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Contents
How to use this book ........................................................................................................... iv
Physics ................................................................................................................................... vi
Topic 1 General physics ............................................................................................. 1
Topic 2 Mechanics ........................................................................................................ 31

Chemistry .............................................................................................................................. 100

Topic 1 Introduction to chemistry ........................................................................ 101
Topic 2 The particulate nature of matter ............................................................ 109
Topic 3 Experimental techniques ........................................................................... 125
Topic 4 Atoms, elements, compounds and molecules ................................... 149

Study and exam skills.......................................................................................................... 181

Glossary ...................................................................................................................................... 183
How to use this book
Welcome to the Progress in Science series for Grades 8–12!
This series is based on the Junior/Senior Secondary Syllabus for Science issued by the
Ministry of Education. All the knowledge, skills and values expressed in the
document are address in Progress in Science Grade 10 Pupil’s Book, so that you can
feel confident about your success in this subject.
This page will help you understand how the book works.
The book is divided into topics so that you can easily see what content will be
covered in your Science class.
On the first page of every topic, you will find:
TOPIC

2 Physics: Mechanics

Sub-topic Specific Outcomes

A box that shows you which Sub-topics

Linear motion t
Describe the terms used in mechanics.
t
Interpret graphical representations of distance-time, displacement-
time, speed-time, velocity-time and acceleration-time.
t
Demonstrate the use of equations of uniformly accelerated motion

and Specific Outcomes will be covered

to solve problems.
t
Investigate the consequences of over-speeding.
t
Describe the acceleration of free fall for a body near the earth.
t
Describe qualitatively the motion of bodies falling in a uniform

during the topic.

gravitational field with and without air resistance.

Forces t
Explain what force is.

t
Explain the effect of forces on bodies.
t
Describe the inertia law.
t
Demonstrate the relationship between force and acceleration.
t
Demonstrate the relationship between mass and acceleration.
t
Perform calculations on force.
t
Demonstrate the effect of force on a spring.
t
Demonstrate the effects of friction on the motion of a body.
t
Describe the motion in a circular path due to a perpendicular force.

Starter activity 1
Answer the following questions in pairs.
1. Identify the information
that a truck driver needs
in order to calculate how
long it will take to travel
between two towns.
2. Suggest factors that the
traffic authorities should
consider when they
decide what the speed
limit on a road in a town
should be.
3. What makes the earth
travel in a curved path
around the sun?

Topic 2 Physics: Mechanics 31

At the end of each topic, you will find the following:

TOPIC

1 Summary, revision and assessment

A topic Summary
Summary, revision and assessment continued

summary that t
Chemistry is the study of the particles that make up matter and the changes
that the particles can undergo. It is also the study of the structure and
properties of matter.
Assessment Assessment
will help you to
t
There are five main branches of chemistry: 1. Write a short paragraph that describes the three important aspects of a
» Analytical chemistry
» Physical chemistry
» Organic chemistry
chemist’s work.
2. Organic and inorganic chemistry:
a) Explain the difference between these two branches of chemistry.
[6]

(2)
exercises that
quickly revise » Inorganic chemistry
» Biochemistry.
b) Give an example of a substance that would be studied in each of the
two branches. (1) [3]
helps you
t
Chemistry is an area of knowledge that has important applications in 3. Name, with reasons, three branches of chemistry that would help us to decide

key learning agriculture, industry and in the home, but also in other fields.
t
We can appreciate (value and understand) the role of chemistry in industrial
activities, but need to understand that these activities sometimes have
how to purify water.
4. Write a short paragraph that contains five facts about the importance of
chemistry in agriculture.
[6]

[5] prepare for

points from the
disadvantages for humans and the environment. 5. Choose one of the following research topics:
t
Much of a chemist’s work is done in the laboratory.
t
There are safety rules that apply to everyone in a laboratory.
A The effect of plastic pollution in Zambia.
B The impact of mining pollution in Zambia.
C Recycling waste products can reduce the levels of pollution in the country.
tests and
topic. Revision
1. Copy the paragraph below and fill in the missing words: Step 1: Conduct research (at the library, on the internet or by talking to
exams.
Chemistry is the study of the particles that make up _______ and the people in your community) on your topic.
_______ that the ______ can undergo. By studying chemistry, we discover Step 2: Write a one-page report on your findings.
what the particles themselves are made of, and also how they _______. Step 3: Provide a list of references (books, websites or the names of the

Revision
(4)
people who you spoke to) on the second page of your report. [15]
2. Match the branch of chemistry in column A with its description in column B:
TOTAL MARKS: 35
1) Analytical A The study of compounds that contain the
chemistry element carbon.

questions that 2) Physical

chemistry
B The study of the chemical compounds
and energy changes in biological
systems.

help you to 3) Organic

chemistry
4) Inorganic
C The study of compounds that do not
contain the element carbon.
D The study and measurement of

revise the topic’s

chemistry chemicals that are present in a sample.
5) Biochemistry E The study of the physical characteristics
of materials. (5)
3. Name three uses of plastics in the home. (3)

work and to 4. Name any three safety rules in the laboratory. (3)
[15]

check your Topic 1 Summary, revision and assessment 107

understanding. 108 Topic 1 Summary, revision and assessment

You will see the following throughout the book: TOPIC

1
Chemistry: Introduction
to Chemistry

Sub-topic Specific Outcomes

Introduction to t
Describe chemistry.

Chemistry t
Classify the branches of chemistry.
t
Explain the importance of chemistry.
t
Describe the challenges of chemical industrial activities.
t
Demonstrate an appreciation of safety in the laboratory.

Starter activity: This prepares Starter activity

Answer these questions in pairs.

you for the topic you are about 1. Why do some substances burn easily and others do not?
2. Where do the medicines that we use come from?

to start.

3. Think about how a house is built

from bricks and cement.
a) Describe how to change
powdered cement into mortar
that holds the bricks together.
b) What is the main difference
between the powdered cement in
the bag and the mortar once it
has set?

4. Explain how you would purify river water so that it is safe to drink.

TOPIC 2 Topic 1 Chemistry: Introduction to Chemistry 101

Air resistance reduces the acceleration of a falling body: For its

weight, a piece of paper has a larger surface area than a coin. Air
opposes the motion of the paper and the acceleration is less than g.

Acceleration of free fall is constant

We call the region or space where a body
New words New words boxes: These give you the definitions
experiences a force because of its mass, a air resistance: when air
gravitational field. From the earth’s surface up
to a few thousand metres, the earth’s
opposes the motion of an
object moving through it
gravitational field: the region or
of key words or explain what a certain new word
gravitational field changes very little. As a result, space where a body
we consider a body’s acceleration due to gravity
near the earth’s surface to be constant. This is
true, provided we can ignore the effects of air
experiences a force because of
its mass
terminal velocity: the maximum
means. These words and the definitions are also
velocity of a body falling in air

in the Glossary at the back of the book.

resistance.

Terminal velocity Did you know?

If there is no air resistance, acceleration due to Terminal velocities:
gravity is constant. However, as the velocity of a average-sized raindrop: 10 m/s
falling body increases, so does the air resistance (36 km/h)
that opposes its motion. If the body falls fast skydiver with parachute closed,
arms and legs extended: 56 m/s

Did you know? boxes: These give you more and

enough, the upward force of air friction
(200 km/h)
balances the downward weight of the body and
its acceleration becomes zero. The body
continues to fall, but it does so at constant velocity. The maximum velocity of a
body falling in air is its terminal velocity.
The skydivers below are falling at terminal velocity of approximately 200 km/h.
new knowledge about what you are learning.
If they hit the ground at that speed they will be killed. So they have parachutes
which have a large area for air resistance to act on and the terminal velocity when
they land is much slower.

Figure 26 The skydivers are falling at Figure 27 A parachute provides a low

their terminal velocity. terminal velocity.

Sub-topic 1 Linear motion 51

Activity: These are tasks where you apply Activity 14

In this experiment, you will investigate force and acceleration.

the knowledge and skills you have learnt Carry out this experiment in groups or as a class.
Experiment

in that section. Note: We use the term

Materials Aim
You will need: Demonstrate the relationship between force and
a dynamics trolley acceleration.

“activity” to refer to both written work a ticker timer

ticker tape
3 × elastic bands or a
Procedure
1. Discuss the safe and correct handling of the
1 N spring balance apparatus.
and practical activities. a metre stick 2. Set up the ticker timer and attach the tape to
the trolley.
3. Use a single elastic band or the spring
balance to accelerate the trolley 1 elastic
from rest. Switch on the timer the
m F
moment that the trolley is let go,
and keep the force constant during
the run. If you are using a spring 2 elastics
balance, read the force on the scale.

Experiments: These practical activities 4. Cut the tape into 10-space m 2F

lengths. Each length represents
the average velocity for that Figure 36 Use elastic bands to apply forces
F F F
give step-by-step instructions for doing
time interval. of , 2 and 3 to accelerate a trolley.
5. Paste the lengths of tape next to each other to make a velocity-time graph.
(v – u)
The gradient of the graph represents the acceleration of the trolley, a = ______
t .
6. Repeat the procedure to obtain results for twice the force and three times

experiments and also indicate what the the force. If you are using elastics, first use two and then use three elastics.
Stretch the elastics the same amount each time. If you are using a spring
balance, multiply the reading in Step 3.

aim of the experiment is. Results

Compare the gradients of the three graphs.
Tip
Record your results in a table.
Extend the elastic band very
Conclusion slightly. Otherwise the
Draw a conclusion about the mathematical acceleration with three bands
relationship between force and acceleration. will be too great.

Presentation of group work

As a group, draw up a report of this experiment to present to the rest of the class.
Compare your conclusion with conclusions of other groups in the class.

58 Topic 2 Physics: Mechanics

Physics

Detailed contents
Topic 1 General physics 1
Sub-topic 1 International system of units................................................................... 2
Sub-topic 2 Length and time............................................................................................ 7
Sub-topic 3 Mass and weight ........................................................................................... 15
Sub-topic 4 Density .............................................................................................................. 20
Summary ............................................................................................................................. 28
Revision ............................................................................................................................. 29
Assessment ............................................................................................................................. 30
Topic 2 Mechanics 31
Sub-topic 1 Linear momentum ....................................................................................... 33
Sub-topic 2 Forces ................................................................................................................. 55
Sub-topic 3 Moment of forces.......................................................................................... 68
Sub-topic 4 Work, energy and power............................................................................ 73
Sub-topic 5 Simple machines ........................................................................................... 87
Summary ............................................................................................................................. 96
Revision ............................................................................................................................. 98
Assessment ............................................................................................................................. 99

What is physics?
Physics is the study of matter and energy. It is all about understanding the world
around us and the way it works. Look at the photos and think about how the hot
air balloons stay up in the air, or what forces created the mountain range, or how
a bolt of lightning is created. In studying physics, we become more conscious of
the physical world around us.

vi
TOPIC

1
Physics: General
Physics

Sub-topic Specific Outcomes

International system of • Distinguish between basic and derived quantities.

units • Identify basic units and derived units.
• Recognise prefixes, multiples and sub-multiples of
fundamental and derived units.
• Use scientific notation and significant figures in
numerical problems.

Length and time • Demonstrate the use of various measuring

instruments to determine length.
• Demonstrate the use of clocks and devices for
measuring an interval of time.
• Identify factors that affect the period of a simple
pendulum.

Mass and weight • Distinguish between mass and weight.

• Demonstrate how to measure mass and weight.
• Demonstrate how to locate the centre of mass of an
object.
• Describe qualitatively the effect of the position of
the centre of mass on the stability of an object.

Density • Determine the density of floating objects.

• Determine the density of a mixture of liquids.
• Describe what relative density is.
• Calculate the relative density of air.

Starter activity
Answer the following questions in pairs:
1. Which instrument would you use to measure the length and width of your
Science book?
2. Name an instrument to measure length that would not be appropriate to
use for this task.
3. Which instrument would you use to measure the mass of a pencil
accurately: a kitchen scale, a bathroom scale or a science laboratory scale?
4. Discuss why a wooden stick floats in water but a stone sinks.

Topic 1 Physics: General Physics 1

SUB-TOPIC 1 International system of units

Units of measurement
In physics experiments, we take accurate measurements to measure physical
quantities such as length and time. A physical quantity is a measurable feature or
property of an object such as its length.
Did you know?
In the past, a number of different units were
used to measure the same quantity. To avoid These units are named SI units
from the French “Le Système
confusion, scientists now use one set of units –
International d’Unités”.
the SI units.

Base units New words

Scientists chose a set of base quantities that
physical quantity: a measurable
they could use to describe other quantities. By feature or property of an object
international agreement, they then defined the base quantities: the set of
size of the base unit of measurement of each basic physical quantities that
quantity. can be used to describe other
quantities
base unit of measurement:
In the case of length, the base unit of
the unit of measurement of a
measurement is the metre. So, wherever we are base quantity that was defined
in the world, a length of one metre is the same. by international agreement

The seven base units of measurement

Unit Symbol Physical quantity Figure 1 A
standard candle
metre m length
emits about 1
candela of
kilogram kg mass
luminous
second s time intensity. The
candela is one of
kelvin K thermodynamic the base units of
temperature measurements.
Figure 2 An
mole mol amount of ammeter
substance measures
electric current
ampere A electric current in amperes.
The ampere is
candela cd luminous intensity
also one of the
base units of
measurement.

