AMITY UNIVERSITY-MUMBAI

DEPARTMENT OF AEROSPACE ENGINEERING

6th Semester

By:
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Assistant Professor, Department of Aerospace Engineering, AUM.
 Subject Name-Aircraft Design

By:
Mr.RAJANIKANTH
Assistant Professor, Department of Aerospace Engineering
Amity University
Email:[email protected]
Mob.No:8618674384.
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 Module-2
Air Loads in Flight
 Symmetrical maneuvering loads in flight

 Aerodynamic considerations

 Load factor

 V-n diagram

 Gust loads and estimation of gust loads

 Aerodynamic and Structural Considerations; Structural effects.

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Loads on structural components
 Types of loads

1. Ground loads---loads encountered by the aircraft during

movement or transportation on the ground such as taxiing and
landing loads, towing and hoisting loads.

2. Air loads--loads imposed on the structure during flight by

manoeuvres and gusts.

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Principal aerodynamic forces on an aircraft during flight.

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  The two classes of loads may be further divided into surface
forces which act upon the surface of the structure, e.g.
aerodynamic and hydrostatic pressure
and
 Body forces which act over the volume of the structure and
are produced by gravitational and inertial effects.

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(a) Pressure distribution around an aerofoil
(b) transference of lift and drag loads to the AC.

The force on an aerodynamic surface (wing, vertical or horizontal tail) results from a differential pressure
distribution caused by incidence, camber or a combination of both. Such a pressure distribution.

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 Typical lift distribution for a wing/fuselage combination.

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 3 Aircraft inertia loads

4.Symmetric manoeuvre loads

5. Gust loads

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 Topic: Load Factor
• The load factor is the ratio of the lift of an aircraft to its weight

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 Topic: v-n Diagram

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GUST LOADS AND ESTIMATION OF GUST LOADS

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 Gust loads
 Gusts are caused by
• Increased aerodynamic & structural loads
• Turbulence
• Friction and wind shear
• Structural deformation and decreased flight dynamic performance

 Definition: Gust load factor, n, is

defined as ratio of the lift of an
aircraft penetrated in a gust to the
aircraft weight.

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 Gust load factor, n, is defined as ratio of the lift of an aircraft penetrated in a gust
to the aircraft weight.
 It represents the aircraft normal overload or acceleration encountering a gust and
can be expressed as

where L is the aircraft lift under a specific gust load

W is the aircraft weight
Δn is the acceleration increment due to gust and for most cases, Δn = n − 1.
The maximum value of Δn is termed as the gust load formula.

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• There are three kinds of gust, i.e., vertical, lateral and head-on gusts.
• The effects of each kind of gust are ordinarily considered equal to change the angle of
attack, side-slip angle and dynamic pressure of the aircraft, respectively. This is due to
the individual directional components of gust velocity at orthogonal angles to the flight
path, as shown in Fig. 1.
• Where V is the aircraft forward flight speed, U is the gust velocity, and 𝐕𝐞 is the
aircraft effective velocity.

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 Estimation of gust loads
The aircraft is flying
at a speed V
Gust velocity( u)

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 Estimation of gust loads

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 Estimation of gust loads

𝒖
The aircraft is flying at a The incidence increases by an amount 𝒕𝒂𝒏−𝟏 𝑽
speed V with wing
incidence 𝜶𝟎 in still air

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 The aircraft is flying at a speed V

V
𝜽
u

u
upward velocity u

• Since u is usually small compared with V, u/V.

𝟏/𝟐
• This is accompanied by an increase in aircraft speed from V to 𝑽𝟐 + 𝒖𝟐 , but again this increase is neglected since
u is small.
• The increase in wing lift ∆𝐿 is then given by

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 Estimation of gust loads
The increase in wing lift ∆𝑳 is then given by

𝝏𝑪𝑳
where is the wing lift–curve slope
𝝏𝜶

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 Estimation of gust loads
The increase in wing lift ∆𝑳 is then given by

Equation 1

𝝏𝑪𝑳
where is the wing lift–curve slope
𝝏𝜶

The gust load factor ∆𝐧 produced by this change of lift is

Equation 2
(where W is the aircraft weight)

In terms of the wing loading, w = W/S, we have

Equation 3
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This increment in gust load factor is additional to the steady level flight value n = 1.
Therefore, as a result of the gust, the total gust load factor is

Equation 4

Similarly, for a downgust,

Equation 5

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If flight conditions are expressed in terms of equivalent sea-level
conditions, then V becomes the equivalent airspeed (EAS)

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 Estimation of gust loads
The increase in wing lift ∆𝑳 is then given by

𝝏𝑪𝑳
where is the wing lift–curve slope
𝝏𝜶

The gust load factor ∆𝐧 produced by this change of lift is

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Topic: Aerodynamic and structural design considerations
Aerodynamic design considerations
FORCES ACTING ON AN AIRCRAFT AND LIFT GENERATION PROCESS
IN AN AIRCRAFT AND

Forces acting on an Aircraft

 The four forces acting on an aircraft in straight-and-level, unaccelerated flight are
thrust, drag, lift, and weight.

