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 AIMING FOR AN A
IN A-LEVEL
CHEMISTRY
Sarah Longshaw

9781510429536.indb 1 13/07/18 11:20 AM

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ISBN: 978 1 5104 2953 6
© Sarah Longshaw 2018
First published in 2018 by
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Contents
About this book
Using this book 5
The exam, assessment objectives and tips for success 6

Chapter 1 Quantitative skills

Study skills 9
Application to the exam 27

Chapter 2 Reading skills

Study skills 31
Application to the exam 42

Chapter 3 Writing skills

Study skills 45
Application to the exam 55

Chapter 4 Practical skills

Study skills 60
Application to the exam 77

Chapter 5 Revision skills

Study skills 81
Application to the exam 83

Exam board focus

What you need for an A 89
The different specifications 89

Quantitative skills answers

Aiming for an A in A-level Chemistry 3

 Getting the most from this book
Aiming for an A is designed to help you master the skills you need to achieve the highest grades.
The following features will help you get the most from this book:

Learning objectives Exam tip

Practical advice about how to
› A summary of the skills that will be covered in the apply your skills to the exam.
chapter.

Activity Common pitfall

An opportunity to test your skills with practical activities. Problem areas where
candidates often miss out
on marks.

The difference between...

Key concepts differentiated and explained.

Annotated example
Exemplar answers with commentary showing how to achieve top grades.

Worked example
Step-by-step examples to help you master the relevant skills needed for top grades.

Take it further
Suggestions for further reading or activities that will stretch your thinking.

You should know

› A summary of key points to take away from the chapter.

4 Aiming for an A in A-level Chemistry

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 Using this book

About this book

Learning objectives
› To learn ways of working that will prepare you for
reaching the higher levels.
› To understand what skills an A-grade student needs to
secure the highest grades.

Chemistry is the study of matter, including how substances combine

to make new ones, how they can be separated and how they interact
with energy. It can broadly be divided into organic, inorganic and
physical chemistry, and it involves a practical component. As you
study towards your chemistry A-level, there will be topics that you
find more interesting than others and skills that you find it easier
to master, but to reach an A grade, you need to be able to master
them all.
To achieve an A you have to not only work hard, but you need to
work effectively. This means that you need to direct your effort to
the areas where it will have most impact. In addition, you need to
understand where and what your weaknesses are, and address those
weaknesses by applying lots of practice.

Using this book

This book is intended to guide you through the skills that you will
require to reach the highest grades and help you critically evaluate
and improve your own performance. Each chapter focuses on a
different skill, and uses some subject content to exemplify how
that skill is developed. Chemistry is synoptic, meaning there are
links between the different elements of the subject; the more you
practise thinking about how ideas link together, the easier you will
find it to apply your knowledge.
➜ Chapter 1 (quantitative skills) looks at the use of mathematical
skills in the interpretation of data to support your understanding
of chemistry. It will enable you to develop your ability to use
maths as a tool for problem solving.
➜ Chapter 2 (reading skills) offers suggestions on the best ways
to extract information from the variety of sources you will
encounter in your course and will also help to guide and support
you in areas of your own particular interest.
➜ Chapter 3 (writing skills) addresses the ability to express
yourself clearly and accurately in a variety of ways, so that the
information you present is accurate and logical. It will help you
to establish writing habits that will make it easier for you to
achieve the higher marks.
➜ Chapter 4 (practical skills) will not only focus on the skills you
learn and use when carrying out practical activities in chemistry,
but it will also help you to apply these skills to develop a greater
understanding of the design, purpose and limitations of practical
work. In addition, it will enable you to consider how you use

Aiming for an A in A-level Chemistry 5

ABOUT THIS BOOK

the results generated by practical work to further develop your

understanding of chemical concepts.
➜ Chapter 5 (revision skills) provides suggestions on how to prepare
for the exam, by building good practice into your everyday
experience. It recognises that cramming is unlikely to result in
you achieving a top grade, and so it helps you to structure your
learning from the outset of the course.
➜ The Exam board focus section provides some final exam-board-
specific revision advice and looks at the unique characteristics
of the AQA, CCEA, Edexcel, Eduqas, OCR and WJEC courses and
assessments, with an eye on achieving the highest grades.
Use this book alongside your notes and other resources; complete
the activities, annotate the text and revisit particular sections as
and when you need to.

The exam, assessment objectives and tips

for success Activity
A-grade students are characterised by their thorough understanding
of the subject: Download the specification
you will be using and print
➜ They are able to see how the different elements of chemistry are it off. This should become a
related and where there are patterns forming (synoptic thinking). working document where you
➜ They are able to explain aspects of chemistry by relating back to track the coverage of topics,
fundamental principles. as well as understanding
➜ They are competent at using mathematical procedures in a how they link together. It
chemistry context and they understand the nature of scientific will also give an indication
experimentation. of the level of detail that
➜ They understand the need for models to help develop will be required by your
understanding and are able to evaluate the strengths and particular awarding body.
limitations of these models.
➜ They are inquiring, and constantly challenge their own knowledge
and understanding by asking why things happen, or what the Activity
result would be if a change were applied, or how altering a factor
Take a topic — for example,
would change a particular outcome.
acids — and write this in
➜ They are problem solving; able to apply knowledge and principles the centre of the page.
to something they may not necessarily have studied before. Then add in all the facts
The inquisitive nature of an A-grade student may take them beyond you know about that topic.
the exam specification, but they will understand when and how to Add in connections to other
use the extended knowledge they gain. topics, where appropriate.
The ability to link ideas will
An A-grade student is one of a small percentage of students who help you to appreciate the
are awarded a higher number of marks for the qualification taken. synopticity of the subject
To identify the required marks, the examining bodies make a as well as understanding
prediction, based on prior attainment, of the expected percentage how the questions could
of students who will achieve the top grades. (The percentages for be structured. You could
those achieving A grades and A* grades will be different, but the also add practical and
principle is the same.) mathematical connections.
Ofqual provides guidance on the awarding process — through blogs Acids, for example could
and a range of documents — as do many of the examining bodies. be linked to organic
More information on how the different bodies award the highest chemistry, titrations and pH
grades is found in the Exam board focus section. calculations.

6 Aiming for an A in A-level Chemistry

 The exam, assessment objectives and tips for success

The exam
The purpose of the exam is to find out what you know and
understand. Contrary to what many students believe, exams have
not been designed to catch you out; they are more of an opportunity
for you to demonstrate your capability within a particular subject.
Throughout the course you will have practised applying your
knowledge, in the same way that athletes practise in preparation
for a particular race. You will practise individual components or
questions, just as an athlete may practise the start or when to
accelerate, and you will also complete whole practice papers, in the
same way that the athlete will run in a number of events leading up
to the major competition in which they are taking part.
The exact nature of each paper will depend upon the particular
awarding body, but it will cover the skills that you have developed
throughout the course.
Shorter-answer questions will mostly focus on what you can recall
and rely on the fact that you are expected to learn a certain number
of facts and definitions. They may also test your knowledge of
key mathematical and practical skills. Longer-answer questions,
will require you to organise your thinking and to structure your
responses. They may also draw on mathematical and practical
components of the course.

Take it further
When you have learned a topic you need to apply your knowledge and
assess your understanding. Once you have completed a question (or paper)
and used the mark scheme to correct it, read the examiners’ report. This
will give you an indication of common pitfalls for each question or paper,
and how to avoid them. Use what you have found out to help you improve.
Analyse your mistakes and why you made them; then find other, similar
questions and track your improvement.

Assessment objectives and core skills

As an A-grade student you will be aware that each question is
structured to address particular assessment objectives. There are
three of these for A-level chemistry, as shown in the table below:

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 ABOUT THIS BOOK

Assessment objectives for A-level chemistry

Assessment What it entails Percentage
objective of A-level

AO1 Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of scientific ideas, 30–35

processes, techniques and procedures
AO2 Apply knowledge and understanding of scientific ideas, processes, 40–45
techniques and procedures:
• in a theoretical context
• in a practical context
• when handling qualitative data
• when handling quantitative data
AO3 Analyse, interpret and evaluate scientific information, ideas and 25–30
evidence, including in relation to issues, to:
• make judgements and reach conclusions
• develop and refine practical design and procedures

The difference between... Activity

The table below shows the difference between core and advanced Locate and download
skills. the command words that
Core skills (AO1) Advanced skills (AO2 and AO3) your exam board uses for
• These are the more • These are more complex skills chemistry. Where possible,
straightforward skills. and require a degree of problem annotate these with the
• They include recalling solving.
assessment objective that
definitions, describing • They may involve applying your
they are most likely to
procedures and carrying out knowledge, evaluating a procedure
calculations. or carrying out more complex be associated with. For
calculations including the selection example, the command word
and rearrangement of equations. define is associated with
AO1. Note that it is not
always possible to assign
assessment objectives
You should know because in some instances,
the context will determine
› To achieve the top marks you need to be proficient in all whether the term refers to
three assessment objectives. AO2 or AO3.
› To progress throughout the course, you need to learn
from your mistakes.
› To develop a real understanding of chemistry, you need
to constantly make connections and links between
different topics.

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 1 Quantitative skills

Learning objectives
› To develop the mathematical skills required for A-level
chemistry.
› To describe and explain quantitative data.
› To analyse and interpret quantitative data and to draw
conclusions based on the outcomes.
› To apply mathematical skills to the answering of
examination questions.

Study skills
Quantitative skills are integral to A-level chemistry — in the current
specifications, 20% of the examination marks are for maths skills
at level 2 or higher (this is equivalent to higher-tier GCSE maths).
Other mathematical skills, below level 2, will not be judged as
contributing to the 20% but may still be assessed — for example,
the simple substitution of data in completing calculations.
The quantitative skills assessed in your specification are divided
into the following areas:
➜ Arithmetic and numerical computation
➜ Handling data
➜ Algebra
➜ Graphs
➜ Geometry and trigonometry
This chapter will address each of the above in turn, initially focusing
on the core quantitative skills and then moving on to consider how
to develop the higher-order thinking skills of analysis, interpretation
and evaluation, in relation to these.

Activity
Complete and tick the activities in Table 1.1 to help you
understand the main mathematical skills you will need.

The answers for activities in this chapter can be found on page 91.

Aiming for an A in A-level Chemistry 9

 1 Quantitative skills

Table 1.1 Mathematical skills for A-level chemistry

Mathematical What you need to Activity Done/✓
skill be able to do
Use of your Convert between decimals and Make sure you are familiar with how your calculator
calculator standard form works
Enter numbers in standard form
Use the log functions, including
log10 and loge (usually denoted as
ln)
Use of the data Recognise and utilise the Print off the data sheet for your exam board and
sheet information given on the sheet to familiarise yourself with the constants, data and
help you answer exam questions equations provided
Units Have an understanding of which Give the units for Kc for each of the following
units are used to measure different equilibria:
quantities and be able to convert (a) H2(g) + I2(g)  2HI(g)
between them
(b) N2(g) + 3H2(g)  2NH3(g)
For example: giving units for Kc, Kp
or a rate constant and converting
entropy units to use in free-energy
calculations
Decimal places Use an appropriate number of Calculate the pH of a solution that contains
decimal places 0.136 mol dm−3 H+ ions
Standard form Be able to write numbers in the Write the following in standard form:
form a × 10 b where a is an integer (a) 0.00045
between 1 and 10 and b is a whole
(b) 375 000
number
Ratios, fractions Be able to calculate percentage (a) 2-hydroxybenzoic acid C7H6O3 is used to make
and percentages yield or atom economy aspirin, C9H8O4. If a starting mass of 2.00 g of the
Use ratios and/or percentages to acid is used, what is the maximum possible yield of
derive empirical formulae aspirin?
(b) A yield of 66.7% is achieved. What mass of aspirin
does this represent?
(c) 100 g of an organic compound contains 51.6 g of
oxygen, 9.1 g of hydrogen, and carbon. Calculate its
empirical formula.
Estimating Use estimates to check calculations Sulfuric acid can be neutralised using sodium
— for example, if you are carrying hydroxide, as shown:
out a calculation and you get a H2SO4 + 2NaOH → 2H2O + Na2SO4
value of 0.1 cm3 for a titre you
If you pipetted 25.0 cm3 of 0.50 mol dm−3 acid into a
would know you had gone wrong
conical flask, what sort of range of titres would you
somewhere
expect if the concentration of the hydroxide was the
Estimate the effect of changing same as that of the acid?
temperature, for example on Kc
Means Calculate the weighted mean or A student obtains the following values when carrying
select appropriate data values to out a titration. Find the mean titre.
use to calculate a mean titre
Titration 1 2 3 4 Mean
Titre/cm3 22.00 22.35 22.20 22.45

Uncertainty Identify uncertainties in The uncertainty associated with a measuring

measurements cylinder is ±1 cm3. Calculate the percentage error
when measuring 23 cm3 of a solution with this
cylinder.

10 Aiming for an A in A-level Chemistry

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 Study skills

Mathematical What you need to Activity Done/✓

skill be able to do
Equations Be able to change the subject of an The Ka of methanoic acid is 1.6 × 10 −4 mol dm−3.
equation as well as being able to What is the pH of a 0.01 mol dm−3 solution of the
substitute values into an equation acid?
and calculate a given quantity
Be able to solve algebraic
equations
Logarithms Use logs to represent quantities (a) What is the log of 0.25?
that change over several orders of (b) What is ln of 0.25?
magnitude
(c) If log10 x = 0.32 what is x?
Find the log of a given number and,
conversely, if given a log, you need
to be able to find the number using
the inverse or antilog
Graphs Plot graphs when given data What order of reaction does the rate graph in
values, ensuring that the axes and Figure 1.1 represent?
scale are correctly chosen and
labelled
A C
Recognise common graphs
Determine the slope and intercept
for a given line graph or draw a
[Product]/mol dm–3

tangent to a curve and calculate

the gradient (including the units)

rate at time t
AB
= mol dm–3 s–1
B AC

O t
Time/s

Figure 1.1
Geometry and State the angles associated with (a) Draw a diagram to show the shape of a molecule
trigonometry particular 3D shapes of methane, CH4.
Represent different 3D shapes on (b) Give a value to the bond angle.
paper

Common pitfall Exam tip

Remember that in Gibbs free
Students often lose marks because they give units to relative energy calculations where you
formula masses — remember that Mr values do not have are using entropy (J) and enthalpy
units because they are comparative. Molar mass does (kJ), you will first need to check
that the units are common and
have units (because it measures the mass of one mole of a convert units if necessary. Usually
substance). you convert J to kJ, but check
what the question requires.

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 1 Quantitative skills

Common pitfall Common pitfall

Students often lose marks if they give an answer to more Students often lose marks
decimal places than the piece of equipment can accurately when they use values other
measure. If you are combining different measurements, than the concordant titres
then an answer should be given to the number of significant (those within 0.10 cm3) in
figures justified by the least accurate piece of equipment — their calculation of a mean
the accuracy of the final answer can be no greater than the titre.
least accurate measurement.

Maths is a tool to support the quantitative nature of chemistry,

where we might want to know how much of one chemical reacts
with a given amount of another chemical, and how much energy
is released when particular bonds within the product are made.
However, it is important to recognise that it is a tool and not to lose
sight of the context in which it is being applied. This is particularly
important when you are faced with an unfamiliar scenario.
As an A-grade student you will be able to identify and use
information given in the question and apply your problem-solving
skills, setting out your working logically and in an easy to follow
manner (see worked example 1.1). This makes it easier for you
to check your working and also for examiners to credit error
carried forward (ecf) marks if you do happen to make an error in a
calculation.
Arithmetic and numerical computation
This skill is largely concerned with finding a value and expressing it
in the correct form, to an appropriate number of significant figures
and with the correct units. As an A-grade student you will be able
to structure such calculations where necessary.

Worked example 1.1

Setting out your work
A student needed to prepare a buffer solution of pH 4.00 from 100 cm3 of 0.500 mol dm−3
ethanoic acid and a mass of sodium ethanoate. Calculate the mass of sodium ethanoate needed.
(The Ka of ethanoic acid is 1.70 × 10−5 mol dm−3.)
This is an example of a buffer calculation, which can be broken up into steps. First identify the
information given in the question and the equation linking the species.
The information given is Ka of the acid, the concentration of the acid and the pH. The volume of acid
used is also given which is needed later in the calculation.
Including the units in the calculations helps you to identify what the units should be at the end,
because you can see where the units cancel. This also helps to identify possible errors in the
calculation; if the units at the end are not the correct ones for the quantity you are finding, go back
and check your working.
➥

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 Study skills

Step 1: Write the equation to link Ka and the concentrations of the species present:
[A−][H+]
Ka =
[HA]
where HA is the weak acid (in this case ethanoic) and A− is the salt of the weak acid
(in this case sodium ethanoate)
Step 2: Rearrange the equation to make [A−] the subject:
Ka[HA]
[A−] =
[H+]
Step 3: The pH value is given, so use pH = −log10[H+] to calculate [H+]:
pH = −log10[H+]
4.00 = −1og10[H+]
[H+] = 10−pH
[H+] = 1 × 10−4 mol dm−3
Step 4: Substitute the values for [H+], [HA] and Ka into the equation:
1.700 × 10−5 mol dm−3 × 0.500 mol dm−3
[A−] =
1 × 10−4 mol dm−3
      = 0.0850 mol dm−3
Step 5: The question asks for the mass of sodium ethanoate; so far a concentration has been
calculated. The volume of acid (100 cm3) is the volume that the sodium ethanoate has been dissolved
in (remember that a buffer contains an acid and a salt of that acid). Before calculating the number
of moles of sodium ethanoate, first convert the volume from 100 cm3 to dm3, by dividing the volume
by 1000.
concentration (C) × volume (V)
number of moles (n) =
1000
C×V
n=
1000
0.085 × 100
=
1000
n = 0.00850 mol

Step 6: Now calculate the mass of sodium ethanoate required using the equation:
mass
number of moles (n) =
Mr
First rearrange to make mass the subject of the equation:
mass = Mr × n
The formula of sodium ethanoate is CH3COONa so, using your data sheet, the Mr can be calculated:
(2 × 12.0) + (3 × 1.0) + (2 × 16.0) + 23.0 = 82.0 ➥

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 1 Quantitative skills

Substituting:
mass = Mr × n
= 82.0 × 0.00850 = 0.697 g

Handling data
Significant figures
Many students struggle with the use of significant figures. As an
A-grade student you will know to round your answer to a calculation Activity
to the same number of significant figures as the data value with
Give the following values to
the fewest significant figures that is used in the calculation (unless
three significant figures:
otherwise specified). This means that when measurements are
multiplied or divided, the answer can contain no more significant (a) 376 245 Pa
figures than the least accurate measurement. It is also important to (b) 42.000 g
remember that rounding off an answer to the appropriate number of (c) 0.00732 mol
significant figures should only be done at the end of a calculation. (d) 5760 J
To find the number of significant figures, start counting from the
first non-zero digit and continue up to the last non-zero digit unless
there is a decimal point, in which case keep counting to the end.
For example: 2780 has three significant figures but 278.0 has four.
Activity
Zeros within a number are significant, but those at the start of a Many of the exam boards
number are not. have guidance on the maths
skills required. Go to your
Decimal places exam board’s website and
search the resources to
If you are asked to give your answer to three decimal places, look find the appropriate maths
at the digit in the fourth decimal place. If it is 5 or more round the skills documents. Download
number in the third decimal place up; if it is less than 5 leave the these and refer to them as
number in the third decimal place as it is. For example: necessary.
Give 2.792103 to three decimal places.
The number in the fourth decimal place is 1, which is less than 5, so
the answer is 2.792.
In the case of 2.792703, the number in the fourth decimal place is
7, which is greater than 5, so the answer is 2.793 to three decimal
places
Algebra
Algebra is all about the use of equations and formulae, which may
feature symbols as well as numbers and letters.

