuit Insulation (Double-Circuit Lines) 490
17.7 Using High-Speed Reclosing 490
17.8 Overvoltage Protection with Arresters at Substations 491
17.8.1 Surge Protection Using Metal–Oxide Surge Arresters 491
17.8.2 Metal–Oxide Arresters 493
17.8.3 Arrester Ratings, Classification, and Selection 496
17.8.4 Separation Effects of Station Arresters 497
17.9 Station Protection Using OGWs and Reduced Grounding Resistance 499
17.9.1 Direct Lightning Strikes on Substations 499
17.9.2 OGWs in the Station Area 499
17.9.3 Reduction of Station Grounding Resistance and Surge Impedance 499

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17.10 Insulation Coordination Details 501

17.10.1 Definitions and Principal Topics in the Standards 501
17.10.2 Insulation Configuration 503
17.10.3 Insulation Withstanding Level and BIL, BSL 503
17.10.4 Standard Insulation Levels and Principles 504
17.10.5 Insulation Levels for Power Systems under 245 kV 504
17.10.6 Insulation Levels for Power Systems over 245 kV 508
17.10.7 Evaluating the Degree of Insulation Coordination 509
17.10.8 Insulation of Power Cables 509
17.11 Transfer Surge Voltages through Transformers, and Generator Protection 509
17.11.1 Electrostatic Transfer Surge Voltage (Single-Phase Transformers) 510
17.11.2 Electrostatic Transfer Surge Voltage (Three-Phase Transformers) 512
17.11.3 Transfer Voltage Caused at the Generator Terminal Side 516
17.11.4 Transfer-Surge Protection 517
17.11.5 Electromagnetic Transfer Voltage 518
17.12 Transformer Internal High-Frequency Voltage Oscillation Phenomena 518
17.12.1 Equivalent Circuit of a Transformer in the HF Domain 518
17.12.2 Transient Oscillatory Voltages Caused by Incident Surges 518
17.12.3 Reducing Internal Oscillatory Voltages (Non-oscillatory Windings) 523
17.13 Oil-Filled Transformers Versus Gas-Filled Transformers 524

18 Harmonics and Waveform Distortion Phenomena 527

18.1 Classification of Harmonics and Waveform Distortion 527
18.2 Impact of Harmonics 527
18.2.1 Generators and Industrial Motors 527
18.2.2 Nonlinear Loads 529
18.3 Harmonic Phenomena Caused by Power Cable Line Faults 529
18.3.1 Transient Current Equation 529
18.3.1.1 Step 1 529
18.3.1.2 Step 2 530
18.3.2 Transient Fault Current 532
18.3.3 Waveform Distortion and the Impact on Protective Relays 534

19 Power Electronic Applications, Part 1: Devices535

19.1 Fundamental Concepts of Power Electronics 535
19.2 Power Switching with Power Devices 535
19.3 Snubber Circuit 539
19.4 Voltage Conversion with Switching 540
19.5 Power Electronics Devices 542
19.5.1 Classification and Features of Power Semiconductors 542
19.5.2 Diodes 542
19.5.3 Thyristors 542
19.5.4 Gate Turn-Off (GTO) Thyristor 544
19.5.5 Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) or Power Transistor 544
19.5.6 Power Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistors (MOSFET) 546
19.5.7 Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistors (IGBT) 546
19.5.8 Intelligent Power Modules (IPM) 547
19.6 Mathematical Background for Analyzing Power Electronics Applications 547
19.6.1 Fourier Series Expansion 547
19.6.2 Averaged Value and Effective Value of Arbitrary Waveform Quantities 548
19.6.3 Power, Power Factor, and Distortion Factor of Arbitrary Waveforms 548
19.6.4 Repetitive On-Off Switching of DC-Quantities 549
19.6.5 Alternate Rectangular Waveform 549

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19.6.6 Alternate Rectangular Waveform with Switch-On at α and Switch-Off at β 551

