2.

2 PERMANENT WAY

PERMANENT WAY

The track or permanent way is the railroad on which trains run. It consists of two parallel
rails fastened to sleepers with a specified distance between them. The sleepers are embedded
in a layer of ballast of specified thickness spread over level ground known as formation. The
ballast provides a uniform level surface and drainage, and transfers the load to a larger area of
the formation. The rails are joined in series by fish plates and bolts and these are fastened to
the sleepers with various types of fittings. The sleepers are spaced at a specified distance and
are held in position by the ballast. Each component of the track has a specific function to
perform. The rails act as girders to transmit the wheel load of trains to the sleepers. The sleepers
hold the rails in their proper positions, provide a correct gauge with the help of fittings and
fastenings, and transfer the load to the ballast. The formation takes the total load of the track
as well as of the trains moving on it. The permanent way or track, therefore, consists of the
rails, sleepers, fittings and fastenings, the ballast, and the formation as shown in the fig. 1.

Fig. 1 Component parts of a Permanent Way

Requirements of an Ideal Permanent Way

A permanent way or track should provide a comfortable and safe ride at the maximum
permissible speed with minimum maintenance cost. To achieve these objectives, a sound
permanent way should have the following characteristics.
1) The gauge should be correct and uniform.
2) The rails should have perfect cross levels. In curves, the outer rail should have a proper
superelevation to take into account the centrifugal force.
3) The alignment should be straight and free of kinks. In the case of curves, a proper
transition should be provided between the straight track and the curve.
4) The gradient should be uniform and as gentle as possible. The change of gradient should
be followed by a proper vertical curve to provide a smooth ride.
5) The track should be resilient and elastic in order to absorb the shocks and vibrations of
running trains.
6) The track should have a good drainage system so that the stability of the track is not
affected by waterlogging.
7) The track should have good lateral strength so that it can maintain its stability despite
variations in temperature and other such factors.
8) There should be provisions for easy replacement and renewal of the various track
components.
 9) The track should have such a structure that not only is its initial cost low, but also its
maintenance cost is minimum.

RAIL JOINTS

A rail joint is the weakest link in the track. At a joint, there is a break in the continuity of
the rail in both the horizontal and the vertical planes because of the presence of the expansion
gap and imperfection in the levels of rail heads.

Requirements of an Ideal Rail Joint

The ideal rail joint is one that provides the same strength and stiffness as the parent rail.
The characteristics of an ideal rail joint are briefly summarized here.
1) Holding the rail ends: An ideal rail joint should hold both the rail ends in their precise
location in the horizontal as well as the vertical planes to provide as much continuity in
the track as possible. This helps in avoiding wheel jumping or the deviation of the wheel
from its normal path of movement.
2) Strength: An ideal rail joint should have the same strength and stiffness as the parent
rails it joins.
3) Expansion gap: The joint should provide an adequate expansion gap for the free
expansion and contraction of rails caused by changes in temperature.
4) Flexibility: An ideal rail joint should provide flexibility for the easy replacement of
rails, whenever required.
5) Provision for wear: An ideal rail joint should provide for the wear of the rail ends, which
is likely to occur under normal operating conditions.
6) Elasticity: An ideal rail joint should provide adequate elasticity as well as resistance to
longitudinal forces so as to ensure a trouble-free track.
7) Cost: The initial as well as maintenance costs of an ideal rail joint should be minimal.

Types of Rail Joints

Rail joints can be classified based on the position of sleepers as well as the position of the
joint.

1) Classification According to Position of Sleepers

Three types of rail joints, come under this category.

a) Supported joint: In this type of joint, the ends of the rails are supported directly on the
sleeper. It was expected that supporting the joint would reduce the wear and tear of the rails,
as there would be no cantilever action. In practice, however, the support tends to slightly raise
the height of the rail ends. As such, the run on a supported joint is normally hard. There is also
wear and tear of the sleeper supporting the joint and its maintenance presents quite a problem
[Fig. 2 (a)].
 Fig. 2 (a) Supported Rail Joint

b) Suspended joint: In this type of joint, the ends of the rails are suspended between two
sleepers and some portion of the rail is cantilevered at the joint. As a result of cantilever action,
the packing under the sleepers of the joint becomes loose particularly due to the hammering
action of the moving train loads. Suspended joints are the most common type of joints adopted
on railway systems worldwide, including India [Fig. 2 (b)].