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 Study skills

Activity
Complete Table 1.2, which summarises the most commonly used symbols and their meanings.
Table 1.2
Symbol Meaning
A reaction that is reversible because it can proceed in both directions

≥
≈
Less than
Approximately
∝

You need to be able to rearrange equations, including those that

feature powers, logs and fractions. (Remember that whatever you do Activity
to one side, you must do to the other.)
Rearrange the following
You will come across the use of various constants in A-level equations to find the value
chemistry. For example, in a reaction where chemicals A and B specified.
react to form a product, then the rate of the reaction may or may
not vary with the concentration of A (and/or B). This can only be (a) pV = nRT (find V)
determined experimentally. However: (b)   [a][b]
Kc =
➜ If the concentration of A is doubled, and the rate of the reaction [c]2
also doubles, then the rate of the reaction is proportional to the (find c)
concentration of A:
(c) m
rate ∝ [A] n=
Mr
➜ If the rate of the reaction quadruples when the concentration of (find Mr)
B is doubled, then the rate is proportional to B2: (d) ∆G = ∆H – T∆S (find T)
rate ∝ [B]2
➜ Since the concentrations of both reactants influence the rate:
rate ∝ [A][B]2 Activity
To simplify things a proportionality constant, k — the rate constant Make a list of the other
— is used and the equation is written as: proportionality constants
that you have come across
rate = k[A][B]2 (you might want to return
to this as you progress
Worked example 1.2 through your course). Write
an expression including each
Rearranging an equation one.
Ammonia is formed from the reaction between hydrogen and
nitrogen gases, as follows:
N2(g) + 3H2(g)  2NH3(g) ∆H = −92.4 kJ mol−1
The gases were heated to 650 K, at a pressure of
10 atmospheres and allowed to come to equilibrium, when a
sample of the mixture was analysed. The mole fraction of
hydrogen was 0.655 and that of nitrogen was 0.209.
Find the mole fraction of ammonia. Kp = 3.2 × 10−3 atm−2
➥
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 1 Quantitative skills

From the value of Kp, suggest where the position of Common pitfall
equilibrium lies and also the effect that increasing the
temperature and the pressure will have on Kp. Students often miss out on
marks because they use
Step 1: Write the expression for Kp:
square brackets instead of
p(NH3)2 the rounded ones. Since
Kp =
p(H2)3p(N2) square brackets are used
to represent concentration,
this makes the examiner
Step 2: Rearrange the equation to make the unknown the
subject — doing this in stages helps you (and the examiner) see think that you don’t
what you have done. understand the difference
between Kc and Kp.
p(NH3)2 = Kp(H2)3p(N2)
p(NH3) = Kp(H2)3p(N2)

Step 3: You know the value of Kp but now need to work out the
partial pressures using:
partial pressure = mole fraction × total pressure
The total pressure is 10 atmospheres:
partial pressure H2 = 0.655 × 10 atm = 6.55 atm
partial pressure N2 = 0.209 × 10 atm = 2.09 atm
Step 4: Substitute the values into the equation:
p(NH3) = 3.20 × 10−3 × 6.553 × 2.09
p(NH3) = 1.37
Step 5: Partial pressure = mole fraction × total pressure, so
to calculate the mole fraction, divide the partial pressure by the
total pressure:
1.37
mole fraction of ammonia =
10
mole fraction = 0.137
Check whether this is a sensible value — the total of the mole
fractions should be 1:
0.137 + 0.655 + 0.290 = 1.01
Step 6: To think about the relationship between the value of Kp
and the position of the equilibrium, look again at the equation:
p(NH3)2
Kp =
p(H2)3p(N2)
Kp is a small number, so the denominator must be bigger than
the numerator and there must be more reactant than product.
Therefore, the position of the equilibrium lies to the left-hand
side.
➥

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 Study skills

Step 7: What is the effect of increasing the temperature?

The question shows that ∆H has a negative value, which means that the reaction is exothermic.
Increasing the temperature will favour the reverse reaction, so the value of the denominator will
increase and Kp will get smaller.
Step 8: What is the effect of increasing pressure on the value of Kp?
Kp is constant at a given temperature. In this reaction:
p(NH3)2
Kp =
p(H2)3p(N2)

Remember that partial pressure = mole fraction, x × total pressure Pt. Rewrite the expression as:
(xNH3Pt)2
Kp =
(xH2Pt)3(xN2Pt)
If we cancel terms we are left with:
xNH32
Kp = [1/Pt2] ×
xH23N2

Kp has to stay constant because the temperature has not changed, so in order to compensate for
the change in total pressure (in this case 1/Pt2) the mole fractions of NH3, H2 and N2 also have to
change. This is reflected in Le Chatelier’s principle, which states that if a system at equilibrium is
exposed to change, then the system will move to restore equilibrium. In this case, if the pressure
was increased, the system would move to the side with fewer gaseous moles (the right-hand side).
The amount of ammonia present would increase, whilst the amount of hydrogen and nitrogen
would decrease; the numerator would thus be bigger, to compensate for the increase in Pt2 in the
denominator.

Graphs Exam tip

Graphs show the relationship between variables and often help in
Remember to choose a suitable
the visualisation of information. You need to be able to plot a graph scale to fill the graph paper — or
and to identify which variable is the independent variable, so that at least two-thirds of it. Label
you know what information goes on each axis. the axes of your graph, including
units.
You need to be able to draw a line of best fit and to determine
the slope and intercept of a linear graph and to be able to draw a
tangent to a curve. You should also be able to interpret a graph
(remember that spectra are counted as graphs too).
Common pitfall
Exam tip Students often lose marks
when finding a gradient
The values of ∆y (the rise) and ∆ x (the run), as shown in Figure 1.2, should by using points that are
be given to an accuracy of at least one small square (i.e. the value read from
the graph must be accurate to half a small square — because there are two not on the line of best fit,
of them, one at each end of the line drawn). The length of the hypotenuse of but which are just taken
the triangle drawn to calculate the gradient should also be at least half the from the table of values
length of the line of best fit through the points.
➥ (although these points can
be used if they do lie on
the line of best fit).

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 1 Quantitative skills

Rise or fall, ∆y

Run, ∆x

Figure 1.2 Calculating the gradient from a graph

Activity
For each of the graphs in Figure 1.3 describe the relationship between x and y and state the order of
reaction given by each graph.
(a)
y (b) y (c)
y
Rate

Rate
Rate

Concentration x Concentration x Concentration x

Figure 1.3

Worked example 1.3

The effect of changing variables
The Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution curve (Figure 1.4) gives an idea of the number of particles
in a gas that have sufficient energy to react.
Number of molecules

The shaded area represents all the reactant

molecules which have energy above the
activation energy and so have enough
energy to undergo a successful collision

Energy
This is the activation energy for the uncatalysed reaction

Figure 1.4
(a) Add a dotted line to show the impact of an increase in temperature.
(b) For a given reaction the activation energy is 75.0 kJ mol−1. Calculate the number of
molecules in 1 mol of gas that will have an energy value greater than this when the
temperature is 298 K.
➥
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 Study skills

(c) Compare the impact of adding a catalyst that decreases the activation energy by
40.0 kJ mol−1.
(d) The Arrhenius equation:
– Ea
k = ln A RT

can also be written as:

– Ea
ln k = ln A RT

Explain how this could be used graphically to find Ea.
Step 1: (a) Increasing the temperature shifts the curve to the right, but the peak is flatter and
broader. The activation energy remains the same, but you can see that the shaded area under the
curve, to the right of Ea, has now increased (Figure 1.5).
Number of molecules

The shaded area represents all the reactant

molecules which have energy above the
activation energy and so have enough
energy to undergo a successful collision

Energy
This is the activation energy for the uncatalysed reaction

Figure 1.5

Step 2: (b) The area under the curve represents the total number of particles. The area under the
curve to the right of Ea represents the total number of particles with an energy value greater than Ea
(so the total number of particles that will react).
The fraction of particles with energy greater than Ea is given by the expression:
– Ea
e RT

From the question:

Ea = 75.0 kJ mol−1
T = 298 K
R, the gas constant (which is given on the data sheet) = 8.314 J mol−1 K−1
Step 3: To get consistent units, convert the activation energy to J by multiplying by 1000:
Ea = 75 000 J mol−1
Step 4: Substitute these values into the equation:
fraction = e−(75 000 J mol−1/(8.314 J mol−1 K−1 × 298 K)
    = 7.13 × 10−14
Notice that the units cancel. ➥

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 1 Quantitative skills

Step 5: The total number of particles in 1 mole (Avogadro’s number) = 6.023 × 1023 mol−1, so
the number of particles with an energy greater than Ea will be the fraction multiplied by the total
number:
= 7.13 × 10−14 × 6.023 × 1023
= 4.29 × 1010 mol−1
Step 6: (c) Reducing Ea by 40.0 kJ mol−1 gives an activation energy of:
75.0 − 40.0 = 35.0 kJ mol−1
= 35 000 J mol−1
At a temperature of 298K, substituting this into the equation gives the fraction of particles as:
−35 000
e 8.314 × 298
= 7.33 × 10−7
And the number of particles with this energy will be:
7.33 × 10−7 × 6.023 × 1023 = 4.41 × 1017
Adding a catalyst increases the number of particles with an energy greater than Ea by a factor of 106.
Step 7: (d) If the equation is written as:
– Ea
ln k = ln A RT

This takes the form of y = mx + c, which is the equation for a straight-line graph.
Plotting a graph of ln k (on the y-axis) against ln (1/T) (on the x-axis) gives a straight line with a
gradient −Ea/R.
The value of −Ea can be found by multiplying the gradient by R (the gas constant).

Geometry and trigonometry

One of the key challenges in this topic is the representation of 3D
shapes on a 2D medium, such as paper, so it is often helpful to build
the shapes using a molecular modelling kit to help you visualise
a structure before attempting to draw it. You need to know the
conventions for drawing 3D shapes, such as the use of wedges (to
represent bonds coming out of the page towards you), dashed lines
or reversed wedges (to represent bonds going into the page away
from you) and a straight, continuous line for a bond in the plane of
the paper. You also need to be able to draw the mirror image when
given a particular molecule or complex.
You should be familiar with the angles associated with regular Activity
shapes. You will need to know these in order to predict the shapes
of molecules by applying the electron pair repulsion theory. You Draw the two enantiomers
must know what the original shape is before you can suggest if that (optical isomers) of
will change, depending on whether there are lone pairs of electrons 2-hydroxypropanoic acid
present or just bond pairs. (lactic acid).

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 Study skills

Activity
Complete Table 1.3, which summarises the different shapes and bond angles.
Table 1.3
No. of No. of lone pairs Shape Bond angle/° Example
bond pairs
2 0
3 0
3 1
4 0
2 2

5 0

6 0

4 2

Worked example 1.4

Geometry
Complex ions often take part in ligand exchange reactions, many of which are accompanied by a
colour change.
(a) With reference to the cobalt(ii) ion, write an equation for a ligand exchange reaction in
which the coordination number of the complex changes from 6 to 4.
(b) Describe the colour change(s) that you would observe during this ligand exchange and
give a reason for the change in the coordination number of the complex.
(c) Draw the shape of the new complex formed.
(d) Platinum also forms complexes with a coordination number of 4, but these take on a
different shape. Draw the structure of the complex cisplatin and state a use for this
complex.
(e) When a ligand is added to a solution of a complex that a transition metal ion has formed
with water, the ligand added exchanges with water molecules in the complex and an
equilibrium is established. Write an expression for the stability constant, Kstab for the
ligand exchange reaction in part (a).
(f) With reference to Table 1.6, explain why there is a difference in the stability constants
of the complexes shown:
Table 1.4
Ligand Complex ion Kstab Exam tip
Cl− [CuCl4]2− 4.0 × 105 The question says with reference
NH3 [Cu(NH3)4(H2O)2]2+ 1.3 × 1013 to the table, so you should use
EDTA 4− [Cu(EDTA)]2− 6.3 × 1018 information, such as the figures,
from the table.
➥

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 1 Quantitative skills

This is a question about transition metal complexes: a transition metal complex is one in which the
central metal ion (in this case Co2+) is bonded to a number of molecules or anions by coordinate bonds.
Step 1: (a) Write an equation for a ligand exchange in which the coordination number changes
from 6 to 4.
You can choose to use either water or ammonia as the original ligand, as both are small molecules
and form complexes with a coordination number of 6.
The complex with the coordination number of 4 will involve chloride ions because these are bigger.
Hence:
[Co(H2O)6]2+(aq) + 4Cl−(aq)  [CoCl4]2−(aq) + 6H2O(l)

Step 2: (b) Describe the colour changes you will see.

The colour changes associated with the reaction are from pink to blue so, during the transition, the
colours may mix and appear a mauve or lilac colour. However, you should state the start and finish
colours clearly, as well.
Step 3: (b) Give a reason for the change in shape of the complex.
The reason that the complex is a different shape is because the chloride ion is a bigger ligand than
the water molecule, so it takes up more space and this means that fewer can be accommodated
around the central transition metal ion.
Step 4: (c) Draw the new complex.
The new complex formed is a tetrahedral shape (Figure 1.6).

Co2+

Figure 1.6

Step 5: (d) Draw cisplatin and state what it is used for.

The other shape associated with complexes with a coordination number of 4 is the square planar
shape. This is the shape that platinum complexes often form due to the size of the d-orbitals (but
this is beyond the scope of the A-level specification).
The formula for cisplatin is PtCl 2(NH3)2 and the prefix cis tells you that this is a geometric isomer and
that the two ammonia ligands (and by implication, also the two chloride ligands) are next to each
other. This is shown in Figure 1.8.
➥

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 Study skills

H3N Cl

Pt

H3N Cl

cis-platin is neutral
and so diffuses
through the cell
membrane

Figure 1.7 Cisplatin

Cisplatin is an anticancer drug, which binds to DNA, preventing the replication of the cancerous cells.
Step 6: (e) Write an expression for the stability constant for the ligand exchange reaction in (a).
Referring back to the equation for the ligand exchange reaction:
[Co(H2O)6]2+(aq) + 4Cl−(aq)  [CoCl4]2−(aq) + 6H2O(l)
Common pitfall
Kstab = [CoCl4 2−]/([Co(H
2O)6
2+][4Cl−])
Students often lose marks
Step 7: (f) With reference to Table 1.6 explain the differences by including the water
in the stability constants of the different complexes. molecules. However, as the
reaction is carried out in
Looking at the table, there are three different ligands, but Cl− and
aqueous solution and water
NH3 are both monodentate ligands, whereas EDTA is a hexadentate
or multidentate ligand. This question is about entropy — the will be in excess, it is never
tendency of a system towards chaos or an increase in disorder. included in the expression.
So, here the question wants you to recognise that if you swap a
monodentate ligand for a multidentate one, then more molecules of water will be released (from the
complex), which increases the disorder of the system and its entropy, which increases the stability of
the complex.
Your answer should state that the stability of the complexes increases from the complex involving
chloride, to ammonia, to EDTA, as is evident from the fact that the complex with EDTA has a stability
constant of 6.3 × 1018, whereas that with the chloride ligand has a Kstab of 4.0 × 105.

Analysis, interpretation and evaluation

Analysing, interpreting and evaluating are all higher-order skills
that may require you to bring together information from a variety of
sources, in order to reach a conclusion.

The difference between...

Analysis Interpretation Evaluation
Involves examining the data in order Involves explaining the meaning of Involves looking at the impact of
to reach a conclusion — for example, something — for example, it could change on a particular variable — for
it could involve examining the results involve stating the order of a reaction example, if the pressure on a gaseous
of adding different reagents to an by looking at how the concentration of system is changed, does the system
unknown solution in order to identify a reactant changes with time. move in response to that change?
an unknown. It also involves considering
methodology and whether an
experimental procedure could be
improved so that the data generated
are of a better quality.

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 1 Quantitative skills

Analysis

Worked example 1.5

Analysis of information
The proton NMR spectrum of compound A is shown in Figure 1.8.

5 4 3 2 1 0
δ/ppm

Figure 1.8

The compound has the formula C6H12O2 and gives a yellow precipitate when reacted with
2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazine, which indicates that the carbonyl group, C=O, is present. The mass
spectrum shows a peak at 116, a small peak at 117 and further peaks at 29 and 43.
The IR spectrum shows peaks at 1200 cm−1, 1750 cm−1 and 2850 cm−1.
Use the information above to suggest a structure for the compound, justifying how you have
reached your answer.
This question asks you to justify your answer. To do that, you need to use your knowledge and
understanding, along with all the information given in the question to provide evidence to support
your answer. This is an example of where you will be using your problem-solving skills.
Step 1: Start with the atoms that are present and think about how they could be arranged.
Although there are six carbon atoms, there are too many hydrogen atoms present for the molecule
to contain a benzene ring. Think about the possible functional groups that could be present. Organic
molecules containing two oxygen atoms can include esters and carboxylic acids if the two oxygens
are within the same functional group. Alternatively, the molecule may include two different oxygen-
containing groups, such as the carbonyl or the hydroxyl group.
Step 2: As the question states that compound reacts with 2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazine, it is
likely to contain the carbonyl group, in which case it should show an infrared absorption at
1640–1750 cm−1, corresponding to the C=O bond, which it does. A good initial deduction is that the
compound does contain the C=O group.
Step 3: Decide whether the molecule contains either the ester linkage or the carboxyl group.
The question does not mention a broad peak at 3200–3500 cm−1 in the IR spectrum, and there is no
peak between 10 and 12 ppm on the proton NMR trace, so the molecule does not contain the carboxyl
group. It is not a carboxylic acid. Sometimes information on what is not present can be just as useful
in determining the structure as information on what is there.
➥

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 Study skills

Step 4: Look at the mass spectrum data.

