Elements of Civil Engineering & Engineering Mechanics 21CV104

1.0Introduction to Civil Engineering

Civil engineering is the oldest branch of engineering which is growing right from the
stone age of civilization. American society of civil engineering defines civil engineering as
the profession in which knowledge of the mathematical and physical sciences gained by
study, experience and practice is applied with judgment to develop ways to utilize
economically the materials and forces of the nature for the progressive wellbeing of man.

1.1 Roles of Civil Engineering

 Plan new townships and extension of existing towns.

 Providing shelter to people in the form of low cost houses to high rise apartments.
 Laying ordinary village roads to express highways.
 Constructing irrigation tanks, multipurpose dams & canals for supplying water to
agricultural fields.
 Supplying safe and potable water for public & industrial uses.
 Protecting our environment by adopting sewage treatment & solid waste disposal
techniques.
 Constructing hydro-electric & thermal-power plants for generating electricity.
 Providing other means of transportation such as railways, harbor& airports.
 Constructing bridges across streams, rivers and also across seas.
 Tunneling across mountains & also under water to connect places easily & reduce
distance.

Management Techniques: Civil engineers must manage men, materials and equipment
sufficiently. Since huge funds are to be handled in civil engineering projects, a civil engineer
must know the basics in financial management and legal obligations. Knowledge of
management techniques is an asset to practicing civil engineer.
Computer Applications: Since the magnitude of designing the structures and storing
information is increasing very fast nowadays civil engineers go for computer applications in
planning and designing of structures. There is good number of civil engineering software
commercially available.

1.2 Fields of Civil Engineering and their scope

The different fields of civil engineering and the scope of each can be briefly discussed as
follows.

1.2.1Surveying: It is a science and art of determining the relative position of points on the
earth’s surface by measuring distances, directions and vertical heights directly or indirectly.
Surveying helps in preparing maps and plans, which help in project implementation. (Setting
out the alignment for a road or railway track or canal, deciding the location for a dam or
airport or harbor) The cost of the project can also be estimated before implementing the
project. Now-a-days, using data from remote sensing satellites is helping to prepare maps &
plans & thus cut down the cost of surveying.

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 Elements of Civil Engineering & Engineering Mechanics 21CV104

Types Of Surveying
PLANE SURVEYING AND GEODETIC SURVEYING

The survey in which the shape or curvature of earth is not taken into account is called plane
surveying. The survey in which the shape or curvature of earth is taken into account is called
Geodetic surveying

SCOPE OF SUREYING
 To prepare the plan or map
 To determine the dimension and contour of any part of the earth’s surface
 To establish boundaries of land
 To measure the area and volume of land
 To select suitable site for an engineering project

1.2.2.Geo-Technical Engineering (Soil Mechanics): Any building, bridge, dam, retaining

wall etc. consist of components like foundations. Foundation is laid from a certain depth
below the ground surface till hard layer is reached. The soil should be thoroughly checked for
its suitability for construction purposes. The study dealing with the properties &behavior of
soil under loads & changes in environmental conditions is called geo-technical engineering.
The knowledge of the geology of an area is also very much necessary.

SCOPE OF GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING

 Foundation design and construction
 Highway pavement design
 Design and construction of tunnels underground structure and drainages structures
 Design of retaining structures
 Design of earthen dams and embankment

1.2.3.Structural Engineering: A building or a bridge or a dam consists of various elements

like foundations, columns, beams, slabs etc. These components are always subjected to
forces. It becomes important to determine the magnitude & direction the nature of the forces
and acting all the time. Depending upon the materials available or that can be used for
construction, the components or the parts of the building should be safely & economically
designed.
A structured engineer is involved in such designing activity. The use of computers in
designing the members, is reducing the time and also to maintain accuracy.

SCOPE OF STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING

 Responsible for creation of structural system in accordance with the needs of the
client and architect
 Plays an important role to build industrial production and manufacturing unit
 Keys main for total planning and designing of nuclear power plants.
 Take the responsibility about the safety and serviceability of the structure for its
lifetime

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 Elements of Civil Engineering & Engineering Mechanics 21CV104

1.2.4. Transportation Engineering: The transport system includes roadways, railways, air &
waterways. Here the role of civil engineers is to construct facilities related to each one.
Sometimes crucial sections of railways & roads should be improved. Roads to remote places
should be developed. Ports &harbors should be designed to accommodate, all sizes of
vehicles. For an airport, the runway & other facilities such as taxiways, terminal buildings,
control towers etc. should be properly designed.

SCOPE OF TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING

 Traffic management
 Parking facilities
 Rapid transportation
 Urbanization and industrialization
 Accident study for safe and comfort transport system

1.2.5. Irrigation& Water resources engineering (Hydraulics Engineering): Irrigation is

the process of supplying water by artificial means to agricultural fields for raising crops.
Since rainfall in an area is insufficient or unpredictable in an area, water flowing in a river
can be stored by constructing dams and diverting the water into the canals & conveyed to the
agricultural fields. Apart from dams & canals other associated structures like canals
regulators, aqua ducts, weirs, barrages etc. are also necessary. Hydroelectric power
generation facilities are also included under this aspect.

SCOPE OF WATER RESOURCE ENGINEERING

 Flood mitigation
 Irrigation
 Hydroelectric power
 Domestic and industrial water supply
 Aquatic animal management

SCOPE OF IRRIGATION ENGINEERING

 Diversion of stored water to canal for distribution
 Lifting of water by digging wells and fed to small channels
 Development of hydroelectric power
 Increase in flood production
 Protection from famine
 Ground water storage improvement

1.2.6. Water Supply and Sanitary Engineering (Environmental Engineering):

People in every village, town & city need potable water. The water available (surface water
& ground water) may not be fit for direct consumption. In such cases, the water should be
purified and then supplied to the public. For water purification, sedimentation tanks, filter
beds, etc. should be designed. If the treatment plants are for away from the town or city,
suitable pipelines for conveying water & distributing it should also be designed. In a town or
city, a part of the water supplied returns as sewage. This sewage should be systematically
collected and then disposed into the natural environment after providing suitable treatment.

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The solid waste that is generated in a town or locality should be systematically collected and
disposed off suitably. Before disposal, segregation of materials should be done so that any
material can be recycled & we can conserve our natural resources.

