FUNDAMENTAL OF MACHINE TOOLS

Machine tools
▪ power operated machine input output
▪ Expend energy to cut metal
▪ Metal removed from blank in form of chips
to develop required product
▪ Required finish and accuracy of the part is to machine tool
be maintained
▪ Uses cutting tool
▪ Non portable
Example-lathe, milling,broaching and so many operator feed back
to operator

Operations- Man machine system

Hold the blank ❖ Input-information of job shape,size
Hold cutting tools -work shape.size, material
Dofferent types of motion-linear, rotary,
combination or intermittent as nedded for - energy,machine tool information
different parts ❖ Output-required shap. Size accuracy
-finish and integrity of surface
-rate of production, mfg cost/piece
Lathe Machine Drilling Machine
 Classification
❑ Based on field of application ❑ Based on primary machining operation-
i. General purpose- turning, milling, grinding, combination
Highly flexible, wide range of work-piece machine tool
Variety and material, cost effective job ❑ Based on nature of cutting motion-
Production. Ex-plain turning lathe, turret
lathe, milling machine, grinding machine
Rotating tool/reciprocating tool
etc. ❑ According to accuracy–
ii. Production purpose- normal accuracy-majority of components
Less flexible, work variety and material Higher accuracy-critical parts requiring
limited, cost effective batch and mass assembly and alignments
Production. High power and rigid. ex- multi Precision- more stringent accuracy and
tool lathe, plunge cut grinder etc. narrow tolerance
iii. Specialized – same shape but different
❑ Based on environment-
size product. Readily can be switched over
from one job to other. Ex- Heavy duty->10kw, continuous running
iv. Single purpose –specialized for a Medium duty-3-10kw, medium load
definite machining operation. Ex. Thread Small duty- <3KW, small load and minimum
cutter, gear hobber etc. time of running
v. Special machine tool—tool ❑ Based on degree of automation-
grinder, threading by die tap etc. Manual-control
❑ Based on configuration- horizontal, Semi automated-
vertical, inclined
automated-
Major components of machine tools Types of motion in machining
Components for holding tool and ❖ (i) primary motion—it serve the
workpiece purpose of removing metal. It is
Prime mover to provide power two types
Kinematic chain for transmission and (a) principal/ cutting motion-
transformation of power depends on optimum cutting
Structural body sufficient to support speed for tool work-piece
dead and live load within specified limit combination and nature of
machining. It may be rotary, linear
Proper control and automation systems or combination of both
(b) feed motion-depends on
Specification of machine tools required finish of the product. It
It is the parameters to express the may be continuous, intermittent,
functional requirements of the compound
machine ❖ (ii) auxiliary motion- it help to
Tools. generally they are accelerate other processes
involved in production apart actual
• Size limit of the work machining. This motion may be
• Maximum and rated power hand driven or automated. Ex-
• Spindle speed-range, no of divisions changing of speed and feed,
• Feed ranges clamping and unloading of work in
• Floor space , weight etc. the machine tool etc.
• So many others
Performance criteria of machine tools Cost effectiveness of machine

▪ Safety tools
▪ Ease of operation-less fatigue for operation,
loading, unloading and bringing tool and wp in
engagement should be easier by automation or 1
quick acting clamp etc.
▪ Production accuracy-geometric, locational and 2
dimensional accuracy with surface integrity as per 3
requirement. Possible if machine tools is designed
with sufficient stiffness and alignment and Cost
manufacturing accuracy of components. Of
▪ Production capacity-max. no. work-piece per unit Prdn.
time would be as per required.
▪ Reliability and maintainability-
▪ Ease of maintenance
▪ Compactness-should be high, fixed and operating
cost should be as low as possible.

Rate of production

1.General purpose
2. NC Mahines
3.Special purpose machine
 General feature of construction, different parts and working of lathe

▪ Oldest and important machine tools.

▪ The principal surface developed is cylindrical
surface
▪ Job is rotated (turned) and tool is slided
relative to job. So it is turning.
▪ Cutting speed V=Πdn/1000 m/min; d in mm ,
n is rpm
▪ d= depth of cut=b cos( ); is side cutting
edge angle, b=width of cut
▪ f= is feed in mm/rev
▪ But many other operations like facing,
parting, taper turning and so on is
performed by this machine tools.
▪ So it is termed as ‘ the father of machine
tools family’.
 Construction of lathe and its components

A lathe is typically consist of basic ▪ Power transmission-

components transmitted through series of kinematic
like- chain/mechanism
Simple train- individual motion has individual power.
Headstock- it is fixed at the left end. It houses
Found in modern machine tools
power source, power transmissions and
Complex train-different motion and power from
spindle. single power source
▪ Power source Compound train- combination of simple and
-induction having one or two fixed speed for complex train.
stepped variation
-variable speed induction motor, dc motor for
stepless drive
-ac and dc servo motor, stepper motor for NC,
CNC Machine
▪ power of motor-
is to be estimated to overcome power for
machining, friction,inertia forces, auxiliary
motion etc.
 Selection of motor

• Induction motors are generally used as prime mover for most of the machine tools. The power
rating is calculated as

where, is power rating of motor

is power for removing metal
is overall efficiency of drive, λ is overloading coefficient of that particular motor.