Fig. 2 (b) Suspended Joint

c) Bridge joint: The bridge joint is similar to the suspended joint except that the two
sleepers on either side of a bridge joint are connected by means of a metal flat [Fig. 2 (c)] or a
corrugated plate known as a bridge plate [Fig. 2 (d)]. This type of joint is generally not used
on Indian Railways.

Fig. 2 (c) Bridge joint with metal flat

 Fig. 2 (d) Bridge joint bridge plate

2) Classification Based on the Position of the Joint

Two types of rail joints fall in this category.

a) Square joint: In this case, the joints in one rail are exactly opposite to the joints in the
other rail. This type of joint is most common on Indian Railways [Fig. 2 (e)].

Fig. 2 (e) Square joint

b) Staggered joint: In this case, the joints in one rail are somewhat staggered and are not
opposite the joints in the other rail. Staggered joints are normally preferred on curved tracks
because they hinder the centrifugal force that pushes the track outward [Fig. 2 (f)].

Fig. 2 (f) Staggered joint

CREEP OF RAIL

Creep is defined as the longitudinal movement of the rail with respect to the sleepers. Rails
have a tendency to gradually move in the direction of dominant traffic. Creep is common to all
railway tracks, but its magnitude varies considerably from place to place; the rail may move by
several centimetres in a month at few places, while at other locations the movement may be
almost negligible.

Causes of Creep

The main factors responsible for the development of creep are as follows.
1) Ironing effect of the wheel: The ironing effect of moving wheels on the waves formed
in the rail tends to cause the rail to move in the direction of traffic, resulting in creep.
2) Starting and stopping operations: When a train starts or accelerates, the backward thrust
of its wheels tends to push the rail backwards. Similarly, when the train slows down or comes
to a halt, the effect of the applied brakes tends to push the rail forward. This in turn causes
creep in one direction or the other.
3) Changes in temperature: Creep can also develop due to variations in temperature
resulting in the expansion and contraction of the rail. Creep occurs frequently during hot
weather conditions.
4) Unbalanced traffic: In a double-line section, trains move only in one direction, i.e., each
track is unidirectional. Creep, therefore, develops in the direction of traffic. In a single-line
section, even though traffic moves in both directions, the volume of the traffic in each direction
is normally variable. Creep, therefore, develops in the direction of predominant traffic.
5) Poor maintenance of track: Some minor factors, mostly relating to the poor maintenance
of the track, also contribute to the development of creep. These are as follows.
a) Improper securing of rails to sleepers
b) Limited quantities of ballast resulting in inadequate ballast resistance to the movement
of sleepers
c) Improper expansion gaps
d) Badly maintained rail joints
e) Rail seat wear in metal sleeper track
f) Rails too light for the traffic carried on them
g) Yielding formations that result in uneven cross levels
h) Other miscellaneous factors such as lack of drainage, and loose packing, uneven
spacing of sleepers.

Prevention of Creep

Homework

SLEEPERS

Sleepers are the transverse ties that are laid to support the rails. They have an important
role in the track as they transmit the wheel load from the rails to the ballast. Several types of
sleepers are in use on Indian Railways.

Functions of Sleepers

The main functions of sleepers are as follows.

a) Holding the rails in their correct gauge and alignment.
b) Giving a firm and even support to the rails.
c) Transferring the load evenly from the rails to a wider area of the ballast.
 d) Acting as an elastic medium between the rails and the ballast to absorb the blows and
vibrations caused by moving loads.
e) Providing longitudinal and lateral stability to the permanent way.
f) Providing the means to rectify the track geometry during their service life.

Requirements of an Ideal Sleeper

The ideal sleeper should normally fulfil the following requirements.

a) The initial as well as maintenance cost should be minimum.
b) The weight of the sleeper should be moderate so that it is convenient to handle.
c) The designs of the sleeper and the fastenings should be such that it is possible to fix and
remove the rails easily.
d) The sleeper should have sufficient bearing area so that the ballast under it is not crushed.
e) The sleeper should be such that it is possible to maintain and adjust the gauge properly.
f) The material of the sleeper and its design should be such that it does not break or get
damaged during packing.
g) The design of the sleeper should be such that it is possible to have track circuiting.
h) The sleeper should be capable of resisting vibrations and shocks caused by the passage
of fast moving trains.
i) The sleeper should have anti-sabotage and anti-theft features.