Scope of Environmental Engineering

 Protection and conservation of environment
 Good water supply
 Waste water treatment
 Pollution treatment
 Solid waste management

1.2.7. Building Materials & Construction Technology: Any engineering structure requires
a wide range of materials known as building materials. The choice of the materials is wide &
open. It becomes important for any construction engineer to be well versed with the
properties & applications of the different materials. Any construction project involves many
activities and also required many materials, manpower, machinery & money. The different
activities should be planned properly; the manpower, materials & machinery should be
optimally utilized, so that the construction is completed in time and in an economical manner.
In case of large construction projects management techniques of preparing bar charts &
network diagrams, help in completing the project orderly in time.

Clasification of Building Materials

Traditional materials
Stones, timber, bricks, lime ,cement ,tar ,bitumen, mortar ,ferrous and non ferrous metals,
ceramic materials ,etc.

Alternative Building Materials

Mud –blocks, concrete-blocks, plastics, glass, aluminum, paints, fly ash, etc.

Composite Materials
RCC, fiber reinforcement concrete, ferro-cement, composite laminate doors, plastic
laminates, asbestos sheets, fiber reinforced glass, etc.

Smart Materials or Intelligent Materials

Optic fiber, piezoelectric material, electro-strictive and magneto-strictive materials,etc.

1.2.8. Town Planning and Architecture. With the growth of population and industries new
towns are coming up and existing ones are growing. Proper town planning is to be made by
civil engineers. Structures should be aesthetically good also. Architecture covers this area.
This field of civil engineering has grown up so much that it has become a separate branch of
engineering.

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1.3 Building Materials

1.3.1Bricks
Brick is the most commonly used building materials. It is light, easily available, uniform
shape and size, and relatively cheaper except in hilly areas. Bricks are easily mould from
plastic clays, also known as brick clay or brick earth.

Fig.1.1 Brick

Qualities of good bricks

The good bricks which are to be used for the construction of important structures should
possess the following qualities
 The bricks should be table moulded, well-burnt in kilns, copper- colored, free from
cracks and with sharp and square edges. The color should be uniform and bright.
 The bricks should be uniform in shape and it should be of standard size.For India, a
brick of standard size 190 mm x 90 mm x 90 mm is recommended by the BIS. With
mortar thickness, the size of such a brick becomes 200 mm x 100 mm x 100 mm and it
is known as the nominal size of the modular brick.
 The brick should give a clear metallic ringing sound when struck with each other.
 The bricks when broken or fractured should show a bright homogeneous and uniform
compact structure free from voids.
 The brick should not absorb water more than 20% by weight for first class bricks and
22% by weight for second class bricks, when soaked in cold water for a period of 24
hours.
 The brick should be sufficiently hard. No impression should be left on brick surface,
when it is scratched with finger nail.
 The bricks should not break into pieces when dropped flat on hard ground from a
height of about one meter.
 The brick should have low thermal conductivity. They should be sound proof.
 The bricks, when soaked in water for 24 hours should not show deposits of white salts
when allowed to dry in shade.
 No brick should have the crushing strength below 5.50N/mm2.

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 Elements of Civil Engineering & Engineering Mechanics 21CV104

Classification of Bricks Based on their Quality

The bricks used in construction are classified as:
 First class bricks: These bricks are of standard shape and size. They are burnt in kilns.
They fulfill all desirable properties of bricks.
 Second class bricks: These bricks are ground moulded and burnt in kilns. The edges
may not be sharp and uniform. The surface may be somewhat rough. Such bricks are
commonly used for the construction of walls which are going to be plastered.
 Third class bricks: These bricks are ground moulded and burnt in clamps. Their edges
are somewhat distorted. They produce dull sound when struck together. They are used
for temporary and unimportant structures.
 Fourth class bricks: These are the over burnt bricks. They are dark in colour. The
shape is irregular. They are used as aggregates for concrete in foundations, floors and
roads.

Engineering application of bricks

Bricks are used in the following civil works:

 As structural unit, since the clay bricks or burnt bricks are strong, hard, durable and
resistive to abrasion and fire.
 As aesthetic unit/ surface finish: Bricks can be used in different colour, sizes and
orientation to get different surface design. As an aesthetic material brick can be used
in pavements, facing work and architectural purposes.
 For lining of ovens, furnaces and chimneys as it shows good fire resistance.
 For protecting steel columns from fire.
 As aggregates in providing water proofing to R.C.C. roofs.
 For pavers for footpaths and cycle tracks.
 For lining sewer lines.

Based on quality of brick

 First class and second class bricks are widely used for all sorts of sound work
especially of permanent nature. These structures include buildings, dams, roads,
sewers, bridge piers, tunnels, pitching works etc.
 Use of first class bricks are specified for obtaining the architectural effects on faces
of structures where they are to be kept exposed for beauty.
 Masonry with second class bricks is generally plastered to make the smooth surface
obtained due to the irregular shape and size of bricks. Mortar required in brick
masonry using second class bricks will also be more.
 Third class and sun-dried bricks are used for construction work of temporary nature.
These bricks are not used in damp situations or at places subjected to heavy rains.
 Forth class bricks are used as road metal and as aggregates in the foundation concrete.

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Advantages of Bricks

 Economical (Raw material is easily available)

 Hard and durable
 Compressive strength is good enough for ordinary construction
 Different orientations and sizes give different surface textures
 Very low maintenance cost is required
 Demolishing of brick structures is very easy, less time consuming and hence
economic
 Reusable and Recyclable
 Highly fire resistant

Disadvantages of Bricks

 Time consuming construction

 Cannot be used in high seismic zones
 Since bricks absorb water easily, it causes fluorescence when not exposed to air
 Very less tensile strength
 Rough surfaces of bricks may cause mold growth if not properly cleaned.
 Cleaning brick surfaces is a hard job.
 Color of low quality brick changes when exposed to sun for a longer period of time

1.3.2Stones
Stone is a ‘naturally available building material’ which has been used from the early age
of civilization. It is available in the form of rocks, which is cut to required size and
shape and used as building block.

Fig 1.2. Stones

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 Elements of Civil Engineering & Engineering Mechanics 21CV104

Properties of Stones
The following properties of the stones should be looked into before selecting them for
engineering works:
Structure: The structure of the stone may be stratified (layered) or unstratified. Structured
stones should be easily dressed and suitable for super structure. Unstratified stones are hard
and difficult to dress. They are preferred for the foundation works.
Texture: Fine grained stones with homogeneous distribution look attractive and hence they
are used for carving. Such stones are usually strong and durable.
Density: Denser stones are stronger. Light weight stones are weak. Hence stones with
specificgravity less than 2.4 are considered unsuitable for buildings.
Appearance:A stone with uniform and attractive colour is durable, if grains are compact.
Marble and granite get very good appearance, when polished. Hence they are used for face
works inbuildings.
Strength:Strength is an important property to be looked into before selecting stone as
buildingblock. Indian standard code recommends a minimum crushing strength of 3.5
N/mm2for any buildingblock. Table 1.1 shows the crushing strength of various stones.