where is cutting force coinciding with velocity, is component of force in axial feed direction
and is component of force in radial direction.
▪ Spindle-
It imparts rotary motion, hold centrs/workholding
devices/ work/ tool as required.
It is hollow to take long bar stock. It has an external
tapered surface at the front end to locate driving
plates/chucks. Front side has taper bore to
accommodate centres.
Centres-
The centre held in spindle is known as live
centre having an included angle 60 degree as they
rotate. Live centre is mounted on ball bearing/tapered
roller bearing along with thrust bearing. It is also
preferred during high speed machining to reduce
frictional heat generation.
Centre used in tail stock is called dead centre as it does
not rotate. May be of normal, half ended for turning
and
facing operation, spherical ball ended centre to
accommodate set over. The centre in tailstock is
subjected to heavy wear due to relative velocity
between centre and workpiece. Wear resistance can be
increased by tipping the point with cemented carbide or
wear resistant alloys.
Tailstock- function is to hold dead centre
which supports long workpiece (l/d>4).
It is clamped on the right side of bed. It
consists of two parts. Lower part rests on
bed ways and upper part rest on lower part.
Lower part alongwith upper one can
be slided over bed through guidewauys to
accommodate different length as requird.
Adjustable screw holds two part together. By
loosening it, upper part can be moved away
or
towards the operator to offset tailstock. The
body of the tail stock has a bore for hollow
cylidrical sliding member known as quill.
Drills,reamers,tap and other tools are held
and
fed to the workpiece by the quill.
Carriage: it is moveable components between head
stock and tail stock. Its prime function is to hold the
cutting tool and to provide required relative motion to the
cutting tool ( longitudinsl feed and cross feed). It includes
five major components like –saddle,cross-slide,compound
rest ,tool post and apron mechanism.
Saddle-base of carriage, slides longitudinally along the bed ways.
Cross slide-mounted on saddle by means of dovetail ways,
provide cutting tool motion in cross direction which may be
controlled manually by handle or by power feed.
Compound rest- it has a graduated base that can be
swivelled around vertical axis so that it can be angled with
axis of workpiece. So it is used for angular cut, specifically in
case of short taper.
Tool post- it is mounted over compound rest in a T-slot as
shown. It can be adjusted to tilt with the help of a concave
ring collar and rocker base.
Apron-it contains apron mechanism-reduction of speed
and rotary to linear conversion of speed. It lies under the
saddle in front side of lathe.
https://www.youtube.com/user/munmachineshop go for setting
and working
Bed-bed is the base of lathe which supports all
other components. During cutting operations, majority of
structures are subjected to complex loading like-combinations
of torsion, bending, tension or compression which results
accountable deformations leading to question on accuracy of
parts. In order to achieve good performance of machine tolls,
its supporting structure must be designed with sufficient
strength and stiffness. In order to absorb vibrations, it is made
as a rigid casting part.
Deformations and stresses developed due to torsion and
bending depends on size and additionally on shape. The
section providing maximum moment of inertia and sectional
modoulus should be selected. And hollow box type section is
the best.
The top of bed is planed to form guideways. These are the
rails on which complementary part slides. Less expensive and
low duty lathe have flat ways while medium to heavy duty
lathe have combination of 2 pairs of guideways to provide
motion to saddle and tail stock.
Drive system: mainly two type-primary cutting Speed changing methods-
i) by shifting key (ii) ruppet drive (iii) pre-optive
motion and feed motion. Primary cutting motion drive (variable position clutch ) (iv) engaging clutch
drive enable to achieve certain speed range and (v) by shifting cluster gears.
variation for spindle and feed motion drive enable to Engaging clutch-
achieve range and variation of feed in linear motion.
Primary cutting motion drive/spindle drive/
▪ in general geared head stock drive is designed
to
get stepped variation in spindle output in multiple of
2 and 3 i.e 3,4,6,8,12,16 and 24.
▪ As no. of variations become more, complexity
of
drive arises.
▪ Variations are arranged in geometric
progression with common ratio 1.06, 1.12.1.26,
1.41,
1.58 and 2. ( as c.r increases productivity loss
increases and as c.r reduces more variation and
complex design)
▪ Common ratio where z is no
of step,
By shifting cluster gears- a set of gears which
can be slided on shaft to mesh with required
gear is known as slider gear or cluster gears.
Gear 1 &2 and 5,6,7 are cluster gear.
Corresponding ray diagram is shown which
indicates six number of speed variation in
output spindle.
Some criteria-
Fixed gears spacing must be > 2b (b width of gears)
Minimum difference in teeth of adjacent gears in a
cluster must be=>4.
Minimum no. of teeth in gears for speed box=> 20.
Advantage –it is more efficient and compact , able
to transmit high power, available power for all types
of speed remains almost same.
Back gears-for low duty smaller lathes,power transmits from motor to the cone puleey mounted on spindle
by means of belt. Spindle speed is changed by shifting belt to different pulley. In order to get more
variations and minimum speed back gears are used.
Cone pulleys and gear A is mounted on sleeve on spindle helps to rotate freely. Whenever lock pin is
engaged rpm is directly drives spindle as gear B is rigidly mounted on spindle and N1, N2, N3 Aare obtained.
When back gears C and D are engaged with A and B respectively and lock pin E is disengaged motion is
reduced to N4, N5 and N6 with transmission ratio i.e N4=N1X
Feed box-work at very low velocities and does not pose serious vibrational problems. There are large number
of speed reduction ratio and feed steps than speed box. Rotary to linear conversion and may be continuous or
intermittent. Feed drive in lathe consist of (a) reversing mechanism (b) change gear quadrant © quick change
gear box (d) lead screw (e) feed rod (f) apron mechanism

Reversing mechanism- function is to reverse

the direction of lead crew/feed rod , thereby
reversing the direction of feed. Consist of four
spur gears with consecutive engagement of
the bracket holding reverse gears.
Gear z2 and z3 are freely mounted on stud iii
and iv of the bracket which is mounted on
shaft ii. Feed reverse lever can be moved to
three positions 1,0,2.
Change gear quadrant- it is two pair gear arrangement with a quadrant proper. It serves to set up feed drive
to different speed of lead screw and feed rod. It is employed in cases- when it is necessary to obtain precise
transmission ratio for required generating motion. The set of change gears are chosen so that almost
practically all transmission ratio can be obtained.