The peak at 116 will be the molecular ion peak ((12.0 × 6) + (1.0 × 12) + (16.0 × 2) = 116) and the
small peak at 117 will be the M+1 peak (due to the presence of the carbon-13 isotope). The peak at 29
may be due to the CH3CH2 group and that at 43 to CH3CH2CH2. However, the molecule also contains a
C=O group, so the peak at 43 could be due to the presence of CH3CO.
Step 5: Look at the NMR trace.
Remember that: the number of peaks gives the number of chemically different types of proton in the
molecule; the shift tells us which groups are present; the integration gives us the number of each
type of proton; and the splitting pattern is due to the number of chemically different protons on
an adjacent carbon. The number of peaks is given by the n + 1 rule, where n is the number of non-
equivalent neighbouring hydrogen atoms.
The peak at 1.2 has an integration value of 3, which means that there are three protons of this type
and it is a triplet, which suggests that there is a CH2 group adjacent. This is deduced from the n + 1
rule — if there are three peaks, then there must be two non-equivalent protons adjacent, since
2 + 1 = 3. The triplet itself will cause a quartet splitting pattern; this is present at 3.5, which is the
shift due to CHO. Hence the fragment CH3CH2CHO is present in the molecule.
Step 6: The shift at 2.2 is a singlet, which suggests that there are no adjacent protons. It has an
integration of 3, suggesting a CH3 group. The shift at 2.6 would suggest that a C=O group is adjacent
(hence the lack of splitting). This gives the fragment CH3CO.
Step 7: The fact that there are two methyl groups could indicate the two ends of the molecule.
Going back to the NMR trace, there are two triplet splitting patterns, each with an integration of 2.
One of these is at shift 2.6, and so adjacent to the C=O group. The other is at 3.8, which suggests the
presence of an oxygen atom or an ester group. However, you have already deduced that there is no
ester group present.
Step 8: Putting all this information together, a deduction for the structure is:
CH3COCH2CH2OCH2CH3
1 2 3 4 5 6
The molecule contains the ketone group, which complies with the positive precipitation reaction with
2,4-DNPH, as well as the presence of the IR absorption.
There are five peaks in the proton NMR trace, which coincides with the fact that there are five
different proton environments, as shown.

Interpretation
A question may not explicitly ask you to describe a graph, but it
may expect you to use the information displayed in a graph to
derive an answer. There is every possibility that it may refer to a
process or reaction that you are unfamiliar with. However, the key
here is to think about what the question is about and then to apply
what you know to the new context. Be clear about what each part of
the information presented is telling you.
Look carefully at any graphs, making sure that you understand what
they show and the units used (remember to quote these to back
up your answer). Look carefully at the axes of graphs to see how
variables are related. Remember that you should describe how the
quantity on the y-axis changes with respect to that on the x-axis.

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 1 Quantitative skills

Worked example 1.6

Using the information from a graph
Sulfuric acid is manufactured by the Contact process, the first stage of which involves the
reaction of sulfur dioxide gas with oxygen to form sulfur trioxide:

2SO2(g) + O2(g)  2SO3(g) ∆H = −196 kJ mol−1

Figures 1.10 and 1.11 show the percentage conversion of the reactants to products under
different conditions at equilibrium.

100
100
80 α(O2/SO2) = 2

80
SO2 conversion/%

SO3 conversion/%
60 α(O2/SO2) = 6
60
α(O2/SO2) = 10
40
40

20 20 Equilibrium

400 600 800 1000 100 120 140 160 180 200
Temperature/°C    Pressure/kPa

Reproduced with permission from Elsevier

Figure 1.9 Figure 1.10

Deduce the optimum conditions for the formation of sulfur trioxide from sulfur dioxide, giving
reasons for your answer.
Look carefully at the command words in this and the previous example. They are similar in that they
are associated with the higher-order skills of reaching conclusions from information, but they have
subtly different meanings.
Step 1: Deduce means draw conclusions from the information given, so start by considering all the
information, including that from the graphs, as well as what you know about this or similar reactions
(such as the Haber process, which is also an exothermic reaction involving gaseous reactants and
products).
The reaction is exothermic, so increasing the temperature will decrease the yield. However, for
industrial processes a sufficiently high rate of reaction is also needed. Looking at the graph, the
yield drops at about 400°C, so a temperature a little lower than this would give a high enough rate,
without reducing the yield too much.
Step 2: The reaction involves gaseous reactants and the graph shows that increasing the
pressure increases the percentage conversion, but again this will be limited industrially by safety
considerations. Also, once the pressure reaches 130 kPa, the yield plateaus.
Step 3: Sensible conditions to suggest would thus be a temperature of 375°C and a pressure of
130 kPa.

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 Application to the exam

The difference between... Common pitfall

Justify Deduce
Students miss out on
Support a case with evidence Draw conclusions from the
marks if they fail to use
Say why you are making deductions information given
from each piece of information the information given to
answer the question. In the
previous example, failing
Evaluation to comment on the fact that
Questions involving evaluation might require you to think about how the percentage conversion
a particular factor may affect a quantitative result. This may involve falls rapidly from 200°C
thinking about how a particular procedure could be improved. For to 600°C, and then more
example: slowly, would lose marks.
➜ by changing a method (e.g. so that it reduces heat loss in the Similarly, the increase in
case of calorimetry) pressure, from 100 kPa to
➜ by using a different piece of equipment (e.g. a digital 130 kPa, increases the yield
thermometer that records temperatures to the nearest 0.1°C as from 80% to 95%, where it
opposed to 0.5°C) then plateaus.
➜ by using a larger quantity of a reagent, which will reduce the
percentage error in its measurement
For a given piece of equipment, the accuracy or percentage error is
fixed. For a measurement made with this equipment:
error uncertainty of the equipment
percentage error = × 100
actual measurement made with the equipment

The larger the denominator then the smaller the error will be. You
may also be asked to think about the impact not just of using
different pieces of equipment (or even a different chemical), but
also what might happen in a number of different scenarios.

Application to the exam

Sample question
The following question involves a calculation, for which you need to
determine the stages using the information given in the question to
guide you. It then extends to test your evaluative skills, by asking
you to consider the impact of two different factors. The guidance
given suggests how you might approach it, and there is a sample
answer with suggested mark scheme for you to compare with your
response.

Aiming for an A in A-level Chemistry 27

 1 Quantitative skills

Worked example 1.7

Propylpropanoate, CH3CH2COOCH2CH2CH3 and water react in the presence of an acid catalyst, to
form the alcohol and the carboxylic acid. Over time the following equilibrium is reached:
CH3CH2COOCH2CH2CH3 + H2O 
CH3CH2COOH + CH3CH2CH2OH ∆H = −54.2 kJ mol−1
A student carried out an experiment to determine Kc for the reaction. 20 cm3 of the ester
(0.201 mol) and 5 cm3 of 2 mol dm−3 HCl (the catalyst for the reaction) were mixed together. In
the mixture there were 0.730 mol of water. The mixture was left for a week to reach equilibrium
at room temperature and pressure. The total volume of the equilibrium mixture was 25 cm3.
(a) A fter a week, the student titrated 5 cm3 aliquots of the equilibrium mixture against
0.75 mol dm−3 NaOH. The mean titre required to neutralise this solution was 31.8 cm3. Show
how the student used this information to find Kc.(6)
(b) The student’s value for Kc was different from that given in a data book. A possible reason
is that the NaOH used might have been 0.5 mol dm−3 (instead of 0.75 mol dm−3). How would
this affect Kc? Give a reason for your answer. (3)
(c) The student left the equilibrium mixture close to the radiator, so the temperature could have
risen to more than 25°C. How might this affect Kc? Again, give a reason for your response. (3)

How to approach the question

Read through the question carefully, annotating it with any information that you will need in the
calculation. Identify where you have a concentration and a volume of a particular reagent — this
will be your starting point. Write down the formulae and equations you will need.

Annotated example
Correctly calculates
(a) number of moles of NaOH = (volume × conc)/ the number of moles
1000 = (31.8 × 0.75)/1000 = 0.02385 mol ✓ of alkali required to
neutralise the acid.
This is in a 5 cm3 aliquot from 25 cm3 of solution.
Correctly calculates total number of moles of acid = 5 × 0.02385
the total number of = 0.11925 mole ✓
acid moles in the
equilibrium mixture. The acid is made up from the propanoic acid plus
the HCl catalyst.

number of moles of catalyst = (volume × conc)/

Correctly calculates 1000 = (5 × 2)/1000 = 0.01 mol
the number of moles of number of moles of propanoic acid = 0.11925 −
propanoic acid in the 0.01 or 0.10925 mol ✓
equilibrium mixture
(moles of propanoic From the stoichiometry of the equation:
acid minus moles of
HCl (catalyst). CH3CH2COOCH2CH2CH3 + H2O  CH3CH2COOH +
CH3CH2CH2OH

1 mol of acid is generated from 1 mol of

ester. So:

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 Application to the exam

number of moles of ester at equilibrium = 0.201

− 0.10925 = 0.09175 mol

number of moles of water at equilibrium = 0.730 Correctly calculates

− 0.10925 = 0.62075 mol ✓ the number of mole
of ester and water at
Given that the ratios of the number of moles are equilibrium.
the same, the volumes will cancel, so the number
of moles can be used in place of concentration.
[products]
Kc = =
[reactants]
[CH3CH2CH2OH][CH3CH2COOH] Identifies the correct
✓
[CH3CH2COOCH2CH2CH3][H2O] equation for Kc for
this reaction.
0.109252
Kc = = 0.210 ✓
0.09175 × 0.62075
Calculates the correct value for Kc, with no units
because in this case they cancel:
[0.10925/0.025][10925/0.025]
Kc =
[0.09175/0.025][0.602075/0.025]
Here the student
= 0.210 (calculator
value 0.209565645) has shown all
their working and
The value is rounded up at the end of the achieves full marks
calculation to an appropriate number of significant for correct working.
figures, as indicated in the question. This is
determined by the limits of the least accurate
measurement.

(b) If the student uses NaOH of a lower concen-

Correctly describes the tration, then the number of moles of alkali will be Recognises that the
impact on the value of 2/3 that calculated. ✓ number of moles of
Kc. The values in the
This means that there will be fewer moles of pro- NaOH will be lower.
numerator will thus be
lower and so Kc will be panoic acid in the ­equilibrium mix ✓ (the amount
smaller. of HCl will be the same).
Links the number of This then means that there will also be less
moles of alkali to a propanol made and so there will be more reactant
smaller number of left. The denominator of the equation will be big-
moles of propanoic acid ger and so the value of Kc will be lower. ✓
(product).
(c) Kc can be affected by temperature. An in-
Recognises that the crease in temperature will shift the equilibrium Correctly describes
forward reaction is in the direction of the endothermic reaction ✓, the impact of this
exothermic. which in this case is towards the reactants. change on Kc — the
amount of reactants
States that the increase If this happens, there will be less product ✓ made will be greater, so
in temperature will and so the numerator will be lower and the value the value of Kc will
favour the production of Kc will be less ✓. again be lower.
of reactants.

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1 Quantitative skills

Exam tip
Do not assume that because the answer to one part of the question will
lower the value of Kc, the answer to the other will raise it.

Take it further
The University of Birmingham and the University of Leeds have created a
Maths for Chemists book, which provides further exemplification of some of
the concepts met at A-level and beyond. Although aimed at undergraduates
studying chemistry, there are some interesting and useful worked examples
that are equally applicable to A-level. Find it for free via the Royal Society of
Chemistry website (http://rsc.org).

You should know

› Which mathematical skills will be assessed at A-level and how to answer questions
incorporating these skills.
› How to estimate an answer, including the use of units to help confirm correct procedure.
› How to describe and explain quantitative data using your scientific knowledge
› How to interpret data presented in graphs and charts, including spectra, and use them to
draw conclusions.

30 Aiming for an A in A-level Chemistry

 2 Reading skills

Learning objectives
› To understand how to get the most out of your textbook.
› To develop your reading skills so that you can read more
effectively.
› To understand how to extend your knowledge by reading
beyond the specification.
› To develop critical thinking skills.

Study skills
Developing your reading skills is important, not only for your A-level
years but also beyond, when you may go on to further study and
will need to read a wider variety of materials.
Reading serves a number of purposes at A-level: it provides a
background to what you are studying; it enables you to follow areas
that you are particularly interested in; it describes how to carry out
a practical investigation; and it tells you what you need to do when
being assessed.
There are different sources and formats of information that you can
read. These include:
➜ textbooks
➜ websites
➜ journals
➜ scientific papers
➜ popular science books
Getting the most out of your textbook
Most schools or colleges will either provide you with, or recommend,
a textbook to accompany your course.
Building on prior knowledge
Many topics that are covered in the first year of the course are
revisited and extended in the second year. Before you start a topic,
you should remind yourself what you already know about it.

Activity
Choose a topic and write a list of the key points. Try to do as much as you can from memory before
referring to your notes. If your textbook has a checklist, compare your list with that.

Aiming for an A in A-level Chemistry 31

 2 Reading skills

If your textbook also includes short recall questions, you should

complete these as a starting point to the topic.
If there are things that you do not remember or questions that you
got wrong, you need to go back over these topics.
It is good practice to read ahead, so that you already have an idea of
the key points of a topic before it is covered in class. This will also
enable you to identify any questions that you want answered — take
these to your lesson and tick them off as they are covered. Any that
remain after the lesson can then be addressed by further self-study or
by asking your teacher for clarification. Some teachers will give you
a schedule of what they are covering and when, but you should have
your own copy of the specification to help guide you through a topic.
Reading for understanding
If you own your textbook, you will be able to highlight it; if it
has been provided by the school, you could use post-it notes. You
will probably find that it helps to summarise your reading as you
progress through a topic. This may be by recording key definitions
onto cue cards (see chapter 5: Revision skills), or producing a mind
map or summary of the information you have read. Flow diagrams
can be helpful for summarising processes and ‘dual coding’ — where
you use illustrations and words — is another useful method for
helping you to remember information.
The passage in Figure 2.1(a) describes how a heterogeneous catalyst
works, using the example of iron in the manufacture of ammonia
by the Haber process. Figure 2.1(b) gives an example of how dual
coding can be used to help you understand and remember this
process by using diagrams to replace larger quantities of text.
Completing a diagram like this means that you are creating your own
interpretation and therefore are more likely to recall and to be able
to apply the logic to other industrial processes.
(a)

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 Study skills

(b) Step 1

Hydrogen Activity
molecule adsorbed N N
Nitrogen molecule Read the text in Figure 2.2
onto surface of iron adsorbed onto
and splits into two
Iron catalyst
surface of iron and
and summarise it using an
H atoms splits into two N atoms annotated diagram of the
lead–acid cell.
Step 2
N N
NB Adsorption is
a weaker attraction
Iron
than bonding so
H atoms migrate across once the bonds in
the surface of the catalyst the ammonia form
and react in stages to form the product is desorbed
NH3 molecules (this allows reuse of
the catalyst)
Step 3
N
Ammonia molecules
are desorbed from
surface of catalyst
Figure 2.1 Summarising a textbook extract diagrammatically

Figure 2.2 Extract from a textbook

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2 Reading skills

Researching a topic
You may need to research a topic, perhaps for one of the required
practicals, to complement your own understanding or as a learning
activity. If you are using the internet for your research, defining the
search is important. Start by identifying the key words you need
to include. When selecting from the sources returned, bear in mind
that .edu and .ac are usually associated with academic institutions
and so you may find the information goes beyond the scope of the
A-level specification.
Make sure you keep a note of any sources that you use, so that you
are able to find them again and to reference them in your work.
If you are quoting directly from any of your sources, particularly
in practical write-ups, then you should indicate these sections
by enclosing them in quotation marks and the source should be Take it further
referenced, otherwise you could be accused of plagiarising others’ The University of Manchester
work. If the source you use is a website, then you need to include has a dedicated YouTube
channel called CAMERA
the date you accessed it in your references, because website content (Chemistry at Manchester
can change over time. Explains Research Advances),
Research information may involve the use of sources other than which presents short insights
into recent advances in
text. These include lectures and documentaries. Many of the chemical research in an
universities have outreach programmes, which are a good way of easy-to-understand format.
finding out about chemistry beyond A-level.
Reading beyond the specification
You may find that your reading takes you beyond the exam
specification and that the ideas that are presented in your reading
differ from those that you encounter in A-level lessons.
The series A Very Short Introduction, published by Oxford University
Press, includes editions focused on organic chemistry, physical
chemistry, the periodic table, molecules and the elements. These
books provide a further insight into different aspects of chemistry
and are ideal for those who want to take their interest a little
further without going into the level of detail associated with
undergraduate study. One of the benefits of these bite-sized
explorations is that they allow you to learn a little more about a Exam tip
range of different topics, rather than learning a lot about a single
aspect. The content is accessible and you should also be able to Reading beyond the specification
recognise when it extends beyond your specification. is a great way to enhance your
understanding of a topic, but
There may be particular topics that interest you and that you want remember that you need to
to find out more about, such as the periodic table and the elements. explain concepts according to the
The following books are a good starting point. information presented at A-level,
so make sure you can do this
➜ Periodic Tales — Hugh Aldersley-Williams accurately first.
➜ The Disappearing Spoon — Sam Kean
➜ The Secret Life of the Elements — Ben Still
➜ Uncle Tungsten — Oliver Sachs
Your interests are personal to you, so commenting on why you chose
to read a particular book and some of the points that appealed to
you is something that you could include in your personal statement,
or refer to in a university interview.

34 Aiming for an A in A-level Chemistry

 Study skills

Different methods of reading

There are four main techniques of reading, and each has its own
particular purpose.
➜ Skimming
➜ Scanning
➜ Intensive
➜ Extensive
Skimming and scanning are both quick methods of reading, where
you are looking for information.
Skimming involves reading to get an overall impression before
deciding whether to dedicate more time and attention to the text.
You might skim an article to decide whether it is really telling you
what the title suggests and so will be of interest or relevance to
you; or you might skim a book to see if you want to buy it because
it presents different information from that which you already know.
Scanning involves you looking for particular information, such as
key words, to direct your attention to the exact focus for your
reading. You might scan a practical method to see if it suggests
quantities or whether it uses the chemicals you have selected.
Intensive reading, as the name suggests, takes more time and is
used to help you master a concept. It is also likely that you will
want to record information, such as definitions or equations, when
reading intensively, and for this reason it is often a more active
process. This type of activity is described above, in the section on
reading for understanding.

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 2 Reading skills

Annotated example
Intensive reading
The extract in Figure 2.3 is taken from an A-level chemistry textbook. It has been annotated to
suggest how you might read it intensively and what questions it might generate for further study.

You should know the definitions The first synthetic and commercially important polyamides
of key terms in the book. were various forms of nylon. These were not, however,
produced from amino acids. Instead, they were formed
Think about what functional by condensation polymerisation between diamines and
group is present dicarboxylic acids. One of the commonest forms of nylon
How does nylon differ from is nylon-6,6. This is made by a condensation reaction
the polymers formed from between 1,6-diaminohexane and hexanedioic acid
amino acids? (Figure 18.2.25). The product is named nylon-6,6 because
both monomers contain six carbon atoms.
Are there other forms of nylon
and what does the numbering Key terms
mean?
Polyesters are polymers with ester links between monomer units.
Polyamides are polymers with amide links between monomer
units.

Tip
Early polymer chemists found it easier to synthesise polyamides
using separate dicarboxylic acid and diamine molecules rather
than have the carboxylic acid functional group and the amine
functional group on the same molecule, as nature does in an
amino acid.