Table 1.1:Crushing strength of common building stones

Name of Stone Crushing Strength in N/mm2

Trap 300 to 350
Basalt 153 to 189
Granite 104 to 140
Slate 70 to 210
Marble 72
Sand stone 65
Lime stone 55
Laterite 1.8 to 3.2

Hardness: It is an important property to be considered when stone is used for flooring and
pavement. Coefficient of hardness is to be found by conducting test on standard specimen in
Dory’s testing machine. For road works coefficient of hardness should be at least 17. For
building works stones with coefficient of hardness less than 14 should not be used.
Percentage wear: It is measured by attrition test. It is an important property to be considered
in selecting aggregate for road works and railway ballast. A good stone should not show wear
of more than 2%.
Porosity and Absorption: All stones have pores and hence absorb water. The reaction of
water with material of stone causes disintegration. Absorption test is specified as percentage
of water absorbed by the stone when it is immersed under water for 24 hours. For a good
stone it should be as small as possible and in no case more than 5.
Weathering: Rain and wind cause loss of good appearance of stones. Hence stones withgood
weather resistance should be used for face works.
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Toughness: The resistance to impact is called toughness. It is determined by impact test.

Stones with toughness index more than 19 are preferred for road works. Toughness index 13
to 19 is considered as medium tough and stones with toughness index less than 13 are poor
stones.
Resistance to Fire: Sand stones resist fire better. Argillaceous materials, though poor in
strength, are good in resisting fire.
Ease in Dressing: Cost of dressing contributes to cost of stone masonry to a great extent.
Dressing is easy in stones with lesser strength. Hence an engineer should look into sufficient
strength rather than high strength while selecting stones for building works.
Seasoning: The stones obtained from quarry contain moisture in the pores. The strength ofthe
stone improves if this moisture is removed before using the stone. The process of removing
moisture from pores is called seasoning. The best way of seasoning is to allow it to the action
of nature for 6 to12 months. This is very much required in the case of laterite stones.

Requirements of Good Building Stones

The following are the requirements of good building stones:
Strength: The stone should be able to resist the load coming on it. Ordinarily this is not of
primary concern since all stones are having good strength. However in case of large structure,
it may be necessary to check the strength.
Durability: Stones selected should be capable of resisting adverse effects of natural forces
like wind, rain and heat.
Hardness: The stone used in floors and pavements should be able to resist abrasive forces
caused by movement of men and materials over them.
Toughness: Building stones should be tough enough to sustain stresses developed due to
vibrations. The vibrations may be due to the machinery mounted over them or due to the
loads moving over them. The stone aggregates used in the road constructions should be
tough.
Specific Gravity: Heavier variety of stones should be used for the construction of dams,
retaining walls, docks and harbors. The specific gravity of good building stone is between 2.4
and 2.8.
Porosity and Absorption: Building stone should not be porous. If it is porous rain water
enters into the pour and reacts with stone and crumbles it. In higher altitudes, the freezing of
water in pores takes place and it results into the disintegration of the stone.
Dressing: Giving required shape to the stone is called dressing. It should be easy to dress so
that the cost of dressing is reduced. However the care should be taken so that, this is not be at
the cost of the required strength and the durability.
Appearance: In case of the stones to be used for face works, where appearance is a primary
requirement, its color and ability to receive polish is an important factor
Seasoning: Good stones should be free from the quarry sap. Laterite stones should not be
used for 6 to 12 months after quarrying. They are allowed to get rid of quarry sap by the
action of nature. This process of removing quarry sap is called seasoning.

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Cost: Cost is an important consideration in selecting a building material. Proximity of the

quarry to building site brings down the cost of transportation and hence the cost of stones
comes down.
Engineering application of Stones
 Stones are used in the following civil engineering constructions:
 Stone masonry is used for the construction of foundations, walls, columns and arches.
 Stones are used for flooring.
 Stone slabs are used as damp proof courses, lintels and even as roofing materials.
 Stones with good appearance are used for the face works of buildings. Polished
marbles and granite are commonly used for face works.
 Stones are used for paving of roads, footpaths and open spaces round the buildings.
 Stones are also used in the constructions of piers and abutments of bridges, dams and
retaining walls.
 Crushed stones with graved are used to provide base course for roads. When mixed
with tar they form finishing coat.
 Crushed stones are used in the following works also:
 As a basic inert material in concrete
 For making artificial stones and building blocks
 As railway ballast.

1.3.3Cement

One material which has completely revolutionized the construction industry is

cement. It was in 1824, a mason of England by name Joseph Aspidin developed cement by
burning at high temperature a mixture of lime and clay and then grinding it into fine powder.
This is known as Ordinary Portland Cement.

Cement is a binder, a substance used in construction that sets and hardens and can
bind other materials together. The most important types of cement are used as a component in
the production of mortar in masonry, and of concrete, which is a combination of cement and
an aggregate to form a strong building material.

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 Elements of Civil Engineering & Engineering Mechanics 21CV104

Fig 1.3 Cement Production Pie Chart

Composition of Ordinary Portland Cement

Table1.2: Composition of Ordinary Portland Cement

Ingredient Average (%)

Lime 62
Silica 22
Alumina 5
CalciumSulphate 4
Iron oxide 3
Magnesia 2
Alkalies 1
Sulphur 1
Grades of Cement
Cement is graded according to its compressive strength. Cement mortar of 1: 3
proportion is made and then cubes of surface area 50 sq cm is made and then tested after 28
days.
Table 1.3: Grades of Cement
Cement type Compressive strength
2
(N/mm )
Grade 33 33
Grade 43 43
Grade 53 53

Properties of Cement
Physical Properties:

 Fineness: Finer cement particles impart better quality. It is measured in terms of

percentage of weight retained after sieving the cement through 90 micron sieve or by

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surface area. According to IS code specification weight retained on the sieve should
not be more than 10 per cent. In terms of specific surface should not be less than 2250
cm2/gm.
 Soundness: Once the concrete has hardened it is necessary to ensure that no
volumetric changes takes place. The cement is said to be unsound, if it exhibits
volumetric instability after hardening. It is determined by the Le Chatelier test.
 Setting of cement: When water is added to cement it forms a thick paste. Gradually
as time passes, it transforms into a non-plastic rigid mass. The setting time is
influenced by the amount of water added to the cement, the temperature at which the
cement paste is allowed to set and the humidity of the atmosphere. The setting of
cement is identified in two stages, initial setting and final setting. The setting time is
determined in the laboratory by Vicat Needle Apparatus As per Bureau of Indian
Standards (BIS), for ordinary cement , the initial setting time shall not be less than 30
minutes and the final setting time should not be more than 10 hours.
Mechanical Properties:
 Compressive strength: Cement mortar cubes of size 7.06 cm are made out of mortar
of 1: 3 composition (1 part of cement to 3 parts of sand) and tested in a Universal
compressive testing machine. Normally the tests are done after 3, 7 and 28 days.