Types of Sleepers

Depending upon the position in a railway track, the sleepers may be classified into the
following two categories:

1) Longitudinal Sleepers
2) Transverse Sleepers

1) Longitudinal Sleepers: These are the early form of sleepers and consisted of slabs of
stones or pieces of timber placed parallel to the rails as shown in fig. 3 (a). The cross pieces
were provided at intervals to maintain the correct gauge of the track.

At present these sleepers are discarded, mainly because of the following reasons:

a) The running of train is not smooth when these sleepers are used.
b) The cost is more.
c) The noise created by the track is more in this case.

2) Transverse Sleepers: The transverse or cross-sleepers were first introduced in Britain

in 1835 and now they are universally adopted. They have become very popular and they can
remove all the disadvantages of the longitudinal sleepers. They are placed at right-angles to the
rails as shown in fig. 3 (b).
 Fig. 3 (a) Longitudinal sleepers Fig. 3 (b) Transverse sleepers

Depending upon the material, the following cross-sleepers are used on the Indian railways:

1) Timber or Wooden Sleepers

2) Steel Sleepers
3) Cast-iron sleepers
4) Concrete sleepers

1) Timber or Wooden Sleepers: The timber sleeper fulfils all the requirements of an
ideal sleeper satisfactorily and hence the timber sleepers are universally used almost ever since
the invention of railway.

Advantages: Following are the advantages of the timber sleepers:

a) The fittings for timber sleepers are few and simple in design.
b) They are suitable for all types of ballast.
c) They are easy to lay, relay, pack, lift and maintain.
d) They give less noisy track because they are able to resist the shocks and vibrations due
to heavy moving loads.
e) They prove to be overall economical.
f) They can be obtained in different sizes and lengths for easy adaptability at special
locations like points and crossings, bridges, ash-pits etc.
g) They permit track-circuiting because they are good insulators.
h) The damage using derailments is less when these sleepers are used.
i) They can be used on yielding formations because of their large bearing area.
j) It is possible to widen the gauge with the wooden sleepers.

Disadvantages: Following are the disadvantages of the timber sleepers:

a) It is difficult to maintain gauge.

b) The maintenance cost is high as compared to other types of sleepers.
c) The useful period of timber sleepers is less as compared to other types of sleepers.
d) They are easily disturbed from their positions.
 e) They are subjected to wear and decay due to various forces.
f) They require special treatment for fire protection.
g) They possess less scrap value.

2) Steel Sleepers: The steel sleepers are extensively used on the Indian railways with
excellent results.

Advantages: Following are the advantages of the steel sleepers:

a) The fastenings of steel sleepers are less in number and simple in nature.
b) The maintenance and adjustment of gauge are easy when steel sleepers are used.
c) The manufacturing process of steel sleepers is simple in design and operation.
d) They are available in one piece.
e) They are light in weight and therefore be easily handled.
f) It possesses a good scrap value.
g) It behaves in a better way on yielding formation as compared to the wooden sleeper.
h) It is a good anti creep sleeper as far as the keys are held in position.

Disadvantages: Following are the disadvantages of the steel sleepers:

a) The cost of steel sleepers is proportionally high.

b) The cracks develop usually at rail seat.
c) They are liable to corrosion.
d) They do not act as good insulators and hence they interfere with track-circuiting.
e) There is excessive damage during derailments.

3) Cast-iron Sleepers: The cast-iron sleepers were adopted on the Indian railways since
1870 and at present, nearly 60 percent of broad-gauge track is laid with cast-iron sleepers.

Advantages: Following are the advantages of the cast-iron sleepers:

a) It can be easily dismantled and assembled. Hence its transport proves to be easy even
though it is heavy in weight as compared to the wooden sleeper.
b) It is a sturdy sleeper and can tolerate considerable amount of rough handling.
c) It possesses a high scrap value.
d) It provides good longitudinal and lateral resistance.
e) Its shape is well suited for the beater packing and the skill required for its maintenance
is minimum.