O O H H O O H
C (CH2)4 C N (CH2)6 N C (CH2)4 C N (CH2)6 NH2

HO OH H H HO OH H

O O O O

C (CH2)4 C N (CH2)6 N C (CH2)4 C N (CH2)6 NH2

HO H H H
+ H2O + H 2O + H2O

Figure 18.2.25 Condensation polymerisation to make nylon-6,6

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 Study skills

Why is the hexanedioyl Nylon-6,6 can be produced more readily in the laboratory
dichloride more reactive than using hexanedioyl dichloride in place of the less reactive
the hexane dioic acid? hexanedioic acid. A solution of hexanedioyl dichloride
in cyclohexane is floated on an aqueous solution of
What safety precautions might 1,6-diaminohexane. Nylon-6,6 forms as a skin at the
you need to be aware of when interface and can be pulled out as fast as it is produced
carrying out this practical? forming a long thread – the ‘nylon rope’.
In this reaction hydrogen chloride molecules are
Why does the nylon form at eliminated in the condensation reaction (Figure 18.2.26).
the interface between the two
solutions? O O H H

n Cl C(CH2)4C Cl + nH N(CH2)6N H

O O H H

C(CH2)4C N(CH2)6N + 2nHCl

n

Figure 18.2.26 The reaction used to make nylon-6,6 in the

laboratory

Figure 2.3 Extract from a textbook for intensive reading

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 2 Reading skills

Extensive reading is more likely to be driven by your desire to find

out more about a subject that interests you and is also likely to
take you beyond the specification. This type of reading is for your
own enjoyment and so you are not likely to make notes or work at
your understanding, although it may lead to further reading for
discovery. Take it further
Critical reading Stuff Matters by Mark
Miodownik ( 2013; ISBN 978-0-
Sometimes you might come across scientific articles in the popular 241-95518-5) takes a number of
press and media. When you read such articles, you can employ everyday materials and explains
their properties by dissecting
higher-order thinking skills, such as analysis, interpretation and them at the molecular level.
evaluation, to help you decide whether what you are reading is Described as ‘an ode to material
accurate and a fair representation of the facts presented in the science’, this discussion of
piece. Developing higher-order thinking skills will help you to concrete, steel, glass, paper,
tackle the hardest questions at A-level, and enable you to obtain a chocolate, celluloid and so on
top grade. The content of this material might also be useful when ‘makes even the most everyday
(materials) seem thrilling’.
preparing for university entrance interviews or in writing university
(UCAS) applications.
Analyse who wrote the piece
One of the first tasks when reading critically is to decide whether
the person writing the piece is doing so independently, or whether
they have an interest in the content that would make their
evaluation biased. You might want to ask who the writer is and
how they are qualified to write the piece, or whether the piece
was commissioned by an organisation that has an interest in the
research and what they would gain from the piece being published.
Evaluate where it appears
You also need to think about where the information is published.
Is the site reputable? Do similar stories appear elsewhere and, if
so, are the report contents similar? (It is worth also considering
the credentials of these sources and their authors.) Remember that
if the source is a scientific journal, then the research will have
been peer-reviewed. If the article you are reading contains a link
to a journal, it is worth following this to read the original piece on
which the article is based.
Analyse the article
As you read the article, think about what it is saying and how it
is presented. Is it easy to understand? If it has been simplified,
has this been done in such a way that it is still accurate? Is the
information presented as fact or opinion, or is it impossible to
determine which is which? If opinions are given, who gives them
and are they also credible? If the piece quotes expert opinion, then
the expert should be identified.
Evaluate the conclusion
Once you have read the article, you can then decide whether you
agree with the conclusions that the author makes. You may decide
that the evidence would have led you to draw different conclusions.

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 Study skills

Annotated example
Critical reading
The following article, published in the Guardian on 27 June 2017, linked an increase in the use of
paint stripper with a delay in the recovery of the hole in the ozone layer.

An internet search for

an author should give Ozone hole recovery threatened by rise of
some information about paint stripper chemical — Damian Carrington,
their background, such Environment Editor
as their qualifications
and employment history. Tuesday 27 June 2017 16.00 BST
This will help you to The restoration of the globe’s protective shield
decide whether they Clearly links the delay in
have studied a subject of ozone will be delayed by decades if fast-rising the closing of the hole
in detail and at which emissions of a chemical used in paint stripper are in the ozone layer to the
institution. This will not curbed, new research has revealed. presence of a chemical
also help decide whether found in paint stripper.
they are likely to be Atmospheric levels of the chemical have doubled
sufficiently qualified to in the last decade and its use is not restricted
understand the content by the Montreal Protocol that successfully References the work of
in depth. Damian
outlawed the CFCs mainly responsible for the the Montreal Protocol.
Carrington, the journalist
in this case, has an MA ozone hole. The ozone-destroying chemical is
in Earth Science from called dichloromethane and is also used as an
Cambridge University industrial solvent, an aerosol spray propellant
and a PhD in Geology and a blowing agent for polyurethane foams. Quotes a named
from the University scientist, Ryan Hossaini
of Edinburgh, which Little is known about where it is leaking from or
of Lancaster University,
suggests that he is why emissions have risen so rapidly. as well as quoting an
qualified to write such an atmospheric physicist
The loss of ozone was discovered in the 1980s
article. from Manchester
and is greatest over Antarctica. But Ryan
University, Grant
Hossaini, at Lancaster University in the UK Allen, and two of the
and who led the new work, said: ‘It is important scientists from the
to remember that ozone depletion is a global British Antarctic Survey
— Jonathan Shanklin
phenomenon, and that while the peak depletion
and Anna Jones — all
occurred over a decade ago, it is a persistent of which adds to its
environmental problem and the track to recovery credibility.
is expected to be a long and bumpy one.’
‘Ozone shields us from harmful levels of UV
radiation that would otherwise be detrimental to
An explanation of ozone human, animal and plant health,’ he said.
and what it does.

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 2 Reading skills

Cites research published The new research, published in the journal

in the journal Nature
Nature Communications, analysed the level of
Communications, which
features a peer-review dichloromethane in the atmosphere and found it
system, giving credibility rose by 8% a year between 2004 and 2014. The
to articles. scientists then used sophisticated computer
models to find that, if this continues, the
recovery of the ozone layer would be delayed by Details of how the rising
levels of dichloromethane
30 years, until about 2090.
could affect the hole in
The chemical was not included in the 1987 the ozone layer.
Montreal protocol because it breaks down
relatively quickly in the atmosphere, usually
Discusses the difference
within six months, and had not therefore been
between CFCs and
expected to build up. In contrast, CFCs persist dichloromethane, and
for decades or even centuries. why the latter was not
included in the Montreal
But the short lifespan of dichloromethane does Protocol.
mean that action to cut its emissions would have
rapid benefits. ‘If policies were put in place to limit
its production, then this gas could be flushed
out of the atmosphere relatively quickly,’ said
Hossaini.
If the dichloromethane in the atmosphere was
held at today’s level, the recovery of the ozone
level would only be delayed by five years, the
scientists found. There was a surge in emissions
in the period 2012–14 and if growth rate
Details of how the rising
continues at that very high rate, the ozone levels of dichloromethane
recovery would be postponed indefinitely, but could affect the hole in
Quotes an atmospheric
physicist from Hossaini said this extreme scenario is unlikely: the ozone layer.
Manchester University, ‘Our results still show the ozone hole will recover.’
Grant Allen, and British
Grant Allen, an atmospheric physicist at the
Antarctic Survey
scientist Jonathan University of Manchester, said: ‘Whatever the
Shanklin, which adds source of this gas, we must act now to stop its
to its credibility. release to the atmosphere in order to prevent
undoing over 30 years of exemplary science and
policy work which has undoubtedly saved many
lives.’
Jonathan Shanklin, one of the scientists
at the British Antarctic Survey (BAS) who
discovered the ozone hole in 1985, said: ‘The
Montreal protocol has proved very effective
at reducing the emissions of substances that

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 Study skills

can harm the ozone layer. I am sure that the

warning made in this paper will be heeded and
that dichloromethane will be brought within the
protocol in order to prevent further damage to
the ozone layer.’
Discusses the difference
between CFCs and There are other short-lived gases containing
dichloromethane, and the chlorine that destroy ozone, but few
why the latter was not measurements have been taken of their levels
included in the Montreal in the atmosphere. ‘Unfortunately there is no
Protocol. The article concludes by
long-term record of these, only sporadic data,
but these do indicate they are a potentially stating that the Montreal
Protocol has been
significant source of chlorine in the atmosphere,’ successful in reducing
Quotes another named said Hossaini, adding that further research on the hole in the ozone
scientist from the British this was needed. layer and that the new
Antarctic Survey, Anna CFCs discovered were
Jones — which adds to Anna Jones, a scientist at BAS, said: ‘The new contributing to the
its credibility. results underline the critical importance of long- reversal of this process.
term observations of ozone-depleting gases and This is reinforced by
the statement about
expanding the Montreal Protocol to mitigate new
the need for long-
threats to the ozone layer.’ term observation. The
References the work of Overall the Montreal Protocol is seen as conclusion is logical —
the Montreal Protocol. it is based on statements
very successful in cutting ozone losses, with made within the text
estimates indicating that without the protocol of the article and it
the Antarctic ozone hole would have been 40% uses estimates rather
larger by 2013. Scientists discovered four than claiming particular
values. The language
‘rogue’ CFCs in 2014 that were increasing
mirrors that in the article
in concentration in the atmosphere and — it is factual and
contributing to ozone-destruction. backed by evidence.

As an A-grade student, when reading articles like this, you will recognise where the theme fits
into what you have studied and you will apply your own knowledge to help you understand the
implications raised in the article. You might jot down the formulae of the products mentioned, or
think about how these can be made and then how they are used to make PVC, for example. You
might also recall what you know about the Montreal Protocol and the catalysed breakdown
of ozone by chlorine radicals.

Extract © Guardian News & Media Ltd 2018

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2 Reading skills

Activity
A further search reveals a similar story in other sources, such as the New Scientist,
June 27 2017 (www.newscientist.com/article/2138753-ozone-layer-recovery-will-be-
delayed-by-chemical-leaks), as well as in other newspapers and on university
websites. Produce a one-paragraph summary of the New Scientist article. You may
wish to use the headings in Table 2.1 to help. Then check your summary against
other reports and see if you want to add any additional information.
Table 2.1
Article Identify Other journal Analyse Evaluate
who references or the the
wrote it citations article conclusion

New Scientist, www.newscientist.

com/article/2138753-ozone-layer-
recovery-will-be-delayed-by-
chemical-leaks

Application to the exam

By reading a variety of sources, you will develop the ability to
assimilate information more quickly and to pick out the most Common pitfall
relevant parts. You will identify the subject and the exemplification. Many students waste
You will also have extended your knowledge of chemistry in a valuable time in an exam
variety of different contexts, so that you are able to apply what you
giving information that
know about a topic in an unfamiliar context.
is not required. Although
You will need to apply your reading skills in the exam. To secure top this will not be penalised
marks, you need to read and answer every part of each question. (unless it is incorrect), it
The first skill you will use is that of skimming the question, reading may mean that marks are
it through to the end, to get an overall idea of the topic it is based subsequently lost if the
on and how it develops. Having established this, then read the student runs out of time.
question intensively, highlighting the information that you will
need to use to answer it.
Before you start to write your answer, scan the question for
information on how to answer it — look for key command words and
whether a particular number of significant figures or unit is required.

42 Aiming for an A in A-level Chemistry

 Application to the exam

Worked example 2.1

The structures of salbutamol, a compound used in inhalers, and ethylamine are shown in Figure 2.4.
H
H H H
CHOH N
HOCH2 H C C N
CH2 C(CH3)3
H H H
HO Salbutamol Ethylamine

Figure 2.4

(a) State the feature that accounts for the ability of an amine to act as a base. (1)
(b) Describe and explain the difference in the strength of ethylamine and salbutamol as
bases.(3)
Step 1: Skim-read the question. It is about amines and the comparative ability of two different
amines to act as bases. The question also requires a definition of what a base is and an equation and
mechanism for the reaction of another amine with ethanoyl chloride.
Step 2: Scan read for command words:
Term Meaning

State Express clearly

Describe State the characteristics

Explain Give a reason for

Give Produce an answer from recall and/or the information in the question

Suggest Use your knowledge and understanding to present a possible solution

Step 3: Apply this to the context of the question:

● State the feature that accounts for the ability of an amine to act as a base. It helps to recall the
definition of a base.
● Describe and explain the difference in the strength of ethylamine and salbutamol as bases. This
involves a comparison of the two compounds, relating to their strength as bases.
● Give the equation for the reaction. Use the reactants stated.
● Suggest a mechanism for the reaction. Apply what you know about the reaction of an amine with an
acyl chloride to an unfamiliar compound.
Sample answer
(a) Amines contain a lone pair of electrons on the nitrogen atom, enabling them to act as bases or proton
acceptors. ✓
(b) Ethylamine is a primary amine, whereas salbutamol is a secondary amine. ✓ Secondary amines are
stronger bases ✓ because of the inductive effect of the groups attached to the N atom, which is
stronger than that of the hydrogen atoms attached to the N in a primary amine. ✓ Salbutamol is a
stronger base.

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 2 Reading skills

You should know

› What your textbook contains and how to use it for maximum benefit.
› The different styles of reading and when to apply each.
› How to use the specification to guide your reading.
› How to find, analyse and evaluate further reading resources.
› How to read an exam question and identify the relevant information.

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 3 Writing skills

Learning objectives
› To identify the different forms of writing and when to
use each.
› To develop an effective form of note taking.
› To plan answers to unstructured questions.

Study skills
Writing is the means by which the knowledge and understanding you
have developed throughout the course will ultimately be assessed.
For this reason alone, it is one of the most important skills to
develop.
If you progress beyond A-level chemistry, you may well be involved
in the writing of papers and posters, but at this stage your
experience of writing will be:
➜ note taking
➜ recording practical work
➜ answering questions
➜ report writing
At A-level chemistry you are not likely to encounter extensive writing
activities, however, you do need to be able to provide a logical,
well-structured piece of writing, which includes the use of correct
terminology. In the exam you will have a variety of different question
styles, some of which will be judged for QWC (quality of written
communication). In this case the answers will be expected to be:
➜ legible, with spelling, punctuation and grammar being accurate
enough to make the meaning clear
➜ appropriate for the purpose and subject matter
➜ coherent and clearly organised, using correct subject-specific
terminology
Students must make the meaning clear to be awarded the marks, so
not only must words and phrases be correct, but also the sentences
in which they are used must make sense.
Note taking
Note taking is largely for your own benefit and you may not be taught
how to do this. Whichever method you adopt, it needs to work for you.
One method is the Cornell note-taking system (Figure 3.1), a system
devised by Cornell University, where the page is laid out to provide
space for adding annotations (usually in a margin) and a summary
(usually at the foot of the page).

Aiming for an A in A-level Chemistry 45

 3 Writing skills

21 cm

6 cm 15 cm
Cue column

Note-taking area

30 cm

5 cm Summaries

Figure 3.1
The idea behind this format is that, during the lesson, notes are
made in the central part of the page, and that, after the lesson,
these are summarised at the foot of the page and key points or
questions (that are answered by the notes) are written in the
margin. When you come to revise, you can then cover the central
part of the page and use the questions as prompts to see what you
remember. It is not just how the notes are set out that is important,
but also how they are used. The Cornell method advocates reflecting
on the content of the lesson soon after, and then reviewing all
previous notes on a regular basis.
Your notes need to be well organised; they should have a title so
that you know what they are about and that title should also set the
context. You may wish to include the specification reference as well.
Key definitions need to be identified, as does other important
information, such as practical procedures or equations. Underlining
or highlighting this information can help it to stand out.
Calculations should be laid out so that each stage is shown clearly
(see next page), including any equations in which values are
substituted, and with the appropriate units. (More information on
how to do this is included in chapter 1: Quantitative skills.)
Table 3.1
Bond Bond Bond Bond
energy/kJ mol−1 energy/kJ mol−1
C−H 412 C−C 348
C=O 743 O−H 463
O=O 496

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 Study skills

The table below shows how (and how not) to lay out your
calculation if asked to calculate the energy change during the
combustion of propane, using the data given in Table 3.1 on the
previous page.

The difference between...

A well laid out calculation A poorly laid out calculation
C3H8 + 5O2 → 3CO2 + 4H2O C3H8 + 5O2 → 3CO2 + 4H2O
Bonds broken: Bonds made: 8 × 412 + 5 × 496 + 2 × 348 − 6 × 743 + 8 × 463
C−H × 8 C=O × (2 × 3) = −1690 kJ mol−1
412 kJ mol−1 × 8 = 3296 kJ mol−1 743 kJ mol−1 × 6 = 4458 kJ mol−1
O=O × 5 O−H × (4 × 2)
496 kJ mol−1 ×5= 2480 kJ mol−1 463 kJ mol−1 × 8 = 3704 kJ mol−1
C−C × 2
348 kJ mol−1 × 2 = 696 kJ mol−1
Sum of bonds broken: Sum of bonds formed:
6472 kJ mol−1 8162 kJ mol−1
Overall energy change = bonds broken − bonds formed
6472 kJ mol−1 − 8162 kJ mol−1 = −1690 kJ mol−1

Summaries should be shortened versions of the key points of

a topic, not a copy of what is in the textbook. A good way of
getting used to doing this is to compare what is in a textbook
with what is in a revision guide. The revision guide tends to just
have the key facts and not the background or the examples. For
example, for the topic ‘Shapes of molecules’, an OCR revision guide
(ISBN 9781471842108) provides information as a summary table
(Figure 3.2).

Number of Number of
bonded pairs lone pairs of Approximate
of electrons electrons Shape bond angle Symmetry
2 0 Linear 180° Yes
3 0 Trigonal 120° Yes
planar
4 0 Tetrahedral 109.5° Yes
5 0 Trigonal 90° and 120° Yes
bipyramidal
6 0 Octahedral 90° Yes
3 1 Pyramidal 107° No
2 2 Angular 104° No

Figure 3.2 Shapes of molecules as covered in a revision guide

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 3 Writing skills

The OCR textbook (ISBN 9781471827068) describes each line of the

table in detail, giving an example, a dot-and-cross diagram and an
image of the shape (Figure 3.3).

Figure 3.3 Shapes of molecules as covered in a textbook

Recording practical work and its application Activity

to the exam Choose a topic (it could
Throughout your course you will undertake practical work and will be one you have already
need to record the procedure followed and your results. You may studied) and produce a one-
be provided with a separate lab book to keep this work in. If you page summary of your notes
study chemistry beyond A-level, you will most certainly use a lab using the Cornell method
book and you will probably be expected to write up lab reports. The described above. Make
report should document the procedure in sufficient detail to enable sure you include the cue
someone else to carry out the same method and to achieve similar questions and the summary
results. of the main points.
The general format is to include a diagram (or list of equipment),
a step-wise method (written in the third person, usually as a
series of bullet points), a results table, some form of analysis and
a conclusion. The exact content and format will depend upon the
experiment being carried out. It may be that, for the majority of
your work, you are provided with a method to follow. In this case,
this should be secured into your notes and any amendments should
be recorded alongside.
Writing a method
It is important that you can accurately describe how a practical is
carried out because this is one of the skills that is now included
in the written examination. Students often waste time listing
apparatus, but this is not necessary because a labelled diagram or
description of the method will cover this.