 Tensile strength: Test pieces (briquettes) are made out of cement sand mortar 1: 3
and tested in a standard tensile testing machine after 3, 7 and 28 days.

Table 1.4:Tensile strength Cement

Compressive and Tensile strength as per BIS

Period Strength
Ordinary
Compressive not less than 115 kg/sq cm
Portland 3 days
Cement Tensile not less than 29 kg/sq cm
Compressive not less than 175 kg/sq cm
7 days
Tensile not less than 35 kg/sq cm

Different Types of Cement and their applications

Portland Cement: The most common use for Portland cement is in the production of
concrete. Concrete is a composite material consisting of aggregate (gravel and sand), cement,
and water. As a construction material, concrete can be cast in almost any shape desired, and
once hardened, can become a structural (load bearing) element. Concrete can be used in the
construction of structural elements like panels, beams, street furniture, or may make cast-in
situ concrete for building superstructures like roads and dams. These may be supplied with
concrete mixed on site, or may be provided with "ready-mixed" concrete made at permanent
mixing sites. Portland cement is also used in mortars (with sand and water only) for plasters

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and screeds, and in grouts (cement/water mixes squeezed into gaps to consolidate
foundations, road-beds, etc.).

White Cement: The cement when made free from coloring oxides of iron, manganese and
chlorine results into white cement. In the manufacture of this cement, the oil fuel is used
instead of coal for burning. White cement is used for the floor finishes, plastering, ornamental
works etc. In swimming pools white cement is used to replace glazed tiles. It is used for
fixing marbles and glazed tiles.

Colored Cement: The cements of desired colors are produced by intimately mixing pigments
with ordinary cement. The chlorium oxide gives green colour. Cobalt produce blue colour.
Iron oxide with different proportion produce brown, red or yellow colour. Addition of
manganese dioxide gives black or brown colored cement. These cements are used for giving
finishing touches to floors, walls, window sills, roofs etc.

Quick Setting Cement: Quick setting cement is produced by reducing the percentage of
gypsum and adding a small amount of aluminium sulphate during the manufacture of cement.
Finer grinding also adds to quick setting property. This cement starts setting within 5 minutes
after adding water and becomes hard mass within 30 minutes. This cement is used to lay
concrete under static or slowly running water.

Rapid Hardening Cement: This cement can be produced by increasing lime content and
burning at high temperature while manufacturing cement. Grinding to very fine is also
necessary. Though the initial and final setting time of this cement is the same as that of
portland cement, it gains strength in early days. This property helps in earlier removal of
form works and speed in construction activity.

Low Heat Cement: In mass concrete works like construction of dams, heat produced due to
hydration of cement will not get dispersed easily. This may give rise to cracks. Hence in such
constructions it is preferable to use low heat cement.

Pozzolana Cement: Pozzolana is a volcanic power found in Italy. It can be processed from
shales and certain types of clay also. In this cement pozzolana material is 10 to 30 per cent. It
can resist action of sulphate. It releases less heat during setting. It imparts higher degree of
water tightness. Its tensile strength is high but compressive strength is low. It is used for mass
concrete works like dam, tall structures etc. It is also used in sewage line works.

Expanding Cement: This cement expands as it sets. This property is achieved by adding
expanding medium like sulpho-aluminate and a stabilizing agent to ordinary cement. This is
used for filling the cracks in concrete structures.

High Alumina Cement: It is manufactured by calcining a mixture of lime and bauxite. It is

more resistant to sulphate and acid attack. It develops almost full strength within 24 hours of
adding water. It is used for under water works.

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Blast Furnace Cement: In the manufacture of pig iron, slag comes out as a waste product.
By grinding clinkers of cement with about 60 to 65 per cent of slag, this cement is produced.
The properties of this cement are more or less same as ordinary cement, but it is cheap, since
it utilize waste product. This cement is durable but it gains the strength slowly and hence
needs longer period of curing concrete.

Acid Resistant Cement: This cement is produced by adding acid resistant aggregated such
as quartz, quartzite, sodium silicate or soluble glass. This cement has good resistance to
action of acid and water. It is commonly used in the construction of chemical factories.

Sulphate Resistant Cement: By keeping the percentage of tricalcium aluminate C3A below
five per cent in ordinary cement this cement is produced. It is used in the construction of
structures which are likely to be damaged by alkaline conditions. Examples of such structures
are canals, culverts etc.
1.3.4 Plain Concrete
Plain concrete, commonly known as concrete, is an intimate mixture of binding
material, fine aggregate, coarse aggregate and water. This can be easily mould to desired
shape and size before it loses plasticity and hardens. Plain concrete is strong in compression
but very weak in tension. The tensile property is introduced in concrete by inducting different
materials and this attempt has given rise to RCC, PSC, FRC, cellular concrete and Ferro
cement.

Major ingredients of concrete are:

 Binding material (like cement, lime, polymer)
 Fine aggregate (sand)
 Coarse aggregates (crushed stone, jelly)
 Water.
 A small quantity of admixtures like air entraining agents, water proofing agents,
workabilityagents etc. may also be added to impart special properties to the plain
concrete mixture.

Fig 1.4. Plain Concrete

Depending upon the proportion of ingredient, strength of concrete varies. It is possible

to determine the proportion of the ingredients for a particular strength by mix design
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procedure. It is represented as x:y:z (say 1:1.5:3) which is the ratio of weights of cement to
sand to coarse aggregate.

Preparation of Concrete
The following steps are involved in the concreting:
 Batching
 Mixing
 Transporting and placing and
 Compacting.
 Curing
Batching: The measurement of materials for making concrete is known as batching. The
following two methods of batching is practiced:
 Volume batching
 Weight batching.
Mixing: To produce uniform and good concrete, it is necessary to mix cement, sand and
coarse aggregate, first in dry condition and then in wet condition after adding water.
Transporting and Placing of Concrete. After mixing, concrete should be transported to the
final position. In small works it is transported in iron pans from hand to hand of a set of
workers. Wheel barrow and hand carts also may be employed. In large scale concreting
chutes and belt conveyors orpipes with pumps are employed.