Disadvantages: Following are the disadvantages of the cast-iron sleepers:

a) During derailment, the damage is excessive and it requires more time for restoration.
b) It is not fit for track-circuiting as the sleeper is made of metal.
c) It possesses poor ability to retain the packing due to its rigid fastenings.
d) It takes about six months for proper consolidation after complete track renewal or
sleeper renewal.

4) Concrete Sleepers: With the development of concrete technology in the nineteenth

century, cement concrete had established its place as a versatile building material and could be
adopted suitably to meet the requirements of a railway sleeper.
Advantages: Following are the advantages of the concrete sleepers:

a) It has higher electrical resistance necessary for the track circuiting.

b) It has higher resistance to abrasion.
c) It causes increase in impermeability.
d) It reduces creep.

Disadvantages: Following are the disadvantages of the concrete sleepers:

a) The damage during derailment is excessive.

b) It possesses no scrap value.
c) It requires the use of superior technology for its manufacture.

Sleeper Density

The spacing of sleepers is indicated by a formula (n+x) where n is the length of rail in
metres and x is the number of sleepers more than n.

Following points are to be noted:

1) The spacing of sleepers in a track determines the span of the rail over the sleepers and
it depends on two factors:
a) Lateral thrust of locomotives to which the track is subjected, and
b) Axle-load which the track is expected to carry.

2) The sleeper density cannot be increased indefinitely as a certain minimum centre to

centre distance is required between the two adjacent sleepers for packing ballast. In
India, the minimum centre to centre distances for B.G. and M.G. are given in Table 1:

Table 1 Centre to Centre distances for B.G. and M.G. in India

B.G. M.G.

Wooden Sleepers 300 mm 250 mm

Metal Sleepers 380 mm 330 mm

3) In case of staggered joint, an extra sleeper is to be put up as sleepers are provided on

either side of the joint.

4) All sleepers need not be placed at equal distance apart. The sleepers at rail joints are
placed nearer and also some two or three sleepers near the joint-sleepers are spaced
closer than the sleepers in the remaining length of rail.

The value of x in the expression (n+x) is fixed by the Railway Board by considering
the following factors:
i. Axle-load and speed
ii. Type of ballast and ballast cushion
iii. Type and section of the rails, and
iv. Type of sleeper and its bearing area on the ballast
 Table 2 shows the sleeper densities provided on the Indian railways with respect to rail
section and axle-load.

Table 2 Sleeper Densities provided on the Indian railways

Rail section in
Gauge Axle-load density Sleeper
tonnes

B.G. 57 28 n+6
B.G. 50 25 n+5
B.G. 45 22.50 n+4
M.G. 30 13 n+5
M.G. 20 8 n+1
M.G. 20 8.50 n+3
M.G. 10 3.50 n+1

BALLAST

The material placed in between the sleeper and the top of the formation is known as the
ballast. The load from the wheels of trains ultimately comes to the ballast through rails and
sleepers. Thus, the ballast is the foundation of railway track and it is placed just below the
sleepers.

Functions of Ballast

The functions of the ballast are as follows:

1) To provide a hard and level bed for the sleepers to rest on,
2) To hold the sleepers in place during the passage of trains,
3) To transmit and distribute the load from the sleepers to the formation,
4) To allow for maintaining correct tracks levels without disturbing the rail road bed,
5) To protect the surface of formation from direct exposure to the sun, frost or rain,
6) To form an elastic bed,
7) To drain the water immediately and keep the sleepers in dry condition,
8) To discourage the growth of vegetation, and
9) To resist lateral, longitudinal and vertical displacement of the track.

Requirements of an Ideal Material for Ballast

Following requirements are to be satisfied by an ideal material for ballast:

1) It should be possible to maintain the required depth of the material in order to distribute
uniformly the weight of passing train on the formation ground.
2) The material of ballast should be of such nature that it may have sufficient grip over the
sleepers to prevent their horizontal movement.
3) The material of ballast should not be too rigid. But it should be elastic in nature.
4) The material of ballast should not be brittle and it should possess the required
compressive strength so that it is not crushed under the fast moving trains.
 5) The material of ballast should not allow rain water to accumulate. But it should drain
off the rain water immediately without absorbing the moisture.
6) The material of ballast should be cheap and easily available in the required quantity
along the track.
7) The material of ballast should not have any chemical action on rail and metal sleepers.
8) The material of ballast should be easily workable by means of the available implements
and equipment.
9) The material of ballast should be durable to resist the abrasion and weathering effects
of the locality.