Z2 and Z3 are keyed on a sleeve which can be

mounted freely on stud E which can be
adjusted and clamped along the slot to
compensate centre distance. For the given
case, gearing ratio is
 ▪ The quick change gear box is located in front
side below head stock. Function is to rapid change in
(a)Feed rate (b) rpm of spindle/ feed rate by shifting
corresponding lever.
▪ It contains (i) a number of different size gears (ii)
intermediate gear (iii) tumbler gear (iv) a chart
▪ The tumbler gear can be slided over shaft to
mesh any gear on shaft I via intermediate gear mounted
on shaft II by swinging and sliding lever. Shaft III on
which tumbler gear is mounted is the driving shaft.
▪ The number of gears in cone = number of
transmission required.
▪ Positive features (i) compact design to enable
large number of transmission in simgle group (ii)
simple control by using single lever (iii N feed rate
can be found by using N+2 fears only.
▪ Negative side- (i) insufficient rigidity and
accuracy of meshing (ii) poor lubrication (iii)
possibility of dirt accumulation in housing
Apron mechanism- main function is to transfer
rotary
to linear motion with subsequent speed reduction.
Feed rod 2 has a keyway along its whole length.
Worm 3 with its key slides along the rod. Worm
mesh
with worm wheel 4 and motion transferred to pinion
5 mounted on same shaft. By turning automatic feed
knob pinion 5 meshes with gear 6 and rotation
transfers to pinion 7 which runs on rack fastened to
bed. It is employed for turning and other operations.

For thread cutting, instead of feed rod lead screw

take active part. By changing feed change lever to
neutral position feed rod become inoperative and
Lead screw active. Lead screw feed the carriage
through two half nut mounted at the rear wall of
Apron when engaged.
Specification of lathe:
1. distance betwee centre 2. swing over bed-max. dia of job that canm be turned
3. swing over cross slide- max dia of work turned with job cross slides.
 Work holding devices
Primary functions -to hold work-piece at
suitable location by effective clamping.
Used for different machine tools.Work
holding devices in lathe- centre, chuck,
collet, face plate, mandrel, steady rest,
follower rest, mandrel etc. are used
depending on shape, size, location of
work-piece.
Chucks- chucks are availabkle in many style
and types. Size wise it also varies from
small drill chuck to massive lathe chuck. It
have long been useful work holding
devices for variety of cylindrical work.
Development of novel accessories and their
implementation in standard chuck make it
more useful.
Three jaw chuck:
▪ 3 jaws move inward or outward
simultaneously by same amount
▪ Jaws are 120 degree apart.
▪ Known as self centering chuck
▪ Although quick centering but limited
gripping force; so not suitable for
heavy or precise work as accuracy
0.125 TIR( Total indicated run out)
▪ Mechanism involve combination of
bevel gear drive and a spiral
rack(scroll plate). By turning the bevel
pinion, scroll plate rotate and rotation
of scroll plate move jaws by meshing
flat teeth behind jaws with spiral rack.
 4 jaw chuck-
▪ the independence of the jaws movement
▪ make this chuck suitable for holding even non-
circular part, heavy part
▪ with greater clamping force and reasonably
greater accuracy than 3 jaw.
Individual jaw can be moved radially over its
slot by rotating individual jaw screw.
Concentric circles facilitate quick centering
Jaws can be reversed to accommodate larger or
smaller sizes.
 Collet chuck

Collet chuck:
▪ Most accurate and used for precise job and quick The chuck attached to the spindle by a nut
setting consists of a thin cylindrical bushing known as
a collet having slots cut lengthwise on its
▪ Each collet has a range of 100ths. Of a mm. over or periphery. The inside bore of the collet is
under the size marked on it. cylindrical, hexagonal, square, etc. depending
▪ Variety- spring collet chuck and Jacob collet chuck. on the shape of the work that will pass through
Jacob collet has wider range of work. it.
The outside surface of the collet which is
▪ Hold round, square or hexagon shape very fast. tapered fits in the taper hole on the body of the
Limited to smaller job. chuck, and the tail end which is threaded
meshes with a key.
When the key is turned from outside, the collet
is drawn in resulting in the split tapered end
being pushed inward due to the springy action.
Sleeve segments are elastically deflect and clamp the
component. And the workpiece is securely and
accurately held in the chuck. As deflection is
within elastic range, upon removal of pressure, sleeve
spring back quickly, thus unloading of work is faster.
Different sizes of collectors are used for
holding different sizes of the bar stock.
 Magnetic chucks:- • Can be operated with
▪ Magnetic chucks is used to hold control unit to regulate
magnetic material (iron/steel). magnetizing force and
▪ Parts are thin and prone to damage demagnetizing cycle
under heavy clamping force allowing easy unloading
▪ Chuck is used when light cut and • Highly reliable
special grinding operations.
• Developed heat can affect
Chucks are fitted to an adapter
accuracy
mounted on spindle.
The holding power of the chuck is
obtained by the magnetic flux
radiating either from the
electromagnets or from the
permanent magnets introduced
within the chuck. In the ON position,
the flux passes through the
workpiece and grips it. In the OFF
position the magnets are set aside
bringing them in contact with high
permeable ” keepers” which short-
circuit the flux and prevent them
from passing through the workpiece.
For aligning work is held lightly by
turning chuck wrench a little bit. Then
work is trued and chuck is turned full-
on-position to hold job securely.
 Lathe dog
▪ When l/d >4, work is held
between centre
▪ Work is rotated by driving lathe
dog
Drive plate is mounted on
threaded nose on spindle
Drive plate has one open slot
and three closed slot
A pin inserted in open slot
engage tail of the dog, therby
impart rotation from spindle to
drive plate to pin to dog to work.
Dog has opening to receive
work and a setscrew to fasten
dog to work.
Various size and types to suit
various work. dog available as-
bent tail, straight tail, clamp
type etc.
 Face plates:-
▪ Used to hold work too large or odd shaped such that can’t be held in
between centre or in chucks.
▪ Face plates are equipped with several slots to use bolt for work
holding
▪ It may also have angle plates so that work axis may be aligned with
lathe axis
▪ When work is mounted off centre a counterbalance should be
designed to prevent imbalance and resultant vibration.
 Steady rest-
▪ it is clamped on lathe bed at desired
location
▪ Supports the work by three adjustable
screw jaws
▪ Jaws should be adjusted to align the
axis of work
▪ Top half can be swung w.r.t lower half
for easy removal of work
▪ it is suitable for long and thin work
for a support in between centre.
▪ As the carriage can’t pass over it, the
work need to be turned in two set up
(left hand portion first and then
reversed to set back side in chuck or
vice versa)
Follower rest-
▪ It is mounted on carriage at the rear
side so thet it can follow cutting tool
and thereby bear the load at
machining point effectively.
▪ It has two jaws to bear against work
surface
▪ Used for long and very thin work for
turning and thread cutting operation.
▪ For both the cases, jaws may be
provided with ball/roller bearing to
 TAPER TURNING