Compaction of Concrete: In the process of placing concrete, air is entrapped. The

entrappedair reduces the strength of concrete up to 30%. Hence it is necessary to remove this
entrapped air. This is achieved by compacting the concrete after placing it in its final
position. Compaction can be carriedout either by hand or with the help of vibrators.

Curing of Concrete:Curing may be defined as the process of maintaining satisfactory

moisture and temperature conditionsfor freshly placed concrete for some specified time for
proper hardening of concrete. Curing in the earlyages of concrete is more important. Curing
is done for 28 days. If curing is not done properly, the strength of concrete reduces. Cracks
develop due shrinkage.The durability of concrete structure reduces.The following curing
methods are employed:
 Spraying of water
 Covering the surface with wet gunny bags, straw etc.
 Ponding
 Steam curing

Properties of concrete
Properties of green/fresh concrete
Workability: This is defined as the ease with which concrete can be compacted fully without
segregating and bleeding. It can also be defined as the amount of internal work required to
fully compact the concrete to optimum density. The workability depends upon the quantity of
water, grading, shape and the percentage of the aggregates present in the concrete.

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Segregation: Separation of coarse particles from the green concrete is called segregation.
This may happen due to lack of sufficient quantity of finer particles in concrete or due to
throwing of the concrete from greater heights at the time of placing the concrete. Because of
the segregation, the cohesiveness of the concrete is lost and honey combing results.
Ultimately it results in the loss of strength of hardened concrete. Hence utmost care is to be
taken to avoid segregation.
Bleeding: This refers to the appearance of the water along with cement particles on the
surface of the freshly laid concrete. This happens when there is excessive quantity of water in
the mix or due to excessive compaction. Bleeding causes the formation of pores and renders
the concrete weak. Bleeding can be avoided by suitably controlling the quantity of water in
the concrete and by using finer grading of aggregates.
Harshness: Harshness is the resistance offered by concrete to its surface finish. Harshness is
due to presence of lesser quantity of fine aggregates, lesser cement mortar and due to use of
poor graded aggregates. It may result due to insufficient quantity of water also. With harsh
concrete it is difficult to get a smooth surface finish and concrete becomes porous.
Properties of Hardened Concrete
Strength: The characteristic strength of concrete is defined as the compressive strength of
150 mm size cubes after 28 days of curing below which not more than 5 per cent of the test
results are expected to fail. The unit of stress used is N/mm2. It is represented as M20 where,
M stands for design mix and 20 stands for strength of concrete.
Dimensional Change: Concrete shrinks with age. The total shrinkagedepends upon the
constituents of concrete, size of the member and the environmental conditions. Total
shrinkage is approximately 0.0003 of original dimension
Durability: Environmental forces such as weathering, chemical attack, heat, freezing and
thawing try to destroy concrete. The period of existence of concrete without getting adversely
affected by these forces is known as durability. Generally dense and strong concretes have
better durability. The cube crushing strength alone is not a reliable guide to the durability.
Concrete should have adequate cement content and should have low water cement ratio.
Impermeability: This is the resistance of concrete to the flow of water through its pores.
Excess water during concreting leaves a large number of continuous pores leading to the
permeability.Since the permeability reduces the durability of concrete, it should be kept very
low by using low water cement ratio, dense and well graded aggregates, good compaction
and continuous curing at low temperature conditions

Application of Concrete
 As bed concrete below column footings, wall footings, on wall at supports to beams
 As sill concrete
 Over the parapet walls as coping concrete
 For flagging the area around buildings
 For pavements
 For making building blocks.
However major use of concrete is as a major ingradient of reinforced and prestressed
concrete. Many structural elements like footings, columns, beams, chejjas, lintels, roofs are

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made with R.C.C. Cement concrete is used for making storage structures like water tanks,
bins, silos, bunkers etc. Bridges, dams, retaining walls are R.C.C. structures in which
concrete is the major ingradient.

1.3.5 Reinforced cement concrete

Concrete is good in resisting compressive stress but it is very weak in resisting tensile
stress. Hence reinforcement is provided in the concrete wherever tensile stress is expected.
The best reinforcement is steel, since the tensile strength of steel is quite high and the bond
between steel and concrete is good. As the elastic modulus of steel is as high as concrete, the
force developed in steel is high. However in tensile zone, hair cracks in concrete are
unavoidable. Reinforcement are usually in the form of mild steel or ribbed steel bars of
diameter 6 to 32 mm diameter. A cage of reinforcements, kept in a form work and then green
concrete is poured. After the concrete hardens, the form work is removed. The composite
material of steel and concrete, now called R.C.C. acts as structural member and can resist
tensile as well as compressive stress efficiently.
Properties of concrete
 It should be capable of resisting tensile, compressive, bending or shear stresses.
 It should not show excessive deflections to the serviceability requirement.
 There should be proper cover to reinforcement so that corrosion of steel is prevented
 The hair cracks developed should be with permissible limit.
 R.C.C is a good fire resistant 6. It can be moulded to desired shape and size.
 Durability of R.C.C. is very good. 8. R.C.C. structure can be designed to take any
load.

Uses of R.C.C.
 R.C.C is used as a structural element, wherever direct tension or bending tension is
expected. The common structural elements in a building where R.C.C is used are
footing, columns, beams, lintels, chejjas, roof slabs, curved roofs etc, and stairs.
 R.C.C. is used for the construction of storage structures like water tanks, dams, bins,
silos and bunkers they are used for the construction of big structures like bridges,
retain walls, docks and harbors, and under water structures
 R.C.C. is used for pre-casting rail sleepers, elective poles
 R.C.C is use for tall buildings like multistoried buildings, chimneys and towers
 R.C.C is used for paving highways, city roads and airport

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2.0 Building Components

The structure of the building is divided into two parts. The sub-structure and the super
structure.

Substructure is defined as the structural work below ground level used to support the
structure above. Foundations, basement, subfloor are some components of this area.
Superstructure is an upward extension of an existing structure above a baseline called
Ground Level in general and it usually serves the purpose of the structure's intended use. The
various members of super-structure such as columns and beams are designed to provide
strength for carrying the dead load and live load expected to come on the various parts of the
structure in a safe and well distributed manner

Table2.1: Building Components

Super Structure Sub-Structure
Plinth Foundation
Wall and columns Abutment
Beams Pier
Arches
Roofs and slabs
Lintel and arches
Chajjas
Parapet
Steps and stairs

2.1 Foundation
Foundation is the most important part of the building. Building activity startswith
digging the ground for foundation and then building it. It is the lower most part of the
building. Ittransfers the load of the building to the ground. Its main functions and
requirements are:
 Distribute the load from the structure to soil evenly and safely.
 To anchor the building to the ground so that under lateral loads building will not
move.
 It prevents the building from overturning due to lateral forces.
 It gives level surface for the construction of super structure.