19.6.7 Power of Waveform Distorted Voltage and Current 552

20 Power Electronics Applications, Part 2: Circuit Theory553

20.1 AC-to-DC Conversion: A Rectifier with a Diode 553
20.1.1 Single-Phase Rectifier with Pure Resistive Load R 553
20.1.2 Inductive Load and the Role of Series-Connected Inductance L 554
20.1.3 Roles of Freewheeling Diodes and Current-Smoothing Reactors 556
20.1.4 Single-Phase Diode Bridge Full-Wave Rectifier 557
20.1.5 Roles of Voltage-Smoothing Capacitors 558
20.1.6 Three-Phase Half-Bridge Rectifiers 559
20.1.7 Current Overlapping 560
20.1.8 Three-Phase Full-Bridge Rectifiers 561
20.2 AC-to-DC Controlled Conversion: Rectifier with a Thyristor 562
20.2.1 Single-Phase Half-Bridge Rectifier with a Thyristor 562
20.2.2 Single-Phase Full-Bridge Rectifier with a Thyristor 565
20.2.3 Three-Phase Full-Bridge Rectifier with Thyristors 567
20.2.4 Higher Harmonics and the Ripple Ratio 568
20.2.5 Commutating Reactance: Effects of Source-Side Reactance 570
20.3 DC-to-DC Converters (DC-to-DC Choppers) 571
20.3.1 Voltage Step-Down Converters (Buck Choppers) 571
20.3.2 Step-Up (Boost) Converters (Boost Choppers) 573
20.3.3 Buck-Boost Converters (Step-Down/Step-Up Converters) 575
20.3.4 Two- and Four-Quadrant Converters (Composite Choppers) 576
20.3.5 Pulse-Width Modulation Control (PWM) of a DC-DC Converter 577
20.3.6 Multiphase Converters 578
20.4 DC-to-AC Inverters 579
20.4.1 Overview of Inverters 579
20.4.2 Single-Phase Inverters 579
20.4.3 Three-Phase Inverters 582
20.5 PWM Control of Inverters 583
20.5.1 Principles of PWM Control (Triangle Modulation) 584
20.5.2 Another PWM Control Scheme (Tolerance Band Control) 586
20.6 AC-to-AC Converters (Cycloconverters) 587

21 Power Electronics Applications, Part 3: Control Theory589

21.1 Introduction 589
21.2 Driving Motors 589
21.2.1 Induction Motor (IM) Driving Control 589
21.2.2 Volts per Hertz (V/f) Control (or AVAF Inverter Control) 591
21.2.3 Constant Torque and Constant Speed Control 593
21.2.4 Space Vector PWM Control of IMs (Sinusoidal Control Method) 593
21.2.5 Space Vector PWM Control (Rotor-Flux Oriented Control) 596
21.2.6 dq-Sequence Currents PWM Control (Sinusoidal Control) 597
21.3 Static Var Compensators (SVC: A Thyristor-Based Approach) 597
21.3.1 SVCs 597
21.3.2 TCR and TCC 598
21.3.3 Asymmetrical Control Method with PWM Control for SVC 600
21.3.4 Statcom or SVG 600
21.4 Active Filters 603
21.4.1 Basic Concepts of Active Filters 603
21.4.2 Active Filtering with the dq Method 605
21.4.3 Vector PWM Control Based on the dq Method 607

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21.4.4 Converter Modeling as a dq Coordinates Laplace Transfer Function 607

21.4.5 Active Filter Using the PQ Method or αβ Method 609
21.5 Generator Excitation Systems 609
21.6 Adjustable-Speed Pumped-Storage Generator-Motor Units 610
21.7 Wind Generation 615
21.7.1 Wind Generators 618
21.7.2 Gearless Wind Turbine with Double-Fed IGs 618
21.8 Small Hydro Generation 618
21.9 Solar Generation (Photovoltaic Generation) 619
21.10 High-Voltage DC Transmission (HVDC Transmission) 621
21.11 FACTS Technology 625
21.11.1 Overview of FACTS 625
21.11.2 Thyristor Controlled or Protected Series Capacitors (SCs) 625
21.12 Railway Applications 627
21.12.1 Railway Substation System 627
21.12.2 Electric Train Engine Motor-Driving System 628
21.13 Uninterruptible Power Supplies 628
Appendix A Mathematical Formulae 631
Appendix B Matrix Equation Formulae 635

Part B Digital Computation Theories 639

22 Digital Computation Basics 641

22.1 Introduction 641
22.2 Network Types 642
22.2.1 Active Elements and Passive Elements 642
22.2.1.1 Independent Sources 642
22.2.1.2 Dependent Sources 643
22.2.1.3 Source Transformation 644
22.2.2 Linear Elements and Nonlinear Elements 644
22.2.3 Bilateral Elements and Unilateral Elements 645
22.3 Circuit Elements 645
22.3.1 Resistors 645
22.3.1.1 Current-Divider Rule 646
22.3.1.2 Voltage-Divider Rule 646
22.3.1.3 Resistivity 647
22.3.2 Inductors 648
22.3.3 Capacitors 649
22.3.4 R–L–C Networks 650
22.3.4.1 Parallel Connection of a Resistor and Inductor (RL Network) 651
22.3.4.2 Parallel Connection of a Resistor and Capacitor (RC Network) 651
22.3.5 Circuit with Lumped Elements 653
22.4 Ohm’s Law 653
22.5 Kirchhoff’s Circuit Laws 655
22.5.1 Kirchhoff’s Current Law 655
22.5.2 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law 655
22.5.2.1 Limitations 656
22.6 Electrical Division Principle 656
22.6.1 Current Division 656
22.6.2 Voltage Division 657
22.7 Instantaneous, Average, and RMS Values 657
22.7.1 Root Mean Square 658