Taper specification: out of 5 parameters (D,d,l,L,α) 3 must be

given to identify it. Ways toi specify
(i) inclination-(1:2x) =

(ii) Half taper angle α=

Standard tapers:
(i) Morse taper-size 0,1,2,3,4,5,6 . Each one has definite size
and definite taper angle.
(ii) Metric taper- sizes 4,6,80,100 etc. indicates larger dia and
all have same taper angle.
Application of taper:
cone clutch, counter shank screw, centre, tool holders etc.
Method of taper turning-
(i) By swivelling compound rest
(ii) by using form tool
(iii) By setting over tailstock
(iv) By taper turning attachment
Taper turning by swivelling compound rest

• Compound slide or compound rest is the

component mounted over a swiveling base fixed
over cross slide.
• Compound slide is set in direction of lateral arc line
of taper so that cutting tool follow the path of
tapered surface.
• Setting is done over swiveling base at half taper
angle and then tool is clamped.
• By rotating handle at the right the tool post is given
feed along axis as there is screw nut assembly
system for conversion of rotary to linear motion.
Tool is fed manually.
• Advancement of tool for depth of cut is assigned by
cross feed of cross slide.
The length of compound slide is limited. the work
is manufactured manually, so only short tapers are
manufactured by this process.
Due to hand feed, accuracy and finish of the part is
not up to the mark.
Taper turning by form tool-
Form tool is the
tool which impart predetermined contour / profile
to the work. The tool is grounded to form the
required angle of the taper and the tool feed is
perpendicular to lathe axis. The width of tool is
slightly exceeds the length of taper.
Large no. of variety tool is required.
Siutable for short taper.
Mass production of non variable shape and size is
cost effective.
Not suitable for variety of work in shape and sizes.
 Taper turning by offsetting tail stock

▪ In compound slide method tool traverse (feed) is parallel

to the surface to be developed i.e at an angle equal to
half taper angle w.r.t lathe axis.
▪ In form tool method tool traverse parallel to axis, work
is set aligned to line of centre but cutting edge ( making
an angle equal to half taper angle ) are parallel to surface
to be developed.
▪ In this case, tool traverse is parallel to lathe axis but
work is set to angle to form the same angle between
line of centre and feed direction.
o Line of centre is set to required angle by shifting tail
stock centre
o When tail stock is shifted towards the operator, larger
dia will be at head stock and away from operator larger
dia will be at tail stock.
o Set over for taper =
o Set over of part length L with tapered length l will
be =

o Set over is obtained by setting upper part of tail stock

from base by amount graduated on the scale.

Set over or offset is to be limited L/50 otherwise work

may slip from tail stock centre or unbalance of work may
occur. Therfore it is used for gentle taper ( <8 degree) of
long length.
It develops non-uniform wear of dead centre.
 TAPER TURNING BY TAPER TURNING ATTACHMENT

▪ Bracket is attached to lathe bed at rear side. Bracket

carries a guide bar which can be swivels against a
pivot point. The required angle = half of taper angle
is set by swivelling bar and fixed the stud at correct
position in the slot of bracket. A guide block
connected to lathe cross slide by tie bar.
▪ Due to longitudinal feed of saddle, guide block will
slide along bar. As guide block is linked to cross
saddle, it is moved in a direction parallel to guide bar.
And the surface is cut
▪ Cross slide will be disconnected from saddle by
removing cross feed screw/ disengaging cross slide
and cross feed screw nut
▪ After each cut, tool is given depth of cut by rotating
handle of compound rest.
Tapers may be turned repeatedly without changing
normal set up of machine. So, same alignment is
maintained and good repeatibilty for the part.
Tapered holes can be bored easily
Tapers are developed by providing longitudal power
feed. So productivity is quite high and suitable for
mass production.
for less no. of job process is not cost effective.
 THREAD CUTTING