Types of foundation
Mainly there are two types of foundation: they are shallow and deep foundation.
Shallow Foundation: If the depth of foundation is less than or equal to width of foundation
is called shallow foundation. EX; Masonry footing, Isolated footing, combined footing, strap
and RCC footing etc
Deep Foundation: If the depth of foundation is greater than the width of foundation is called
Deep foundation. EX. Friction piles, Load bearing piles (End bearing piles), compaction
piles, well foundation, caissons.

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Masonry Footing: Masonry footing is comes under stepped footing category. A step footing
is the one which provides a continuous longitudinal bearing. The spread footing for a
continuous wall is called strip footing. When the wall carries heavy load or when the SBC of
soil is not very high, then one can go for stepped masonry footing. According to National
Building Code in Brick and stone masonry slope is 0.5 H: 1V.

Isolated Footing: If separate footings are provided for each column, it is called isolated
column footing. The size of footing is based on the area required to distribute the load of the
columns safely over the soil . These footings are provided over a 100 to 150 mm bed
concrete. Required reinforcements and thickness of footing are found by the design
engineers. Thickness may be uniform or varying.

Combined Footing: If more than one column is placed on the bottom of the footing is called
combined footing. The shape is generally rectangular, trapezoidal in section. A Combined
footing is so proportioned that the center of gravity of the supporting are is in line with the
center of gravity of the two column loads.

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Raft Footing: A raft /matt is a thick reinforced concrete slab, which supports all the loads
bearing wall and columns loads of a structure or a large portion of structure. If the sum of the
base areas of the footings required to support a structure exceeds about half the total
buildings area then it is preferable to combine the footings into a single raft. In raft
foundation uniform settlement is allowed up to 5 cm, but the differential settlement should
not greater then 2 cm. Raft is used when the loads are heavy and soil is very weak or highly
compressible and to avoid differential settlement in erratic soil. Raft is very useful in resisting
large hydraulic uplift.

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Pile Foundation: If the depth of foundation is greater, than the width/diameter of the
foundation is called Deep foundation. Following situations Pile foundation is preferred.
 The load of the super structure is heavy and its distribution is uneven.
 The top soil has poor bearing capacity.
 The subsoil water level is high so that pumping out of water from the open trenches
for the shallow foundation is difficult and uneconomical.
 The structure is situated on sea shore or river bed.
 The top subsoil is expansive in nature.
Friction Piles: Friction piles are used to transfer loads by means of skin friction along the
surface area of the piles. For friction pile, Df>B where Df= Depth of the pile B= Diameter of
the pile. Such piles areused if hard strata are not available to a considerable depth. The
friction developed is to be properlyassessed before deciding the length of the pile. The
surface of such piles is made rough to increase theskin friction so that required length of pile
is reduced.

End Bearing Piles: End Bearing Piles are used to transfer load through the pile tip to a
suitable hard bearing stratum passing soft soil or transforming load through water. Df>B
where Df= Depth of the pile, B= Diameter of the pile

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2.2 Walls

Walls are built to partition living area into different parts. They impart privacy and protection
against temperature, rain and theft. Walls may be classified as
 Load bearing walls
 Partition walls.
Load Bearing Walls: If beams and columns are not used, load from roof and floors are
transferred to foundation by walls. Such walls are called load bearing walls. They are to be
designed to transfer the load safely. The critical portion of the walls is near the openings of
doors and windows and the positions where concrete beams rest. Minimum wall thickness
used is 200 mm. It is also recommended that the slenderness ratio of wall defined as ratio of
effective length or effective height to thickness should not be more than 27.
Partition Walls: In framed structures partition walls are built to divide floor area for
different utilities. They rest on floors. They do not carry loads from floor and roof. They have
to carry only self-weight. Hence normally partition walls are thin. Depending upon the
requirement these walls may be brick partition, clay block partition, glass partition, wood
partition, and aluminum and glass partition.

Load Bearing Walls Partition Walls

They carry loads from roof, floor, self-weight etc. They carry self-weight only.
These walls are thin and hence occupy less floor
They are thick and hence occupy more floor area.
area.
As the material required is more the construction As the material required is less, the construction
cost is more cost is less.
Stones are not used for the construction of
Stones or bricks are used for the construction.
partition walls.

2.3Roof
Roof is the upper most portion of the building which protects the building from rain, wind
and sun.Various types of roofs used may be divided broadly into three types:
1. Flat roofs
2. Pitched roofs

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3. Shells and folded plates

Flat Roofs
These roofs are nearly flat. However slight slope (not more than 10°) is given to drain
out the rain water. All types of upper storey floors can serve as flat roofs. Many times top of
these roofs are treated with water proofing materials-like mixing water proofing chemicals in
concrete, providing coba concrete. With advent of reliable water proofing techniques such
roofs are constructed even in areas with heavy rain fall.

The advantages of flat roofs are:

 The roof can be used as a terrace for playing and celebrating functions.
 At any latter stage the roof can be converted as a floor by adding another storey.
 They can suit to any shape of the building.
 Over-head water tanks and other services can be located easily.
 They can be made fire proof easily compared to pitched roof.
The disadvantages of flat roofs are:
 They cannot cover large column free areas.
 Leakage problem may occur at latter date also due to development of cracks. Once
leakage problem starts, it needs costly treatments.
 The dead weight of flat roofs is more.
 In places of snow fall flat roofs are to be avoided to reduce snow load.
 The initial cost of construction is more.
 Speed of construction of flat roofs is less.
Pitched Roofs
In the areas of heavy rain falls and snow fall sloping roof are used. The slopeof roof
shall be more than 10°. They may have slopes as much as 45° to 60° also. The slopedroofs
are known as pitched roofs. The sloping roofs are preferred in large spanned structures like
workshops, factory buildings and ware houses. In all these roofs covering sheets
likeA.C.sheet, G.I. sheets, tiles, slates etc. are supported on suitable structures. The
pitchedroofs are classified into; Single roofs, Double or purlin roofs and Trussed roofs.
Single Roof: If the span of roof is less than 5 m the following types of single roofs are used.
 Lean to roofs
 Coupled roofs
 Coupled-close roof
 Collar beam roof

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Double or Purlin Roofs: If span exceeds the cost of rafters increase and single roofbecomes
uneconomical. For spans more than 5 m double purlin roofs are preferred. Theintermediate
support is given to rafters by purlins supported over collar beams. Figure 8.14shows a typical
double or purlin roof.