2 Topic 1 Physics: General Physics

 TOPIC 1
Activity 1 Base units of measurement
Answer the following questions on your own:
1. Refer to the table on the previous page and write down a list of the base
quantities and their SI units that you have used before in your Science classes.
2. Identify some practical examples of situations where you have used the base
units you listed in question 1.
3. List units for length, other than the metre, that are commonly used. How are
these units related to the base unit for length?

Derived units
A derived unit of measurement is one which we
New words
obtain by multiplying or dividing two or more
base units. This allows us to measure quantities derived unit: a unit obtained by
that are not base quantities. For example, speed is multiplying or dividing two or
measured in metres per second, which can be more base units
written as m/s. See the table below.

Some quantities that are measured in derived units

Quantity Derived unit Special name
and symbol
Area square metre m2 –
3
Volume cubic metre m –
Velocity metre per second m/s –
Acceleration metre per second squared m/s2 –
Density kilogram per cubic metre kg/m3 –
2
Force kilogram metre per second squared kg∙m/s newton (N)
2
Pressure kilogram per metre per second squared kg/(m/s ) pascal (Pa)
2 2
Energy kilogram metre squared per second squared kg∙m /s joule (J)
Power kilogram metre squared per second cubed kg∙m2/s3 watt (W)

Some derived units have been given names: the newton, pascal, joule and watt are
named after famous scientists. When we write the name of a unit of measurement, we
do not write it with a capital letter. However, we do write a symbol that is named after
a person with a capital letter. For example, the symbol for the unit newton is N.

Activity 2 Derived units

Answer the following questions in pairs:
1. Explain what is meant by the term derived unit.
2. Write down the derived units for:
a) area b) the newton c) the watt d) the joule

Sub-topic 1 International system of units 3

Multiples and sub-multiples of units
Multiples and sub-multiples of units often make them easier to use. For example, a
kilometre is a thousand metres and a millimetre is a thousandth of a metre. See
the table below for the accepted prefixes and symbols.

Multiples and submultiples of units

Prefix Symbol Number Multiple Power of ten
giga- G billion 1,000,000,000 109
mega- M million 1,000,000 106
kilo- k thousand 1,000 103
1 100
deci- d tenth 0.1 10–1
centi- c hundredth 0.01 10–2
milli- m thousandth 0.001 10–3
micro- μ millionth 0.000 001 10–6
nano- n billionth 0.000 000 001 10–9
pico- f trillionth 0.000 000 000 001 10–12

Scientific notation and significant figures

Scientific notation
It is easy to make a mistake when you write a number such as 0.0000205 or
5,360,000. Scientific notation overcomes this. It expresses a number as a product
of two numbers: N × 10n.
N is called the coefficient. n is called the exponent. It is an
It is a number that is equal integer (a positive or negative
to or greater than 1, but whole number) or zero. We say
smaller than 10. N × 10n 10 is raised to the power of n.
e.g. 3.15 × 103 = 3,150 New words
• N is called the coefficient. It is a number that is scientific notation: expresses
equal to or greater than 1, but smaller than 10. a number as a product of two
• n is called the exponent. It is an integer (a numbers: N × 10n
coefficient: a constant (a
positive or negative whole number) or zero.
number) that must be multiplied
We say 10 is raised to the power of n. with another quantity
exponent: the power to which
For example: another quantity is raised
2,000 = 2 × 10 × 10 × 10 = 2 × 103
Here, N = 2 and n = 3 because you have to Remember
multiply N by 10 three times to get 2,000. To find N, look for the first
0.04 = 4 ÷ 10 ÷ 10 = 4 × 10–2 non-zero digit in the number. If
Here, N = 4 and n = –2 because you have to there are more non-zero digits
after this, they go after the
divide N by 10 two times to get 0.04.
decimal point in N.
4 Topic 1 Physics: General Physics
 TOPIC 1
Instead of counting the number of times you Did you know?
multiply or divide by 10 to find n, count the A water molecule
number of places that you move the decimal has a length of O
point to put it to the right of the first digit of N. less than one H
H
nanometre, or a
If the original number is equal to or greater than billionth of a metre.
But, a human hair is about
1, then n will be a positive number.
100,000 nanometres wide.
If the original number is smaller than 1, then
n will be a negative number.

Worked example
Write the following numbers in scientific notation:
1. 5,360,000 2. 0.0000205

Answer
1. In 5,360,000, N = 5.36 and the decimal point moves 6 places to the left.
Therefore, 5,360,000 = 5.36 × 106
2. In 0.0000205, N = 2.05 and the decimal point moves 5 places to the right.
Therefore, 0.0000205 = 2.05 × 10–5

Significant figures
The number of digits in a measurement shows New words
how precise the measurement is. We call these
significant figures. significant figures: the digits in
A measurement of 5 mm is less precise than a a measurement that indicate
how precise it is
measurement of 5.13 mm. The measurement of
5 mm is precise to the nearest millimetre and we
can make such a measurement with an ordinary ruler.
But: a measurement of 5.13 mm is precise to two decimal places.
This means it is precise to the nearest hundredth of a millimetre.

To determine the number of significant figures

Remember
in a measurement, write it in scientific notation
and then to count the number of digits in N. The more significant figures
Example: 0.0032 m = 3.2 × 10–3 m there are, the more precise
the measurement.
Therefore the number of significant figures is
two, because N contains two digits.

Note
As a rule, the number of significant figures of the answer should be the same as the
smallest number of significant figures in the calculation. But, if one of the numbers in a
calculation is an exact number, ignore how many digits it has.

Sub-topic 1 International system of units 5

Calculations with numbers in scientific notation
Addition and subtraction without a calculator
Provided the numbers have the same exponent (which means that the numbers are to
the same power of ten), you can add or subtract the coefficients (N) of the numbers:
Examples: 2.5 × 103 + 1.3 × 103 = (2.5 + 1.3) × 103 = 3.8 × 103
2.5 × 103 – 1.3 × 103 = (2.5 – 1.3) × 103 = 1.2 × 103
If the numbers are not to the same power of ten, change them back to ordinary
numbers first and then add or subtract.
Example: 1.8 × 103 + 5.4 × 102 = 1,800 + 540 = 2,340

Multiplication and division without a calculator

To multiply two numbers multiply the coefficients (N) and add the exponents (n).
Example: (3 × 102) × (5 × 103) = (3 × 5) × (102 × 103) = (3 × 5) × 10(2 + 3) = 15 × 105 = 1.5 × 106
To divide two numbers, divide the coefficients and subtract the exponents (n).

Calculations with a scientific calculator

A calculator does all the work for you, but you must enter the numbers correctly.
Example: Enter 3.25 × 10–6 into a calculator as follows:
3 ∙ 2 5 EXP – or ± 6
Notice that you press the EXP key instead of entering 10. Press the – key only
if the exponent is negative.

Activity 3 Scientific notation and significant figures

Answer the following questions on your own:
1. Write the following numbers in scientific notation and state the number of
significant figures in each case.
a) 32,300 b) 400,000 c) 0.00042 d) 0.002763
2. Convert:
a) 20 cm to metres b) 0.5 m to millimetres
c) 2 mm to metre d) 3 km to metres.
3. Carry out the following calculations first without and then with a calculator:
a) (3 × 104) + (5 × 104) b) (2.1 × 104) + (9.5 × 103)
c) (8.6 × 103) – (5.7 × 103) d) (7.4 × 103) – (6.2 × 102)
e) (5 × 10 ) × (6 × 10 )
3 2
f) (2.2 × 102) × (3 × 10–2)
g) (7 × 10 ) ÷ (3.5 × 10 )
3 2
h) (7.5 × 102) ÷ (2.5 × 10–3)
4. Carry out the following calculations and give the answer to the correct
number of significant figures:
a) 3.14 mm + 21.30 mm + 43.1 mm b) 21.3 m × 42.5 m

6 Topic 1 Physics: General Physics

 TOPIC 1
SUB-TOPIC 2 Length and time

Measuring length
Before you make a measurement, first estimate what you think the reading should
be, then use a measuring instrument to confirm your estimate and record the
measured value.
The table below shows some instruments that are used to measure length, and
the degree to which these instruments are precise.

Instruments for measuring length and their precision

Length Example Instrument Degree of precision

micrometer screw
very short diameter of thin wire 0.01 mm
gauge
short diameter of coin vernier calipers 0.1 mm to 0.02 mm
medium length of pendulum metre rule 1 mm
long length of classroom tape measure 10 mm (1 cm)

Tape measure
A tape measure or measuring tape is a flexible form of a ruler. Its design allows it
to be carried in a pocket or toolkit and to measure over uneven surfaces and even
around corners.

Figure 3 A tape measure Figure 4 For accuracy, keep your eyes

perpendicular to the scale to avoid the
error of parallax.
Metre rule
The scale on a metre rule is divided
in millimetres and so it has an
accuracy of 1 mm. Use a metre rule
to measure in millimetres (mm) or
centimetres (cm), up to a metre.

Figure 5 One end of a metre rule

Sub-topic 2 Length and time 7

Vernier caliper

New words
vernier caliper: an instrument
that measures length and has a
vernier scale
vernier scale: a sliding scale
that enables accurate
measurements

Figure 6 A vernier caliper

The vernier caliper in Figure 6 can make measurements up to 150 mm (15 cm).
Place an object between the jaws to measure its outside diameter. Use the horns to
measure the inside diameter of an object such as a tube. Use the stem to measure
depths such as the depth of a hole drilled into a piece of steel.
The vernier caliper has two scales. The main scale is numbered in centimetres and the
smallest subdivision is 1 mm. It also has a sliding scale called a vernier scale. Each
number on the vernier scale represents 0.1 mm and the smallest subdivision is 0.02 mm.

Figure 7 Read the measurement on the scale.

How to read the measurement on a vernier caliper

Step 1 Write down the reading on the main scale in Figure 7 that is just to the
left of the zero on the sliding vernier scale. The reading is 24 mm. (The 2
on the scale represents 2 cm which is 20 mm.)
Step 2 Find the first graduation mark on the vernier scale that lines up exactly
with a mark on the main scale. It is the 0.30 mm mark.
Step 3 Add the readings from steps 1 and 2: 24 mm + 0.30 mm = 24.30 mm

8 Topic 1 Physics: General Physics

 TOPIC 1

Micrometer screw gauge

A micrometer screw gauge is more precise than
New words
a vernier caliper. The one in Figure 8 measures
up to 25 mm with an accuracy of 0.01 mm. We micrometer screw gauge: an
can use it to measure the thickness of wires, instrument that measures
rods, ball bearings and sheets of paper or metal. length, has a vernier scale and
is more precise than a vernier
Each time you turn the thimble through a full
caliper
revolution, the gap between the anvil and
the spindle changes by 0.5 mm. As a result,
the graduations on the sleeve are 0.5 mm apart.

How to read the measurement on a

micrometer screw gauge
Step 1 Place the object between the anvil and
the spindle.
Step 2 Use the ratchet to turn the thimble so it
holds the object between the anvil and
spindle. The mechanism of the ratchet
Figure 8 A micrometer screw
stops the spindle from exerting too
gauge
much pressure on the object.
Step 3 Tighten the lock so that the thimble
does not move while you take the reading.

Figure 9 Read the measurement on the scale.

Step 4 Write down the reading of the last line that is visible on the horizontal
scale that is marked in millimetres (the upper one in Figure 9). The
reading is 7 mm.
Step 5 Look to the right of the line in Step 4 on the scale that is below it. These
are the 0.5 mm divisions. If a line is clearly visible, add 0.5 mm. If not,
add zero. The reading is 0.5 mm.

Sub-topic 2 Length and time 9

Step 6 Read the scale on the thimble where it lines up with the horizontal line
on the sleeve. Each division on the thimble represents 0.01 mm, so the
reading is:
22 × 0.01 = 0.22 mm.
Step 7 Add up the readings: 7 mm + 0.5 mm + 0.22 mm = 7.72 mm

Zero reading
When you use a measuring instrument you should take a zero reading. If you
close the calipers with nothing between the jaws it should read zero. If it does not,
note the zero reading and use it to correct the measurement of the object.

Activity 4 Measure length

Perform this activity in pairs:
Read the scale on each of the photographs below:
1.
New words
zero reading: the reading
on the scale when a
measurement should read
zero

2.

3.

4. Choose suitable measuring instruments and measure:

a) the lengths of the walls of the classroom
b) the lengths and diameters of items such as steel nails, pencils and welding rods
c) the thicknesses and diameters of coins and washers.

10 Topic 1 Physics: General Physics

 TOPIC 1

Measuring time
The measurement of time began when people started counting events that repeat,
like the rising and setting of the sun or from one full moon to the next. When we see
how technology has changed over time, we can appreciate how difficult it was for
those in ancient times to determine time accurately, and how easy it is for us today.

The second (s) is the SI unit for time. In Science,

Remember
we use seconds and minutes as units of time
very often. 60 seconds = 1 minute
60 minutes = 1 hour
24 hours = 1 day

Devices for measuring time

Clocks
A clock uses either a mechanical or an electronic system to measure how much
time has passed. Battery-operated clocks count the vibrations of a small quartz
crystal or the vibrations of an electronic circuit. Clocks either have an analogue
display with hour, minute and second hands or a digital display which shows the
time as a number.

Figure 10 An analogue clock and a digital clock

We use clocks and watches to tell the time of the day such as when the school day
starts. We also use them to measure an interval of time, such as the length of a lesson.