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22.8 Nodal Formulation 658

22.8.1 Superposition Theorem 658
22.8.2 Nodal Analysis 660
22.8.3 Mesh Analysis 661
22.9 Procedure for Mesh Analysis 662
22.9.1 Equivalent Circuits 663
22.9.1.1 Series Equivalent Circuits 663
22.9.1.2 Parallel Equivalent Circuits 664
22.10 Norton’s and Thévenin’s Equivalents 664
22.10.1 Thévenin’s Theorem 664
22.10.2 Norton’s Theorem 666
22.11 Maximum Power Transfer Theorem 668
22.11.1 Proof of the Maximum Power Transfer Theorem 668
22.11.1.1 Condition for Maximum Power Transfer 668
22.11.1.2 Maximum Power Transfer Value 668
22.11.1.3 Efficiency of Maximum Power Transfer 669
22.12 Linear System Mathematics 670
22.12.1 Matrix Algebra 670
22.12.2 Matrix Types 670
22.12.3 Matrix Addition and Subtraction 671
22.12.4 Matrix Multiplication 671
22.12.5 Matrix Determinant 672
22.12.6 Triangle Matrix – Lower (L) and Upper (U) 672
22.12.7 Matrix Inversion 673
22.12.8 Adjugate and Cofactor of a Matrix 674
22.13 Network Topology 675
22.13.1 Basic Terminology of Network Topology 675
22.13.1.1 Graphs 675
22.13.2 Types of Graphs 676
22.13.2.1 Connected Graphs 676
22.13.2.2 Unconnected Graphs 676
22.13.2.3 Directed Graph 677
22.13.2.4 Undirected Graphs 677
22.13.2.5 Subgraphs and Their Types 677
22.13.3 Tree 677
22.13.4 Co-Trees 677
22.13.5 Matrix Operations 678
22.13.5.1 Cramer’s Rule 678
22.13.5.2 Gaussian Elimination 679
22.13.6 Gauss–Jordan Elimination 680
22.13.7 LU Factorization 680
22.13.8 LU Factorization with Partial Inversion or Pivoting 681
22.13.9 LU Factorization with Complete Inversion 681
22.14 Power System Matrices 681
22.14.1 Incidence Matrices 682
22.14.1.1 Procedure to Find the Incidence Matrix 682
22.14.2 Fundamental Loop Matrices 682
22.14.2.1 Procedure to Find the Fundamental Loop Matrix 683
22.14.3 Fundamental Cut-Set Matrices 683
22.14.3.1 Procedure to Find the Fundamental Cut-Set Matrix 684
22.14.4 Algorithms for Formation of Network Matrices 684
22.14.5 Singular Transformation 686
22.14.6 Bus Admittance Matrix Using Nodal Analysis 688
22.14.6.1 Building the YBUS Matrix 690

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22.14.7 Sparse Matrix Techniques 691

22.15 Transformer Modeling 692
22.15.1 An Ideal Transformer 692
22.15.2 Three-Phase Transformer Model 693
22.15.3 Scott-T Connected Transformer 694
22.15.4 Le-Blanc Connected Transformer 695
22.16 Transmission Line Modeling 696
22.16.1 Modeling Long Transmission Lines 697
22.16.2 Lumped Parametric Π Equivalent Circuits of Transmission Lines 698
22.16.3 Short-Length Line 698
22.16.4 Medium-Length Line 699
22.16.5 Load Modeling 699

23 Power-Flow Methods 701

23.1 Newton–Raphson Method 701
23.2 Gauss–Seidel Method 702
23.3 Adaptive Newton–Raphson Method 703
23.4 Fast-Decoupled Method 703