Trussed Roof: If span is more, frame works of slender members are used to support sloping
roofs. These frames are known as trusses. A number of trusses may be placed lengthwise to
get wall free longer halls. Purlins are provided over the trusses which in turn support roof
sheets. For spans up to 9 m wooden trusses may be used but for larger spans steel trusses are
a must. Depending upon the span, trusses of different shapes are used. End of trusses are
supported on walls or on column.

Shells and Folded Plate Roofs

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Shell roof may be defined as a curved surface, the thickness of which is small
compared to the other dimensions. In these roofs lot of load is transferred by membrane
compression instead of by bending as in the case of conventional slab and beam
constructions.

2.4 Doors
The function of a door is to give access to building and to different parts of the
building and to deny theaccess whenever necessary. Number of doors should be minimum
possible. The size of the door shouldbe of such dimension as will facilitate the movement of
the largest object likely to use the doors.In case of the residentalbuildings, the size of the door
should not be less than 0.9 m × 2.0 m.larger doors may be provided at main entrance to the
building to enhance the aesthetic view. Minimumsized doors are used for bath rooms and
water closets. The size recommended is 0.75 m × 1.9 m. As athumb rule height of door
should be 1 m more than its width.

Types of Doors

Battened and Ledged Doors: Battens are 100 mm to 150 mm wide and 20 mm thick
woodenboards. Their length is that of door opening. The battens are connected by horizontal
planks, known asledges of size 100 to 200 mm wide and 30 mm thick. Usually three ledges
are used one at top, one atbottom and the third one at mid-height. This is the simplest form of
door and the cheapest also. Battensare secured by tongued and grooved joint. If doors are
wide apart from using battens and ledgesdiagonal members, known as braces, are provided to
strengthen the door

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Framed and Panelled Doors: This type of door consists of vertical members, called styles
and horizontal members called rails. The styles and rails are suitably grooved to receive
panels. The panels may be of wood, A.C. sheet, glasses etc. The panels may be flat or of
raised type to get good appearance. These are very commonly used doors. They may be of
single shutter or of double shutter.

Flush Doors: The shutters of these doors are made of plywood or block boards. They are
ofuniform thickness. These shutters are available with different attractive vineer finishes.
Thetime consumed in making such doors at site is quite less. These doors are suitable for
interiorportion of a building.

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Louvered Doors: Whenever privacy as well as ventilation is required such doors can be
used. Louvers are the glass, wooden or A.C. sheet strips fixed in the frame of shutter such
that they prevent vision but permit free passage of air. The doors may be fully or partially
louvered. Such doors are commonly used for public bathrooms and latrines.

Revolving Doors: It consists of a centrally placed pivot to which four radiating shutters are
attached. The central pivot is supported on ball bearing at the bottom and has a bush bearing
at the top. The shutters may be partly or fully made up of glass.

Swing Doors: Swing door has its shutter attached to the frame by means of double action
springs. Hence shutter can move both inward and outward. They may be single shuttered or
double shuttered. Such doors are preferred in offices and banks.

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Sliding Doors: In this type of doors, shutter slides on the sides. For this purpose runners and
guide rails are provided. Sliding shutters may be one, two or even three.

Collapsible Doors: Steel channels 16 to 20 mm wide are used as verticals. They are placed
with 12 to 20 mm gap. Steel flats 16 mm to 20 mm wide and 5 mm thick are hinged to them.
The rollers are provided at their top as well as at bottom so that shutter can be pulled or
pushed sideways with slight force.

Rolling Shutters: Figure 8.30 show a typical rolling shutter door. It consists of a frame, a
drum and a shutter made of thin steel plates. The width of the door may vary from 2 to 3 m.
The shutter moves on steel guides provided on sides and can easily roll up. These types of

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doors are commonly used as additional doors to shops, offices, banks, factory, buildings from
the point of safety.

2.5 Windows
Windows are provided to give light and ventilation. They are located at a height of
0.75 m to0.90 m from the floor level. In hot and humid regions, the window area should be
15 to 20 per cent ofthe floor area. It is preferable to have at least two openings in two
different walls. Another thumb ruleused to determine the size of the window opening is for
every 30 m3 inside volume there should be atleast 1 m2 window opening.
Various windows used may be classified on the basis of materials used, types of shutters,
typesofopenings of shutters and the position of windows. Timber, steel and aluminium are
commonly used to make window frames. Shutters of windows may be panelled, glazed or
louvered. Window shutters may be fixed, centrally pivoted, sliding type or double hung

Depending upon the position of windows, they may be classified as:

 Casement windows are common type of windows, provided in the outer walls. They
are providedover 50 to 75 mm sill concrete at a height of 750 to 900 mm from floor
level.
 Bay windows are provided on the projected portion of walls.
 Corner windows are provided in the corner of a room. They need heavy lintels.
Corner post ofwindow should be strong enough to take load due to deflection of lintel
and impact load from theshutters.
 Clear storey windows are provided when the height of the room is much more than
adjacentroom/varandah. It is provided between the gap of low height room and the top
of room with greaterheight.
 Gable windows are provided in the gable portion of the building. They are required
in the staircases or in the halls with gable walls.
 Sky light windows are provided on a sloping roof. It projects above the top sloping
surface. Thecommon rafters are to be trimmed suitably.
 Dormer windows are vertical windows on the sloping roof.

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 Ventilators are provided close to roof level or over the door frames. They help in
pushing out exhaust air. They may be provided with two split and separated glasses or
with hung shutters.

2.6 Flooring

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Purpose of flooring is to get a good hard, level and beautiful surface for living. The floors
directlyresting on the ground are known as ground floors while the floors of each storey are
known as upperfloors.