Sub-topic 2 Length and time 11

Stop watches and timers
It is very difficult to use a clock to measure the interval of time of a 100 m race.
For this purpose, a stop watch is better. You can use your fingers to operate it
while keeping your eyes on the race. It can measure time intervals to a fraction of
a second.
Even more accurate are electronic timers that are started by an electrical signal
from the starting gun and are stopped when the first athlete crosses a light beam
at the finish.
Scientists use the same principles to measure time intervals in experiments,
such as how long it takes for a solution to turn cloudy in a chemical reaction.

Figure 11 A wind-up stopwatch with an analogue display (left) and an electronic

stopwatch with a digital display (right).

Activity 5 Time
Answer the following questions on your own:
1. Write the name and symbol of the SI unit for time.
2. Calculate:
a) the number of minutes in a day
b) the number of seconds in an hour.

Activity 6 Measuring a time interval

Carry out this activity in groups of four.
Measure the time interval for an athlete to complete a 50 m sprint. Compare
results and decide how to choose and use the timing devices that give the most
accurate results.

12 Topic 1 Physics: General Physics

 TOPIC 1

A simple pendulum
A simple pendulum consists of a bob or a weight hanging at the end of a string or
a thin wire. When the bob is pulled to the side and let go, the gravitational force
of the earth causes it to swing back and forth.

Calculate the period of a pendulum New words

It is more accurate to time how long it takes for
amplitude: the maximum
a pendulum to make a number of swings and
distance an object moves from
then calculate its period, than it is to time a its equilibrium or rest position
single swing. Use the equation: cycle or oscillation: a
t complete swing of a motion
T = __
n , where T = period of the pendulum frequency: the number of
t = time to complete n oscillations, and complete oscillations (cycles)
per second
n = number of oscillations. period: the time needed to
complete one cycle of motion

frequency = the number

th
ng

of complete cycles in 1 s
le

equilibrium
e
position litud
amp

1 cycle or oscillation
} time to complete
1 cycle = period

Figure 12 A pendulum

Worked example
Calculate the period of a pendulum that completes 25 oscillations in 37.5 s.

Answer
Variables
t = 37.5 s t
T = __
n
n = 25 37.5 s
T=? = ______
25
= 1.5 s

The period of the pendulum is 1.5 s.

Sub-topic 2 Length and time 13

 Activity 7
This experiment allows you to work with a pendulum. Factors that could affect
the period of a pendulum are the mass of the bob, length of the pendulum and
amplitude of the swing.
Carry out this experiment in groups of four.

Experiment
Materials Aim
You will need: Investigate the factors that affect
• a point of the period of oscillation of a pendulum.
suspension
Procedure
• string
• a few pieces of metal 1. Construct a pendulum using
• a stopwatch or watch one piece of metal for the bob.

2. Use a clock or stopwatch to time 25 oscillations of the bob

and calculate the period of the pendulum. Pay attention
to the number of significant figures in your answer.
3. One at a time, investigate the effect of changing Figure 13 A
each factor. Measure the time for 25 oscillations pendulum set up
and compare the period with the period in Step 2: for the experiment
• Change the mass of the bob by adding more pieces of metal.
• Change the amplitude of the oscillation by moving the bob a little
further to the side before letting it go. Use the same bob as in Step 2.
• Change the length of the string by making it shorter or longer.
4. Write down the results of the investigation.

Discussion of results
Of the above factors, the one that affects the period of the pendulum is its
length. The mass of the bob has no effect and the effect of large changes of
amplitude is small. See if you agree.

Activity 8 Measuring time

Answer the following questions in pairs:
1. Explain what is meant by saying that a pendulum has a period of 1.5 s.
2. If the period of a pendulum increases when you lengthen it, what happens if
you make it shorter?
3. A pendulum makes 30 oscillations in 36 seconds. Calculate:
a) its period. b) the number of oscillations it makes in 1 min.
4. Explain why some mechanical clocks use a pendulum as a timing device.

14 Topic 1 Physics: General Physics

 TOPIC 1
SUB-TOPIC 3 Mass and weight

Mass
Mass is the quantity of matter in an object.
Whether an object is on the earth or on the
moon, the amount of matter that it contains is
the same and therefore, so is its mass.
The symbol for mass is m. The SI unit for
mass is the kilogram (kg). In physics, we also
use the gram (g), which is a thousandth of
a kilogram.

Weight
The weight of an object is the gravitational force Figure 14 A set of mass pieces
that the earth exerts (pulls) on it.
New words
From Grade 8 and 9 Science, you know that
force is either a push or a pull. All masses exert a mass: the amount of matter in
force on each other and we call this force the an object
gravitational force (g). If you drop something, gravitational force: the force of
attraction that masses exert on
the gravitational force of the earth causes it to each other
fall to the ground. weight: the gravitational force
that the earth exerts on an
Weight is measured in newtons (N), the SI unit
object
for force.

The relationship between mass and weight

On earth, the gravitational force on a mass of
Note
1 kg is 9.8 N, which we can round off to 10 N.
This means that the weight of a mass of 1 kg is Many people think weight and
10 N. mass have the same meaning.
If you ask someone what their
Large masses exert stronger gravitational forces weight is, they give the answer
on each other than small ones do. A 1 kg mass in kilograms. When we are not
doing physics, we often use the
has a weight of 10 N and a 2 kg mass, with
word weight to mean mass.
twice the mass, has a weight of 20 N. So the
relationship between weight and mass is 10 N/kg.

To calculate weight, use the equation:

w = mg, where:
w = weight measured newtons (N)
m = mass measured in kilograms (kg)
g = 10 N/kg

Sub-topic 3 Mass and weight 15

 Activity 9 Mass and weight
Answer the following questions on your own:
1. Write definitions for mass and weight.
2. Give a reason why:
a) an object’s weight on the moon is not the same as on the earth.
b) the mass of an object on the moon is same as on the earth.
3. Calculate the weight of a book if it has a mass of 0.6 kg.
4. On the moon, the value of g is 1.67 N/kg. Calculate the weight of the book in
question 3 if it is on the moon.

Measuring mass and weight

Measuring weight
A spring stretches the same amount for each
newton of force that you apply to it. This means
that we can use a spring to measure the size of a
force like weight.
Figure 2 shows a spring balance that is
weighing a mass piece. It has a scale that is
graduated in newtons.

Measuring mass
Mass can be measured using instruments called Figure 15 This spring balance
a balances. They compare mass with mass. So, measures the weight of an object.
they would even give a correct measurement of
New words
mass on the moon where the weights of the
masses would be smaller. In Science class, you spring balance: an instrument
may have to use either a regular balance, or a that measures force
triple beam balance. balance (one meaning): an
instrument that measures the
How to use a balance mass of an object
triple beam balance: a balance
Step 1 Place the object on one tray (pan) as with three beams
seen in Figure 16.
Step 2 Place mass pieces of known mass in the
other tray until they balance the object
(when the lever is perfectly horizontal).
Step 3 Write down the total mass: The mass of
the object equals the sum of the masses
of the small mass pieces.

Figure 16 A balance
16 Topic 1 Physics: General Physics
 TOPIC 1
How to use a triple beam balance

Figure 17 A triple beam balance.

Step 1 There are mass pieces called riders that Did you know?
can be moved along each beam. Before
In laboratories, sensitive
you take a measurement, make sure that
electronic balances are
all three are moved as far left as possible. used to measure mass.
Step 2 Place the object in the middle of the
tray (pan), as seen in Figure 17.
Step 3 First move the largest rider to the right, Hint
one notch at a time, and stop at the To measure substances like
notch just before the beam drops below chemicals, first place them in a
the zero indicator on the far right. container and then on the tray.
Step 4 Then move the middle-sized rider to the Do not forget to find the mass
right, and also stop it before the of the empty container and to
subtract it from the mass of the
indicator drops below zero.
container and chemicals.
Step 5 Do the same with the smallest rider, until
the mass is perfectly balanced (and the
indicator is exactly on the zero mark).
Step 6 Read the marking on each beam where
each rider is, and add the readings
together to find the mass of the object.

Activity 10 Measure mass and weight

Answer the following questions on your own:
1. Describe the properties of a spring that are applied in a spring balance.
2. Identify the balances in this sub-topic that compare “mass with mass”.
3. Collect a number of small objects. Measure the weight of each object with a
spring balance and its mass with a balance that compares “mass with mass”.

Sub-topic 3 Mass and weight 17

Centre of mass
If you balance a ball (or a pencil or ruler) on
your fingertip, then you are supporting it below
its centre of mass. If the ball or pencil drops to
the ground, it means that your finger was not Figure 18 The basketball
exactly below the centre of mass of the object. player’s finger is below the
The centre of mass of an object is a point on centre of mass of the ball, so
the object at which its entire mass seems to act. the ball is perfectly balanced.
It is sometimes called the centre of gravity.
New words
The centre of mass of a regular object, like a
ruler, is always at its centre. centre of mass: a point on or
in an object at which its entire
mass seems to act
Activity 11
The following experiment shows you how to find the centre of mass of an object
that is not regular. Carry out this experiment in groups of four.

Experiment
Materials Aim
You will need: Find the centre of mass of an irregular-shaped lamina
• a cardboard lamina (irregularly shaped card).
(flat sheet)
Procedure
• a plumb line (thread
and bob) 1. Put a cork in the clamp as shown in Figure 19A.
• a stand and clamp 2. Push the pin through the cardboard lamina and
• a cork then into the cork.
• a pin 3. Suspend the plumb line from the pin.
4. Make sure that the lamina and plumb line are free to
clamp lamina pin
move.
5. When the lamina and plumb line are still, use a pencil
cork to mark the position of plumb line on the lamina.
thread 6. Repeat Step 5 by suspending the lamina from two or
stand three other points.
bob
7. Remove the lamina from the apparatus. Use a pencil
A B and ruler to draw a line from each pin mark to the
Figure 19A and B How to pencil mark below it. The centre of mass is where the
set up the apparatus lines cross.
Results
1. See if you can balance the lamina on a pencil point with its point of action
placed below the centre of mass.
2. What happens when the point of action is not exactly on the centre of mass?
3. What conclusion do you draw from your experiment?

18 Topic 1 Physics: General Physics

 TOPIC 1

Stability (equilibrium)
An object is in equilibrium
New words
when the forces that act on it
balance. In other words, the point of action: the location where a force is
object is steady when it is in applied
equilibrium. There are three equilibrium: an object is in equilibrium when the forces
that act on it balance and it is steady
types of equilibrium:
stable equilibrium: an object returns to its original
• stable equilibrium position after being tilted
• unstable equilibrium unstable equilibrium: an object does not return to its
• neutral equilibrium original position after being tilted
neutral equilibrium: an object stays in its new
position after being moved

1. Stable equilibrium 2. Unstable equilibrium 3. Neutral equilibrium

This object is in stable The object is now in The object is in neutral

equilibrium. unstable equilibrium. equilibrium.
An object is in stable An object in unstable If an object is in neutral
equilibrium if it returns to equilibrium does not equilibrium and is moved,
its original position after return to its original it stays in the new
being tilted. If you tilt the position after being tilted. position. The object has
object, its centre of mass If you tilt the object, its rolled to the side. Its
becomes higher. Let it go centre of mass becomes centre of mass remains at
and it drops to its original lower. Let it go and it falls the same height above the
position. to a lower position. surface.

Activity 12 Centre of mass

Answer the following questions in pairs:
A B C
1. State what is meant by centre of mass.
2. The diagram on the right shows three chairs.
Write down the letter of the one that is:
a) least stable
b) most stable.
Give a reason for each answer.
3. A pipe stops after rolling across the floor. Name the type of equilibrium it is in.

Sub-topic 3 Mass and weight 19

SUB-TOPIC 4 Density

The steel block in Figure 20 has more mass for

its size than the wooden block has. We say that
its density is greater than that of the wooden
block. The density of a material is its mass per
unit volume.

Calculate the density of a substance with the

following equation: Figure 20 A block of wood (left)
mass
density = ________ and a block of steel (right):
volume These two blocks have the
In symbols: ρ = __m , where: same volume but not the
V
same mass.
ρ = density (ρ is the Greek letter “rho”)
m = mass
V = volume New words
density: the mass per unit
The units for density are grams per cubic volume of a material
centimetre (g/cm3) for mass in grams (g) and
volume in cubic centimetres (cm3).
The units are kilograms per cubic metre (kg/m3) Note
for mass in kilograms (kg) and volume in cubic m can be
The equation ρ = __
metres (m3). V
rewritten as m = ρ × V or as
m , depending on which
V = __
ρ
value you have to calculate.

Worked example
Calculate the density of iron if a block of iron has a mass of 78.7 g and a
volume of 10 cm3.

Answer
m
ρ = __ Variables
V
78.7 g
_______
m = 78.7 g
=
10 cm3 V = 10 cm3
= 7.87 g/cm3 ρ=?

The density of iron is 7.87 g/cm3.

20 Topic 1 Physics: General Physics

 TOPIC 1
Activity 13 Calculate and compare densities
Answer the following questions on your own:
1. Write a definition of the term, density.
2. A block of wood has a volume of 500 cm3 and a mass of 400 g.
a) Calculate the density of the wood.
b) Compare the density of a small block of the same type of wood with the
answer to Question 2(a).
3. The density of copper is 8.96 g/cm3 and of gold is 19.32 g/cm3.
a) Which has the greater mass, 10 cm3 of copper or 10 cm3 of gold? Give a
reason for your answer.
b) Calculate the mass of a piece of copper that has a volume of 20 cm3.

Measuring volume
We can use mathematical formulae to calculate Remember
the volume of some solids.
Example: The volume of a cube is V = l 3, where 1 ml = 1 cm3 and
1 litre = 1,000 cm3.
l is the length of the side of the cube.
We can also laboratory apparatus to measure
volume.