Thread cutting is one of the important operation

Step in thread cutting-
frequently performed in lathe. It may be considered as
1) To find accurately shaped cutting tool which
turning with some special consideration- to cut helical is accomplished by thread gauge.
grove of proper form and depth. Before discussing 2) Tool is mounted on tool post and ensure
about thread cutting it is essential to look into basic that tool top is aligned with axis of rotation
details of a thread. There are variety types of thread- 3) Establish a specific relation between
longitudinal feed and spindle rotation
square, ACME, NPT pipe thread, buttress thread etc. which is performed by changing gears or
however, they are classified majorly as BSW (British corresponding chart by shifting lever in
standard whitworth) and ISO Metric thread regarding semiautomatic lathe. Driver/driven =P/L
standardisation. where P =Pitch of thread to be cut and L is
lead of lead screw. Gears are available from
BSW- Angle 55degree, depth 0.6403xpitch 20 to 120 and special gear teeth 127. if
Radius at crest and root- 0.17329xpitch possible simple train can be selected ,if not
set compound gear train.
Metric-angle 60degree, root radius- 0.0633xpitch(max) 4) Longitudinal feed is provided by lead screw
Depth =0.54127xpitch not by feed rod . Two halves of the split
nut(half nut) is to be closed on lead screw
and carriage moves as lead screw rotate.
5) If L= NXP(N is any integer) i.e if lead screw
pitch is an exact multiple of thread pitch,
thread is known as even thread otherwise
odd thread.
6) If even thread, after the completion of tool
travel, half nut is disengaged, tool is
retracted and returned back to original
point manually without stopping /reversing
lathe. Next pass is started with specific d.o.c.
(first cut .25-.4mm and gradually reduced to
.027 -.075mm)
7) If odd thread, after the completion of tool
travel, half nut is not disengaged, tool is
retracted and returned back to original
point by stopping and reversing lathe so
that it follow the exact earlier path in
 8. Tool can be fed inward either radially or at angle
half of thread angle.
9. For the first case, cutting take place along both
flanks of the tool. As tool is provided with zero or
negative rake, it does not initiate proper cutting.
Higher cutting force, chances of chatter resulting
poor finish and low tool life. Applicable for cast iron
and brass. Suitable for ACME, Square thread.
10. In Second case, cutting take place on the face of the
tool. Compound slide is rotated half of thread angle
and cutting tool is adjusted perpendicular to
surface. Cutting is favorable as chip is curled easily.
The production rate of cutting screw threads can be increased with the use of tool called die head chaser.
Tools have four cutters with multiple teeth which can be adjusted radially.
For smaller diameter thread, adjustable round solid threading die is used. Proper size die is selected and held
in a die holder which is placed in tail stock centre. Work-piece is held in headstock spindle, rotated slowly. The
tailstock hand wheel is rotated to engage die over work piece and to cut the threads.
For cutting internal threads, same procedure is followed by use of tap
Power requirement in turning: Machining time calculation:
required power depends on speed, feed, d.o.c, tool Calculate N (spindle rpm)= 1000V/Πd
material, work material –its hardness and
machiniability and nature of machining.
Time for single pass= L+overtravel/F.N( overtravel
may be 2 -4 mm. either side depend on operator choice)
However, for a rough estimation of power in turning is
done by = cutting forcex cutting speed; Number of roughing pass: = (total allowance-
Cutting force= Kxdxf ( d=d.o.c in mm, f is feed in mm/ roughing allow.)/d.o.c
rev, K=constant based on work material N/mm2) Number of finish pass= finish allow./ finish d.
o.c
problem1. estimate the actual machining time required for the component of length 120mm
to turn to 42mm. Available speed70,110,176,280,440,700,1100,1760, 2800. roughing speed
30mm/min and feed .24mm/rev. finish speed 60mm/min and feed .1mm/rev. finish allow.
0.75mm and blank dia 50mm. Find power required.
Sol: stock to be removed (50-42)/2= 4mm
for roughing-available stock=4-.75=3.25mm. Considering max d.o.c =2mm no.of pass=2
avg. dia = (50+42)/2=46mm.
N= 207rpm. Take N= 176,
Machinig time for roughing=2x (120+4)/(.24x176)
=5.82min
finishing rpm= 60x1000/πx42=440rpm
machining time for finishing=124/(.1x440)=2.77 min.
Problem1. A taper pin of length 80mm has taper
length 48mm.The larger dia 83mm and smaller
dia
73mm.
(i)Calculate the angle for compound rest set up.
(ii) tail stock set over.
Problem2.calculate tail stock offset for a taper of
8
degree on a job of 120mm long and larger dia
80mm.
Problem3. calculate change gears to cut a single
start
thread of 0.5 mm pitch on a centre lathe having
a
lead screw of 12mm pitch.
Problem4. calculate the change gears to cut a
single
start thread of 4 tpi on a centre lathe with lead
screw of 3mm pitch.
1. Calculate the time required to machine a w/p of length 180mmx 60mm dia to
160 mm long x 50mm dia. Work rotation 440 rpm and feed 0.25 mm/rev and max
d.o.c 2mm. Assume total approach and overtravel dist as 5mm for turning.
2. 100mm x 10mm dia is to be turned to 100mmx8mm dia by turning with cutting
speed 31.41 m/min and feed rate of 0.6mm /rev. how many times we have to
regrind the tool to work on 1000 workpiece considering n=1.2 and C=180 in
tayolr’s equation
3. A 150mm long x 12mm dia stainless steel rod is turned to 10mm dia in one pass .
Spindle speed 440rpm and axial speed of tool is 200mm/min. calculate cutting
speed, mrr and machining time.
4. Estimate the actual machining time required for the component of length
120mm to turn to 42mm. Available speed70,110,176,280,440,700,1100,1760, 2800.
roughing speed 30mm/min and feed .24mm/rev. finish speed 60mm/min and feed
.1mm/rev. finish allow. 0.75mm and blank dia 50mm. Find power required.
5. A taper pin of length 80mm has taper length 48mm. The larger dia 83mm and
smaller dia 73mm.
(i)Calculate the angle for compound rest set up.
(ii) Calculate tail stock set over.
(iii) Out of these two option of method which one you suggest and why?
6. Calculate tail stock offset for a taper of 8 degree on a job of 120mm long and
larger dia 80mm.
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SUBMIT IN A4 SHEET WITH A COVER PAGE CONTAINING ROLL NO. NAME,
SECTION SUBJECT CODE AND SESSION. SHEET INCLUDES PROBLEMS FOLLOWED
BY SOLUTION IN CHRONOLOGICAL ORDER
For section A- 1,4,6
 Reciprocating machine tools
Machining of flat surfaces (horizontal/vertical/inclined ) by means of straight line reciprocating
single point cutting tool is performed eiyher in shaper or planing machine or slotting machines.
▪ In case of shaping work-piece is stationaery and cutting motion is provided in the cutting tool.
feed motion is provided in a plane perpendicular to cutting motion. Shaping is limited to small to
medium size of work-piece as stroke length is limited to 800-1000mm.
▪ For planing prime cutting motion is given to the work-piece on table. Tool is moved slowly for
imparting feed motion. Planing are performed for heavy and large job of heavy duty. Having a box
type of configuration it is more rigid and able to take heavier cuts.
▪ Slotter works on same principle as shaper but tool travels in vertical plane. Slotter is provided
with indexable rotary table about vertical axis. Table moves on saddle. Rotary alongwith two
straight line motion of table enhances its capability on working range. It is widely used for
machining blind holes, spilnes, keyways etc. machining of straight and curved die can also be
machined.
 SHAPER