Types of floorings
Ground Floor

1. Mud and Moorum Flooring: These floorings are used in low cost housing,
speciallyinvillages. Over the hard layer of earth filling mud or moorum layer is provided. The
floorneeds a thin wash of cow dung at least once a weak.
2. Brick Flooring: This is also a cheap floor construction. It is commonly used in
godownsandfactories. Bricks are laid flat or on edges. Bricks of good quality should be used
for theconstruction. Brick layer is provided on sand bed or on lean concrete (1 : 8 : 16) bed.
In bothcases joints are rendered flush and finished with cement mortar.
3. Flag Stone Flooring: Laminated sand stones or slates of 20 mm to 40 mm thick in the
form
of slabs of 300 mm × 300 mm or 450 mm × 450 mm or in the form of rectangles of size
450 mm × 600 mm are used as floor finishes. The stone slabs are laid on 20 to 25 mm
thickmortar spread over concrete bed. The joints are to be finished with rich mortar.
4. Cement Concrete Floors: It is modestly cheap and durable floor and hence commonly
usedin residential, commercial and industrial buildings. It consists of two courses-
basecourseand wearing coat. Base course is laid over well compacted soil. Its thickness is
usually 75mm to 100 mm. It consists of lean cement concrete mix (1:4:8). After base coarse
ishardened wearing coat of 40 mm is laid. It consists of panels of 1 m × 1 m, 2 m × 2 m or 1
m× 2 m. Alternate panels are laid with 1:2:4 concrete using wooden, glass or asbestos
stripseparators of 1.5 mm to 2.0 mm thickness.
5. Terrazo Flooring: Terrazo finishing coat is applied over concrete flooring to get
pleasingappearance. Terrazo finish consists of 75 to 80% of surface marble chips embedded
in cementmortar.Marble chips are mixed in cement in the proportion 1:1.25 to 1:2 and about
6 mm terrazzo topping is laid. The top is tamped and rolled. Additional marble chips are
spread duringtamping to get proper distribution of marble chips on the surface. After drying it
for 12 to 20hours, it is cured for 2–3 days.Then grinding is made.After each grinding cement
grout of cream-likeconsistency is applied and cured for 6–7 days. After final grinding and
curing the floor iswashed with plenty of water and then with dilute oxalic acid solution. Then
floor is finishedwith polishing using machines and wax polish.
6. Mosaic Flooring: It consists of a finishing coat of small pieces of broken tiles of
Chinaglazed or of marble arranged in different patterns set in lime-surkhi or cement mortar.
Thebasecoarse is concrete flooring and on it 30 to 40 mm mortar layer is provided. On
thismortar layer broken pieces of China glazed or marble are set to get different attractive
patterns.After 20 to 24 hours of drying the top is rubbed with carborundum stone to get
smooth andpolished surface.

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7. Marble/ Granite Flooring: Marble/ Granite slabs are cut to get marble tiles of 20 to 25
mm thickness. Theyarelaid on floors similar to other tiles. With power driven machine
surface is polished to geteven and shining surface. This type of flooring is widely used in
hospitals and temples.
8. Tiled Flooring: This is an alternative to terrazo flooring, used commonly used in
residential,office and commercial buildings. On the concrete base, 25 mm to30 mm thick
mortar is laid and these tiles are placed and pressed with trowel or woodenmallet. Next day
joints are cleaned of loose mortar and rakedup to 5 mm depth. Then that is filled with
coloured cement slurry to get uniform colouronthe top surface. After curing for 7 days
grinding and polishing is made as in the case ofterrazo flooring.
9. Timber Flooring: Timber flooring are used in dancing halls and in auditoriums.
Timberplates may be directly placed on concrete bed or may be provided over timber frame
work. Inlatter case it is necessary to provide proper ventilation below the floor. This flooring
is costly.
10. Rubber Flooring: Tiles or sheets of rubber with fillers such as cotton fibres, asbestos
fibreor granulated cork are manufactured in variety of patterns and colours. These sheets or
tilesmay be fixed to concrete or timber floors. These floors are attractive and noise proof.
Howeverthey are costly.
11. P.V.C. Flooring: Poly-Vinyl-Chloride (PVC) is a plastic which is available in different
colourand shade. Nowadays tiles of this material are used widely. Adhesives are applied on
concretebase as well as on bottom of PVC tiles. Then the tile is pressed gently with 5 kg
woodenroller till the oozing of adhesive is seen. The oozed out adhesive is wiped and the
floor is washed with warm soap water. The floor finish is smooth, attractive and can be easily
cleaned.
However it is slippery and costly.

2.7 Stairs
Stairs give access from floor to floor. The space/room housing stairs is called staircase. Stairs
consistsof a number of steps arranged in a single flight or more number of flights.

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Requirements of good stairs

 Width: 0.9 m in residential buildings and 1.5 m to 2.5 m in public buildings.
 Number of Steps in a Flight: Maximum number of steps in a flight should be limited
to 12to 14, while minimum is 3.
 Rise: Rise provided should be uniform. It is normally 150 mm to 175 mm in
residentialbuildings while it is kept between 120 mm to 150 mm in public buildings.
However incommercial buildings more rise is provided from the consideration of
economic floor area.
 Tread: Horizontal projection of a step in a stair case is called tread. It is also known
as going.In residential buildings tread provided is 250 mm while in public buildings it
is 270 mm to300 mm.
 Head Room: Head room available in the stair case should not be less than 2.1 m.
 Hand Rails: Hand rails should be provided at a convenient height of a normal person
whichis from 850 mm to 900 mm.

Salient points to be considered in locating stairs

The following points should be considered in locating stairs in a building:
 They should be located near the main entrance to the building.
 There should be easy access from all the rooms without disturbing the privacy of the
rooms.
 There should be spacious approach.
 Good light and ventilation should be available.

Types of staircase

Straight Stairs: If the space available for stair case is narrow and long, straight stairs may
beprovided. Such stairs are commonly used to give access to porch or as emergency exits
tocinema halls. In this type all steps are in one direction. They may be provided in single
flightor in two flights with landing between the two flights

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Dog Legged Stairs: It consists of two straight flights with 180° turn between the two.
Theyare very commonly used to give access from floor to floor.
Well or Open-newel Stairs: It differs from dog legged stairs such that in this case there
is0.15 m to 1.0 m gap between the two adjacent flights.
Geometrical Stair: This type of stair is similar to the open newel stair except that
wellformed between the two adjacent flights is curved. The hand rail provided is continuous.

Spiral Stairs: These stairs are commonly used as emergency exits. It consists of a centralpost
supporting a series of steps arranged in the form of a spiral. At the end of steps
continuoushand rail is provided. Such stairs are provided where space available for stairs is
very muchlimited. Cast iron, steel or R.C.C. is used for buildingthese stairs.

Turning Stairs: Apart from dog legged and open newel type turns, stairs may turn in
variousforms. They depend upon the available space for stairs. Quarter turned, half turned
with fewsteps in between and bifurcated stairs are some of such turned stairs.

Dept of Civil Engg, Dayananda Sagar College of Engineering, Bangalore