The volume of a liquid

Note
If you have to measure the
mass of a liquid, use a balance
to measure the mass of the
measuring cylinder when empty
(dry). Then measure it again
with the liquid in it: Mass of
liquid = second mass – first
Figure 21 A measuring Figure 22 How to read
mass.
cylinder the volume of a liquid in
a measuring cylinder.

Use a graduated measuring cylinder to measure

the volume of a liquid (see Figure 21). They are
New words
usually graduated in millilitres and litres.
The surfaces of most liquids curve up at the volume: the space occupied by
sides of the cylinder. For accuracy, take the reading a substance
at the bottom, or centre, of the meniscus and meniscus: the curved surface
of a liquid
avoid the error of parallax (see Figure 22).

Sub-topic 4 Density 21
The volume of an irregularly shaped solid
To find the volume of an object such as a stone which has an irregular shape,
lower it into a liquid and measure how much liquid it displaces. There are two
ways of doing this:

Procedure with a measuring cylinder

Measure how much water the object ml ml
displaces (or takes the place of) when it 50 50
is lowered into a measuring cylinder
40 40
with some water in it.
Step 1 Pour water into the cylinder 30 30 final volume
and read the volume.
Step 2 Tie a thin thread round the 20 20 initial volume
object and gently lower it into
10 10
the water.
Step 3 Read the new volume.
Step 4 The volume of the object is the
volume of water it displaced: Figure 24
Volume of stone = final
volume – initial volume.
In Figure 24, the volume of the
stone is 10 millilitres.

Procedure with a eureka can

The object is lowered into the eureka eureka can
can and the displaced water runs
down the spout into an empty
measuring cylinder. measuring
cylinder
Step 1 Fill the eureka can with water
up to the spout. ml
Step 2 Tie a thin thread round the 50
object and gently lower it into
40
the water.
Step 3 Read the volume of water in 30
the measuring cylinder.
20

10

Figure 25

22 Topic 1 Physics: General Physics

 TOPIC 1

Determine the density of a floating object

Use a displacement method to find the density of a floating object.

The mass of a floating object

If an object floats in water it is possible to determine its mass by measuring the
water it displaces. It is not necessary to use a balance to do so.
When an object is lowered into a liquid, the liquid exerts an upward force on
the object. This force is called buoyancy. The object will float if the upward force
balances the weight of the object.

upward force
of liquid
(buoyancy)

weight

Figure 26 An object floats when

the upward force of the liquid is
the same size as the object’s weight.

Archimedes was a brilliant Greek scholar who

lived over 2,000 years ago. He realised that the
weight of the displaced liquid is the same size as Figure 27 Archimedes of
the upward force on the object. Syracuse, Sicily
This provides a method for measuring the mass of a floating object. If the
weights of the
floating object and the displaced liquid are the same then their masses are also
equal. If we use pure water which has a density of 1 g/cm3, the object will displace
1 cm3 of water for each gram of its mass.

The volume of a floating object

New words
In the experiment below, use a thin rod to push
the object down until it is just covered with buoyancy: the upward force on
water. The object’s volume equals the total an object in a liquid
volume of water that it displaces when it sinks.

Sub-topic 4 Density 23
 Activity 14 Measure and compare densities
In this experiment, you will investigate the various densities of different objects.
Carry out this experiment in groups of four.

Experiment
Materials Aim
You will need: Determine the densities of floating objects.
• small objects that
Procedure for each object
float (e.g. a cork and
a small wooden 1. Pour pure water (tap water or rain water will do)
block) into a measuring flask or a eureka can.
• thin thread 2. Tie a thread round the object. Lower the object
• water gently into the water until it floats and measure
• a measuring the volume of water it displaces. The mass of the
cylinder (or a eureka object in grams is equal to the volume of water
can and measuring in cm3 (or ml).
cylinder) 3. Push the object down to just cover it with water
and measure its total volume.
4. Use the mass and volume of the object to
calculate its density.

Results
In each case, the density of a substance that floats in pure water is less than
1 g/cm3.
Compare the densities of the objects.
Which one floats higher in the water?

Note Did you know?

Each time another person Droplets of mist are supported by the buoyancy
climbs on a boat, the boat of air.
displaces more water and
floats lower in the water.

24 Topic 1 Physics: General Physics

 TOPIC 1

Determine the density of a mixture of liquids

Liquids that mix, such as water and alcohol, are
New words
called miscible liquids. Liquids that do not mix,
such as water and oil, are immiscible. miscible: capable of being
mixed
Calculate the density of a mixture of two
miscible liquids by dividing the sum of the
masses of the liquids by their total volume:
m
In symbols: ρ = __
V
(m + m2)
= _________
1
(V1 + V2)
where:
• m1 and m2 are the masses of the two liquids, and
Figure 28 Immiscible liquids
• V1 and V2 are their volumes. form layers instead of mixing.

Worked example
Calculate the density of a mixture that contains 100 cm3 of alcohol of mass 79 g
and 200 cm3 of water of mass 200 g.

Answer
(m1 + m2)
ρ = _________ Variables
(V1 + V2)
m1 = 79 g
(79 g + 200 g)
= ___________________ m2 = 200 g
(100 cm3 + 200 cm3)
V1 = 100 cm3
= 0.93 g/cm3
V2 = 200 cm3
ρ=?

Activity 15 Density
1. Calculate the density of a liquid, given the following information:
• mass of empty measuring cylinder = 104.7 g
• mass of cylinder and liquid = 159.3 g
• volume of liquid = 42 ml.
2. A block of wood displaces 64.3 ml of water when it floats and 90.5 ml of water
when it is pushed under the surface of the water.
a) Write down the volume of the block.
b) Write down the mass of the block if the density of water is 1 g/cm3.
c) Calculate the density of the wood.
3. Paraffin and linseed oil are miscible. Calculate the density of a mixture of
50 cm3 paraffin of mass 40 g mixed with 150 cm3 linseed oil of mass 140 g.

Sub-topic 4 Density 25
Relative density
Sometimes we need to compare the density of
New words
one substance relative to another one. If we
measure the densities relative to only one relative density: the density of
substance, such as water, we can draw up a list a substance compared with the
of relative densities. Relative density is the density of water
density of a substance compared with the
density of water.
density of substance (g/cm3)
Relative density =
density of water (g/cm3)

Relative density is a ratio without units

Provided that the densities of both substances
are measured in the same units, the units cancel
out. This means that relative density is a ratio
and is without units.

Example:
density of silver
Relative density of silver = ________________
density of water
10.49 g/cm3
=
1.00 g/cm3
= 10.49 Figure 29 The bottom layer of
salt water has a higher relative
The table below lists the relative densities of
density than the coloured water
some other substances: on top.
Relative densities
Substance Relative Substance Relative
density density
petrol 0.72 nylon 1.12
paraffin 0.80 aluminium 2.72
ethanol 0.79 copper 8.94
sunflower oil 0.92 silver 10.49
ice 0.92 lead 11.35
water (at 4 °C) 1.00 gold 19.32

26 Topic 1 Physics: General Physics

 TOPIC 1
We calculate densities relative to water for two reasons:
1. If the relative density of the other substance
Note
is greater than 1, it will sink in water. If it is
less than 1, it will float. For example, ice This test does not work for a
(which has a relative density of 0.92) will substance like ethanol that
dissolves in water straight away.
float, but steel (which has a relative density
of 8) will sink.
2. Water has a density of 1 g/cm3. So, if the density of the other substance is also
in g/cm3, you can simply write its density without the units.

The relative density of air

Air expands when pressure decreases and temperature increases. There is less air in
the same space, so this affects its density.
The following example is for air at 20 °C and atmospheric pressure at sea level.
But note that in Zambia, which is significantly above sea level, the relative density
of air will be slightly lower than in Angola or Mozambique.

Worked example Relative density of air

Calculate the relative density of air, if the density of air is 1.204 × 10–3 g/cm3.

Answer
density of substance (g/cm3) Did you know?
Relative density =
density of water (g/cm3)
Water is approximately 800 to
1.204 × 10–3 g/cm3 840 times more dense than air.
=
1 g/cm3
= 1.204 × 10–3

Activity 6 Relative density

Answer the following questions in pairs:
1. Define relative density.
2. Give two reasons why the densities of substances are compared with the
density of water in order to draw up a list of relative densities.
3. Does relative density have units of measurement? Give a reason for your
answer.
4. Someone tells you that a yellow piece of metal is solid gold.
a) If the piece is irregularly shaped and about 2 cm across, explain how you
would find its volume.
b) The mass of the piece of metal is 52 g. Calculate the relative density of the
piece of metal, if you find that its volume is 6.0 cm3.
c) Refer to the table on page 26 and explain whether the piece of metal is
solid gold.

Sub-topic 4 Density 27
TOPIC

1 Summary, revision and assessment

Summary
International system of units
• The seven base units of measurement are the metre (m), kilogram (kg),
second (s), kelvin (K), mole (mol), ampere (A) and candela (cd).
• A derived unit of measurement is one which we obtain by multiplying or
dividing two or more base units.
• Scientific notation expresses a number as a product of two numbers: N × 10n.
• Significant figures are the digits in a measurement that indicate its accuracy.

Length and time

• Some devices for measuring length are tape measures, metre rules, vernier
calipers and micrometer screw gauges.
• Some devices for measuring time are clocks, stopwatches and pendulums.
• The period of an oscillation is the time required to repeat a complete cycle of
motion.
t
• Calculate period using T = __
n
• The period of a pendulum is affected by its length.

Mass and weight

• Mass is the amount of matter in an object.
• The weight of an object is the gravitational force that the earth exerts on it.
• A spring balance is a device that is used to measure weight.
• Balances and triple beam balances are devices that are used to measure mass.
• The centre of mass of an object is a point on the object at which its entire mass
seems to act.
• An object is in equilibrium when the forces that act on it balance, and the
object is steady. An object can be in stable, unstable or neutral equilibrium.

Density
• The density of a material is its mass per unit volume.
To calculate density, use the equation ρ = __ m.
V
• The units of measurement for density are grams per cubic centimetre (g/cm3)
and kilograms per cubic metre (kg/m3).
(m1 + m2)
• Density of miscible liquids: ρ = _________
(V1 + V2)
• Relative density is the density of a substance compared with the density of water.
density of substance (g/cm3)
• Relative density =
density of water (g/cm3)

28 Topic 1 Summary, revision and assessment

Revision
Answer the following questions on your own:
1. The SI base unit of measurement for temperature is the ...
A candela B kelvin
C degree Fahrenheit D degree Celsius
2. The measurement that equals 0.04 m is...
A 40 mm B 0.0004 mm C 40 cm D 0.0004 cm
3. The number 4.5 × 10 is the same as ...
–3

A 0.045 B 0.0045 C 0.00045 D 4,500

4. Choose the best instrument to measure the diameter of a thin piece of wire.
A Metre stick B Vernier caliper
C Tape measure D Micrometer screw gauge
5. One way to reduce the period of a pendulum is to ...
A increase the mass of the bob. B decrease the mass of the bob.
C increase the length of the pendulum. D decrease the length of the pendulum.
6. An object is placed on a triple beam balance and then on a spring
balance. What do the balances measure?
Triple beam balance Spring balance
A Density Mass
B Mass Density
C Weight Mass
D Mass Weight
7. The weight of a 2 kg bag of sugar is ...
A 2 kg B 2N C 20 N D 20 kg
8. The state of equilibrium of a coin lying flat on a table is ...
A equal B unstable C neutral D stable
9. The density of paraffin is 0.80 g/cm . The mass of 1 litre (1,000 cm3) of paraffin is:
3

A 0.80 g B 800 g C 1,250 g D 1.25 g

10. A substance that sinks in water has a relative density that is ...
A equal to 1. B greater than 1.
C less than or equal to 1. D less than 1.

Assessment
Answer the following questions on your own:

International System of Units (SI)

1. For each of the seven base units of measurement, write its name and symbol
as well as the physical quantity that it measures. [14]

Topic 1 Summary, revision and assessment 29

Summary, revision and assessment continued

2. Write the derived units for:

a) area (1) b) velocity (1) [2]
3. Write down the number of significant figures in:
a) 7,860,000 (1) b) 0.00032 (1) [2]
4. Calculate and give your answer in scientific notation.
a) (2.4 × 102) × (3.0 × 105) (2) b) (2.4 × 102) ÷ (3.0 × 105) (2) [4]

Length and time

5. Convert:
a) 750 m to kilometres (1) b) 0.52 m to millimetres. (1) [2]
6. Name a suitable measuring instrument to measure the length of a wall. [1]
7. Someone measures a wall and says that it is 4 metres 56 centimetres and
5 millimetres long. Write this measurement in
a) millimetres (1) b) metres. (1) [2]
8. Explain how to read the scale on a vernier caliper. [5]
9. A stop watch reads 1 minute 35.1 s. Convert the reading to seconds. [2]
10. A pendulum makes 50 oscillations (complete swings) in 1 minute.
a) Calculate the period of the pendulum. (3)
b) How long does it take for the pendulum to make 75 oscillations? (3)
c) What would you do to the pendulum to make its period longer? (2) [8]

Mass and weight

11. Compare the terms mass and weight with regard to differences and similarities. [4]
12. Name an instrument that can be used to measure the weight of an object. [1]
13. Where is the centre of mass of a circular piece of cardboard? [1]
14. Draw a labelled diagram of an experiment to find the centre of mass of
an irregularly shaped piece of flat cardboard (lamina). [6]

Density
15. a) Explain the meaning of density. [2]
b) Compare the terms density and relative density. [3]
16. A cork displaces 15 cm of water when it floats but displaces 60 cm
3 3

of water when it is pushed under the surface.

a) Calculate the density of the cork. [4]
b) What is the relative density of cork? [1]
c) Use the concept of relative density to explain why the cork floats on water. [3]
d) Ice has a density of 0.92 g/cm3. If they are the same size, explain which
one – a cork or a block of ice – floats lower in water. [3]
TOTAL MARKS: 70

30 Topic 1 Summary, revision and assessment

TOPIC

2 Physics: Mechanics

Sub-topic Specific Outcomes

Linear motion • Describe the terms used in mechanics.