24 Short-Circuit Methods 705

24.1 ANSI/IEEE Calculation Methods 705
24.1.1 ½ Cycle Network 705
24.1.2 1.5–4 Cycle Network 705
24.1.3 30 Cycle Network 706
24.1.4 ANSI Multiplication Factor 707
24.1.4.1 Local and Remote Contributions 707
24.1.4.2 No AC Decay Ratio 707
24.1.5 Momentary (1/2 Cycle) Short-Circuit Current Calculation (Buses and High-Voltage Circuit
Breakers (HVCB)) 707
24.1.6 High-Voltage Circuit Breaker Interrupting Duty Calculation 708
24.1.6.1 Contact Parting Time 708
24.1.6.2 S Factor 708
24.1.7 Low-voltage Circuit Breaker Interrupting Duty Calculation 710
24.1.8 Fuse Interrupting Short-circuit Current Calculation 711
24.1.9 Center-Tap Transformer Impedance Model for a One-Phase Short Circuit 711
24.1.10 Short-Circuit Calculations Using Constant-Current Sources 712
24.1.10.1 Current-Limiting Functionality 712
24.1.10.2 FRT Model Page – Reactive Current Control 717
24.1.11 SC Model for Constant-Current Sources During Unbalanced Faults 718
24.2 IEC Calculation Methods 719
24.2.1 General Description of Calculation Methodology 719
24.2.2 Definition of Terms 720
24.2.2.1 Initial Symmetrical Short-Circuit Current (I k) 720
24.2.2.2 Peak Short-Circuit Current (Ip) 720
24.2.2.3 Symmetrical Short-Circuit Breaking Current (Ib) 720
24.2.2.4 Steady-State Short-Circuit Current (Ik) 720
24.2.2.5 Subtransient Voltage (E ) of a Synchronous Machine 720
24.2.2.6 Far-from-Generator Short-Circuit 720
24.2.2.7 Near-to-Generator Short-Circuit 720
24.2.2.8 Subtransient Reactance (Xd ) of a Synchronous Machine 720
24.2.2.9 Minimum Time Delay (Tmin) of a Circuit Breaker 720
24.2.2.10 Voltage Factor c 721
24.2.3 Initial Symmetrical Short-Circuit Current Calculation 721

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24.2.4 Peak Short-Circuit Current Calculation 721

24.2.5 Symmetrical Short-Circuit Breaking Current Calculation 722
24.2.6 DC Component of Short-Circuit Current Calculation 722
24.2.7 Asymmetrical Short-Circuit Breaking Current Calculation 722
24.2.8 Steady-State Short-Circuit Current Calculation 722
24.2.9 Meshed and Non-Meshed Networks 723
24.2.10 Adjustment of Ib 723
24.2.11 Modeling Power-Station Units 723
24.2.12 Network Bus, Connecting Bus, and Auxiliary System Bus for a Power-Station Unit 723
24.2.13 Wind Power-Station Units 723
24.2.14 Power-Station Units with Full-Size Converters 724
24.2.15 IEC Short-Circuit Mesh Determination Method 725
24.2.15.1 Meshed/Non-Meshed Systems 725
24.2.16 Comparison of Device Rating and Short-Circuit Duty 726
24.2.17 Calculating IEC Device Capability 726

25 Harmonics 729
25.1 Problem Formulation 729
25.1.1 Characteristic Harmonic Currents 731
25.1.2 Interharmonics 732
25.1.3 Subharmonics 732
25.2 Methodology and Standards 733
25.2.1 Ideal Current Source 734
25.2.2 Thévenin/Norton Equivalent Sources 734
25.3 Harmonic Indices 735
25.3.1 Harmonic Factor 735
25.3.2 Individual Harmonic Distortion (IHD) 736
25.3.3 Arithmetic Summation (ASUM) 736
25.3.4 Telephone Influence Factor 736
25.3.5 I∗T Product 737
25.3.6 kVT Product 737
25.3.7 C Message 737
25.3.8 Telephone Form Factor (TFF) 737
25.3.9 Distortion Index (DIN) 738
25.3.10 Total Interharmonic Distortion (TIHD) 738
25.3.11 Total Subharmonic Distortion (TSHD) 738
25.3.12 Group Total Harmonic Distortion (THDG) 738
25.3.13 Subgroup Total Harmonic Distortion (THDS) 739
25.3.14 Harmonic Power Factor 739
25.4 Harmonic Component Modeling 740
25.4.1 Harmonic Current Sources 740
25.4.1.1 Harmonic Voltage Sources 741
25.5 Power System Components 741
25.5.1 Long Transmission Lines and Cables 741
25.5.2 Short-Line Model 742
25.5.3 Synchronous Generators 742
25.5.4 Induction Machines 742
25.5.5 Conventional Loads 743
25.6 System Resonance 743
25.7 Harmonic Mitigation 744
25.7.1 Passive Filters 745
25.7.2 Zigzag Grounding Transformers 746
25.7.3 Multiple Rectifier Bridges and Transformer Phase Shifting 747

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25.7.4 Three-Rectifier Arrangement 748

25.7.4.1 Four-Rectifier Arrangement 748

26 749
Reliability
26.1 Methodology and Standards 749
26.2 Performance Indices 752