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Worked example 3.1

Writing in a logical sequence of steps
A student produced a sample of 1-bromobutane, starting from 28.1 g of butan-1-ol and an
excess of powdered sodium bromide. Describe the procedure used and state any additional
reagents required. Your answer should include a calculation of the minimum mass of sodium
bromide, but no other quantities are required.
This is an example of the synthesis of an organic liquid. You need to describe the method in a logical
sequence of steps. You are not asked to justify why you are carrying out particular steps, but you
should refer to any safety precautions (beyond the obvious).
Start off by jotting down what the different stages of the procedure will be. It might be helpful to
draw a rough sketch of the apparatus as a reminder.
(a) Mixing the reactants
(b) Reflux and then distillation of the product
(c) Purification of the product
(d) Drying the product
Having done this, you can then add a little more detail, again in note style. Name the reagents that
will be used, how they will be prepared and any other equipment or resources that may be required.
This may be dependent on the reagents involved in the process.
(a) Mixing the reactants: mass of solid NaBr; water to make solution; conc. sulfuric acid — dropping
funnel and ice bath
(b) Reflux and then distillation of the product — organic liquid, so water bath or heating mantle; choice
depends on boiling point
(c) Purification of the product: use of separating funnel and identification of organic layer; sodium
hydrogen carbonate solution to remove acid (release pressure)
(d) Drying the product: add drying agent and filter (anhydrous calcium carbonate)
This then forms the plan for the answer you will write and following it enables you to produce a
logical and well-structured response.

Exam tip
Activity
When you are faced with an
Write an answer to the question given at the start of Worked unstructured question, such as
example 3.1, using the suggested plan as a guide. describing a practical procedure,
produce an outline plan. When
you have written your response
in full, put a single line through
Writing a conclusion the plan to show that it was rough
When you have generated some data — whether qualitative or work. Proofread your work and
amend any errors you spot.
quantitative — you will need to write a conclusion to summarise
what your major findings were. This may also include what the errors
were and how you could improve the practical.
Again, this is an aspect of the practical work that could be
examined, and so writing in a logical and structured way is key to
securing full credit.

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 3 Writing skills

Worked example 3.2

Evaluation of a practical
When a question asks you to evaluate, you are being asked to make a judgement about something
— in this case the practical procedure that has been performed. You will need to use your own
experience of the procedure as a reference point, comparing the information in the question with
your knowledge and understanding. Read through the information given, including any results or
other data, and annotate anything that stands out as being unusual.
A student carried out an experiment to determine the concentration of ethanoic acid, by
titration against 20.0 cm3 aliquots of a 0.500 mol dm−3 solution of sodium carbonate. The results
obtained are shown in Table 3.2.
Table 3.2
Trial 1 2 3
Final burette reading/cm3 7.30 14.25 21.15 28.25
Initial burette reading/cm3 0.00 7.30 14.25 21.15
Volume of CH3COOH used/cm3 7.30 6.95 6.90 7.10

Titres 1 and 2 are concordant;

however, the titres seem rather low.
(a) When setting up the apparatus, the student failed to fill the burette correctly and left
the gap between the tip and the tap full of air. State and explain the impact that this
will have had on the results that the student recorded. (2) The burette would deliver
less solution than that
indicated by the result.
(b) Suggest a way in which the student could gain more accurate results, using the same
equipment and procedure. (2) Using a bigger volume would give a
smaller percentage error.
Step 1: Read through and annotate the question. Some examples have been added for you.
Step 2: Part (a) tests your knowledge of how a burette works and the fact that it is calibrated so
that the volume delivered includes the amount of liquid in the portion of the burette beyond the tap.
If this is not filled, then the actual titre would be greater, because when the tap is opened, the liquid
will fill the gap before being delivered to the flask, so the total volume reading would increase.
Step 3: The question says state and explain, so you need to say what the impact is and give a
reason.
Step 4: Part (b) asks you to suggest a way of increasing the accuracy using the same equipment
and procedure. Looking at the results, the titres seem rather low and so one way to improve
the accuracy would to decrease the impact of the equipment error — by making the titre larger.
For most measuring equipment, the manufacturer will provide the maximum error that is inherent in
using that piece of equipment, which is usually ± half the smallest measurement that the equipment
is capable of. This can then be used to calculate the percentage error:

equipment error
percentage error = × 100
measurement made with that piece of equipment

If you increase the size of the denominator, then the error becomes less. ➥

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 Study skills

To increase the size of the denominator, we need to increase the volume of acid that is added.
However, this is linked to the number of moles that will react with the carbonate. Assuming the
concentration of the acid remains the same, as this is what is being determined, and the moles of
acid and the volume of the sodium carbonate are the same, then the only way to increase the number
of moles is to increase the concentration of the carbonate:
v
n= ×C
1000
Sample answer
(a) By leaving air in the burette between the tap and the tip, the student delivers less acid than
suggested by the recorded titre. The difference is the volume that would fill the gap between the tap
and the tip of the burette.
(b) Sodium carbonate reacts with ethanoic acid according to the equation:
Na2CO3 + 2CH3COOH → 2CH3COONa + H2O + CO2
Two moles of acid react with every mole of sodium carbonate. The number of moles of sodium carbonate
is determined using the volume and the concentration of the solution used:
v
n= ×C
1000
To increase the volume of the acid, the concentration of which is fixed, the student needs to increase the
number of moles that are reacting with the carbonate. If the aliquot of the carbonate remains at 20 cm3,
then the concentration of this must be increased to increase the number of moles present.

Short-answer questions
These can vary from a single word to a sentence or two, and are
usually worth up to 3 marks. Some answers may be structured,
where the question is broken into sections, each of which is
answered in turn using spaces inserted into the question. Many of
these questions will be based on knowledge, such as the recall of
definitions or the identification of functional groups.
When starting an answer to a short-response question, do not repeat
the question stem in the answer. This wastes time and space.
Writing answers to longer, unstructured
questions
Some exam questions will have up to a page of blank space
following the question, in which you are expected to present your
answer. Many students allow themselves to be distracted by the
amount of space available and end up spoiling an otherwise good
answer by rambling in order to fill the space on the page. This is
detrimental not just because it wastes time, but also because it can
lose you marks if you go on to contradict yourself because you are
waffling.
Longer-answer questions are worth more marks and usually cover
more of the higher-order skills, such as evaluation, comparison,
justification and analysis.

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 3 Writing skills

Activity
Look at one of the mark schemes for your awarding body and
find the guidance for answering one of the level-of-response,
unstructured questions. Use this information to complete the
following table
Response Guidance on the communication of ideas
level
3

Although not all of the boards present this information in

exactly the same way, or have identical response levels, they do
all include this type of question, where marks are allocated for
content and for how the information is presented.

Developing an appreciation of the hierarchical nature of explanation

should help you structure your written answers and should ensure
that you do not omit basic information. Students often lose marks
because they fail to state what they think is obvious.

Worked example 3.3

Building an answer to a level-of-response question
Describe the mechanism for the reaction between but-1-ene and hydrogen iodide, and use this
to name and explain the products formed.
This is a level-of-response-style question, so you need to get the chemistry correct and structure
your answer.
The correct chemistry includes recognition that this is an electrophilic addition reaction and that,
because of the position of the double bond, there are two possible products — 1-iodobutane and
2-iodobutane. The secondary carbocation is the more stable intermediate, so 2-iodobutane will be
the major product. Marks will also be awarded for drawing the mechanism correctly, with all dipoles,
curly arrows and charges shown and positioned accurately.
Sample answer A
H H H H H H H
H
C C C C H H C C C C H
H
H H H I H H
Hδ+

I δ−

The hydrogen iodide is attracted to butene and reacts to form iodoalkane, as shown in the diagram.
➥

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The answer has the correct dipole on the hydrogen iodide and forms a correct product. It states that
the hydrogen halide is attracted to the butene. This would score just 1 mark because there is very
little explanation and the mechanism is incomplete.
Typically, to score between 1 and 2 marks (the lowest level of credit-worthy response) would require
an answer that got at least some of the chemistry right, including terminology. In reponses requiring
mechanisms, most of the marks are awarded for the correct curly arrows and structures.
Sample answer B
The hydrogen iodide can form 1-iodobutane or 2-iodobutane depending on whether it adds to the first
carbon atom in the alkene or the second one. The reaction is an electrophilic addition and occurs because
the hydrogen halide is a polar molecule, which is due to the fact that iodine is more electronegative than
hydrogen.
(a) (b)
H H
H H
C C CH2CH3 H C C CH2CH3
+
H H

Hδ+ + Iδ−

Iδ− (c)

CH3CHI CH2CH3

OR
CH2ICH2 CH2CH3

This answer is better than answer A because it shows the carbocation intermediate produced after
the addition of hydrogen, and it shows the second stage of the mechanism (although the charge on
the iodine is wrong). Both products are correctly identified.
To score between 3 and 4 marks, more of the mechanism needs to be complete, the student needs
to recognise that two products are formed and there needs to be reasoning evident in the answer,
linking the key points.
Sample answer C
The electrophilic reaction between but-1-ene and hydrogen iodide produces two products,
1-bromobutane and 2-bromobutane. 2-bromobutane is the major product because the secondary
carbocation intermediate that forms this product is more stable than the primary carbocation, which
forms the minor product, 1-bromobutane.
H H CH3CHICH2CH3
H H
(major product
C C CH2CH3 H C C CH2CH3 as 2° carbocation
+
H H is more stable)
Hδ+ CH2ICH2CH2CH3
I−
Iδ− (minor product
as 1° carbocation is
less stable)

This answer includes a complete and accurate mechanism and an explanation of the formation of the
carbocation intermediates. It links the stability of these intermediates to the products formed and
uses this to justify which will be the major product. This answer would be worth full marks.
To score between 5 and 6 marks, the mechanism needs to be complete and correct, and the major
product identified.

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 3 Writing skills

The difference between... Exam tip

A B-grade student An A-grade student When writing a longer,
unstructured answer, first
• will identify what the question • will identify what the question is
concentrate on including as much
is asking and note the key asking and note the key points to
correct chemistry as possible.
points include as bullet points.
Then focus on the clarity and
• will identify the majority of the • will order the bullet points coherence of the answer and
key terms to be included • will note any key vocabulary terms drafting it in a logical progression.
• will use some of the key that should be included
terminology correctly • will use this plan to write an answer
• will tick the points off in the question
as each is addressed in the answer
• will cross through the plan once the
answer has been drafted

Not all long-answer questions will be marked as level-of-response

questions, but it is useful to have a plan and to structure your
answers so that you include all the relevant information. Keeping
it in a logical sequence means that you are less likely to omit
information.
Using terminology correctly
At A-level, students are expected to be able to use the correct
terms for describing particles and processes. Students often lose
marks by careless use of terminology. As an A-grade student you
need to be pedantic about your use of language from the start
of the course; think carefully about the words you choose and be
specific when writing descriptively.
One of the ways to help you in the correct use of terminology is
to identify the key terms in the question and the context in which
they are used.

Worked example 3.4

Using terminology
Nitrogen monoxide is present in the exhaust gases of aircraft. NO radicals act as homogeneous
catalysts by breaking down ozone in the stratosphere.
Explain — using equations to illustrate your answer — the meaning of the terms homogeneous
and catalyst as applied to this mechanism.
Before answering the question it is important to consider the meaning of the highlighted terms:
● Radical — a species with an unpaired electron (which is shown as a dot when writing the
formula), and which is reactive.
● Homogeneous — the catalyst and the reactants are in the same state.
● Catalysts — speed up reactions by offering an alternative route with a lower activation energy,
and are regenerated during the reaction.
Step 1: Write the equations that describe this process — remembering to designate the NO as a
radical:
•NO(g) + O3(g) → •NO2(g) + O2(g)
•NO2(g) + O(g) → •NO(g) + O2(g)
➥

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 Study skills

Step 2: Explain the meaning of the term homogeneous in the context of the question. Using state
symbols in the equation, you can now illustrate that the catalyst is homogeneous because it is in the
same (gaseous) state as the reactants
(and products).
Step 3: You need to refer to the definition of the term catalyst, but in the context of this
question. The equation shows that the NO radical is used and regenerated, so this is the meaning you
need to use here. Referring to a catalyst as providing an alternative route with a lower activation
energy is irrelevant and so would not score any marks.

Exam tip
Learn definitions and recall these when answering a question. Select the
part of a definition that is relevant to answering the question.

Exam tip
Avoid anthropomorphism — the attribution of human characteristics to
chemical species — in your answers. Do not refer to atoms as though they
have thoughts or feelings. They do not want to gain a complete outer shell of
electrons; it happens because this is the most stable arrangement.

Application to the exam

Shorter-response questions

Worked example 2.3

Maintaining the pH of the blood is critical for the healthy functioning of the body and is
achieved by the buffer system involving carbonic acid (H2CO3) and the carbonate ion (HCO3−) .
Explain, with the aid of an equation, how this buffer solution works when acid is added to the
blood.(4)
How to approach this question
Although this question is not set out as separate steps, these are evident in the question — you need
to explain how the blood buffer system works when acid is added, and you need to include an equation.
Identify what the question is about and highlight any information that you can use in your answer.
The two species highlighted will be needed for writing your equation. Failing to include this equation
will mean that you cannot score full marks. Allow yourself 6 minutes to write an answer to this
question.
Sample answer
When H+ ions are added to the blood, the equilibrium, H2CO3  HCO3− + H+ ✓, shifts to the left ✓ be-
cause the HCO3− ions that are present in excess ✓ react with the added H+ ions, reforming the acid and
­restoring the equilibrium ✓.

There is no need to include that the H+ ions have been produced during exercise — the question is
about how the buffer works. It is important to recognise that it is the excess of hydrogen carbonate
ions that enables the buffer to react with, and remove, the hydrogen ions.

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 3 Writing skills

Longer, unstructured responses

Worked example 2.4
The equation for the decomposition of sulfur dichloride dioxide is:
SO2Cl2(g) → SO2(g) + Cl2(g)
The reaction rate can be followed by measuring the pressure of the gases in the reaction vessel
and using this to calculate the concentration of SO2 at given times.
A graph of the concentration against time for this reaction is shown in Figure 3.4.

0.10

0.09

0.08

0.07
[SO2Cl2]/mol dm3

0.06

0.05

0.04

0.03

0.02

0.01

0
100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
Time/s

Figure 3.4 ➥

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 Study skills

From the graph determine:

(a) the initial rate of the reaction
(b) the rate constant for the reaction

Your answer must show full working, using the graph as appropriate. (6)
How to approach this question
There are three components to this question — the determination of the initial rate, the
determination of the order of the reaction and the calculation of the rate constant.
The graph is a concentration–time graph. The shape of the graph can be used to predict the order of
the reaction. The order can also be determined by finding the half-life of the reactant — the time
taken for the concentration of that reactant to halve.
● The initial rate is found by taking the gradient at the start of the reaction.
● The order of the reaction is found using half-lives.
● The rate constant is then found by substituting numbers into the correct rate equation, which can
be written once you know the order of the reaction.
The question clearly states that the graph should be used in the answer and that full working must
be shown.
Sample answer
[SO2Cl2]/mol dm-3

Time/s
➥

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 3 Writing skills

(a) The initial rate of the reaction ∆y/∆x at time 0 is:

0.100 − 0.068 mol dm−3
100 − 0 s
0.032 mol dm−3
= ✓
100 s
= 3.2 × 10−4 mol dm−3 s−1 ✓
(b) Half-life: 0.100 − 0.050 mol dm−3 = 190 s

Half-life: 0.050 − 0.0205 mol dm−3 = 400 − 190 s or 210 s ✓

These are roughly the same, so the reaction is first order with respect to SO2Cl2. ✓

rate = k[SO2Cl2]
So:

rate
k= ✓
[SO2Cl2]
3.2 × 10−4 mol dm−3 s−1
k=
0.1 mol dm−3)
= 3.2 × 10−3 s−1 ✓
This answer would score full marks. This is a level-of-response question, so the level is decided first
and then the mark. The following can be used to help see where the answer satisfies the marking
criteria:
● Tangent drawn at t = 0.
● Calculation of the initial rate is within the range given on the mark scheme and with the correct
units.
● Graph shows evidence of drawing lines down from the concentrations of 0.05 mol dm−3 and
0.025 mol dm−3, showing the corresponding times.
● States that because the half-lives are constant, then the reaction is first order with respect to
SO2Cl2.
● The correct rate equation is written and rearranged to make k the subject.
● Correct calculation and units of k.
Throughout the question, communication is clear and well structured, and it is clear how the graph
has been used. The calculations and units are correct.

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 Study skills

You should know

› The importance of using the correct scientific terminology throughout your answers.
› How to structure a plan for an unstructured answer, so that your response is
comprehensive and logical.
› The importance of proofreading your answers to ensure they make sense, and to tick off
the points in questions as you answer them, so that you are not leaving anything out.

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 4 Practical skills

Learning objectives
› To develop the skills to help you plan for and understand
practical techniques and activities.
› To develop the skills required to pass the practical
endorsement.
› To be able to explain the underlying scientific principles
in a practical method.
› To evaluate a method and suggest improvements.
› To apply the above to the answering of questions based
on practical techniques.

Study skills
Practical work is a key component of A-level chemistry and all
students, regardless of which specification they are following, are
required to demonstrate competency for the Common Practical
Assessment Criteria (CPAC), which are broadly divided into five
sections:
➜ Following written procedures
➜ Applying investigative approaches to practical work
➜ Safely using equipment and chemicals
➜ Making and recording appropriate observations
➜ Researching, referencing and reporting
If you meet the assessment criteria, and the majority of students
are expected to do this, then you will be awarded a pass on your
A-level practical endorsement certificate. If you are going on to
study a scientific discipline at university, it is likely that you will
need to have passed the practical endorsement. This may even be
a requirement for some other, seemingly unrelated courses. For
example, to study the finance and accounting BSc Honours course
at the University of Bath, you will be expected to pass any separate
science practical endorsement if you are taking GCE A-level in
a science subject. Always check out current university entrance
requirements.
The number and type of practicals carried out will vary between
the exam boards and from school to school, and not all practical
work will be linked to the practical endorsement. Your school may
instruct you to record practical work in a lab book. This provides
an excellent first experience of recording scientific information
— particularly useful for those thinking of studying science at
university.

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 Study skills

The difference between...

A B-grade lab book An A-grade lab book will also have the following
• Includes dates and titles for all work. • An indication of where the experiment fits within the curriculum, e.g. rate
• Methods included are written in experiments would be labelled kinetics; preparation for aspirin as organic
such a way that someone else synthesis.
could follow them, or instruction • Modifications to methods — such as changes in volumes of reagents used
worksheets are included. or the time taken for a particular stage — are included as annotations to
• Results are neatly and accurately instructions.
tabulated. • Results include a record of equations used and how the data are
• Sources are referenced. manipulated.
• Sources are referenced, including the date of access for web resources.

Practical skills will be assessed in the written exams and, for WJEC
and CCEA, in the laboratory through a practical examination. Some Activity
exam boards assess the practicals across all papers; others on
Check your exam board
particular ones.
specification to determine
The practical skills that are assessed through exam questions how they assess practical
account for a minimum of 15% of the overall marks. In order to be skills. Find out on which
able to answer these questions, you need to be competent in the papers this occurs and,
skills shown in Table 4.1. where possible, how many
marks are allocated.
Table 4.1 Practical skills required for A-level chemistry
Knowledge and • The ability to select and describe practical procedures.
understanding
(AO1)
Independent • The ability to solve problems set in a practical context.
thinking
(AO2)
Application • The ability to apply scientific knowledge to a practical context.
(AO2) • The ability to use and present data appropriately.
Analysis • The ability to draw conclusions from data.
(AO3) • The ability to select, process and analyse data using appropriate mathematical skills,
including plotting and interpreting graphs.
Evaluation • The ability to consider margin of error, accuracy and precision of data.
(AO3) • The ability to evaluate a scientific procedure and suggest improvements.
• The ability to ability to evaluate results and draw conclusions based on them.