• Interpret graphical representations of distance-time, displacement-
time, speed-time, velocity-time and acceleration-time.
• Demonstrate the use of equations of uniformly accelerated motion
to solve problems.
• Investigate the consequences of over-speeding.
• Describe the acceleration of free fall for a body near the earth.
• Describe qualitatively the motion of bodies falling in a uniform
gravitational field with and without air resistance.

Forces • Explain what force is.

• Explain the effect of forces on bodies.
• Describe the inertia law.
• Demonstrate the relationship between force and acceleration.
• Demonstrate the relationship between mass and acceleration.
• Perform calculations on force.
• Demonstrate the effect of force on a spring.
• Demonstrate the effects of friction on the motion of a body.
• Describe the motion in a circular path due to a perpendicular force.

Starter activity 1
Answer the following questions in pairs.
1. Identify the information
that a truck driver needs
in order to calculate how
long it will take to travel
between two towns.
2. Suggest factors that the
traffic authorities should
consider when they
decide what the speed
limit on a road in a town
should be.
3. What makes the earth
travel in a curved path
around the sun?

Topic 2 Physics: Mechanics 31

Moment of • Perform calculations based on the principle of moments.
forces • Investigate the everyday application of moments.

Work, energy • Explain the meaning of the terms work, energy and power.
and power • Identify the units of measurement for work, energy and power.
• Calculate work using appropriate formula.
• Identify different forms of energy.
• Explain qualitatively and quantitatively the terms gravitational
potential energy and kinetic energy.
• Describe sources of renewable and non-renewable energy.
• Explain the effects of the use of energy sources on the
environment.
• Demonstrate energy transformation from one form to another.
• Demonstrate the calculation of efficiency of energy conversion
using the appropriate formula.
• Describe the conservation of energy.
• Demonstrate calculation of power using the appropriate formula.

Simple • Describe what a simple machine is.

machines • Identify the different types of simple machines.
• Describe the distances moved by the effort and the load in a
simple machine.
• Explain the terms mechanical advantage (MA), velocity ratio (VR)
and efficiency.
• Perform calculations involving simple machines.

Starter activity 2
Answer the following questions in pairs:
1. What do spanners and door handles have in common? (Hint: Think about
how you use each of them.)
2. When we burn coal, we release
energy that was received from
the sun a very, very long time
ago. List and describe other
sources of energy that we use and
which received (or receive)
energy from the sun. (Hint:
Think about fuels that are used in
everyday life.)
3. Make a list of at least six
machines, tools or appliances
that you use and, for each one, describe:
a) its purpose or use
b) the energy input and the energy output (or outputs, if there is more
than one).

32 Topic 2 Physics: Mechanics

 TOPIC 2
SUB-TOPIC 1 Linear motion

The terms used in mechanics

New words
motion: the process of moving
or changing position
scalar quantity: a quantity that
has only magnitude (size)
vector quantity: a quantity that
has both magnitude and
direction
Figure 1 A train in motion

When we see a train passing by, there are questions we can ask about its motion:
How fast is it travelling and is it changing speed? How far is its journey and how
long will it take?
We use several physical quantities to answer these questions.

Scalars and vectors

However, before going further, it will help to understand that there are two types
of physical quantities: scalar quantities and vector quantities.

Scalar quantities Vector quantities

Definition A scalar quantity is one A vector quantity is one

which has only magnitude which has both magnitude
(size). and direction.

How do we work with We can add and subtract We do not add vectors in
these quantities? scalar quantities just as we the same way as for
do with ordinary numbers. ordinary numbers, because
they have magnitude as
well as direction.

Examples Time, mass, volume and Force and weight

density

Sub-topic 1 Linear motion 33

 New words
Distance and displacement
distance: the total path length
The words distance and displacement describe
that an object travels along
different aspects of the movement of an object from one position to another
from one position to another. displacement: a change in
position. It is the magnitude
A s B and direction of the straight line
drawn from the initial to the final
position.

Figure 2A and 2B Compare distance d with displacement s of a bus that travels

from A to B.

Distance Displacement
Definition Distance is the total path Displacement is a change of
length that an object travels position. It is the magnitude
along from one position to and direction of the straight
another. line drawn from the initial to
the final position.
Example The bus travels from point A to The displacement of the bus
(Figure 2A) B. The distance that it travels is the straight line from its
from its starting point to its initial position at A to its final
destination is the length of the position at B.
road that it travels along.
Symbol d s
Measurement unit metres (m) metres (m)
Vector or scalar? scalar vector

Worked example
A girl started at point A, walked 5 m south N
to point B, turned 90° and walked to point
A
C, which is 12 m to the west. W E
5m

1. What is the girl’s total displacement? S

2. What was the total distance that the
C
girl walked? 12 m B

34 Topic 2 Physics: Mechanics

 TOPIC 2
Answer
1. Her displacement is 13 m, 23° south of N
west. A
W E
2. She walked a distance of 5 m + 12 m 23º

5m
m
= 17 m. S 13

C
12 m B

Speed and velocity Note

Distance and displacement have different You can check this result by
meanings, despite their similarities. The same is making an accurate drawing
true for speed and velocity. with a scale of, for example:
1 cm to 1 m.
Speed
Speed measures how fast an object is moving. It is the rate at which an object
covers distance. A fast-moving object has a high speed and covers a great distance
in a short period of time. Speed is the distance travelled per unit time.

15 m 15 m 15 m

1s 1s 1s

Figure 3A and 3B The speed of this car is

15 metres per second (m/s). During each
second it travels 15 metres.

Calculate speed using the following equation: New words

total distance travelled
average speed = ______________________
time taken speed: the distance travelled
Speed is measured in metres per second (m/s). per unit time
rate: change per second
Like distance, speed is a scalar quantity. velocity: the rate of
displacement

Sub-topic 1 Linear motion 35

Velocity

Figure 4 The direction of an aircraft’s velocity is important in

order to reach the destination.

Velocity indicates how fast an object is moving in a certain

direction. Velocity is the rate of change of displacement.

Calculate velocity using the following equation:

displacement
average velocity = _____________
time taken

Average velocity is measured in metres per second (m/s) and direction must be
given. Velocity is a vector quantity.

Worked example
If the girl (from the worked example on page 34) walks from A to C in 4 s,
calculate:
1. her average speed Variables
2. her average velocity. d = 17 m
t=4s
Answer
s = 13 m (23° south of west)
total distance
1. average speed = _____________
time taken Note
= 17 m
_____
4s Notice the difference between
= 4.25 m/s the two answers: The girl’s
total displacement speed shows how fast she is
2. average velocity = __________________ walking on the ground. The
time taken
average velocity is the average
13 m
= _____ rate of the change in position, in
4s
a straight line from A to C.
= 3.25 m/s,
direction 23° south of west

36 Topic 2 Physics: Mechanics

 TOPIC 2

Acceleration
An object accelerates when it changes its
velocity. Acceleration is the rate of
change of velocity.

Calculate acceleration using the

Figure 5 The racing car’s velocity
following equation: changes throughout the race. Each
change of velocity
__________________ change of velocity is an acceleration.
acceleration =
time taken
But: change of velocity = final velocity (v) – initial velocity (u)
(final velocity – initial velocity)
Therefore: acceleration = ______________________________
time taken
We can also write the equation with symbols:
New words
(v – u)
a = ______
t acceleration: rate of change of
where u = initial velocity (m/s) velocity
v = final velocity (m/s) initial: at the start of the time
interval
t = time taken (s)

The units of acceleration are metres per second squared (m/s2).

Acceleration is a vector quantity, so we always specify its direction.

Direction of motion in a straight line

When the motion of an object is in a straight line, choose one direction as the
positive direction. The opposite direction will therefore be the negative direction.

Activity 1 Terms that describe motion

Answer the following questions on your own:
1. Choose the quantities that are scalars: acceleration, displacement, distance,
speed, time, velocity.
2. A boy catches a bus to get to school. The bus takes 8 minutes and 20 seconds
to complete the journey of 3 km.
a) Calculate the average speed of the bus in metres per second (m/s).
b) If the school is 2.5 km north of where the boy caught the bus, calculate the
average velocity of the bus.
c) When the bus arrives at the school, it is travelling north. In 4 s, it slows
from 5 m/s and stops. Calculate the magnitude and direction of the
acceleration of the bus.

Sub-topic 1 Linear motion 37

Graphs of motion
Graphs of motion help us to understand the motion of an object at a glance. We
can draw graphs of displacement, speed, velocity and acceleration against time.

How to plot data on a graph

Study the following worked example to see how to plot a graph:

Worked example
Plot a displacement-time graph using the following information:

Time t (s) 0 1 2 3 4 5

Displacement s (m) 0.0 0.3 2.0 4.5 8 12.5

Method
• Use graph paper or a grid of equally spaced lines that you draw in your
exercise book.

Displacement vs. time

14

12
Displacement s (m)

10

8 New words
6
independent variable: variable
4 that changes on its own or that
an investigator allows to
2 change
0 dependent variable: variable
0 1 2 3 4 5 that the independent variable
Time t (s) causes to change

Figure 6 Axes for displacement vs. time graph

• Time is the independent variable and is on the x-axis (the horizontal axis).
The dependent variable is the variable that changes as time passes. It is
shown on the y-axis (the vertical axis). Example: Displacement
• Choose the numbers on each axis to show the data clearly. On this graph, the
displacement is 12.5 m in 5 s, so the time axis is from 0 s to 5 s and the
displacement axis is from 0 m to 14 m (Figure 6).

38 Topic 2 Physics: Mechanics

 TOPIC 2
• The interval from one graduation to the next is the same. In Figure 6, each
time interval is 1 s and each displacement interval is 2 m.
• Label each axis with the quantity (e.g. Time t) and the units of measurement
(e.g. (s)).
• Write a heading for the graph.
Displacement vs. time

14

12
×
Displacement s (m)

10

8 ×

4
×

2 ×
×
0×
0 1 2 3 4 5
Time t (s)
Figure 7 Completed displacement vs. time graph

• Plot the values. Use an X or a dot in a circle to indicate each point. See Figure 7.
• Draw a smooth curve through the points. Do not draw straight lines that zig-
zag from point to point.

Activity 2 Plot graphs of motion

Answer the following questions on your own:
1. Plot graphs of the following data of the motion of a car:
a)
Time t (s) 0 1 2 3 4 5

Speed (m/s) 0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0

b)
Time t (s) 0 1 2 3 4 5

Distance d (m) 0.0 1.0 4.0 9.0 16.0 25.0

2. Describe the shape of each graph in Question 1.

Sketch graphs
A sketch graph does not have to be plotted to scale. It shows only the important data
and the relationship between variables. The next section shows some sketch graphs.

Sub-topic 1 Linear motion 39

Graphs of motion for uniform velocity
Study the following graphs. They represent the motion of a cyclist who is
travelling east along a straight road over a 4 s period. The cyclist travels at a
uniform (constant) velocity of 3 m/s.

Figure 8 summarises the information in a sketch.

Displacement vs. time

east
12

Displacement s (m)
positive direction

v = 3 m/s
a = 0 m/s2

0 4
Time t (s)

Figure 8 The cyclist rides with a Figure 9 Displacement vs. time graph:
uniform velocity of 3 m/s east. During 4 s the cyclist’s displacement
(change of position) is 12 m.

Velocity vs. time Acceleration vs. time

4
Acceleration a (m/s2)
Velocity v (m/s)

0 1 2 3 4 0 4
Time t (s) Time t (s)

Figure 10 Velocity vs. time graph: The Figure 11 Acceleration vs. time graph:
cyclist has a uniform (constant) velocity The velocity does not change so the
of 3 m/s and travels 3 m each second. acceleration is zero.

40 Topic 2 Physics: Mechanics

 TOPIC 2
To sum up: Graphs of motion for uniform velocity
Refer to the graphs on the previous page and see if you agree:

Displacement vs. time graph

The graph is a straight line.
total displacement
The gradient equals the velocity of the cyclist: v = __________________
time
12 m
= _____
4s
= 3 m/s

Velocity vs. time graph

The graph is horizontal.

Acceleration vs. time graph

The acceleration is zero.

Activity 3 Graphs of motion for uniform velocity

Answer the following questions in pairs:
1. The following data is for a car moving slowly along the road.

Time t (s) 0 1 2 3 4 5

Displacement s (m) 0.0 5.0 10.0 15.0 20.0 25.0

a) Plot the data on a sheet of graph paper or on a grid that you draw in your
exercise book
b) Describe the motion of the car in terms of its displacement, velocity and
acceleration.
2. The cyclist is travelling west with a
constant velocity of 5 m/s, measured
west
over a period of 4 s. Take west as the
positive direction and draw the positive direction
following sketch graphs of motion of v = 5 m/s
the cyclist: a = 0 m/s2
a) Displacement vs. time
b) Velocity vs. time
c) Acceleration vs. time.