27 Numerical Integration Methods 755

27.1 Accuracy 755
27.2 Stability 755
27.3 Stiffness 757
27.4 Predictor–Corrector 757
27.5 Runge–Kutta 758

28 Optimization 761
28.1 Power-Flow Injections 761
28.2 Voltage Magnitude Constraints 762
28.3 Line-Flow Thermal Constraints 762
28.4 Line-Flow Constraints as Current Limitations 763
28.5 Line-Flow Constraints as Voltage Angle Constraints 763

Part C Analytical Practices and Examples using ETAP 765

29 Introduction to Power System Analysis 767

29.1 Planning Studies 767
29.2 Need for Power-System Analysis 768
29.3 Computers in Power Engineering 768
29.4 Study Approach 768
29.5 Operator Training 772
29.6 System Reliability and Maintenance 772
29.7 Electrical Transient Analyzer Program (ETAP) 772
29.7.1 Virtual Reality Operation 772
29.7.2 Total Integration of Data 772
29.7.3 One-Line Diagrams 773
29.7.4 Simplicity in Data Entry 773
29.7.5 Multidimensional Database 773
29.7.6 Other ETAP Analysis Modules 775

30 One-Line Diagrams 777

30.1 Introduction 777
30.2 Engineering Parameters 777
30.3 One-Line Diagram Symbols 778
30.4 Power-System Configurations 780
30.4.1 Transmission and Distribution Substation Configurations 783
30.4.2 Primary Distribution Configurations 784
30.4.3 Secondary Distribution Configurations 787
30.5 Network Topology Processing 787
30.6 Illustrative Example – Per-Unit and Single-Line Diagram 790

31 Load Flow 791

31.1 Introduction 791
31.2 Study Objectives 791

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31.3 Problem Formulation 792

31.3.1 Generation and Load Bus Modeling 792
31.3.2 Modeling of Loads (ZIP) 793
31.3.2.1 Constant Power (P) Load 793
31.3.2.2 Constant Impedance (Z) Load 793
31.3.2.3 Constant Current (I) Loads 793
31.4 Calculation Methodology 794
31.4.1 Load-Flow Convergence 795
31.4.1.1 Negative Impedance 796
31.4.1.2 Negative Reactance 796
31.4.1.3 Zero or Very Small Impedance 796
31.4.1.4 Widely Different Branch Impedance Values 796
31.4.1.5 Long Radial System Configurations 796
31.4.1.6 Bad Bus Voltage Initial Values 796
31.5 Required Data for ETAP 796
31.6 Data Collection and Preparation 797
31.7 Model Validation 797
31.8 Study Scenarios 799
31.9 Contingency Analysis 800
31.9.1 Bus Voltage Security Index (PIv/vsp) 800
31.9.2 Real Power Flow Change Index (PIΔP) 800
31.9.3 Reactive Power Flow Change Index (PIΔQ) 800
31.9.4 Branch Overloading Security Index (PIS/Ssp) 801
31.10 Optimal or Optimum Power Flow 801
31.11 Illustrative Examples 803
31.11.1 Example – Load-Flow Study for a Transmission System 803
31.11.1.1 System Modeling 803
31.11.1.2 Load-Flow Study 805
31.11.2 Example – Load-Flow Study for an Industrial System 808
31.11.2.1 System Modeling 808
31.11.2.2 Load-Flow Study 812
31.11.3 Example – Load-Flow Study for a Renewable Energy System 817
31.11.3.1 System Modeling 817
31.11.3.2 Load-Flow Study 821
31.11.4 Example – Impedance and Ampacity of Transmission Lines 824
31.11.4.1 Impedance of Transmission Lines 824
31.11.4.2 Results of Impedance Calculation 824
31.11.4.3 Ampacity of Transmission Lines 824
31.11.4.4 Results of Ampacity Study 830
31.11.5 Example – Cable Ampacity and Cable Sizing for an Industrial System 830
31.11.5.1 Standards 830
31.11.5.2 Ampacity of Feeder Cables 831
31.11.5.3 Results of the Ampacity Study 831
31.11.5.4 Cable-Sizing Study 831
31.11.5.5 Results of Cable Sizing Study 832
31.11.6 Example – Underground Cables for an Industrial System 834
31.11.6.1 Steady-State Temperature Calculation 834
31.11.6.2 Configuration of the Raceway (Duct Bank) 834
31.11.6.3 Required Data 835
31.11.6.4 Results of the Steady-State Temperature Study 835
31.11.7 Example – OPF for a Transmission System 835
31.11.7.1 Objective Conditions and Constraints for Optimization 837
31.11.7.2 Results of the OPF Study 838