▪ Base: provide support, carry dead weight and dynamic load. Generally grey cast iron,
▪ Housing: hollow casting, mounted on base. Houses drive mechanism for ram movement and table.
Top of housing are arranged with guideways for smooth motion of ram.
▪ Table: fastened at the front of housing, table is moved across the housing on cross rail for feeding.
It can also be moved up and down on housing to accommodate different size of work-piece by
elevating screw.
▪ Ram: it carries the tool head at front and travels in guide to provide straight motion to the tool.
Based on the nature of drive- mechanical/hydraulic , shaper is classified.
Tool head:
it is connected to front of ram and hold the
cutting tool via tool holder on other side.
The tool post and tool block have snug fit in
the clapper box and hinged at upper edge.
During forward stroke, the tool block is
solidly supported against clapper box due to
cutting force. During return stroke, tool
block is free to swing forward from pivot.
This lift up the tool to avoid rubbing against
machined surface.
Tool head has a feed screw rotated by
handle for raising or lowering the tool to
adjust d.o.c. the slide is rotated on swivel
plate which enable tool head to be rotated
to take angular cuts. While machining
inclined surface, clapper box must be swung
along an arc away the work-piece surface.
 Flat surface generation

• Nature of tool geometry

develops triangular hill valley
profile on machined surface
based on tool geometry and
operating parameters. The
height from valley to hill can
be reduced by decreasing
feed/stroke which reduces
MRR. Another option is to
use broad nose tool with high
feed/stroke but causes
unavoidable vibrational
problem.
 Quick return mechanism

• Bull gear is driven by motor via

bull gear pinion. A pin fits freely
into a hole in bull gear block holds
a sliding block which slides in the
slot of rocker arm. The rocker arm
is pivoted at lower end of column
and upper end is connected by a
link to ram block which is secured
to ram.
• Ram stroke is adjusted by changing
crank radius on bull gear. If radius
is increased stroke length will be
more and vice versa. Another
option is to change the dist.
Between pivot point of slotted arm
and centre of bull gear.
From the angle α and β, it is realised that the
return stroke takes less time.
Average cutting speed= L/t(cutting)
T(cutting)= (1/N)X(α/α+β)min.
Avg. cutting speed=L.N.(α+β)/α=L.N(1+(1/r))
where r= α/β>1 and kept 1.5
Average return speed= L/t(non-cutting)
T (non cutting)=(1/N) X (β/ α+β) min.
Avg. return speed =L.N.(α+β/β)=L.N.(1+r)
The speed mentioned for any particul
ar stroke
is not uniform, rather it is varying followed by
the shown curve. As there is a wide variation
of load w.r.t time, so for getting a smooth and
Jerk-free movement of ram, a flywheel is
essential. Big bull gear function as well as a
flywheel.
Stroke length is adjusted such that tool starts
cutting stroke a small distance before the w/p is
engaged by10 to 20mm.and complete the stroke
10-20mm. After disengage with w/p.
 Feed mechanism in shaper
Feed is intermittent and provided only during
return stroke. The feed is given through feed
screw rotated by a ratchet wheel. The ratchet
wheel has intermittent rotary motion by
engaging with spring loaded reversible pawl.
The pawl gets it motion from a slotted disc
through a connecting rod.
The slotted disc is rotated at same speed of
bull gear through a intermediate spur gear.
As the pawl is straight on one side and slanted
on the other, it rotates the ratchet in one
direction when pawl teeth pushes ratchet.
When pawl teeth is pulled by connecting rod
it slides over ratchet teeth and no rotary
motion is imparted. Pawl is spring loaded to
keep contact with ratchet wheel.
By rotating the knob at the top by 180 degree
feed direction can be reversed and by rotating
90 degree feed may be zero.
The rate of feed is controlled by adjusting the
ecentricity of driving pin in slotted disc.
 Hydraulic Shaper

A constant speed motor runs a pump which

delivers oil at constant pressure in the line
Through flow control valve to 4 way regulating
valve. It admits oil under pressure to each end
on the piston alternately and allowing oil from
opposite end to return to reservoir. The flow
of oil in each end is accomplished with the
help of trip dogs and pilot valve. As ram
completes it stroke, trip dog will trip the pilot
valve which operate 4 way regulating valve to
alter the direction flow of oil.
a. Stroke length is adjusted by using trip dogs at
desired location
b. The speed of ram is proportional to oil pressure
and area of piston.
Advantage: a) cutting speed remains constant
during cutting and return speed remains constant
during return stroke.
b) Ram reverses quickly without experiencing any
shock as inertia of the working parts is
comparatively small.
c) Range and number of cutting speed are large.
d) More stroke/min is possible
e) Ability to change length and position of stroke.
Disadvantage: initial cost and maintenance cost too
high.
 Numerical problems
1. Calculate the rpm of the bull gear of a mechanical shaper if cutting speed is 35m/min. with adjusted
stroke length 250mm. Assume ratio of cutting stroke to idle stroke as 1.5.
Solution: let rpm of bull gear be N. So, for 1 rev. time needed is 1/N min. Out of this 1/N min, cutting time is
(15/25)x(1/N) min.
Dist. Travelled=(35m/min)x(15/25)x(1/N)min=250/1000 N=(35X15X1000)/(250X25)=84 RPM.
2. A part measuring 300mmx100mmx40mm is to be machined using hydraulic shaper along its wide face.
calculate the machining time taking approach and overtravel as 25mm each. take cutting speed as 15m/min
and machining allowance on either side of plate width is 5mm and feed is 0.4mm/stroke.
Solution: =300+25+25=350mm
No. of stroke required= (100+5+5)/0.4 =275
Being hydraulic shaper, cutting speed i.e assumed uniform speed in a stroke =15000mm/min.
Time required for machining= ((350x2)/15000)x275=12.83 min.