Tip
Speed can be positive or zero,
but it cannot be negative.

Sub-topic 1 Linear motion 41

Graphs of motion for uniform acceleration
The following sketch graphs show how a cyclist, with an initial velocity of +2 m/s
towards the east, accelerates uniformly at +1 m/s2 for 5 s.

Displacement vs. time

22.5
east

Displacement s (m)
positive direction

v = 2 m/s
a = 1 m/s2

0 5
Time t (s)
Figure 12 Data for graphs of uniformly Figure 13 Displacement vs. time graph:
accelerated motion. During each time interval the displacement
is larger than during the one before.
Velocity vs. time
Acceleration vs. time
8
Acceleration a (m/s2)
Velocity v (m/s)

6
1
4

0 1 2 3 4 5 0 5
Time t (s) Time t (s)
Figure 14 Velocity vs. time graph Figure 15 Acceleration vs. time graph:
The horizontal graph indicates uniform
acceleration.
To sum up: Graphs of motion for uniform acceleration
Refer to the graphs above and see if you agree:

Displacement vs. time graph

The graph is a curved line with a changing slope or gradient.

Velocity vs. time graph

The graph is a straight line. A speed vs. time graph would have the same shape in
this example. The acceleration is the gradient of the velocity vs. time graph.

Acceleration vs. time graph

The graph is horizontal and non-zero.

42 Topic 2 Physics: Mechanics

 TOPIC 2

Graphs of motion for an object that is slowing down

Figure 12 is a velocity vs. time graph and Figure 13 is an acceleration vs. time
graph for a car that is slowing down with uniform acceleration. The velocity and
the acceleration are in opposite directions. If one is positive, the other is negative.
In everyday language, we say that an object that is slowing down decelerates. In
physics, we rather say that the object’s acceleration is in the opposite direction to
its velocity.

Velocity vs. time Acceleration vs. time

Acceleration a (m/s2)
Velocity v (m/s)

0
Time t (s)

0
Time t (s)

Figure 16 Velocity vs. time graph of a Figure 17 Acceleration vs. time graph
car that is slowing down. A speed vs. for the same car.
time graph would have the same shape.

Activity 4 Graphs of motion with uniform acceleration

Answer the following questions in pairs.
1. Explain the meaning of the word uniform when it is used to describe velocity
or acceleration.
2. A car that is travelling at 10 m/s north increases speed for 5 seconds with a
uniform acceleration of 2 m/s2.
a) Draw the following sketch graphs for the time that the car is accelerating:
i) acceleration vs. time
ii) velocity vs. time
iii) displacement vs. time
b) Name the physical quantity equal to the gradient of the velocity vs. time
graph.

Sub-topic 1 Linear motion 43

3. A car slows down as it approaches a stop street and comes
to a stop. Its acceleration is uniform.
a) Take the direction of the car’s velocity as the positive
direction and draw a velocity vs. time sketch graph of
the car’s motion.
b) Is the car’s acceleration in the same direction as its
velocity? Draw the car’s acceleration vs. time sketch
graph.
4. The graph below is a velocity vs. time graph of a trolley
that has an initial velocity of 2 m/s at the bottom of an
inclined plane. It rolls up and then back down the slope.

Figure 18
ley
trol
e
plan
ined
incl

Figure 19 A trolley rolls up an inclined plane.

Velocity vs. time

2
Velocity v (m/s)

1
Time t (s)
0
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
2

Figure 20 Velocity vs. time graph for the trolley.

a) Describe how the velocity of the trolley changes as it moves:

i) up the slope
ii) down the slope.
b) Draw a speed vs. time sketch graph of the trolley’s motion.

44 Topic 2 Physics: Mechanics

 TOPIC 2

Use equations of motion to solve problems

Equations of motion enable us to carry out calculations without drawing a graph first.

Equations of motion
These equations are obtained from basic principles and graphs of motion:
v = u + at Equation 1
(u + v) × t
s = _________ Equation 2
2
1 at2
s = ut + __ Equation 3
2
v2 = u2 + 2as Equation 4
where the variables represent the following:
s displacement
u initial velocity
v final velocity
a acceleration
t time

How to use the equations of motion

• List the variables in the question. It often helps to draw a diagram.
• Choose the positive direction of the motion.
• Each equation has four variables. Choose the equation with the three variables
that you know, and the one variable that you need to calculate.
• Substitute the values into the equation and calculate the unknown variable.
• Write the unit of measurement with the answer and its direction, if it is a vector
quantity.
• If you wish, change the subject of the equation before substituting values.

Conditions for using equations of motion

There are two conditions for the equations of motion:
• The acceleration must be uniform.
• The motion may only be in one
dimension (i.e. in a straight line). If one
direction is positive, the opposite
direction must be negative.

Figure 21 Consider a train that travels

along a straight track from one station to
the next:
The driver can accelerate uniformly in a
forwards (positive) direction, allow the train
to move at a constant velocity and slow
the train down by applying the brakes.
You could apply the equations of motion
to this situation.
Sub-topic 1 Linear motion 45
 Worked example
A bus that is travelling west at 4 m/s increases its speed and accelerates
uniformly at 1.2 m/s2 for 10 s.

1. Calculate the velocity of the bus after 10 s.

2. Write down the speed of the bus.
3. The bus then slows down for 15 s with a uniform acceleration and comes to
a stop. Calculate how far it travels while it is slowing down.

Answer
1. The positive direction is west (the direction that the bus is moving in).
v = u + at Variables
= +4 m/s + (+1.2 m/s ) × 10 s
2
u = +4 m/s
= +4 m/s + 12 m/s a = +1.2 m/s2
= +16 m/s t = 10 s
The final velocity of the bus is 16 m/s west. v = ?, the unknown
2. Final speed of the bus = 16 m/s (the same magnitude as the velocity).
(u + v) × t
3. s = _________ Variables
2
(+16 m s + 0) × 15 s u = +16 m/s
= ___________________
2 v = 0 m/s
= 120 m, west
t = 15 s
The bus travels 120 m while it slows down.
s = ?, the unknown

Activity 5 Use equations of motion

Answer the following questions on your own.
1. Give a reason why you cannot use an equation of motion to calculate the
displacement of a cyclist turning a corner.
2. A bus that is travelling south accelerates uniformly from 8 m/s to 14 m/s in 5 s.
a) Calculate the displacement of the bus during this time.
b) Write down the distance covered by the bus.
c) Calculate the acceleration of the bus.

46 Topic 2 Physics: Mechanics

 TOPIC 2
3. A train travels east along the railway track at 9 m/s. It then accelerates at
0.2 m/s2 for half a minute.
a) Calculate the displacement of the train while it accelerates.
b) Calculate the final velocity of the train.
c) The train then slows down over a distance of 1,125 m with uniform
acceleration and comes to a stop.
i) What is the direction of the train’s acceleration while it slows down?
ii) Calculate the acceleration while the train slows down.
4. A cyclist travelling at 3 m/s along a straight road accelerates uniformly for 5
seconds and reaches a speed of 12.5 m/s.
a) Calculate the acceleration of the cyclist.
b) Calculate the distance travelled by the cyclist while accelerating.
c) Draw a velocity-time sketch graph of the cyclist’s motion.
5. Calculate the time taken by a bus that starts from rest to cover a distance of
49 m with a uniform acceleration of 2 m/s2.
6. Figure 22 shows a velocity-time graph of a car that travels between two
stop streets.

Velocity vs. time

Velocity v (m/s)

12

0 6 16 21
Time t (s)
Figure 22

a) What is the maximum velocity of the car?

b) At which times is the car at rest?
c) Describe the motion of the car from t = 6 s until t = 16 s.
d) Use the information on the graph and an equation of motion to calculate
the distance that the car travels from t = 6 s to t = 16 s.
e) Draw an acceleration-time sketch graph of the motion of the car while it
travels between the two stop streets.

Sub-topic 1 Linear motion 47

Consequences of over-speeding
Equations of motion help us to
understand the effects of speed
and the consequences of over-
speeding.

Braking distance
The shortest distance that a
vehicle’s brakes take to stop the
vehicle is called the braking
distance of the vehicle. The
brakes of most cars and light
Figure 23 Could the driver have prevented the
vehicles give them a maximum accident?
acceleration of –6 m/s2.

Activity 6 Braking distance

Answer the following questions in groups of four. Allocate tasks to each group
member.
1. Show that when s is the subject of the equation v2 = u2 + 2as, the equation
v2 – u2 .
becomes s = ______
2a
2. Use the equation from Question 1 and an acceleration of –6 m/s2 in
the following calculations:
a) Calculate the distance it takes a car to come to a stop from a speed of
14 m/s (50 km/h).
b) Calculate the distance it takes a car to come to a stop from a speed of
28 m/s (100 km/h).
c) Compare and discuss the answers to questions 2(a) and 2(b).

In Activity 6, you found that the braking New words

distance is 65.3 m for a car travelling at braking distance: the shortest
100 km/h, and 16.3 m for a car travelling at distance that a vehicle’s brakes
50 km/h. take to stop the vehicle
thinking distance: the distance
The braking distance of the faster car is four that a vehicle moves before the
driver applies the brakes
times that of the car travelling at half the speed.

It can take between 1 s and 1.5 s before a driver becomes aware of a problem and
applies the brakes. During 1 s, a car travelling at 28 m/s travels 28 m. This is called
the thinking distance and it increases the distance that it takes for a driver to
stop a car even more.

48 Topic 2 Physics: Mechanics

 TOPIC 2
Driving too fast increases the distance needed to stop a car, but also decreases the
time that the driver has to decide what to do in emergencies such as these:
• The car’s brakes fail and it cannot stop before crashing into another car.
• A pedestrian steps into the road.
• A driver turns into the road ahead without looking.

Safety measures
• Speed limits: The traffic authorities set
speed limits to ensure that drivers do not
drive too fast for the road conditions.
• Speed traps: Traffic police set speed traps
to ensure that drivers keep to the speed
limit.
• Speed humps: In urban areas, speed
humps force drivers to slow down –
otherwise their vehicle will be damaged.
This forces drivers to drive at a safe Figure 24 The driver of the blue car
speed, for example, where there are followed too closely to stop in time.
many pedestrians who need to cross the
road. New words
• Safe following distance: The distance
between cars on the road is called the following distance: the
distance between vehicles on
following distance. Drivers sometimes drive
the road
too close behind the car in front. If the car
in front brakes suddenly, they cannot slow down in time to prevent a collision.
• The two-second rule: If the following distance is the distance travelled in 2 s,
then the driver of the second car can apply the brakes in time. To keep this
distance, the driver sees when the car in front passes an object, like a post or a
tree. If the driver reaches the object in less than 2 s, he or she must increase the
following distance.

Activity 7 Road safety discussion

Discuss and give reasons for the following, in groups of four.
1. The traffic authorities impose lower speed limits in highly populated areas
with narrow roads.
2. Speeding can be dangerous.
3. It is wise to drive below the speed limit when the roads are wet.
4. It is important to keep a large following distance between vehicles.
5. In a safety test, engineers crash cars into a wall. Predict which car is damaged
more: A car that crashes at high speed, or one travelling at low speed. Give a
reason for your answer.

Sub-topic 1 Linear motion 49

Free fall
A body is in free fall when the only force that acts on it is
the gravitational force. This causes it to accelerate towards
the ground. We use the symbol g for acceleration due to
gravity.
For situations near to the earth’s surface,
use g = 10 m/s2.
Figure 25 Only the
gravitational force acts on
Free fall a body that is in free fall.
Activity 8
This experiment allows you to experiment with the physics of free fall.
Carry out this experiment in groups of four.
Experiment
Materials Aim
You will need: Demonstrate acceleration due to gravity.
• a ball
Procedure
• a large coin
• a small coin 1. Observe the acceleration of a ball in free fall.
• a small piece of Step 1 Drop a ball from different heights above
paper the ground.
Step 2 Compare the height with the ball’s
velocity when it strikes the ground.
2. Compare the acceleration of bodies of different mass
Step 1 Place the two coins on the upturned palm of the hand.
Step 2 Rotate the hand quickly so that the coins fall from rest at the same
time.
Step 3 See if one of the coins hits the ground before the other one.
3. Compare the effect of air friction on different objects
Step 1 Drop a piece of paper and a coin simultaneously and observe which
one strikes the ground first.

Discussion
New words
Acceleration of a falling body: The further free fall: the only force that acts
on a body is the gravitational
the ball falls the faster it hits the ground. This
force during free fall
shows that the ball accelerates.
Acceleration due to gravity is independent of mass: When two coins fall
from rest and from the same height, they strike the ground at the same time.
So, the size of its mass does not affect the gravitational acceleration of a body.

50 Topic 2 Physics: Mechanics

 TOPIC 2
Air resistance reduces the acceleration of a falling body: For its
weight, a piece of paper has a larger surface area than a coin. Air
opposes the motion of the paper and the acceleration is less than g.

Acceleration of free fall is constant

New words
We call the region or space where a body
experiences a force because of its mass, a air resistance: when air
opposes the motion of an
gravitational field. From the earth’s surface up
object moving through it
to a few thousand metres, the earth’s gravitational field: the region or
gravitational field changes very little. As a result, space where a body
we consider a body’s acceleration due to gravity experiences a force because of
near the earth’s surface to be constant. This is its mass
true, provided we can ignore the effects of air terminal velocity: the maximum
velocity of a body falling in air
resistance.