This chapter aims to support you in the development of your

practical skills and in understanding how they will be assessed in
the exam. It will encourage you to think about the purpose of each
practical — not only how to carry it out safely and effectively,
but the underlying chemistry, what to do with the results, the
limitations and how the results and the procedure could be
improved.

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 4 Practical skills

Activity
Table 4.2 gives examples of some of the different practical
activities you might be required to complete. See if you can
match the apparatus and techniques to the different activities,
using the example given for guidance and by consulting the
specification for your exam board for more information. Decide
whether the data generated will be qualitative or quantitative,
and add this to the table.

Table 4.2 Analysing the different practical activities

Practical skill Apparatus required Technique(s) used Application Qualitative or
or suggested quantitative
reagents technique?
Make up a volumetric Pipette, burette, Titration Acid–base titration for Quantitative
solution and carry out volumetric flask the determination of
a simple acid–base the concentration of a
titration solution

Identification of
unknown inorganic
ions

Identification of
organic compounds
or functional groups

Measurement of
enthalpy change

Investigating rate of
reaction

Synthesis of an
organic compound

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 Study skills

Practical skill Apparatus required Technique(s) used Application Qualitative or

or suggested quantitative
reagents technique?
Measurement of pH
changes

Investigating
electrochemical cells

Determining your practical method

Preparing for the practical
At A-level, you should be clear about the purpose of each
experiment that you carry out and where it fits into the curriculum.
This is because practical work can be used in a variety of different
ways, from introducing a concept, to identifying a particular
functional group in a molecule, to determining the rate equation
for a particular reaction, the concentration of a particular reactant
or some other variable. Practical work can also be used as part of
an open investigation, where a hypothesis is proposed and then
suitable practical procedures determined and employed in order to
try to prove the hypothesis.
Before undertaking any practical work it is important to read
through the instruction sheet or watch the demonstration of the
practical technique. Make sure that you know the order in which
you need to complete each step, what equipment you need to use
and how you will set it up, and any contingencies (such as the need
to cool a solution prior to use). You may also need to consider the
volumes of reagents that would be suitable to use and whether you
need to make up any solutions or to dilute any that you have been
provided with. If this is the case, it is useful to record the volumes
of the solution and water that you will need to use.
You need to be able to follow a written procedure to meet the Common pitfall
criteria for CPAC 1. You also need to be able to follow instructions
for the assembly of apparatus, whether from written instructions Students often miss out
or a diagram. The written exam may require you to describe on marks by drawing
a procedure; to write or complete a method or to suggest apparatus incorrectly.
improvements to a given method. In order to help you visualise how Make sure you can draw
you have carried out practical work when you come to the exam, how the equipment should
you need to maintain your focus when you are carrying out lab be assembled for all of the
work. Think about why you set up the equipment in the way you do, required practical activities
because this will help you to understand the implications on your for your exam board.
results if it is not set up correctly.

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 4 Practical skills

The difference between...

A poorly drawn diagram A well-drawn diagram
Gas syringe Rubber tubing

Delivery tube Gas syringe

Delivery tube

Clamp stand
Bung

Conical flask
Hydrochloric acid + marble chips
Hydrochloric acid + marble chips

No attempt has been made to show that the system Care has been taken to show that there are no gaps
needs to be airtight; the bung is missing and there is through which gas could escape and the end of the
nothing to show how the gas syringe is attached to the delivery tube is above the surface of the acid.
delivery tube. The gas syringe is drawn to show that the plunger moves
The end of the delivery tube is too close to the acid. as gas is produced.

Use the points in the checklist in Table 4.3 to ensure that you have
drawn your diagrams correctly and to avoid common errors.
Table 4.3 Checklist for drawing apparatus
Point Example and explanation
Is the apparatus set up safely? A naked flame should not be used to heat a flammable liquid; stoppers should
not be used where pressure can build up.

Is the apparatus assembled correctly? There should be no leaks for equipment designed to collect gases; water should
go into a condenser at the bottom inlet.

Is it drawn correctly? The diagram should be a 2D section through the equipment; clamps are
signified by an X either side of the apparatus being clamped and a Bunsen
burner is shown as an upward arrow; there should be no breaks in outlines
except where openings are indicated.

Activity

Figure 4.1
A student has drawn the diagram in Figure 4.1 to represent the apparatus used to prepare an ester,
by heating an alcohol with an organic acid, under reflux. Highlight the errors on the student’s
drawing and indicate what they should do to correct them.

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 Study skills

As an A-grade student you will apply your understanding of the

procedure being carried out, and how the equipment works, to the
correct drawing of apparatus.
Risk assessment
All procedures that you follow will have had risk assessments
carried out by supervising teachers, so you should be aware of the
main hazards and how to prevent them. This includes recognising
and understanding the hazard symbols used on reagent bottles, as
well as having an appreciation of when and why reagents should be
used in a fume cupboard and the risks associated with particular
pieces of equipment or techniques. You should also be familiar
with Hazcards and how to use them to find out information about
chemicals.
Whilst it is less likely that an exam question would ask explicitly
about safety, the boards that have practical assessments allocate
some marks to working safely, and it is also monitored in any of the
required practical activities that you will undertake. The checklist
for drawing diagrams (Table 4.3) includes guidance on how to
consider safety when setting up equipment.
You should also be aware of the hazards associated with using
flammable, corrosive or toxic chemicals, as well as concentrated
solutions of acids and alkalis. You also need to know how to
take precautions to protect yourself, over and above standard
lab safety.

Sequencing the steps of the procedure Exam tip

It is essential that you understand the practical procedures you As always, read the question
carry out in order to be able to describe them accurately. Examiners’ twice, ensuring that you pay
reports highlight the need for students to organise their thoughts particular attention to any
into a logical sequence, particularly for extended-response information about chemicals and
questions; undertaking a variety of practical activities helps develop procedures. Then answer each
part of the question in turn.
this skill.

Worked example 4.1

Describing a method in a logical sequence of steps
Propan-1-ol can be oxidised under carefully controlled conditions to make propanal, a low
boiling point liquid.
(a) Describe how a student could prepare a sample of an aldehyde from 25 cm3 of the alcohol.
Include a labelled diagram and details of the reagents required.
(b) Describe how the student could confirm experimentally that the product made is an
aldehyde.
Step 1: First decide what type of alcohol propan-1-ol is. It is a primary alcohol, which can
be oxidised to propanal and could be further oxidised to propanoic acid. In order to remove the
propanal, which has a lower boiling point than propanoic acid, the apparatus needs to be set up for
distillation, rather than reflux.
➥

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 4 Practical skills

Step 2: Draw a diagram similar to that shown in Figure 4.2, labelling the reactant and the product.
The question states that propanal is a liquid with a low boiling point, so cooling the distillate using
iced water is recommended.

Water Figure 4.2 Apparatus used to distil

out propanal after oxidation of ­propan-1-ol

Acidified
potassium
dichromate VI 

Water
in 
Propan-1-ol 

Heating mantle Propanal 

Ice
Heat

Step 3: The answer should recognise that the reagents are placed in the flask and heated and that
the distillate is collected and cooled. These points are all evident from the diagram of the apparatus,
so only a brief description of the procedure is required. For example:
Place the propanal and acidified potassium dichromate(vi) in the flask and heat gently, collecting the
distillate in a conical flask, cooled in iced water. The acidified potassium dichromate(vi) will change colour
from orange to green.
Step 4: Part (b) of the question is asking you for a qualitative test for an aldehyde. Either of those
in Table 4.4 would be acceptable.
Your answer should include the reagent used plus the positive result with that reagent. For example:
Table 4.4 Test for an aldehyde
Tollens’ test Fehling’s test

Add Tollens’ reagent — an alkaline solution of ammoniacal Add Fehling’s solution (a copper(ii) salt) and warm in a
silver nitrate — to the aldehyde and warm in a water bath. water bath.
If an aldehyde is present, then a silver mirror forms. ✓ A red precipitate (copper(i) forms if an aldehyde is
present. ✓

The student places 1 cm3 of the distillate into a clean test tube and adds Tollens’ reagent (ammoniacal
silver nitrate) before placing the test tube into a beaker of hot water. The presence of a silver mirror
coating the test tube confirms that propanal has been made.
Step 5: Go back through the question and tick off the parts answered.
Propan-1-ol can be oxidised under carefully controlled conditions to make propanal, a low
boiling point liquid.
(a) Describe how a student could prepare a sample of an aldehyde from 25 cm3 of the alcohol.
Include a labelled diagram and details of the reagents required.
(b) Describe how the student could confirm experimentally that the product made is an
aldehyde.

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 Study skills

The difference between...

See Figure 4.2.
A B-grade answer An A-grade answer
• Identifies that reactants are heated but does not • Heating source used is a heating mantle or water bath
specify the heating source used. (because the reactants are flammable).
• The top of the flask containing the reactants is • A thermometer is indicated in the flask containing the
stoppered to prevent the vapour from escaping. reactants, to record the boiling point of the distillate. The
• The oxidising agent is mixed with the propan-1-ol in bulb of the thermometer is in line with the point where the
the pear-shaped flask. vapour enters the condenser.
• The oxidising agent is added dropwise to the propan-1-ol in
the flask.
• Anti-bumping beads are indicated in the flask being heated.

Apply the underlying scientific principles

Application of knowledge
The application of knowledge and understanding (AO2) accounts
for up to 44% of the total A-level mark. To achieve these marks
students are expected to be able to explain the science underlying
practical activities. It is therefore important to think about what is
happening in each and every practical activity, and why. In order to
do this, you need to know where the practical fits into your studies,
in terms of the subject matter and the skills assessed.
Whenever you carry out a procedure, you should have an idea
of what that procedure will achieve and, whenever you answer a
question, you need to classify that question in terms of the topic
it fits into, whether that be kinetics, synthesis, neutralisation or
analysis. Once you have done this you will be much better placed,
not only to describe what is happening, but also to say why it is
happening. For example, when choosing an indicator for a reaction,
you need to know what an indicator is, how it works and then to
look at the particular reactants for the given reaction.

Activity
Sketch graphs to show the titration curves obtained when the titration is between:
(a) a strong acid and a strong alkali
(b) a weak acid and a strong alkali
(c)    a strong acid and a weak alkali
(d) a weak acid and a weak alkali
Using Table 4.5 suggest which indicator would be an appropriate choice for each titration.
Table 4.5
Indicator pH range Suitable for which titration(s)
Phenolphthalein 8.2–10.0
Phenol red 6.8–8.4
Bromocresol green 3.8–5.4
Methyl orange 3.2–4.4

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Worked example 4.2

Demonstrating knowledge of the underlying concept
A student is preparing a sample of benzoic acid by the hydrolysis of the ester methyl benzoate,
according to the flow diagram shown in Figure 4.3.

Recrystallise the
Reflux for Decant into a
Filter the solid product using
20 minutes 100 ml beaker
under reduced the minimum
with sodium and acidify
pressure volume of
hydroxide with HCl
boiling water

Figure 4.3

(a) What is the purpose of acidifying with the hydrochloric acid in stage 2?
(b) Describe the steps involved in the recrystallisation of the acid from the solvent (water),
stating what property of benzoic acid this process depends on.
Step 1: Look carefully at each stage of the process shown in the flow diagram. The hydrolysis is
being carried out using sodium hydroxide, which is an alkali.
The purpose of the hydrochloric acid will be to neutralise any unreacted sodium hydroxide from the
reaction mixture.
Step 2: This is where you need to organise your answer into sequential steps:
Dissolve the product in the minimum amount of hot water.
(Stating minimum volume shows that you understand that you need to just get all of the solute to
dissolve, so that the maximum amount recrystallises as the solution cools.)
Cool the solution to produce crystals and wash with cold solvent.
The question asks you to describe, so you would not need to include the information in brackets to
be awarded the mark; however, should the question ask you to explain the process, you will need to
understand and write about why each stage is carried out.
Step 3: Now relate the procedure to the property of benzoic acid that it depends upon:
Benzoic acid is more soluble in the hot solvent.

In an exam, you should use all the information given in the

description of a practical procedure to help you answer the
question. In addition to reading the question twice, it helps to
underline or highlight the key points of the question. This could
include: equations or quantities that you may need for calculations;
stages in the procedure that you do not want to overlook; any
guidance on how to present your answer.

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 Study skills

Worked example 4.3

Highlighting the information in the question
A student carried out an experiment to find the enthalpy of reaction for the following reaction:
Na2CO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) → 2NaCl(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
The student measured 50 cm3 of dilute hydrochloric acid into a polystyrene cup and added a
sample of sodium carbonate from the weighing bottle.
The results were recorded in Table 4.6.
Table 4.6
Mass of weighing bottle and carbonate/g 57.86
Mass of weighing bottle after adding 54.02
carbonate/g
Temperature of acid at start/°C 22.0
Temperature of acid after adding carbonate/°C 28.5

Calculate the enthalpy change for the reaction in kJ mol−1.

Step 1: Read through this question and underline the volume of acid (50 cm3) and the fact that the
carbonate is added from a weighing bottle. Also underline the units that the answer should be given
in (kJ mol−1).
Step 2: Look at the table, which enables the mass of carbonate used to be found, along with the
temperature change for the reaction. Using the data from the question:
● Calculate the mass of carbonate used:
57.86 − 54.02 = 3.84 g
● Calculate the change in temperature (the difference between the end and start temperatures of
the acid):
28.5 − 22.0 = 6.5oC
Step 3: Write out the equation for the energy given out:
Q = mc∆t
where m is the mass of the solution (acid) and c the specific heat capacity of water, which is given
on the data sheet. (The acid used is dilute and so using the specific heat capacity of water is
appropriate here.)
Substitute values into this equation:
Q = 50 (the volume of acid) × 4.18 J g−1 K−1 × 6.5oC
Q = 1358.5 J
Step 4: Calculate the number of moles of sodium carbonate, by dividing the mass used by its
relative formula mass (Na2CO3 (23.0 × 2) + 12.0 + (16.0 × 3) = 106.0):
mass
moles =
Mr
3.84
=
106.0
= 0.036 mol
➥

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 4 Practical skills

Step 5: You can now work out the enthalpy change for the reaction as follows:
Q
enthalpy change =
moles
(Remember that when heat is given out you use a minus sign.)
−1358.5
enthalpy change = = −37736.11J mol−1
0.036
Step 6: The question states that the answer should be given in kJ mol−1, so you have to convert J
to kJ by dividing by 1000, giving −37.74 kJ mol−1.
Unless the question specifies the number of decimal places or significant figures, you should quote
the answer to the same number as the least accurate value in the question, in this case the volume,
and so your answer would be −38 kJ mol−1.

Recording data
Once you are clear about how you are going to carry out an
experiment safely, you then need to think about how you will
record the data generated. This covers CPAC 4 — making and
recording appropriate observations. The method of recording will
depend on the type of data that are generated and whether you
are recording measurements (quantitative data) or observations
(qualitative data).

The difference between...

Quantitative data Qualitative data
Any data where measurements produced by an Any data where observations or descriptions are recorded
externally validated scale are involved. and where there is no spectrum of results.
They should include appropriate units. No units are needed.

Recording qualitative data

While much of the data generated by your practical work will be
quantitative, the identification of particular ions or functional
groups is qualitative. You are expected to be able to describe the
tests for given anions (such as carbonates, sulfates and halides),
cations (such as metal or ammonium ions) and functional groups
(including COOH, C=C, aldehydes, ketones and alcohols), which are
included in your exam board’s specification. You should also be able
to write ionic equations to represent the reactions.
As an A-grade student you will also be able to suggest an appropriate
sequence for carrying out tests, depending on which species you are
testing for and/or which reagents you have been given.

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 Study skills

Activity
Qualitative analyses are based on observations. These can include colour changes, formation of a
precipitate, the miscibility of different solutions and the production of a gas.
Complete Table 4.7 to give examples of each.
Table 4.7
Observation What it indicates Example
Bubbles/effervescence A gas is produced Reaction of a carboxylic acid with a
carbonate
Colour change
Precipitate forms
Two layers appear

The difference between...

It is important to give sufficient description in observations to secure the marks. Below are two
possible responses to the following question:
Name a suitable reagent and state the observation obtained to confirm that a synthesis has
produced a carboxylic acid. (2)

A B-grade answer An A-grade answer

Add calcium carbonate ✓, which will react to give Add a solution of sodium hydrogen carbonate ✓ to the
carbon dioxide. carboxylic acid.
Bubbles of gas would be observed.
Bubbling the gas through limewater would enable the gas to
be identified as carbon dioxide, if the solution went cloudy. ✓

Explaining observations
Many questions about qualitative procedures will ask students to
describe their observations. Again, attention to detail is important:
bubbles or effervescence tell you that a gas is being given off; a
solution turning cloudy is due to the formation of a precipitate —
it is important to state that a precipitate forms, rather than using
the word cloudy.
Sometimes colour changes are not as clear-cut as expected. As
an A-grade student you should be able to suggest why. Take the
example of the oxidation of an alcohol by acidified dichromate(vi):
the resultant solution is often murky brown, which you should
recognise as being due to the mixing of the orange Cr6+ ions with
the green Cr3+ ions, because not all alcohol molecules are oxidised
at the same time and there may be an excess of a particular
reactant.

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Worked example 4.4

Interpreting qualitative data
A student was given four colourless solutions that were, in no particular order: hydrochloric
acid, lithium chloride, magnesium sulfate and sodium carbonate.
(a) Barium nitrate was added to each of the solutions in turn. A white precipitate was
formed in one of the test tubes. Suggest which solution was present in this test tube and
write an ionic equation for the reaction taking place.
(b) When dilute nitric acid and silver nitrate were added, two of the solutions produced
identical results. State what this result was and name the solutions that produced this
result.
(c) Suggest a method of distinguishing between the two solutions that gave the same result
when treated with silver nitrate.
Step 1: (a) Barium ions react with a sulfate to form a white precipitate of barium sulfate. So the
solution in the test tube must be magnesium sulfate.
Step 2: Write the ionic equation:
Ba2+(aq) + SO42−(aq) → BaSO4(s)
Remember to show state symbols and just the ions that are forming the precipitate. (These are the
ones that take part in the reaction.)
Step 3: (b) Again identify what the reagent (silver nitrate) is used to test for — the presence of
halide ions — and then look for this within the given solutions. Chloride ions will be present in both
hydrochloric acid and lithium chloride solutions, so these will both react with silver nitrate to form a
white precipitate.
Step 4: (c) Consider the two solutions — hydrochloric acid and lithium chloride — and identify
all the ions present: H+ and Cl− or Li+ and Cl−. As both solutions contain chloride ions and these
were detected using the silver nitrate, you need a way to distinguish between hydrogen ions and
lithium ions. You should recall that a carbonate reacts with dilute acid to produce bubbles of gas;
alternatively, you could choose to carry out a flame test to identify the lithium ions in the lithium
chloride solution.
Remember to state the positive result for each test you choose to carry out.