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32 Short-Circuit/Fault Analysis 841

32.1 Introduction 841
32.2 Analysis Objectives 841
32.2.1 Problem Formulation 842
32.3 Methodology and Standards 846
32.3.1 Methods 846
32.3.2 Standards 846
32.3.2.1 ANSI/IEEE Standard Methodology 846
32.3.2.2 IEC 60909 Standard Methodology 847
32.3.2.3 IEC 61363 Transient Short-Circuit Calculation 848
32.3.2.4 Open-Phase Fault or Series Fault 849
32.3.3 Calculation Procedure 850
32.3.3.1 Balanced-System Fault 850
32.3.3.2 Comparison of Device Rating and Short-Circuit Duty 852
32.3.3.3 Unbalanced System Fault 852
32.3.4 Required Data for Short-Circuit Analysis 852
32.3.4.1 Bus Data 853
32.3.4.2 Branch Data 853
32.3.4.3 Power Grid Data 853
32.3.4.4 Synchronous Machine Data 853
32.3.4.5 Induction Motor Data 853
32.3.4.6 Lumped Load Data 853
32.3.4.7 Inverter/UPS/VFD Data 854
32.3.4.8 High-Voltage Circuit-Breaker Data 854
32.3.4.9 Low-Voltage Circuit-Breaker Data 854
32.3.4.10 Fuse Data 854
32.3.4.11 Other Data 855
32.4 Study Scenarios 855
32.4.1 SC Contributions 855
32.4.2 Switch/Protective Device Topology 855
32.5 Results and Reports 856
32.5.1 ANSI Standard 856
32.5.2 IEC Standard 856
32.5.3 Bus Alert 856
32.5.4 Protective Device Alert 857
32.5.5 Short Circuit Result Analyzer 858
32.6 Illustrative Examples 858
32.6.1 Sizing Buses and Breakers per ANSI Standard 858
32.6.2 Example – IEC Short Circuit 865
32.6.3 Example – Short Circuit/Fault Analysis for a Transmission System 865
32.6.3.1 Analysis Objectives 865
32.6.3.2 Standards 865
32.6.3.3 Required Data 867
32.6.3.4 Study Scenarios 867
32.6.3.5 Study Conditions 867
32.6.3.6 Results of SC/Fault Analysis 867
32.6.4 Example – Short Circuit/Fault Analysis for an Industrial System 868
32.6.4.1 Analysis Objectives 868
32.6.4.2 Standards 868
32.6.4.3 Required Data 868
32.6.4.4 Study Scenarios 868
32.6.4.5 Study Conditions 868
32.6.4.6 Results of SC/Fault Analysis 869

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32.6.5 Example – Short Circuit/Fault Analysis for a Renewable Energy System 870
32.6.5.1 Analysis Objectives 870
32.6.5.2 Standards 870
32.6.5.3 Required Data 870
32.6.5.4 Study Scenarios 871
32.6.5.5 Study Conditions 871
32.6.5.6 Results of Short Circuit/Fault Analysis 872
32.6.6 Example – Grounding Grid System for an Industrial System 873
32.6.6.1 Analysis Objective 873
32.6.6.2 Methodology and Standards 873
32.6.6.3 Required Data 876
32.6.6.4 Results of Grounding Grid Study 877

33 Motor Starting 881

33.1 Methods 881
33.1.1 Motor Fundamentals 881
33.1.1.1 Induction Motors 881
33.1.1.2 Synchronous Motors 882
33.1.1.3 Difference Between Synchronous and Induction Motors 883
33.1.2 Motor Rated Power 883
33.1.3 Torque – Speed 883
33.1.4 Motor-Connected Load Types 884
33.1.5 Motor Inrush 886
33.1.6 Motor-Starting Methods 886
33.1.6.1 Direct Across-the-Line Start or Direct Online Starting (DOL) 887
33.1.6.2 Star-Delta Starting 887
33.1.6.3 Rotor Resistance Starting 887
33.1.6.4 Reactor Starting 888
33.1.6.5 Auto-Transformer Starting 888
33.1.6.6 Comparison Table 889
33.1.7 Motor Inertia 889
33.1.8 Motor Nameplate 890
33.1.9 Electric Motor Standard Comparison 891
33.1.10 Motor and System Frequency Impact 892
33.2 Analysis Objectives 893
33.2.1 Voltage Drop 893
33.3 Methodology and Standards 894
33.3.1 Static Motor Starting or Nondynamic Motor Model 894
33.3.1.1 Illustrative Example – Motor Starting 895
33.3.1.2 Illustrative Example – Motor Sizing 896
33.3.1.3 Illustrative Example – Static Starting 896
33.3.1.4 Illustrative Example – Static Starting with an Autotransformer 897
33.3.2 Dynamic Motor Starting 898
33.3.2.1 Dynamic Motor Acceleration with Motor Circuit Models 899
33.3.2.2 Torque Slip Characteristic Curve Model 901
33.3.3 Control of Motor Characteristic Curves 901
33.3.4 Transient Stability or Full Network Dynamics 901
33.4 Required Data 902
33.4.1 Additional Data for Starting Motors 903
33.5 Illustrative Examples 903
33.5.1 Static Motor Starting with Load Change 903
33.5.2 Dynamic Motor Starting 904
33.5.3 Motor Starting with VFD 906
33.5.4 Synchronous Motor Starting 908