3. A shaper is operated at 2 cutting stroke per second and is used to machine a work-piece of 150mm length at
a cutting speed of 0.5m/s using a feed of 0.4 mm/stroke and a depth of cut of 6mm. (a) calculate the total
machining time to produce 800 components each 100 mm width. (b) if forward stroke is over 230degree,
calculate % of time when tool is not contacting work.
Solution: No. of stroke required= (100+5+5)/0.4=275
Machining time/piece needed=(275/2) s
Total machining time = ((275/2)x800)/3600 hr=30hrs.
cutting time for a stroke= α/(α+β)N=230/(360X120)=.0053min
Idle time for a stroke =β/(α+β)N=130 /(360x120)=.003 min
% of time tool not contacting work= (.003/.0083)x100= 37.5%
 HOLE MAKING OPERATIONS
Different type of holes are: through hole, blind
hole,counter bore , counter sink, step hole etc.
Operations include-
drilling- making a drill with the help of twisted
drill
Core drilling- uses core drill to enlarge and
improve geometric shape
Reaming- uses reamer to get accurate size abd
finish of previously drilled hole
Counter boring- uses counter bore to enlarge
certain portion of drilled hole, sometimes
needed foe setting of screwhead or bolthead.
Countersink-chamfering of entrance of drilled
hole for setting flat head screw or rivet. The
angle may be 60/82/90 degree
Step drilling- uses step drill i.e combination of
drill bit of two different dia.
Drilling machine
Gang drill- a number of generally 2-6 , individual column, spindle head and
spindle on a large common base.
Different operations to be carried sequentially moving w/p one place to other.
Speed and feed are controlled independently.
Multispindle drill- number of spindles are driven from single head.
Several number of drills can be performed simultaneously. More productive
than gang drill
Drive in drilling machine
Main drive: from motor, motion goes to
spindle by a pair of cone pulley –v belt drive.
In order to get different speed, it can be
designed with change gears.
Feed drive: the spindle has a keyway or spline
so that it may be moved up and down
retaining its drive at fixed point.
There is a non-revolving quill or sleeve in
which spindle freely rotate. Drill sleeve carries
a rack which meshes with pinion. Pinion is
turned by hand lever in sm,all machine or by
automatic transmission by designing gear
change drive with main drive. So, main
objective is to get a calculated rpm of pinion
for a desired feed. Drill sleeve is moved up
and down along axis. Spindle is held with
upper end of sleeve by two ring nut and with
lower end of sleeve by collar of spindle head.
To reduce friction, ball bearing arrangement is
provided between sleeve and collar.
 DRILL BIT
Drill bit i.e twist drill is used as cutting tool for drilling. Other special
type of drill bit are also in use for drilling special type of holes.
Drill bit material: general material is plain c-steel/h.s.s. for drilling hard
and brittle material --drill bit with carbide tip. It also increase
productivity by 30% over hss
CONSTRUCTION: Main parts are- (i) shank(ii) body(iii) point
SHANK: the part of the bit used for mounting on spindle or other
operating elements to transmit motion and power to the cutting tool.
▪ For drill bit upto 13 mm. dia have straight shank and are held in
drill chuck
▪ For dia >13 mm.tapered shank bit is used. Taoer shank fits into
internal taper of spindle. At the end of shank, tang is provided to
prevent slip during operation and to allow the drill to be removed
from spindle without damaging shank.
BODY: It is the part in between shank and point. It consists of certain
elements like
Flutes: two or more helical grooves which form cutting edges are cut
around the body. They allow cutting fluid to reach at machining point
and allow the chips to escape.
Margin: narrow raised section next to flute and extends along entire
length. Its purpose is to provide full size of drill body and cutting edges.
Body clearance : undercut portion of the body between margin and
flutes. It reduces friction between drill bit and surface of drilled hole.
Web: thin portion in cenre of drill along entire length. It gradually
increses towards shank. It is the strength of the drill bit and it form
chisel edges.
POINT: This is the prime component which actually
take part in cutting. The shape of point is very
important. It consists of basically chisel edge and heel.

Chisel edge: chisel shaped portion at the centre of

drill point. It is formed by intersection of two flanks.
This part does not cut material but pushes material
out of centre of the hole in front of cutting edges.
Lip: lips are formed by intersection of flutes. They
must be of equal length, equal angle and sharpness in
order to drill turn true. Otherwise hole will be
oversized, eccentric and excessive wear of tool.
Rake angle: axial rake angle is the angle between the
face and line parallel to axis. This angle changes based
on position on face. It is equal to helix angle at the
periphery. It is complex angle which depends on helix
angle, point angle and feed rate.
Helix angle: it is the angle formed by leading edge of
land to the axis. The angle helps to escape chips
clearly.
Lip clearance angle: from cutting lip to back of heel a
relief is provided. This is known as lip clearance angle.
Lip/point angle: to determine shape of point. General
value118 degree. Larger for hard and brittle material.
DEEP HOLE DRILLING

Half round drill:

▪ single lip, more bearing surface
▪ Drill is taper to reduce friction and more chip
clearance area
Gun drill:
▪ More bearing surface covering 250-300 degree
▪ Zig-zag designed lips for chip breaking
 reaming

Reaming: it is hole finishing operation. Very little

amount of material is cur smoothly to get better
finish- parallelism, roundness and accuracy in size.
It uses multipoint cutting tool- reamer. It has
three main parts- shank, neck and fluted portion.
Chamfered portion-l1 ensures easy entry to the
hole
Starting taper-l2 provide prime cutting action
Sizing section-l3 guides the reamer and help in
sizing the hole
Back taper-l4 provided to minimize friction
Types of reamer:
▪ 1. hand reamer- operated by tap wrench.
Have long cutting edges. May have pilot for
guiding. Have straight shank
2.Machine reamer: taper shank. Shorter
cutting edge.
▪ 1. solid reamer: one piece integrated material
2. Shell type reamer: cutting portion are made
like a shell and mounted on shank to reduce cost.
Siutable for larger dia.
3. Floating: holders are not rigid and permit to
follow previously drilled hole easily.
▪ 1. left hand and right hand
▪ Straight flute and helical flute
 Size of drill press
1. swing-2x(distance from nearest face of column to centre of spindle)
2. maximum dia of drill bit that can be used on steel work-piece
3. maximum distance between spindle and table i.e maximum height of job with table in its lowest position
4. spindle up and down movement ( length of feed)