Terminal velocity Did you know?

If there is no air resistance, acceleration due to Terminal velocities:
gravity is constant. However, as the velocity of a average-sized raindrop: 10 m/s
falling body increases, so does the air resistance (36 km/h)
that opposes its motion. If the body falls fast skydiver with parachute closed,
arms and legs extended: 56 m/s
enough, the upward force of air friction
(200 km/h)
balances the downward weight of the body and
its acceleration becomes zero. The body
continues to fall, but it does so at constant velocity. The maximum velocity of a
body falling in air is its terminal velocity.
The skydivers below are falling at terminal velocity of approximately 200 km/h.
If they hit the ground at that speed they will be killed. So they have parachutes
which have a large area for air resistance to act on and the terminal velocity when
they land is much slower.

Figure 26 The skydivers are falling at Figure 27 A parachute provides a low

their terminal velocity. terminal velocity.

Sub-topic 1 Linear motion 51

The motion of falling bodies
Use the equations of motion to solve problems in which a body is in free fall in a
vertical direction (i.e. moves straight up or down).
• If you choose upwards as the positive direction, then a = g = –10 m/s2.
• If downwards is the positive direction, a = g = +10 m/s2.
Assume that you can ignore the effect of air friction.

Worked example 1
A person on a bridge drops a ball and it strikes the water 3 s later. Calculate how
high the bridge is above the water.

Answer
(Taking upwards as the positive direction.) Variables
1 at2
s = ut + __ s=?
2
1 × (–10 m/s2) × (3 s)2 u = 0 (it falls from rest)
= 0 × 3 s + __ a = g = –10 m/s2
2
= –45 m t=3s
The ball falls 45 m, so the bridge is 45 m above the water.

For an object that is thrown vertically up or down:

From the moment that the object is thrown and leaves the thrower’s hand, it is in
free fall.

Worked example 2
A basketball player throws a ball vertically upwards
with a velocity of 8 m/s. Calculate the maximum
height that the ball reaches above the hand of the
basketball player.

Answer
(Taking upwards as the positive direction.)
The initial velocity and acceleration are in opposite directions.
The velocity of the ball at maximum height is zero.
v2 = u2 + 2as Variables
02 = (+8 m/s)2 + 2 × (–10 m/s2) × s s=?
0 = 64 – 20 × s u = +8 m/s
Rearranging: v = 0 m/s
20 × s = 64 a = g = –10 m/s
s = 3.2 m
The maximum height of the ball is 3.2 m.

52 Topic 2 Physics: Mechanics

 TOPIC 2
Activity 9 Falling bodies
Answer the following questions in pairs. Assume that air resistance is negligible
(can be ignored).
1. Explain what is meant by
a) free fall
b) gravitational field
c) terminal velocity.
2. An object falls from rest and drops 20 m in 4 s. Calculate its acceleration due
to gravity.
3. A child drops a coin from the window of a house. It strikes the ground 0,8 s
later.
a) What is the magnitude and direction of the coin’s acceleration?
b) Describe the change of velocity of the coin as it falls.
c) Calculate the distance that the coin drops.
d) The child then drops another coin with twice the mass of the first one. The
acceleration of the second coin is larger than, the same as, less than that of
the first coin. (Choose the correct word in italics.)
4. Choose the description of the velocity and acceleration of a falling body that
has reached terminal velocity:

Velocity Acceleration

A increases is non-zero

B stays the same is zero

C decreases is non-zero

D is zero is zero

5. Give a reason why the terminal velocity of a feather is much less than that of
a block of wood.
6. An arrow is shot vertically upwards with a velocity of 40 m/s. Calculate:
a) the velocity of the arrow when it is 30 m above the bow.
b) the maximum height reached by the arrow.
c) the velocity of the arrow 10 s after it leaves the bow.

Sub-topic 1 Linear motion 53

SUB-TOPIC 2 Forces

Description of force
The simplest description of a force is that it is
a push or a pull. Weight is an example of a
force.
The SI unit of measurement of force is the
newton (N). Figure 28 The gravitational force of
the earth pulls the mug which, in turn,
The vector nature of forces pushes downwards on the table.
Forces are vectors and have both magnitude and direction. N F
Figure 29 shows how to represent forces as labelled arrows.
W E
The arrowhead shows the direction of the force and the 10 N
length of the arrow is a measure of the size of the force. S
north

Contact and non-contact forces 5 N west

The mug is in contact with the table and exerts a contact F

force. Friction is a contact force where two surfaces that

positive direction
are in contact resist the movement of one surface past +7 N
the other.
–8 N
However, some forces are exerted on bodies that are not
in contact. The gravitational force, magnetism and the
Figure 29 The arrows
forces between electric charges are non-contact forces. represent the vector
nature of forces.
The effects of forces New words
Forces can have the following effects on an object:
• They can change its state of rest by making it force: a push or a pull
friction: the force that opposes
start to move
the motion of a body in contact
• They can change its state of motion by with a surface
making it speed up, slow down or change retardation: slowing down
direction – i.e. accelerate it.
• They can have no effect on its motion if the
forces acting on it balance (cancel each other
out)
• They can change its shape and size by
compressing, stretching, bending or twisting it.
Did you know?
When something slows down, we sometimes
use the word retardation instead of acceleration.
Figure 30 The force exerted by the
player’s foot changes the direction
54 Topic 2 Physics: Mechanics
and speed of the ball.
 TOPIC 2
Activity 10 Effects of forces
Discuss the following in groups of four:
Think of and write down examples of each of the effects of forces.

Inertia
If no force acts on a body its motion
does not change. This is because of the
body’s inertia.
Inertia is the property of matter that
causes it to resist any change in its
motion.
Figure 31 Place a coin on a piece paper
and then pull the paper away quickly.
Because of its inertia, the coin is left behind.
Inertia and mass
Activity 11 Effects of forces
It is easier to throw a 200 g ball than one that has a mass of 1,000 g. The following
experiment demonstrates the link between inertia and mass.
Carry out this experiment in groups of three.
Experiment
Materials Aim
You will need: Demonstrate that mass is a measure of inertia.
• a large coin
Procedure
• a small coin
• a plastic ruler 1. Place the coins on a smooth, horizontal table top.
• a smooth table top 2. Bend the ruler and flick each of the coins in turn.
Each time, bend the ruler the same amount in
order to apply the same force.
Results
Identify which coin accelerates more and moves away faster.

Conclusion
Write a conclusion about the relationship between inertia and mass.

Mass is a measure of inertia New words

For the same force, the large coin has a smaller
inertia: the property of matter
acceleration. It has more mass and more inertia that causes it to resist any
than the small coin. So we use mass as a change in its motion
measure of inertia.
Sub-topic 2 Forces 55
Newton’s first law of motion (the inertia law)
force of force of table
Often, more than one force acts on an object. hand
Figure 32 shows the forces that act on a book
that you push across the table.
frictional
The combined effect of all the forces that act
force
on a body is called the net force or resultant weight
force. If the forces balance each other, the net Figure 32 The forces acting on
force on the body is zero. It is the same as if no a book that you push across a
force is acting on the body and it continues to table.
move with constant velocity. Newton summed
this up:
New words
net (or resultant) force: the
Newton’s first law of motion: A body continues combined effect of all the
in a state of rest or uniform velocity in a straight forces that act on a body
line unless a non-zero net force acts on it.
Did you know?
Newton’s first law is often called the inertia law.
Sir Isaac Newton (1642–1727)
Examples of Newton’s first law of was a famous scientist who
motion extended our understanding of
physics and mathematics.
• Safety belts on vehicles: When a vehicle is
involved in an accident and comes to a
sudden stop, the passengers tend to carry on upwards thrust of water
moving. If they collide with the inside of the
vehicle – such as the windscreen – they can
be severely injured. Seat belts prevent this:
They apply a net force on the person that
makes them stay in their seat.
• Terminal velocity: When a skydiver reaches
weight of boat
terminal velocity, the skydiver’s downward
weight and the upward air friction balance Figure 33 The weight of a boat
each other. The net force is zero and the is balanced by the upwards
velocity of the skydiver is constant. force (up-thrust or buoyancy) of
• Flotation: See Figure 33 the water.

Activity 12 Inertia and Newton’s first law of motion

Answer the following questions on your own:
1. Explain the term inertia.
2. Name the quantity that is a measure of inertia.
3. State Newton’s first law of motion.
4. You are standing in a bus. Explain why you hold on tightly when it starts to move.
5. Describe and explain what happens to the passengers in a bus if it stops suddenly.

56 Topic 2 Physics: Mechanics

 TOPIC 2

The relationship between force and acceleration

If you throw a ball, the force you apply causes it to accelerate. What happens if
you increase the force?

Activity 13 The net force on a dynamics trolley

Carry out the following investigation to find out the effect of a net force on a
dynamics trolley (Figure 34). We need a method of recording the motion of the
trolley. One way is to use a ticker timer and ticker tape. The tape is attached to the
trolley and as it moves it pulls the tape through the timer. The timer prints dots
on the tape at equal time intervals.

Figure 34 This ticker timer operates from a power source connected to the mains
supply. Other timers use batteries.

The distance between each dot is how far the trolley has moved in the time
interval. Figure 35 shows the ticker tape of a trolley that is accelerating.

10 spaces direction of motion

7 6 5 4 3 2 1

0.10 0.07 dots

0.25 m 0.22 m 0.19 m 0.16 m 0.13 m m m too
1.25 m/s 1.1 m/s 0.95 m/s 0.80 m/s 0.65 m/s 0.50 0.35 close
m/s m/s to
count
Figure 35 This is the ticker tape of a trolley that accelerates.

Note
Make sure that the ticker timer is connected correctly to its power source. Check:
• whether the timer requires a power source connected to mains electricity or is
connected to a battery.
• that the output (voltage) of the power source is the same as the input required by the timer.

Sub-topic 2 Forces 57
 Activity 14
In this experiment, you will investigate force and acceleration.
Carry out this experiment in groups or as a class.
Experiment
Materials Aim
You will need: Demonstrate the relationship between force and
a dynamics trolley acceleration.
a ticker timer
Procedure
ticker tape
3 × elastic bands or a 1. Discuss the safe and correct handling of the
1 N spring balance apparatus.
a metre stick 2. Set up the ticker timer and attach the tape to
the trolley.
3. Use a single elastic band or the spring
balance to accelerate the trolley 1 elastic
from rest. Switch on the timer the
m F
moment that the trolley is let go,
and keep the force constant during
the run. If you are using a spring 2 elastics
balance, read the force on the scale.
4. Cut the tape into 10-space m 2F
lengths. Each length represents
the average velocity for that Figure 36 Use elastic bands to apply forces
time interval. of F, 2F and 3F to accelerate a trolley.
5. Paste the lengths of tape next to each other to make a velocity-time graph.
(v – u)
The gradient of the graph represents the acceleration of the trolley, a = ______
t .
6. Repeat the procedure to obtain results for twice the force and three times
the force. If you are using elastics, first use two and then use three elastics.
Stretch the elastics the same amount each time. If you are using a spring
balance, multiply the reading in Step 3.
Results
Compare the gradients of the three graphs.
Tip
Record your results in a table.
Extend the elastic band very
Conclusion slightly. Otherwise the
Draw a conclusion about the mathematical acceleration with three bands
relationship between force and acceleration. will be too great.

Presentation of group work

As a group, draw up a report of this experiment to present to the rest of the class.
Compare your conclusion with conclusions of other groups in the class.

58 Topic 2 Physics: Mechanics

 TOPIC 2
Acceleration is proportional to force
F 2F 3F

3a

v (m/s)
2a

v (m/s)
a
v (m/s)

0 t (s) 0 t (s) 0 t (s)

Figure 37 Graphs of velocity vs. time for 1F, 2F and 3F

The gradients of the graphs in Figure 37 represent the acceleration of the trolley.
Twice the force gives twice the acceleration, and
three times the force gives three times the Did you know?
acceleration.
The symbol ∝ in a ∝ F means
Mathematically, this means that acceleration “is proportional to”.
is proportional to the net force on a body, a ∝ F.

A constant force produces a uniform acceleration

Because acceleration is proportional to the net force, the acceleration of a body is
uniform (constant) if the net force is constant.

Calculate the net force on a body

The following worked example shows how to calculate the net force that acts on
a body:

Worked example

Tip
–500 N +1,500 N
The vertical forces on a body
Ffriction Fengine
that is moving horizontally
balance each other and can be
upwards upwards ignored.
force of road force of road
weight
Figure 38
Figure 38 shows the forces acting on a car
that is accelerating on a horizontal road. To calculate the net force, calculate the
combined effect of the horizontal forces.

Net force F = Fengine + Ffriction

= +1,500 N + (–500 N)
= +1,000 N which is in the same direction as the velocity of the car

Sub-topic 2 Forces 59
The relationship between mass and acceleration
If you want to throw a stone across a river you will be able to throw a small stone
faster than a large one.

Activity 15
This experiment continues where the experiment in Activity 14 left off.
Carry out this experiment in groups or as a class.
Experiment
Materials Aim
Use Activity 14’s Demonstrate the relationship between mass and
materials plus two acceleration.
more trolleys (or bags
Procedure
of sand that each have
the same mass as a Repeat the experiment from Activity 14, but this time,
trolley). keep the force on the trolley constant. To change the
mass, place trolleys on top of each other or load bags
of sand on a single trolley.
Results
Compare the gradients of the three 1 elastic
graphs. Record your results in a table.
F
2m
Conclusion
What is the mathematical relationship
between mass and acceleration? Figure 39 Change the mass to be
accelerated but keep the force
Presentation of group work the same.
As a group, prepare a report on this experiment to the class.