By Prof.Rajanikanth BK 36
Introduction to Aerofoil
Airfoil-NACA 2421

By Prof.Rajanikanth BK 37
 Aerofoils terminologies or Airfoil Nomenclature

Sketch of a wing and airfoil.

Airfoil nomenclature or terminology

By Prof.Rajanikanth BK 38
AIRFOIL NOMENCLATURE

By Prof.Rajanikanth BK 39
Airfoil Nomenclature

By Prof.Rajanikanth BK 40
Classification of Airfoil or Aerofoil

Symmetrical airfoil

Unsymmetrical airfoil
Camber airfoil Or Asymmetrical airfoil or unsymmetrical airfoil

By Prof.Rajanikanth BK 41
By Prof.Rajanikanth BK 42
Differences between Symmetrical airfoil and UnSymmetrical airfoil

By Prof.Rajanikanth BK 43
By Prof.Rajanikanth BK 44
Airfoil Design
Airfoils are divided into three
classes: high lift, general
purpose, and high speed.
High-lift aerofoil sections are
normally used on sailplanes and
aircraft with short field
operations.
They have a high thickness chord
ratio, a pronounced camber, and
well-rounded leading edges.

By Prof.Rajanikanth BK 46
NACA FOUR-DIGIT SERIES

By Prof.Rajanikanth BK 47
 Important points
• CP=Center of pressure of an aircraft is the point where the Lift acts.
• Center of Pressure =The center of pressure is the point where the total sum
of a pressure field acts on a body.
• In aerospace, this is the point on the airfoil (or wing) where the resultant
vector (of lift and drag) acts.
• AC=Aerodynamic center is the point in the wing where the pitching moments are constant.
• Aerodynamic Center The resultant (or the pressure forces) also cause a moment on the airfoil. As the
angle of attack increases, the pitching moment at a point (for example, the center of gravity) also
changes. However, the pitching moment remains constant at a particular point, which is called the
aerodynamic center.
Thus,

Center of pressure of an aircraft is the point where the

Lift acts.
Aerodynamic center is the point in the wing where the
pitching moments are constant.
The neutral point is where the center of gravity of the
aircraft is neutrally stable
Pressure Distribution over Aerofoils, Aerofoil Lift characteristics
 The lift produced by an airfoil is
the net force produced
perpendicular to the relative
airflow

(j)The angle of attack is the angle between the

chord line and the relative airflow. Angle of
attack is given the shorthand notation (alpha).
It is important to differentiate between pitch
attitude angle and angle of attack.
 Regardless of the condition of flight, the instantaneous flight path of the
surface determines the direction of the oncoming relative airflow and the
angle of attack is the angle between the instantaneous relative airflow and
the chord line. To understand the definition of angle of attack, visualize the
flight path of the aircraft during a loop and appreciate that the relative airflow
is defined by the flight path at any point during the maneuver.
LIFT FORMULA
The lift on an airfoil is primarily the result of its angle of
attack. When oriented at a suitable angle, the airfoil
deflects the oncoming air (for fixed-wing aircraft, a
downward force), resulting in a force on the airfoil in
the direction opposite to the deflection.
 Topic Name-Aspect Ratio
The Aspect Ratio of a wing is defined to be the square of the span divided by the wing
area and is given the symbol AR. For a rectangular wing, this reduces to the ratio of the
span to the chord length as shown at the upper right of the figure.
We know that Area=[Length][Breadth]
 Topic-Lift to Drag Ratio
 In aerodynamics, the lift-to-drag ratio is the lift generated by a wing or vehicle, divided
by the aerodynamic drag caused by moving through air.
 The lift to drag ratio (L/D) is the amount of lift generated by a wing or airfoil compared
to its drag. The lift/drag ratio is used to express the relation between lift and drag and is
determined by dividing the lift coefficient by the drag coefficient, CL/CD. A ratio of L/D
indicates airfoil efficiency.
 Topic: Structural design considerations

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The main structural member of the wing is the wing spar

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Structural elements of a wing and its functions

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 TOPIC
Semi-monocoque & Monocoque Construction of Aircraft

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Structural elements of a Fuselage and its functions

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Plates / Skin / Panel

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 Stress Analysis in Fuselage Frames
• Fuselages

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Skin buckling on the forward fuselage

The B-52 Strategic Bombers Characteristic Skin Wrinkles : Skin

buckling is more a structural design feature than a sign of aging.

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 Buckling Of Thin Plates

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 Excessive derotation on landing buckled Delta 757's fuselage

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 • Riveting is still widely used in applications
where light weight and high strength are
critical, such as in an aircraft. Many sheet-
metal alloys are preferably not welded as
deformation and modification of material
properties can occur.

• It is difficult or impossible to obtain

such a tight fit with other fasteners

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 Stressing Structure

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 STRUCTURAL EFFECTS.

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 Figure: Aircraft structure with Assembly (Joined)

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Skin buckling on the forward fuselage

The B-52 Strategic Bombers Characteristic Skin Wrinkles : Skin

buckling is more a structural design feature than a sign of aging.

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 Buckling Of Thin Plates

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 Excessive derotation on landing buckled Delta 757's fuselage

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 THE END

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