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33.5.5 Example – Motor-Starting Study for an Industrial System 911

33.5.5.1 Analysis Objectives 911
33.5.5.2 Methodology and Standards 911
33.5.5.3 Required Data 912
33.5.5.4 Dynamic Modeling of Motor Starting (IM-3, 5.45 MW, 4-Pole) 913
33.5.5.5 Results of the Motor-Starting Study 913
33.6 Motor-Starting Plots and Results 913
33.7 Motor-Starting Alerts 916

34 Harmonics 917
34.1 Introduction 917
34.2 Analysis Objectives 919
34.3 Required Data 921
34.3.1 Harmonic Spectrum Data 922
34.3.2 Effect of kVA and Source Impedance 922
34.4 Harmonic Load Flow and Frequency Scan 923
34.5 Illustrative Examples 924
34.5.1 Example – Harmonic Study for an Industrial System 924
34.5.1.1 Analysis Objectives 924
34.5.1.2 Required Data 924
34.5.1.3 Results of the Harmonic Study 924
34.5.2 Effect of Capacitors on System Resonance and Distortion 927
34.5.3 Harmonic Mitigation – Passive Filters 931
34.5.4 Harmonic Cancelation Using Transformer Phase Shift 933

35 Transient Stability939
35.1 Introduction 939
35.2 Analysis Objectives 940
35.3 Basic Concepts of Transient Stability 942
35.3.1 Stability Limits 943
35.4 Dynamic Models 944
35.4.1 Power Grid 944
35.4.2 Synchronous Machines 944
35.4.2.1 Notations and Symbols 944
35.4.2.2 General Concept of Modeling Synchronous Machines 945
35.4.2.3 Transient Model for Round Rotors 945
35.4.2.4 Subtransient Model for Round Rotors 945
35.4.2.5 Subtransient Model for Salient-pole (IEEE 2.1) 945
35.4.2.6 Subtransient Model for Salient-pole (IEEE 2.2) 946
35.4.2.7 Frequency-Dependent Model 947
35.4.2.8 Excitation System 947
35.4.2.9 Governor-Turbines 948
35.4.2.10 Power System Stabilizers 949
35.4.2.11 Shaft Torsion 949
35.4.3 Induction Machines 949
35.4.3.1 Single1 Model 949
35.4.3.2 Single2 Model 950
35.4.3.3 Double-Cage Model (DBL1) 951
35.4.3.4 Double-Cage Model (DBL2) 953
35.4.3.5 Frequency-Dependent Model 953
35.4.3.6 Shaft Torsion Model 954
35.4.3.7 Load Model 955
35.4.4 Wind Turbine Generators 955
35.4.4.1 Type 1 – Induction Generator 955

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35.4.4.2 Type 2 – Induction Generator with Variable Slip 956