Materials Used as Ballast

Following materials are used as ballast in a railway track:

1) Broken stone
2) Gravel
3) Ashes or cinders
4) Sand
5) Kankar
6) Moorum
7) Brickbats

1) Broken stone: This is the best material for performing the functions of a ballast in a
railway track. Almost all the important tracks are provided with stone ballast. The stone to be
used as ballast must be hard, tough, non-porous and should not decompose when exposed to
air and dampness. The granite fulfils these conditions. But due to consideration of availability,
quartzite, sandstone and limestone are also used as ballast.

Advantages: Following are the advantages of this material:

a) It is hard, tough and durable.

b) It holds the sleepers in a better position and provides stability to the track.
c) It is suitable for heavy traffic tracks and for high-speed tracks.
d) It is economical with respect to its durability as it requires less maintenance.

Disadvantages: Following are the disadvantages of this material:

a) Its initial cost is high.

b) It produces noise when the train moves on the track.
c) It is sharp and angular and hence wooden sleepers may be liable to damage.

2) Gravel: The gravel comes next to broken stone and it is used in many countries. It
consists of worn fragments of rock occurring in natural deposit. It is obtained from river beds
or gravel pits along the track.

Advantages: Following are the advantages of this material:

a) It is cheaper than stone ballast as it has not to be broken.

b) Properly cleaned gravel offers excellent drainage property.
c) Well packed gravel requires less maintenance and has high durability.
Disadvantages: Following are the disadvantages of this material:

a) Because of its smoothness and roundness, it easily rolls down due to vibrations and the
packing under the sleepers gets loose.
b) The variation in size is considerable and hence it requires screening before use.

3) Ashes or cinders: The residue from the coal used in locomotives and other furnaces,
is known as the ashes or cinders and this is one of the most universal forms of ballast, since it
is by-product of every railway which uses coal as fuel.

Advantages: Following are the advantages of this material:

a) It has fairly good drainage properties.

b) It is light in weight and can be handled with ease.
c) It is economical and abundantly available.

Disadvantages: Following are the disadvantages of this material:

a) This material is very soft and it gets easily reduced to powder and hence the track
becomes very dusty.
b) This ballast is corrosive in nature and hence it is not used where steel sleepers are fixed.
c) The foot of the rail gets affected where this type of ballast is used.

4) Sand: the sand forms another good ballast material. The coarse sand is to be preferred
to fine sand. The sand ballast is not used on main and branch lines. It is used on unimportant
lines, sidings and marshalling yards.

Advantages: Following are the advantages of this material:

a) It provides excellent drainage facilities to the track.

b) This material produces a silent track and has been found very good for packing cast-
iron sleepers.
c) It is cheap, if available in nearby locality.

Disadvantages: Following are the disadvantages of this material:

a) The sand ballast requires frequent renewal as sand can be easily blown off or washed
away.
b) The sand is disturbed easily by vibrations and hence the maintenance of track becomes
very difficult.
c) The sand gets into the moving parts of the vehicles and causes friction. This leads to
heavy wear of vehicles.

5) Kankar: The kankar is found in many places in the form of nodules of varying sizes.

Advantages: Following are the advantages of this material:

a) It makes for a good substitute when other materials for ballast are not available.
b) It is useful under light traffic on metre gauge and narrow gauge.

Disadvantages: Following are the disadvantages of this material:

 a) It turns down to powder very easily and hence the maintenance of the track becomes
very difficult.

6) Moorum: The decomposition of laterite results in the formation of moorum. It has a

red and sometimes a yellow colour. It is used for unimportant lines and sidings.

Advantages: Following are the advantages of this material:

a) It can be safely used on newly laid tracks and it will act as soiling when the stone ballast
is laid afterwards.
b) It has good drainage properties.

Disadvantages: Following are the disadvantages of this material:

a) It turns down to powder very easily and hence the maintenance of the track becomes
very difficult.

