detects the body temperature of human beings, and a

thermocouple is a thermoelectrical thermometer that works on the principle of the

Seebeck effect; they are cheap; hence, their model and basic materials are easy to get,
and non-contact sensors are not placed in contact with the object that it measures;
however, they measure the temperature by utilizing the radiation of the heat source.
IR sensors detect the energy of an object remotely and emit a sign to an electronic
circuit that senses the object’s temperature by a specific calibration diagram. Other
types of temperature sensors are available and produced based on the working principle,
size, temperature range and their function and application.
Keywords: sensors, temperature, thermometer, thermistor, non-contact type sensor,
contact type sensor
1. Introduction
A temperature sensor is an electronic device that measures the temperature of its
environment and converts the input data into electronic data to record, monitor or
communicate temperature changes. A temperature sensor is an electronic device that
monitors the temperature of its surroundings and turns the input data into electronic
data. Temperature sensors come in a wide variety of forms [1].
Temperature sensors are electrical/electronic physical sensing device which
transforms an input signal from a specific environment into an equivalent output
signal [2].
According to the amount of general literature on the topic, thermocouples are the
most often employed type of temperature measuring in industry. Its widespread
acceptance, reasonable accuracy over a wide measurement range, and relatively inexpensive
sensors all contribute to its appeal. Narrower measuring ranges can handle
1
accuracy closer to 0.1 degrees Celsius, whereas accuracy over wide ranges is comfortably
between 0.5 and 2 degrees Celsius [3].
As long as the Seebeck coefficients of material A and material B for the two
materials are known, these thermoelectric devices use the Seebeck effect in dissimilar
metal wires linked at the thermoelectric junction representing T1 to determine a
temperature gradient down the wire [4]. The temperature can be gauged at the
terminus connections T0 by measuring the net electromotive force between T0 and
T1 within the wires, which is voltage of the order of microvolts. Cold junctions are
frequently utilised in the form of a fixed physical temperature or electronically mimicked
via cold junction compensation because a temperature gradient must be
constructed to produce a net voltage output signal (CJC).
Due to the non-linear temperature-resistance connection of thermistors, which are
composed of semiconductor materials, calibration is even more crucial [5]. Although
routine calibration is required to prevent the impacts of sensor drift, the use of
semiconductor materials allows them to deliver a far better level of sensitivity [6] than
other sensor types.
According to Schweiger’s 2007 argument, if the right sensors are chosen and
calibrated properly, a quick multichannel precision thermometer might compete with
Precision Thermometers using thermistors [7]. Deviations of less than 30 mK were
seen in tests conducted in the temperature range of _50 to 10 C. Improvements have
been made in spatial resolution of surface temperature measurement compared to
standard soldered type K thermocouple using an electrochemically etched microtip
[8]. Thin film thermocouples can also be deposited onto a surface and have been used
to measure heat generated in the friction between sliding surfaces [9]. Non-linearity
Figure 1.
Temperature-Sensing illustration [12–14].
Figure 2.
Temperature sensor [15].
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Wireless Sensor Networks – Design, Applications and Challenges
of sensors can be an issue, although one study showed it to be possible to correct for
this using a neural network approach in type K thermocouples [10].
Industrial thermocouple measurements can be further enhanced by improving
high-temperature alloys and more intelligent electronics [11].
Figure 1 shows an illustration of temperature-sensing using human hands as a
sensor and its digital equivalent, while Figure 2 shows a temperature sensor formed
by joining two different materials. There are many different types, sizes and shapes of
temperature sensors. In general, temperature sensors can be categorised into two
groups: contact sensors and non-contact sensors [15].
2. Contact sensors
When positioned close to an object to be detected for heat or cold, contact sensors
are used to measure the object’s temperature. These sensors can determine the concentration
of liquids, solids or gases throughout a wide temperature range.
Thermocouples and thermistors are good examples of contact temperature sensors.
Thermocouples are inexpensive, and it is easy to find the basic materials needed to
manufacture thermocouples [15, 16].
Contact Sensors are devices that measure temperature by placing it in direct
contact with the object being measured or the desired measurement environment.
They can be used to detect temperature changes in gases, liquids or solids in a range of
temperature measurements. Thermocouples and thermistors are two contact sensor
types. Its model and fundamental components are straightforward, and thermocouples
are frequently inexpensive.
Additionally, thermocouples have the broadest temperature range of any temperature
sensor, ranging from well below -200°C to well over 2000°C [16].
Thermocouples are thermoelectric sensors that are essentially made of two welded
or crimped junctions of dissimilar metals, such as copper and constantan. The reference
(cold) junction and the measuring (hot) junction are the two junctions that are
maintained at the same temperature. As illustrated below, a voltage is created across
the junction when the two junctions are at different temperatures. This voltage is used
to measure the temperature sensor [16].
2.1 Construction of a thermocouple
Figure 3 shows how a thermocouple is constructed by joining two metals of iron
and constantan.
Figure 3.
Construction of a thermocouple [16].
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Types of Temperature Sensors
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.110648
2.2 Working principle of a thermocouple
The thermocouple’s working principle is quite straightforward and fundamental.
When two different metals, such as copper and constantan, are fused together, a
“thermoelectric” effect results, producing a constant potential difference between
the two materials of only a few millivolts (mV). The “Seebeck effect” refers to the
voltage differential between the two junctions because an electromagnetic field (emf) is
created when a temperature gradient develops between the conducting wires. The
output voltage of a thermocouple is then dependent on temperature variations [17].
If both junctions in Figure 3 are at the same temperature (zero potential difference
across the junctions), and there is no voltage output because V1 = V2. But when the
junctions are linked together in a circuit and operate at different temperatures, a
voltage output, V1 - V2, corresponding to the temperature differential between the
two junctions, will be noticed. This is because the characteristics of the two different
metals employed influence how much of a voltage difference will increase with temperature
until the junction reaches its maximum voltage level [17].
Extreme temperatures between _200°C and over +2000°C can be recorded using
thermocouples, which can be constructed from various materials. Internationally
recognised standards have been created with thermocouple colour codes to help users
select the best thermocouple sensor for a given application due to the wide variety
of materials and temperature ranges available. Below is a list of the standard
thermocouple colours used in Britain [17].
Figure 4. shows the thermocouple colour codes that were used in the manufacturing
of different types of thermocouples. Thermistor contacts are the second kind of contact
temperature sensor. The resistance of thermistors is dependent on temperature change,
as opposed to other types of resistors whose value is determined by the colour code [18].
Thermistors are available in two types which are:
1.Positive temperature coefficient (PTC)
2.Negative temperature coefficient (NTC)
A PTC thermistor’s resistance rises with temperature, but an NTC thermistor’s
resistance falls with temperature. Therefore, an NTC thermistor is the most common
type of thermistor.
Temperature sensors include thermocouples. They can be found in common
appliances, including ovens, refrigerators and fire alarms. Thermometers and numerous
other vehicle appliances also include them [18].
Figures 5 and 6 show PTC (left) and NTC (right) thermistor electrical symbols
and a typical NTC thermistor.
2.3 Advantages of a thermistor
• Less expensive
• Can measure changes in a small temperature range
• They are more sensitive than other temperature sensors
• They provide a fast response
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Wireless Sensor Networks – Design, Applications and Challenges
• They are easy to use
They are small and can fit into any smallest space [19].
A bi-metallic strip is created when two distinct metals, such as nickel, copper, tungsten,
or aluminium, are bonded together to create the thermostat, an electro-mechanical