• Estimate machining time to cut 4 no. drill hole

of dia14mm on 12mm thick m.s plate
considering cutting speed 22m/min and feed
0.2 mm/rev. assume setting time=8min,
auxiliary time/hole=1 min. assume available
spindle speed 510.
L= 12+(.3X14)= 16.2mm.
ΠDN=22000 or N= 22000/(3.14X14)=500
T(actual machining)/hole=16.2/(.2x510)=.16 min.
Total actual maching time= 4x.16=6.4 min.
Auxiliary time= 4min.
Setting time= 8 min.
TOTAL MACHINING TIME=18.4 min.
HW: A hole of 25mm dia and 35 mm depth is to
be drilled on m.s plate. Cutting speed 35mm/min
and feed 0.2 mm/rev. calculate machining time,
MRR, torque and thrust acting on drill. Assume
setting time as 2 min. torque and thrust constant
as 616 and 84.7.
 MILLING

It is a machining process in which a work-piece is fed into Features of milling:

a rotating milling cutter, a multipoint cutting tool by Interuptted cutting: teeth gets time to be cooled,
producing nuber of chips in one revolution of cutter. hence allow larger MRR
Small size of chip: small but large number of chips
are produced. Component can be machined in
• Peripheral milling: single pass.
Finished surface is parallel to axis of cutter Variation of chip thickness: chip thk. Varies from
engagement of teeth to disengagement with work.
Machined by cutter teeth located on So, there is a cyclic variation of cutting force which
periphery may induce uneanted vibration in the system.
▪ Face milling:
Finished surface is perpendicular to axis
of cutter
Machined by teeth on periphery and flat
end of cutter.
 Types of milling machine-
1. knee and column type---(a) horizontal (ii) vertical (iii) universal (iv) turret type
2. production (bed) type----(i) simplex (ii) duplex (iii) triplex
3. special type--- 9i) rotary table (ii) copy milling machine (iii) keyway milling machine etc.

1. Knee and column type:

Volumn- rigid, contain SGB, Gear train
Knee- contain feed mechanism, support saddle and
table, table has T-slot along x axis for movement in
x direction, saddle moves perpendicular to x i.e y
direction, knee can be moved up and down on
dovetail ways on column face manually.
Spindle:- located at top of column, hardened collar
are fitted on spindle at one end and supported at
other end in bearing houses in overarm. Milling
cutter are fitted on arbour at desired location.
Arbour is clamped in spindle by draw bar and fixed
by nut.
Overarm: to provide support to the arbour from
other end.
Vertical – suitable for shank mounted milling
cutters like end mill. Cutter may be swiveled . More
flexible than horizontal. Suitable for making
complex die cavities.
Universal: table can be swievelled in horizontal
plane about 45 degree in each direction. Suitable for
manufacturing of spur, helical and worm gear and
complex cam profile.
Milling cutters-
(i) construction—(i) solid (ii) inserted tooth
(b) mounting—(i) arbour (ii) shank
© rotation –(i) RH- C.C.W –viewed towards spindle (II) LH -CW
(d) helix—(i) RH-flutes move in CW viewed from end (II) LH
(e) operation—(i)plain /slab milling cutter (ii) face milling cutter (iii) profile milling cutter (iv) end mill
plain milling cutter- straight/helical teeth. Straight teeth enters the work simultaneously the whole width ;eading to
intermittent load acting on m/c resulting impaired surface quality. Helical teeth engages progressively resulting smooth
operation and better surface.
Job width<cutter width, it is called slab cutter.
Face milling cutter- cutting edges on periphery and face also. Machine flat surface perpendicular to axis of rotation. Rigidly
mounted on nose of spindle, highly productive for flat surface. Leaves feed mark on machined surface.
Profile milling cutter-
end mill cutter- cutting edge on end surface radially and periphery like face mill. Shank mounted. Slot drill-teeth at end
terminated at centre, so able to cut solid material. Ball ebd mill- the end portion is shaped in spherical shape
 Dividing head and indexing

Construction: it has head stock, spindle

Dividing head- important attachment as work hol;
ding device and rotate the blank by exact amount
and tailstock. The assembly is bolted to
for each groove to cut. machine table such that axis of spindle is
This method is known as indexing. at right angle to spindle of machine. The
function is to cut/sloy/groove equally spaced spindle of assembly is keyed to 40 teeth
around circumference of blank. worm wheel and a single threaded worm
Used to manufacture gear, reamer, ratchet, spline meshes with wheel. One end of worm
etc. shaft has crank that can be turned
manually over predetermined hole gap in
selected indexplate mounted on sleeve
of worm shaft.
 Method of indexing
A: direct indexing-Index plate is directly mounted
on dividing head spindle.
Compound indeximg: it is achieved in two
Use of worm and worm wheel is avoided stages by using two different hole circle of
Most rapid but fraction of turn is limited. same index plate.
B: Simple indexing-available index plate in Brown (i) Follow simple indexing like n holes on N
& Sharpe m/c as hole circle and then engage lockpin in N1
Plate1: 15,16,17,18,19,20 hole circle.
Plate2: 21,23,27,29,31,33 (ii) Rotate crank and index plate in same or
Plate3:37,39,41,43,47,49 opposite direction n1 hole in N1 hole
1/40 turn of work need 1 turn of index crank circle by disengaging locking pin.
Z turn of work need 40/Z turn of index crank.
Indexing for 62 divisions----- So, (n/N) +( n1/N1)= 40/Z if both turn forwad
Z=62 (n/N) -( n1/N1)= 40/Z if both turn opposite
No. of turn in index plate is 40/62 =20/31 Indexing for 141 divisions:
Crank should be turned 20 hole position of plate 141=47X3
2 having 31 concentric hole.
C: Angular indexing:
Plate no 3 has 47 hole and 39 also.
9 degree rot. Of work need 1 turn of index crank n/39+-n1/47=40/141=13x40/39x47
ϴ degree rot of work need ϴ/9 turn of index 47n+-39n1=520
crank. By trial and error find n and n1
Make necessary calculation for for 16 degree 40
min. And it is found to be 26 and 18