7) Brickbats: Sometimes the brickbats of overburnt bricks are broken into suitable sizes
and they are used as ballast.

Advantages: Following are the advantages of this material:

a) Brickbats are useless products of brick industries and hence are cheap.
b) Brickbats have fairly good drainage properties.

Disadvantages: Following are the disadvantages of this material:

a) It turns down to powder very easily and hence the maintenance of the track becomes
very difficult.

RAIL FIXTURES AND FASTENINGS

Requirements of an Ideal Fastening

A good fastening connecting rail and sleeper plays a vital role in improving the efficiency
of the railway track. Following the requirements of an ideal fastening connecting rail and
sleeper:

1) It should be capable of absorbing shocks and vibrations.

2) It should be capable of giving protection to the sleeper against the actions of vertical
and horizontal forces.
3) It should be capable of giving sufficient insulation in case of electrified sections.
4) It should be capable of resisting creep.
5) It should be capable of securing correct gauge at first assembly and of maintaining the
gauge subsequently.
6) It should be cheap.
7) It should consist of a small number of components.
8) It should be durable.
9) It should be easy to fix and to adjust.
10) It should be non-corrosive.
11) It should be of sufficient strength to resist damage due to derailment.
12) It should be so designed that it is possible to remove it only by special tools.
 13) It should keep the rail in the correct position, level and alignment.
14) It should not be too rigid.
15) It should possess adequate strength to resist lateral forces.
16) It should posses a high torque resistance.

Fastenings for Rails

Following are the fastenings which are used to keep the rails in their correct position:

1) Fish-plates
2) Spikes
3) Bolts
4) Chairs and Keys
5) Bearing-plates
6) Anchors or anti creepers

1) Fish-plates: The rails are to be connected at their ends. This is achieved by means of a
pair of fish plates per rail. The holes are drilled through the plates and the web of rails and then
the fish-bolts and nuts are provided in these holes. When the bolts and nuts are tightened up,
the rails are joined together and a continuous track is formed (Fig. 4).

Fig. 4 Fish-plate

2) Spikes: The spikes are required to hold the rails to the wooden sleepers. They can be
used with or without the bearing-plates below the rails (Fig. 5). Various types of spikes have
been used, the common being
a) Dog-spikes
b) Screw-spikes
c) Round-spikes
d) Elastic-spikes
 Fig. 5 Spikes

3) Bolts: Fish-bolts are used to fix the fish plate on the rail track [Fig. 6 (a)].

Fang-bolts are an alternative to the round spikes. At present, the tendency is not to use
fang-bolts due to the fact that there is considerable difficulty in fixing and removing the fang-
bolt [Fig. 6 (b)].

The hook-bolts are used to fix sleepers to girders of the bridges. The rails are fixed with
sleepers as usual by means of dog-spikes or screw-spikes. The holes are bored in the sleeper
and the head of the hook-bolt grips with the flange of the girder. Usually two hook-bolts are
found to be quite adequate for each sleeper [Fig. 6 (c)].

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 6 Some types of bolts viz. (a) Fish-bolt, (b) Fang-bolt and (c) Hook-bolt

4) Chairs and Keys: For double-headed and bull-headed rails, the chairs are required to
hold them in position. The chairs are invariably made of cast-iron and they help in distributing
the load from the rails to the sleepers. All chairs consist of two jaws and a rail seat. The web
of the rail is held tightly against the inner jaw of the chair and a key is driven between the rail
and the outer jaw of the chair [Fig. 7 (a) and 7 (b)]
 Fig. 7 (a) Chair and Key

Fig. 7 (b) Rail Fastenings

5) Bearing-plates: The chairs for flat-footed rails are known as the bearing plates.
Formerly, the flat-footed rails were directly fixed to the sleepers with dog-spikes. But at
present, the bearing-plates are placed below the rails on tracks carrying heavy vehicles at high
speed (Fig. 8).
 Fig. 8 Bearing-plate

6) Anchors or Anti creepers: Rail anchors or anti creepers are spring steel clips that
attach to the underside of the rail baseplate and bear against the sides of the sleepers to prevent
longitudinal movement of the rail (Fig. 9).

Fig. 9 Anchors or Anti creepers