Recording quantitative data

Common pitfall
Quantitative data are those that are measured. The recording of
these data will need to include units and, very probably, repeats. Students often miss out on
Table 4.8 is an example of how data are often recorded. marks when they fail to
include units in their tables.
Table 4.8 Volume of gas produced during the reaction of an acid with a
carbonate Results should be recorded
within a table that is clear
Time/s 0 60 120 180 240 300
and easy to read and with
Volume of 0 40 71 96 114 114
units given alongside
CO2/cm3
headings.
Readings within the table should be recorded to a consistent
number of significant figures, determined by the resolution of the
device being used to measure the data or the uncertainty in the
measurement.

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 Study skills

Activity
Suppose you are going to carry out a practical to compare the
enthalpies of combustion of three different alcohols. You are
planning to use spirit burners, each one containing a mass of
one of the three different alcohols, which you will burn and
use to heat a given volume of water contained in a boiling tube
clamped above the spirit burner. Draw a suitable table to record
the results of this experiment.
Knowing how you will calculate the enthalpy of combustion
(and which equation you will use) will help you to decide on the
measurements you will need to take.

When recording results, these should reflect the precision of the

instrument used in the measurement. As an A-grade student, you
will understand the difference between accuracy and precision and
use each term in the correct context.
Accuracy reflects how close a result is to the true value (of
a measurement), whereas precision denotes the closeness of
agreement between repeated measurements. For example, a burette
reading could be given as 12.60 cm3 or 12.65 cm3 but no other values
in between, because the smallest division of the scale is 0.10 cm3 Take it further
and so the value is determined as lying either on or between the
More information on the
gradations. correct use of terminology can
Accuracy should be limited to either the precision of the data (given be found in The Language of
Measurement, published by
in the question) or the accuracy of the apparatus. This should be the ASE (ISBN 978 0 86357 424
remembered, particularly when any further processing of the data 5). Exam boards may also have
takes place. guidance on their websites so
you should check that you are
Precision refers to how close repeated results are and is used in familiar with this.
determining the values to include in mean calculations.

Using the data generated by the practical

Data generated in a practical may need further processing using a
variety of mathematical techniques. These include:
➜ subtraction — when working out temperature changes for
enthalpy experiments
➜ mean calculation — when selecting concordant titres to find the
mean in neutralisation reactions
➜ taking logs or finding reciprocals — calculating 1/t for initial
rate experiments
(Columns to carry these out may be included in the original table or
you might prefer to produce a separate table.)
➜ drawing of graphs and determining gradients from those graphs
(further information on how to do this is covered in chapter 1
(quantitative skills))

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Exam tip
Common pitfall
Remember that the independent
Students lose marks when they cannot correctly identify the variable is always plotted on
independent variable (the values of which are chosen) and the x-axis of a graph and the
dependent one on the y-axis, and
the dependent variable (the values of which are measured),
that these axes should be labelled
or when they do not put the independent variable in the and include the correct units.
first column of a table and the dependent variable(s) in
subsequent ones.

Activity
Carrying out several full experiments to provide enough data to determine the initial rate of
reaction is time consuming, so sometimes an approximation is used. Clock reactions are ideal for
this because they allow the measurement of time taken for a certain amount of product to be made,
indicated, for example, by a change in colour or the formation of a precipitate. The rate to this
point is taken to be proportional to 1/t (1/time) for each reaction, and the reaction is repeated
with varying concentrations of the reactants.
The reaction between hydrogen peroxide and iodide ions in acidic solution can be set up as such a
clock reaction:
H2O2(aq) + 2H+(aq) + 2I−(aq) → I2(aq) + 2H2O(l)
A small (known) quantity of thiosulfate ions is added to the reaction mixture. The thiosulfate reacts
with the iodine produced, turning it back into iodide ions:
2S2O32−(aq) + I2(aq) → S4O62−(aq) + 2I−(aq)
Starch solution is added to the reaction mixture because it turns blue in the presence of iodine and
acts as an indicator.
The results obtained in such an experiment are shown in Table 4.9.
Table 4.9
[KI]/mol dm−3 [H2O2]/mol dm−3 Time/s 1/t
0.025 0.025 55 0.02
0.025 0.050 25
0.050 0.025 26
0.050 0.050 12

(a) Complete the table.

(b) Deduce the order of the reaction with respect to each reactant.
(c) Write a rate equation for the reaction.
(d) Explain, in terms of the reactant particles, why there is a delay in the appearance of the blue-
black colour.
(e) Suggest how long it would take for the solution to turn blue if the concentration of potassium
iodide was 0.025 mol dm−3 and the concentration of hydrogen peroxide was 0.075 mol dm−3.

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Evaluating the method

Assessment objective 3 requires students to be able to evaluate
information, make judgements, and to develop and refine practicals.
This includes the treatment of errors as well as an appreciation of
the limitations of methods and equipment. All students should be
able to select the correct results to process from any given set,
and should also be able to state what impact given errors in the
procedure will have on a particular result.
Equipment errors
You need to understand the limitations of the equipment being
used to take a particular measurement. Each piece of equipment has
a limit to its precision. When using a balance that weighs to two
decimal places, you may see the value of the second decimal place
move up and down a little because the balance has an inbuilt error.
The error range is usually ± half the smallest measurement possible,
so in this case ± 0.005 g.
Manufacturers usually give details of the maximum error for each
piece of equipment. Remember that the percentage error for a piece
of equipment is calculated as follows:
uncertainty of instrument
percentage error = × 100
quantity measured with instrument
It is also important to remember that if the equipment is used twice
to calculate a value (for example, reading the start and finish values
from a burette to work out the titre), then the maximum error is
doubled). For example, a burette has an uncertainty of ± 0.05 cm3. Common pitfall
If the mean titre for a neutralisation was 21.45 cm3, calculate the
percentage uncertainty in this value. Students often lose
out on marks because
uncertainty of instrument
percentage uncertainty = × 100 they fail to appreciate
quantity measured with instrument
that simply repeating a
In this case, two measurements are made with the burette, one at the measurement will not
start and one at the end of the titration, so the equation is written: improve the accuracy of
2 × 0.05 that measurement — a
percentage uncertainty = × 100 more accurate piece of
21.45
equipment is needed.
percentage uncertainty = 0.47%

Worked example 4.5

Comparing the accuracy of different pieces of equipment
To determine the volume of carbon dioxide made when a given mass of a group 2 metal carbonate
was reacted with dilute hydrochloric acid the apparatus was set up as shown in Figure 4.4.

56 cm3
Measuring
Hydrochloric acid cylinder
and
metal carbonate

Granules

Figure 4.4
➥
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 4 Practical skills

50 cm3 of the acid was placed in a conical flask. 0.45 g of powdered marble chips was weighed
using a digital balance. A 100 cm3 measuring cylinder was filled with water and carefully
inverted over the end of the delivery tube, to collect the gas produced in the reaction. The bung
in the conical flask was removed the powder added quickly and the bung replaced to minimise
any loss of gas.
The measuring cylinder in which the gas was collected was calibrated in 1 cm3 divisions and the
balance was accurate to 0.01 g. Show by calculation which piece of apparatus contributed the
biggest percentage error in this experiment.
Step 1: Write out the equation:
maximum error
percentage error = × 100
actual value measured
Taking the measuring cylinder first: the smallest gradation is 1 cm3, so the error range is ± half this
value, or 0.5 cm3.
The volume measured was 56 cm3, so the percentage error is:
0.5
× 100 = 0.89%
56
which should be rounded to 0.9%.
Step 2: Repeat for the balance — the maximum error is 0.01 g and the mass measured is 0.45 g, so
the percentage error is (0.01/0.45) × 100 which is 2.22%. When comparing values, the value of the
final answer can be no more accurate than the least accurate measurement, so 2.22% is given to one
decimal place: 2.2%.
Step 3: Compare the answers. Although the balance is more accurate, since the mass weighed is so
small, the percentage error will be greater.

Modifying procedures Exam tip

Sometimes it is not the equipment that limits the accuracy of an
Uncertainty is calculated in
experimental procedure, but limitations in the procedure itself. In the same way as percentage
this case, you need to consider whether modifying the procedure, error — by taking the value for
using different equipment, would help. For example, in a calorimetry the uncertainty for the piece
experiment where a spirit burner is being used to heat a given volume of equipment and dividing by
of water in order to determine the enthalpy of combustion, as shown the measurement made with
that piece of equipment, then
in Figure 4.5, the main source of error is heat loss to the surroundings,
multiplying by 100.
which could be reduced by placing a heat shield around the apparatus.

Metal can
(calorimeter)

Measured
volume
of water

Liquid burner Liquid

fuel

Figure 4.5 Calorimetry set-up

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 Application to the exam

One of the ways in which evaluative skills are tested is by asking Exam tip
you to consider the outcomes of specific changes. You have to make
judgements on what the impact of each change on the result would Students lose marks when they
be. For example, how what would happen if the reagent was changed fail to actually state the impact
to one with a higher or lower mass, or a volume was measured of the scenario on the outcome.
Does the scenario alter the
incorrectly As an A-grade student, you will recognise how the result in the way the question is
measurement is used and thus be able to predict the outcome of suggesting?
adjusting it in some way.

Application to the exam

In the exam you will be assessed on your ability to answer questions
that cover the skills described in this chapter. The following worked
example covers the higher-order skills of analysis (of why the
cell does not work) and evaluation (of the relationship between
concentration of silver ions and emf — electromotive force or cell
potential of the cell).

Worked example 4.6

Judging the impact of changes
A student prepares a sample of copper(ii) sulfate.5H2O by reacting a given mass of the insoluble
copper(ii) carbonate with sulfuric acid, filtering the solution to remove the excess solid and
then heating gently before allowing to cool.
(a) The percentage yield of crystals is less than expected and the student suggests the
following could be reasons for this. State and explain whether each statement is correct.
(i) Not all of the copper carbonate reacted.
(ii) Some of the water of crystallisation may have been lost when heating the solution.
(iii) The crystals are still wet.
(b) If the student replaces the sulfuric acid with the same concentration and volume of
hydrochloric acid, what would the impact be on the number of moles of crystals made?
Step 1: For part (a) take each statement in turn and decide whether it will have reduced the
percentage yield of crystals:
(i) The copper carbonate was in excess; it was the acid that was the limiting reactant, so this will not
have reduaced the yield.
(ii) The loss of water would reduce the mass of the crystals used to calculate the percentage yield, so
this will have reduced the yield.
(iii) In this case the mass of crystals would be higher than it should be, due to the water present. So the
percentage yield would be higher, rather than lower.
Step 2: For part (b) writing out the equations for the reactions helps. As shown by the ratios in
the following equations you need twice the number of moles of hydrochloric as you do sulfuric acid:
CuCO3 + H2SO4 → CuSO4 + H2O + CO2
CuCO3 + 2HCl → CuCl2 + H2O + CO2
The student will therefore make less product, because each mole of hydrochloric acid only produces
one mole of hydrogen ions and so we would need twice the volume to produce the same number of
moles of hydrogen ions as the sulfuric acid. The hydrogen ions are reacting to form water, so each
mole of water formed requires two moles of hydrogen ions.

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 4 Practical skills

Worked example 4.7

A student sets up the electrochemical cell shown in Figure 4.6 but is unable to measure the
electrode potential of the cell.
High resistance voltmeter
V

Copper
Silver electrode
electrode

Solution of
copper Solution of
nitrate silver nitrate
(1 mol dm−3) (1 mol dm−3)

Figure 4.6
(a) Explain what is missing and why the cell does not work as it is currently set up. (3)
(b) Once the cell is working the results are recorded in Table 4.10. Describe what these results show. (2)
Table 4.10
[Ag+]/mol dm−3 Emf/V
1.0 × 10 −4 +0.25
3.3 × 10 −4 +0.28
1.0 × 10 −3 +0.31
3.3 × 10 −4 +0.34
1.0 × 10 −2 +0.38
1.0 × 10 −1 +0.43

(c) Explain why the change in the emf shown in the table above occurs and what impact increasing
the concentration of the silver solution will have on the overall cell voltage. (5)
Table 4.11 The standard electrode potentials of some common metals
Metal ion/metal electrode Standard electrode potential, E/V
Li+(aq)  Li(s) −3.03
K+(aq)  K(s) −2.92
Na+(aq)  Na(s) −2.71
Al3+(aq)  Al(s) −1.66
Zn2+(aq)  Zn(s) −0.76
Fe2+(aq)  Fe(s) −0.44
Pb2+(aq)  Pb(s) −0.13
Cu2+(aq)  Cu(s) +0.34
Ag+(aq)  Ag(s) +0.80

How to approach part (a)

The question is assessing your knowledge of how to set up a working electrochemical cell, so the first
thing to do is to examine the diagram of the cell, which you are told does not currently work, and
then identify each component. Start with the beaker on the left; does it contain an electrode in a
solution of the metal ions? Is this also the case on the right? Will the circuit allow for the movement
of electrons? Will it allow for the movement of ions?
➥
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 Application to the exam

The question asks you to explain what is missing and why the cell does not work. Once you have
analysed the diagram, you will have identified that it is the salt bridge that is missing. In order to
answer the question you need to know what the salt bridge is and does.
The salt bridge is a piece of porous material that is soaked in an ionic solution, such as potassium
nitrate. Its purpose is to allow the passage of ions between the two solutions, while keeping them
separate. This enables the charge in each beaker to remain balanced.
Sample answer
(a) The electrochemical cell is missing a salt bridge — a piece of filter paper soaked in potassium nitrate
solution — which allows the movement of ions between the solutions to maintain the balance of charge. ✓
This is a simple, clear statement of what is missing from the diagram, what the salt bridge does and
why it is important — it enables the movement of ions to maintain the balance of charge.
If this is not possible, then the opposite charges will build up in each beaker ✓ —positive in the beaker
containing the copper electrode, where copper ions are formed, and negative in the beaker containing the
silver electrode, where silver ions are removed ✓.
The answer explains that without a means for ions to move, the positive ions formed in the beaker
containing copper will accumulate and the negative ions in the beaker containing silver will
accumulate. This shows that the student understands that because copper is the more reactive metal
it is forming ions, and that because silver is less reactive it is forming the metal, which leaves the
nitrate ions in the solution in excess.
How to approach part (b)
From the fact that the concentration of silver is written in the first column of Table 4.12, you can
deduce that this has been changed and the voltage for each concentration measured. Notice that this
part is worth 2 marks, so a simple statement alone is unlikely to get both marks. In this situation you
need to look for a numerical pattern using the data.
Sample answer
(b) As the concentration of the silver ions in solution increases, the emf becomes more positive. ✓

A statement is made linking the increase in concentration of silver ions with an increasingly positive
emf. (Better to state it this way, rather than just say emf increases, because it could become more
negative.)
A ten-fold increase in concentration results in an increase of 0.06 V. As you increase the concentration
from 3.3 × 10−4 mol dm−3 to 3.3 × 10−3 mol dm−3, the emf changes from 0.28 V to 0.34 V. ✓

The data in the table have been used to quantify the increase, and the example chosen been quoted.
How to approach part (c)
This question requires you to identify the reaction occurring in the silver half-cell. As you will see
from Table 4.13, silver has a more positive standard electrode potential value and is less reactive (and
less likely to form ions) than copper. This means that in the silver half-cell, the silver ions will be
gaining electrons in a reduction reaction. This is represented as
Ag+(aq) + e → Ag(s)
Sample answer
(c) Silver has a more positive standard electrode potential (0.80 V) than copper (0.34V) ✓ so silver is
reduced and copper is oxidised ✓.
➥

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 4 Practical skills

The electrochemical series is used to recognise that silver has a more positive value for the reaction
involving the loss of electrons. This shows an understanding of the use of the electrochemical series
as a measure of how likely a species is to lose electrons. The statement that silver is more likely to
gain electrons and be reduced is awarded the mark.
The electrode potential for the cell is calculated as follows:
Ecell = ERHS − ELHS ✓
The correct equation is identified and the mark awarded.
where ERHS is the value for silver, as this is the more positive and silver is being reduced. Under standard
conditions this would be:
Ecell = 0.80 − (−0.34) ✓
= 1.14 V
The sign of the electrode potential for copper is reversed because copper is oxidised, gaining the mark.
If the ERHS value becomes more positive, as the concentration of silver ions increases, the overall cell
potential will become more positive; for the concentrations given, the value is less than the standard
value. ✓

The answer recognises that increasing the value of ERHS — the value from which you are subtracting
the value of ELHS — is going to make the cell potential more positive.

Take it further
The of University of York’s chemistry department website has an interesting
project page that includes information on different practical activities, such
as clock reactions and the purity of aspirin.

You should know

› The key practicals that will be assessed by your particular exam board, including how to
draw any diagrams associated with those practicals.
› How to process data, including how to select the information to use and the appropriate
number of significant figures to quote.
› The difference between the limitations of the equipment (and how to quantify and
compare errors) and the experimental technique.

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 5 Revision skills

Learning objectives
› To identify different methods of revising and understand
where each can be applied effectively.
› To utilise the resources available to refine exam technique.
› To learn how to schedule revision.
› To help you prepare for assessment, including the final
examinations.

Study skills
It is vitally important that the hard work of the previous years is not
wasted through a failure to prepare adequately for the final assessment.
Revision is usually associated with preparing for exams; these will
be concentrated at the end of the 2-year course. However, revision
should not be left until this point. During your course, you will have
tests (often as you complete a topic) and interim exams, so that you
have some means of measuring your progress.
Learn as you go
As you progress through the course, there will be things you need
to commit to memory. These include definitions and equations. How
you do this is a matter of choice, but for the majority of people it
takes time and repetition.

Activity
Take a topic from the specification — for example, atomic structure — and go
through the specification identifying the definitions you need to learn. Produce
a key card for each definition (blank white postcards are good for this) — write
the term you are defining on one side and the definition on the other. Keep the
pack of definition cards for each topic separate (you could key code them with the
specification reference) and learn them.
For example:
OCR 2.1.1.c
Relative atomic mass The weighted mean mass of an atom of an element compared with
1/12 of the mass of an atom of carbon-12

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 5 Revision skills

Summarising information
In addition to memorising key facts, it is also useful to produce
Activity
your own summaries of information. These can be simple flow Produce a simple flow
diagrams — for example, to describe the key points about mass diagram to show the stages
spectrometry — or they can be more complex summaries of in time-of-flight mass
different types of mechanism or synthetic pathways. spectrometry.
Synthetic pathways
Where you have to learn reaction sequences, create posters as you
go. On a large sheet of paper (e.g. A3) list the functional groups
from the specification. Can you convert one to another? If so, add
in reagents and conditions (use a different colour for each). Add the
formulae for the products formed.
Start this when you first begin organic chemistry and add to it as
you progress through the course. Use these posters for reference
when answering questions or devising reaction sequences. They can
also be used as a revision aid, where you cover sections and try to
recall what is obscured. Practise writing out the mechanisms, and
look for similarities and differences.