35.4.4.3 Type 3 – Doubly Fed Induction Generator 957
35.4.4.4 Type 4 – Full-Scale Power Converter 961
35.4.5 Inverter (PV Array Inverter) 966
35.4.6 Uninterruptible Power Supplies 966
35.4.7 Variable Frequency Drives 966
35.4.8 Dynamic Lumped Motor Load Model 966
35.4.9 Protection Relays 966
35.5 User-Defined Models 967
35.6 Parameter Tuning 967
35.6.1 Inertial Components 969
35.6.2 Integral Components 970
35.6.3 Inertial-Differential Components 970
35.7 Single-Generator Power System Model 971
35.8 Data Collection and Preparation 973
35.9 Study Scenarios 974
35.9.1 Islanding Study 974
35.9.2 Bus Transfers 975
35.9.3 Load Shedding 975
35.10 Stability Improvement 977
35.11 System Simulation 977
35.11.1 Events 977
35.11.2 Results, Reports, and Plots 979
35.12 Illustrative Examples 979
35.12.1 Determine Critical Fault-Clearing Time (IEEE 9-Bus System) 979
35.12.1.1 Second Run 980
35.12.1.2 Third Run 980
35.12.1.3 Fourth Run 980
35.12.1.4 Fifth Run 980
35.12.1.5 Conclusions 984
35.12.1.6 Final Run 984
35.12.2 Stability Analysis of an Industrial Facility 984
35.12.2.1 Steps 984
35.12.2.2 Run the TS Study (First Time) 985
35.12.2.3 Rerun the TS Study (Second Run) 985
35.12.2.4 Modify the Study Case to Simulate a Bus Transfer 985
35.12.2.5 Rerun the TS Study (Third Run) 985
35.12.2.6 Use Frequency Relay to Perform Load Shedding 987
35.12.2.7 Rerun the TS Study (Fourth Run) 988
35.12.3 Example – Transient-Stability Analysis for a Transmission System 988
35.12.3.1 Analysis Objectives 989
35.12.3.2 Required Data 989
35.12.3.3 Results of Transient-Stability Analysis 990
35.12.4 Example – Transient-Stability Analysis for an Industrial System 995
35.12.4.1 Analysis Objectives 995
35.12.4.2 Required Data 996
35.12.4.3 Results of Transient-Stability Analysis 997

36 Reliability Assessment 1003

36.1 Introduction 1003
36.2 Analysis Objectives 1003
36.3 Problem Formulation 1004
36.3.1 Generation Reliability Assessment 1004
36.3.2 Transmission Reliability Assessment 1004

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36.3.3 Distribution Reliability Assessment 1005

36.4 Required Data 1005
36.5 Illustrative Examples 1005
36.5.1 Simple Radial System 1005
36.5.2 Single and Double Contingency 1008
36.5.3 Reliability Index Calculation 1011
36.5.4 Example – Reliability Assessment for a Transmission System 1013
36.5.4.1 Analysis Objectives 1013
36.5.4.2 Required Data 1014
36.5.4.3 Study Scenarios 1014
36.5.4.4 Results of Reliability Assessment 1016

37 Protective Device Coordination 1019

37.1 Introduction 1019
37.1.1 Study Criteria 1020
37.1.2 Study Objectives 1020
37.1.3 Low-Voltage Circuit Breakers 1020
37.2 Relays 1022
37.2.1 Electromechanical Relays 1022
37.2.2 Static Relays 1025
37.2.3 Digital Relays 1025
37.2.4 Numerical Relays 1025
37.2.5 Relay Types/Functions 1027
37.2.5.1 Phase Fault Relays 1027
37.2.5.2 Instantaneous Overcurrent Protection (50) 1027
37.2.5.3 Inverse-Time Relays (51) 1027
37.2.5.4 Ground Fault Relays 1027
37.2.5.5 Differential Relays (87) 1028
37.2.5.6 Undervoltage and Overvoltage Relays 1028
37.2.5.7 Directional Relays 1028
37.3 Methodology 1028
37.3.1 Discrimination by Time 1029
37.3.2 Discrimination by Current 1030
37.3.3 Discrimination by Current and Time 1030
37.3.4 Scale Selection 1031
37.3.5 Log–Log Plot 1034
37.4 Required Data 1035
37.5 Principle of Protection 1036
37.6 Principle of Selectivity/Coordination 1037
37.6.1 Selectivity Time Margins 1039
37.7 Art of Protection and Coordination >600 V 1040
37.7.1 Bus Relays 1041
37.7.2 Feeder Relays 1041
37.7.3 Induction Motors 1041
37.7.4 Motor Protection 1042
37.7.5 Cables 1042
37.7.6 Capacitors 1042
37.7.7 Power Transformers 1044
37.7.7.1 Transformer Primary-Phase Fault 1045
37.7.7.2 Transformer Ground Fault 1045
37.7.7.3 Transformer Primary Ground 1046
37.7.7.4 Transformer Primary Fuse Phase 1046
37.7.7.5 Transformer Secondary, Low-Resistance Grounded 1047
37.7.7.6 Transformer Secondary, Solid Grounded 1047

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37.7.7.7 Primary Neutral (YD) 1048

37.7.7.8 Directional Overcurrent 1048
37.8 Illustrative Examples 1048
37.8.1 Basic Operation and Phase Protection 1048
37.8.2 Illustrative Example – Ground Fault Protection 1063
37.8.3 Evaluating Phase and Ground Settings Using a Sequence of Operation 1064
37.8.4 Illustrative Example – Star Auto-Evaluation 1068
Appendix C Standards, Regulations, and Best Practice 1071

Further Reading 1083

Index 1085

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