Activity
Develop the example in Figure 5.1 by adding other organic chemicals or different members of the
homologous series.
1 Alkene

Hydration (addition of water) React with hydrogen halide or

in presence of a phosphoric bubble through an aqueous
acid Hydrogen and nickel catalyst at 150°C solution of the halogen

3 Alcohol 2 Alkane 4 Haloalkane

Halogen in the presence of UV light
Figure 5.1

Another way of learning reactions is to make a set of cards. Put the

starting material on one card, what it will react with on another
(you could also include reaction conditions or these could go on a
different card) and the product on another card. If you use a table
template the cards will be of a similar size, so can be cut out and
matched up (plus you will have the template for reference to check
your answers against). Table 5.1 shows an example.

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 Application to the exam

Table 5.1
Starting compound Reagents Conditions Product
Benzene HNO3(l) 50°C + conc. sulfuric acid Nitrobenzene
catalyst NO2

Acid anhydride Alcohol Ester + carboxylic acid

E.g. ethanoic anhydride Ethanol Ethyl ethanoate
(CH3CO)2O CH3CH2OH (CH3COOCH2CH3) + ethanoic
acid (CH3COOH)

Application to the exam

Practice questions
Ultimately you will be tested on what you know through a series of
questions. The more familiar you are with how your exam board asks
the questions, the better you will do.
Multiple-choice questions
Multiple-choice questions feature in many of the specifications on at
least one of the papers. They can easily take up more time than they
should and so getting plenty of practice at answering these types of
question and refining your technique is important. Multiple-choice
questions are designed so that the most common wrong answers
are included in the selection from which you can choose; these can
include misconceptions and the most easily made mistakes. You
might like to try to predict what these would be too.
When answering multiple-choice questions, try to work out the
answer before you look at the responses; then look to see if it is
there. That way you are less likely to pick a common error response.
There are different types of multiple-choice question, as the
following worked examples show.

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 5 Revision skills

Worked example 5.1

Where there is only one correct answer
If 100 g of each of the following compounds is dissolved in water, which of the solutions will
have the highest pH value?
A NaOH
B Ca(OH)2
C Mg(OH)2
D CaCO3
In this question, there are a number of distractors. The first thing to consider is that the group 2
hydroxides will give twice as many hydroxide ions per mole of compound than the group 1
hydroxides.
It is tempting to think that because Mg(OH)2 has a lower relative formula mass than Ca(OH)2, then
this will give a greater number of hydroxide ions (for the same mass), so the answer would be C;
however, Mg(OH)2 is less soluble than Ca(OH)2, so the correct answer is B.

Worked example 5.2

Where the answer is based on which responses may be correct
As a result of the delocalisation of electrons:
(i) benzene undergoes addition rather than substitution reactions
(ii) propanoic acid is a stronger acid than propanol
(iii) phenylamine is a stronger base than ethylamine
(iv) ethylamine is a stronger base than ammonia
Select the correct answer from the responses below:
A (i), (ii) and (iii)
B (i) and (iii)
C (ii) and (iv)
D (iv) only
The best way of tackling these questions is to identify which statements are true, and then to look at
the combinations offered.
(i) False — benzene undergoes substitution reactions not addition ones.
(ii) True — propanol forms a neutral solution in water.
(iii) False — ethylamine is a stronger base than phenylamine.
(iv) True — ethylamine is a stronger base than ammonia due to the inductive effect of the atoms
attached to the nitrogen, which accepts the proton.
Having identified that (ii) and (iv) are correct, you can now see that the correct answer is C.
An A-grade student will anticipate and avoid, or at least recognise, the common wrong answers.

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 Application to the exam

Common pitfall
It is easy to spend too long on multiple-choice questions.
A very rough rule of thumb is a mark per minute, and it is a
good idea to leave the multiple-choice questions to the end.
If there are 20 questions, allow 25 minutes at the end of the
exam. Work through those you are able to do first and leave
any you find tricky to the end. Come back to these after you
have completed the rest and have another go. If all else fails,
make an educated guess.

Planning answers
There are different ways to practise answering questions:
➜ You can answer them under timed conditions, without reference
to your notes.
➜ You can do as much as you can without reference to your notes,
then look up any areas you are unsure of.
➜ You can plan an answer by making bullet point lists of the key
parts and then, checking these, write the answer in the time
allowed.
➜ You can pick out the parts you need to practise and just tackle
those.
➜ Or, most likely, you can do a combination of the above.
It is useful in exams to list the key points of longer, unstructured
questions because this enables you to write a logical and sequential
response.
One possible way of planning your question practice is to tabulate
all the different papers and then tick them off as you complete
them; perhaps also recording your score as you go. An alternative
method would be to list the different topics and then to record the
scores you achieve in any assessed work you do on each topic. You
should convert any marks to a percentage for easier comparison.
Either way, you are tracking where you need to improve.
Getting organised
Whether this is for the A-levels themselves or for interim tests and
exams, it is important to know what you will be tested on, what will
be on each paper, the format of the paper and the length of the exam.
As an A-grade student, you will understand the need to act on the
feedback you get throughout the course and to be aware of your
strengths and areas for improvement. You need to use the feedback
from every piece of work as a diagnostic tool to help you direct your
efforts most effectively.
To plan your revision, use a calendar that gives you a clear view of
how much time you have between now and the exams. Add in the
dates of your chemistry exams and any other exams you will be
sitting. Now block off any times when you have commitments that
mean you are not able to revise (it is important to have some time
for relaxation too). Table 5.2 gives an example.

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 5 Revision skills

Table 5.2 Sample revision timetable

Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday Sunday
1 2 3 4 5
Biol am Biol am Biol paper 1 Maths am Chem am
am
Chem pm Maths pm Chem pm Maths pm
Chem pm

6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Maths paper Chem am Chem Paper Maths am Maths paper Chem am Chem am
1 am 1 am 2 am
Maths pm Chem pm Cinema pm Maths pm
Biol pm Play squash Biol pm

Biol pm
13 14 15 16 17 18 19
Biol am Chem paper Biol am Biol am Biol paper 2 Shopping Fathers’ day —
2 am am lunch out
Chem pm Maths pm Maths pm Chem pm
Maths pm Maths paper Biol pm
3 pm

20 21 22 23 24 25 26
Biol am Biol paper 3 Chem am Chem am Chem paper
am 3 am
Chem pm Play squash Chem pm
Chem pm Last exam!

Celebrate!!
27 28 29 30

Once you have allocated which subjects to cover on each day, you
then need to break this further into topics. For example, for the
week commencing 20 June, supposing paper 3 is the one in which
your exam board assesses practical skills. For this you could produce
a weekly plan like the one in Table 5.3.
Table 5.3 A weekly revision plan
Monday 20 pm Revisit essential practical techniques
Tuesday 21 pm Go over calculations associated with practicals, including
error determination, titration, calorimetry
Wednesday 22 Revise the reagents and results of qualitative tests
Thursday 23 Revisit any of the above — as necessary

Knowing when your exams are will give you an idea of when you
need to cover each topic by.
Some students find it helpful to save a set of papers to do in their
entirety under exam conditions, like another mock. Others prefer to
focus on a particular topic and do as many questions on that topic
as they can. Ideally, you will do both. What is vital, though, is that
you do as many questions as you can and that each time you review
your performance.

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 Application to the exam

Last-minute preparation
Do not be tempted into last-minute revision; this is likely to do
more harm than good, as it will make you feel anxious and you will
be less likely to do yourself justice. Check that you have what you
need in terms of equipment, and remember to use the data sheet.
In the exam
Before you get into the exam, spend a few minutes allocating your
time. If you have multiple-choice questions, work out how much
time you need to leave for these — when in the examination hall
jot down the timings on the front of your paper. You do not have to
start at the beginning of the paper, or do the questions in order, but
do check both sides of each page and make sure that you answer all
of the questions. If you are leaving one out to go back to, fold over
the page as a reminder.
Read all the way through a question before you answer it. This
has two benefits: it often shows how a topic develops through the
question, which can be helpful when you are planning your answer;
and it enables your subconscious to start recalling the information
you need.
When you have completed the paper, check your calculations and
that you have answered all parts of all of the questions, but do
not be tempted to make a lot of changes; your first answer is often
correct.

Take it further
A useful website with lots of suggestions on different ways to structure your
work, as well as information on the importance of practice, and guidance on
the step up to A-level, is: www.alevelmindset.com.

You should know

› That to get achieve the top grade, you need to start preparing from the first day of the
course and to establish the habits that have been highlighted in this chapter.
› The importance of adopting a diagnostic attitude, so that you track the grades you achieve
in each piece of work and you know your strengths and weaknesses in terms of knowledge
and skills.
› How to check each piece of work before handing it in, correcting any errors you spot, so
that this becomes second nature.
› To regularly review your work, making summaries of the information where appropriate.
› How to look for links and similarities, as well as differences, across topics.

Aiming for an A in A-level Chemistry 87

Exam board focus
Learning objectives
› To find information about the qualification you are
taking, including how you will be examined and where to
find resources such as assessment materials.
› To have an understanding of the exam structure,
including what is on each exam paper in terms of both
content and question structure.
› To understand what percentage of the overall A-level
each exam comprises.

The course you are following and the awarding body are likely to
have been chosen for you by your school.

Activity
Use the exam board website for the qualification you are taking to find out the key information
mentioned above. (You will probably need to refer to the specification.)
Copy and complete Table 6.1.
Table 6.1
Exam board and specification reference number

Number of papers

For each paper:

What content is tested?
How long is the paper?
What type of questions are there?
How many marks is the paper worth?
What percentage of the overall A-level does it
account for?

How many assessment objectives are there and

what are they?

How is practical work assessed?

88 Aiming for an A in A-level Chemistry

 The different specifications

What you need for an A

The difference between...
Many students lose marks because they do not know or remember the work covered in the first year
of their course, as well as the more recent A2 work.
A B-grade student An A-grade student
• Has notes that are clearly labelled, but where • Has notes organised into sections that reflect the topic areas
topics may be interspersed of the specification
• Highlights key definitions in their notes and learns • Has definition cards that complement the topics of the
these for exams specification and knows these definitions
• Revisits topics in preparation for tests and exams • Regularly revisits topics that have been covered previously
• Knows which topics they find the hardest • Focuses more effort on the topics they find hardest

Grade boundaries are set by the awarding bodies, using statistical

methods and a comparison with previous cohorts, as well as the Activity
predictions of achievements for the current cohort.
Go to the website for your
To prepare fully for the requirements of your own exam board, use exam board and look at
past papers alongside the mark schemes and the examiners’ reports. what material is available.
Exam boards produce a lot of materials to support the teaching How many past papers or
of their specification, and apart from the most recent exams and assessment materials are
assessment materials, most of these are readily available on the there? What other resource
website. do you think you might find
helpful? How could you use
The different specifications the materials here?
Spotlight on AQA
AQA offers AS and A2 as separate, stand-alone qualifications.
Students choosing to do A2 sit three separate 2-hour papers at
the end of Year 13. There is a separate practical endorsement and
practical questions are incorporated into all three papers.
Spotlight on CCEA
CCEA still includes a practical examination and it also still credits
the AS component towards the A2 qualification. So students must
take six written exams for the full A-level qualification, whereas
with the other boards, now that the AS and A-level qualifications
are decoupled, students can take a minimum of three written
papers.
Spotlight on Edexcel
Edexcel offers AS and A2 as separate, stand-alone qualifications.
Students choosing to do A2 sit three separate papers, two of which
are 1 hour 45 minutes, with the third being 2 hours 30 minutes. The
practical endorsement is separate from the examinations.
Spotlight on OCR
OCR offers two different specifications — OCR A and OCR B. The
OCR B specification is concept led rather than content led. What
this means is that chemistry is taught through a series of different
storylines or scenarios, where the chemistry is placed in context.

Aiming for an A in A-level Chemistry 89

 EXAM BOARD FOCUS

This places a greater emphasis on problem solving and investigative

practical work, and ideas are introduced in a spiral manner, so that a Activity
topic is introduced in Y12 and then revisited in Y13.
Go to your exam board’s
Spotlight on WJEC website and find the SAMs
The WJEC qualification, which is not available in England, includes a (specimen assessment
practical examination and it still credits the AS component towards materials) available; download
the A2 qualification. There are five units in total, one of which is these and work through them
the practical examination, which is taken in the final year of the to familiarise yourself with
course. what the examiners expect
for the higher grades. What
The Eduqas qualification from WJEC is available for use in England general principles can you
and mirrors the format of the other exam boards in terms of the learn? Try to apply these to
practical endorsement and the decoupling of the AS and A2 exams. your own answers.

Activity
Download a copy of one of the papers. Now go through and look at the structure of the questions —
not just whether they are broken down into shorter sections or longer answers, but also the skills
they are assessing. See if you can identify the questions that just involve the recall of information,
those that assess maths skills, those based on the practicals and the ones that require you to apply
your knowledge. Highlight the different sorts of questions using different colours.
Then look carefully again at where the questions give you guidance, this might be in the number of
significant figures required in an answer, or it might be ‘with reference to a table’, or similar. Next
to each question add the topics that are covered.
You should now have a much better idea of how papers are compiled, in terms of content and
coverage of the assessment objectives.

You should know

› The topics covered on each paper, the style of the questions and how the exam board
awards marks.
› What is on the website for your board, by checking this regularly to take advantage of any
new material that has been added.
› That in order to achieve the highest marks and hence the top grade, you should be very
familiar with your exam board’s assessment structure.

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Quantitative skills
answers
Here you will find answers for the activities in chapter 1 (Quantitative
skills). Answers are not included for all of the activities suggested.
For example, those that involve researching information could vary
depending on which exam board you are following, and so are not
exemplified.

Pages 10–11, Table 1.1

Units
(a) H2(g) + I2(g)  2HI(g) No units
(b) N2(g) + 3H2(g)  2NH3(g) Units mol−2 dm6
Decimal places
pH = −log10[H+]
= −log10 0.136
= 0.86646
= 0.87
Standard form
(a) 4.5 × 10 −4
(b) 3.75 × 105
Ratios, fractions and percentages
2.00
(a) Moles of 2-hydroxybenzoic acid =
(7 × 12.0) + (6 × 1.0) + (3 × 16.0)
Multiply the result by (9 × 12.0) + (8 × 1.0) + (4 × 16.0).
Answer: 2.61 g
(b) 66.7% of 2.61 = 1.74 g
(c) If 51.6 g is oxygen and 9.1 g is hydrogen, then 100 − (51.6 + 9.1)
= 39.3 g is carbon.
Dividing the mass of each element by its relative atomic mass
gives:
51.6/16.0 9.1/1.0 39.3/12.0
3.225 9.1 3.275
Dividing the numbers by the smallest value gives:
1 2.82 1.02
Rounding these gives:
1 3 1
So the empirical formula is CH3O.
Estimating
If the concentration of the alkali is the same, you would expect
titres of around 50 cm3, because each mole of acid requires
2 moles of alkali for neutralisation. If the concentrations are the
same then the volume of the alkali will be double that of the
acid.

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 QUANTITATIVE SKILLS ANSWERS

Means
Titration 1 2 3 4 Mean
Titre/cm3 22.00 22.35* 22.20 22.45* 22.40

*Concordant titres are used to find the mean.

Uncertainty
1
× 100 = 4.35%
23
Equations
[H+]2
Ka =
[HA]
So:
[H+] = √Ka[HA]
= √1.6 × 10 −4 × 0.01
= 1.265 × 10 −3
pH = −log10 1.265 × 10 −3
pH = 2.90
Logarithms
(a) −0.602
(b) −1.39
(c) x = 100.32 = 2.09
Graphs
The graph represents a second-order reaction.
Geometry and trigonometry
H

C
H
H
H

Page 14, Activity

(a) 376 000 Pa
(b) 42.0 g
(c) 0.00732 mol
(d) 5760 J
Page 15, Table 1.2

Symbol Meaning
⇌ A reaction that is reversible because it can proceed in both
directions
≥ Greater than or equal to
≈ Approximately equal to
< Less than
∼ Approximately
∝ Proportional to

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 Quantitative skills answers

Page 15, Activity

(a) To get V on its own on the left-hand side of the equation, we
divide both sides by p:
nRT
V= p
(b) To make c the subject of the equation, multiply both sides by c2,
giving:
Kcc2 = ab
Divide each side by Kc, giving:
ab
c2 =
Kc
Take the square root of each side, giving:
√ab
c=
Kc
(c) To get Mr, multiply both sides by Mr, giving:
n × Mr = m
Then divide both sides by n, giving:
m
Mr = n
(d) To get T, first add T∆S to each side, giving:
∆G + T∆S = ∆H
Then subtract ∆G from each side, so:
T∆S = ∆H – ∆G
Then divide each side by ∆S, giving:
∆H – ∆G
T=
∆S
Page 15, Activity
Rate constant, k:
rate = k[A][B]
where the rate is first order with respect to both A and B, and
where the only thing being changed is the concentration of the
reactants.
Equilibrium constant:
For a given reaction aA + bB ⇌ cC + dD:
[C]c[D]d
Kc =
[A]a[B]b
Equilibrium constant for a homogeneous reaction involving
gases:
For the reaction aA(g) + bB(g) ⇌ cC(g) + dD(g):
p(C)cp(D)d
Kp =
p(A)ap(B)b
where p is equal to the partial pressure of the gas, calculated
from the mole fraction and the total pressure.

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 QUANTITATIVE SKILLS ANSWERS

Acid dissociation constant, Ka:

For a weak acid, HA (which is not fully dissociated in solution):
[H+][A−]
Ka =
[HA]
This is sometimes adapted for indicators, in which case the ‘a’ is
replaced by ‘ind’:
[H+][Ind−]
Kind =
[HInd]
Page 18, Activity
(a) In this graph the variable plotted on the y-axis is proportional
to that on the x-axis. This can be written as y ∝ x, which can
also be written as y = mx + c where m is the gradient of the line
and c is the intercept on the y-axis. This graph could represent a
reaction that is first order with respect to a particular reagent.
(b)   This graph shows that the variable plotted on the y-axis is
proportional to the variable on the x-axis raised to a power of
more than 1. This can be expressed as y ∝ xn, where n > 1. The
graph could represent a reaction that is second order with
­respect to a reagent. (Curves are typically obtained when
­showing the change in solubility with temperature.)
(c)   The variable plotted on the y-axis is independent of that plotted
on the x-axis. This can be written as y ∝ x0, which means that y
is constant and that for any given value of x, y stays the same.
This type of graph is seen if a rate is zero order with respect to
a given reagent, because changing the concentration of that
reagent will not change the rate of the reaction.
Page 20, Activity
CH3 CH3

C C
HO COOH HOOC OH
H H

mirror

Page 21, Table 1.3

No. of No. of Shape Bond angle/° Example
bond pairs lone pairs
2 0 Linear 180 BeCl2
3 0 Trigonal planar 120 BF3
3 1 Pyramidal 107 NH3
4 0 Tetrahedral 109.5 CH4
2 2 Angular (bent) 104.5 H2O
5 0 Trigonal bipyramidal 90 and 120 PF5

6 0 Octahedral 90 SF6
4 2 Square planar 90 XeF4

Other examples may be given.

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 Notes

Notes

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 QUANTITATIVE SKILLS ANSWERS

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