Acceleration is inversely proportional to mass

m 2m 3m

1 1
a 2a 3
a
v (m/s)

v (m/s)

v (m/s)

0 t (s) 0 t (s) 0 t (s)

Figure 40 Graphs of velocity vs. time for 1m, 2m and 3m. For the same force, twice
the mass has half the acceleration of a single trolley. Three times the mass has one
third the acceleration.
For the same net force, the acceleration of a body is inversely proportional to its mass.
60 Topic 2 Physics: Mechanics
 TOPIC 2

Calculating force
Newton’s second law of motion
This law sums up the relationship between acceleration, force and mass:

Newton’s second law of motion: A net force that acts on a body accelerates it in
the direction of the force. The acceleration is directly proportional to the net
force and is inversely proportional to the mass being accelerated.

The mathematical statement of this law is:

F
a = __
m or F = ma

The unit of force, the newton

The newton is defined in terms of the equation F = ma:
One newton is the net force that gives a mass of 1 kg an acceleration of 1 m/s2.
So, to give a body of mass 2 kg an acceleration of 2 m/s2, you need a net force
of 4 N.

Worked example
Calculate the acceleration of the car in the diagram.
m = 1,000 kg
Variables
400 N 1,600 N a=?
Fengine = 1,600 N
Ffriction = –400 N
m = 1,000 kg
Figure 41

Answer
positive
– 400 N +1,600 N

Net force F = 1,600 N + (–400 N)

= 1,200 N New words
F = ma newton: the net force that gives
1,200 N = 1,000 kg × a a mass of 1 kg an acceleration
1,200 N
_________ of 1 m/s2.
therefore a =
1,000 kg
= 1.2 m/s2
The acceleration of the car is 1.2 m/s2 to the right.

Sub-topic 2 Forces 61
 Activity 16 Newton’s second law of motion
Answer the following questions in pairs: m = 1,400 kg
1. State Newton’s second law of motion.
400 N
2. Calculate the net force required to give a
Ffriction
3,000 kg truck an acceleration of 2.5 m/s2.
3,800 N
3. Figure 42 shows the forces that act on a Fbrakes
car of mass 1,400 kg. The mass includes
the mass of the driver. Figure 42
Calculate:
a) the net force that acts on the car b) the acceleration of the car
c) how long it takes the car to stop, in seconds, if its initial speed is 15 m/s.
(Hint: Use an equation of motion.)
4 A net force F gives a body of mass m an acceleration a. If same net force acts
on a body of mass 2m it gives it an acceleration of:
A 2a B a C a
__ D a
__
2 4

The effect of force on a spring

A force can change the shape of a body. A spring balance uses this property to
measure force.

Activity 17
In this experiment, you will work with a spring balance.
Carry out this experiment in groups of four. Allocate tasks to each member.
Experiment
Materials Aim
You will need: Demonstrate the relationship between the force
• a spring or spring applied to a spring and its extension.
balance
Procedure
• a set of mass pieces
• a ruler 1. Measure the length of the
spring.
2. Calculate the weight of
each mass piece. (Weight
of 100 g = 1 N.)
3. In turn, suspend a number
of mass pieces from the
spring and measure how
far the spring extends
Figure 43
(stretches).
4. Record the measurements in a table.

62 Topic 2 Physics: Mechanics

 TOPIC 2
Results
Draw a graph of the results.

Conclusion
Compare your graph with the graph below. Write down the relationship
between the applied force and the extension of the spring.

Extension vs. force

Remember
25 × If you double the force on the spring,
the extension of the spring also
20 × doubles – it is not the total length of
Extension e (mm)

the spring that doubles.

15 ×
Warning
10 × Take care not to stretch the spring
too far. If so, it stretches beyond its
5 × elastic limit and is deformed.

0
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
Force F (N)
Figure 44

Hooke’s law
This law summarizes the results of this experiment.

Hooke’s law: The extension of a material is

directly proportional to the force that is
stretching it.

Hooke’s law is written as the mathematical

relationship: e ∝ F, where e is the extension of
the material.

Did you know?

Robert Hooke (1635–1703) was very
talented. He made laboratory
equipment, wrote one of the first
books about objects seen through a
microscope, and helped to plan
buildings and streets in London. Figure 45 The spring in a spring
balance obeys Hooke’s Law
Sub-topic 2 Forces 63
The effects of friction on motion
If you rub your hands together, you will feel that there is a force acting on the
surfaces of your hands that opposes the movement. This is a frictional force.
The frictional force (Ffriction) is the force that opposes the motion of an object in
contact with a surface.

Fapplied
Ffriction

Figure 46 The applied force is opposed by the frictional force.

Figure 46 shows an applied force that acts on a block. The frictional force acts in
the opposite direction and is parallel to the surfaces that are in contact. The block
only starts to move when the applied force overcomes the frictional force.

The cause of friction

There is friction between two rough surfaces that are in contact, because parts of the
surfaces jam against each other. But, there is also some friction between smooth
surfaces. Even smooth surfaces have small bumps and dips which make contact.

The effects of friction

Friction has many uses. We cannot walk unless there is friction between our feet
and the floor. The brakes of a car use friction to slow it down and stop it.

However, friction also has disadvantages:

• Heat: When you rub your hands together they become hot. Sometimes parts of
machines become so hot that the materials melt and the parts of the machine
become stuck together.

Figure 47 Friction results in heat that lights the match.

• Wear and tear: Friction can wear down the tyre of a bicycle or the axle of a cart.
We call this wear and tear (which means “damage through use”). In machinery,
the friction between surfaces can be reduced by putting oil or grease on the
surfaces in contact. Or, ball and roller bearings can be used to reduce the friction.

64 Topic 2 Physics: Mechanics

 TOPIC 2

Motion in a circular path

Centripetal force
Figure 48 shows a ball on a string that is
moving at constant speed in a circle.
Although the speed of the ball is
centripetal force
constant, its velocity is changing because
its direction is changing all the time.

New words
perpendicular: at right angles
Figure 48 A centripetal force makes the centripetal force: the force that
acts on a body and causes it to
ball swing in a circle.
move in a circular path

From Newton’s second law of motion, we know that if a net force acts on a body, the
body accelerates in the direction of the force. A force that causes circular motion is
perpendicular to the velocity of the body and is called a centripetal force: The
centripetal force is the force that acts on a body to cause it to move in a circular path.
Its direction is perpendicular and towards the centre of the circular path.

Calculate the size of the centripetal force with the equation:

v2 )
F = m(__
r Did you know?
where: Centripetal means “seek the
F = centripetal force (N) centre” and centrifugal means
m = mass (kg) “flee the centre”
v = speed (m/s)
r = radius of circular motion (m)

Worked example
A 1,200 kg car turns a corner with a radius of 32 m at 4 m/s. Calculate the
centripetal force of the road on the tyres of the car.

Answer
v2 )
F = m(__ Variables
r
(4 m s)2 m = 1,200 kg
= 1,200 kg × ________
32 m v = 4 m/s
= 600 N r = 32 m
F=?

Sub-topic 2 Forces 65
Centrifugal force
The term centrifugal force has a number of meanings:
1. One meaning is that it is the outward force that the string in Figure 21 exerts
on the hand. If the string breaks, there is no net force acting on the ball and it
will carry on moving in a straight line. This motion is sometimes said to be
caused by a centrifugal force. But, as you can see in the diagram, there is no
such force: The ball carries on moving in a straight line as Newton’s first law
of motion says it will.
2. For a person who is in a bus that turns a corner, it feels as if there is an
outward force. This is because there is a centripetal force pulling them into
the curve. Did you know?
Isaac Newton realized that the
gravitational force of the sun on
a planet acts at right angles to
the planet’s motion and makes
it move in a curved path.

Figure 49 The earth and the moon exert gravitational forces on each other.

Activity 18 Forces
Answer the following questions on your own:
1. State Hooke’s law.
2. A 80 mm spring stretches 5 mm when a force of 15 N is applied to it. A force
of 45 N will cause the spring to stretch:
A 240 mm B 15 mm C 210 mm D 20 mm
3. Name, with reasons, ways of reducing friction between surfaces.
4. Explain why a planet moves in an orbit around the sun.
5. Explain the meaning of the term centripetal force.
6. A boy has a ball of mass 100 g tied to the end of a string. He swings a ball at
7 m/s in a circle that has a radius of 1.4 m. Calculate the centripetal force
exerted by the string.

66 Topic 2 Physics: Mechanics

 TOPIC 2
SUB-TOPIC 3 Moments of forces

Moments
When we open a door, we apply
a force that causes the door to
turn on a hinge. The hinge or
door
turning point is called the pivot.
To open the door, we can
apply a smaller force if we apply
door hinge
it far from the hinge than if we (fulcrum or pivot)
force force
apply it close to the hinge (see
Figure 50). The turning force is Figure 50 The amount of force needed to open
called a moment. The moment the door depends on the distance from the pivot.
of a force is its ability to make
a body turn.
The size of a moment depends on both the size of the force and the distance of
the force from the pivot.
Calculate moments as follows: New words
moment = force × perpendicular distance to pivot
pivot: turning point
=F×d moment: the ability of a force
where: to make an object turn
F = force (N)
d = perpendicular distance to pivot (m)
The units for moments are newton-metres, symbol N∙m.

The perpendicular distance is the shortest distance from the pivot to the line in
the direction of the force.
Figure 51 shows a spanner in two situations: In both cases, the hand exerts the
same downward force at the same point on the spanner. However, their moments
are not the same. This because the perpendicular distance of one force from the
pivot is less than that of the other.

d1 0.20 m
F2
40N
F1
40N

d2 0.14 m
Moment1 = F1 × d1 Moment2 = F2 × d2
= 40 N × 0.20 m = 40 N × 0.14 m
= 8.0 N∙m = 5.6 N∙m
Figure 51 The direction of the force affects the size of the moment.
Sub-topic 3 Moments of forces 67
Principle of moments
For the moments of forces to cause a body to New words
balance and be in equilibrium, you need a lever.
lever: rigid bar that turns on a
A lever is a rigid bar that turns on a pivot.
pivot

Activity 19
In this experiment, you will work with a lever. Carry out this experiment in
groups of four. Each person has a different task: place weights, measure distances,
record data, carry out calculations. Change the tasks for each new set of readings.
Experiment
Materials Aim
You will need: Confirm the principle of moments for a lever in
• a metre stick (or equilibrium.
50 cm ruler)
• weights e.g. d1 d2
2 × 0.5 N (50 g);
1 × 1.0 N (100 g) test tube
• a pivot e.g. pencil or
pivot
test tube
• putty metre stick putty
F1 F2
Figure 52 Apparatus for this experiment
Procedure
Tip
1. Measure or calculate the weight of each
Coins or steel washers can be
mass piece. used as weights.
2. Set up the apparatus as shown. Use putty
to ensure that the test-tube pivot does
not move. Balance the metre stick on the pivot.
3. Place a weight on the left of the pivot. Then place another – different –
weight on the right and adjust its position until the lever balances.
4. Measure the distance from the pivot to the centre of mass of each weight.
5. Record the weights and measurements in a table and calculate the sum of
anticlockwise moments and the sum of clockwise moments.
6. Repeat another three times with weights in different positions. For the last
set of readings, place two weights on the left hand side of the pivot and
balance them with a single weight on the right.

Results and conclusion

Compare the magnitude of the anticlockwise with the clockwise moments for
each set of readings and draw a conclusion.

68 Topic 2 Physics: Mechanics

 TOPIC 2
Discussion
See whether your conclusion to the experiment agrees with the principle of
moments:

Principle of moments:
A body is in rotational equilibrium provided the sum of the clockwise moments
equals the sum of the anticlockwise moments.
Stated as an equation (for a body in equilibrium):
Sum of anticlockwise moments = sum of clockwise moments

This law applies to rotational equilibrium. Equilibrium for linear motion requires
that the net force on the body is zero.
In calculations, ensure that distances are in metres and weights in newtons. Use
the equation, weight = mg to convert masses to weight.

Worked example 1
d1
0.6 m
d2 d3
0.3 m 0.3 m

5N Hint
10 N pivot Calculate the anticlockwise and
clockwise moments separately.
20 N

Figure 53
Figure 53 shows three weights on a lever that rests on a pivot at its centre. Use
the principle of moments to check whether the lever is in equilibrium.

Answer
Sum of anticlockwise moments = (F1 × d1) + (F2 × d2)
= (5.0 N × 0.60 m) + (10.0 N × 0.30 m)
= 3.0 N∙m + 3.0 N∙m
= 6.0 N∙m
Sum of clockwise moments = F3 × d3
= 20.0 N × 0.30 m
= 6.0 N∙m
So, sum of anticlockwise moments = sum of clockwise moments and the lever is
in equilibrium.

Sub-topic 3 Moments of forces 69

 Worked example 2
Figure 54 shows two weights on a lever d1 d2 m2
that rests on a pivot at the centre of the 200 mm ? 80 g
lever. Calculate how far the 80 g mass must
be from the pivot in order to balance the
lever. 1.0N pivot
F2 ?

Answer Figure 54
Step 1 Calculate the weight of the 80 g mass piece. Variables
F2 = m2 g = 0,08 kg × 10 m/s2 = 0.8 N F1 = 1.0 N
Step 2 Apply the law of moments. d1 = 200 mm = 0.20 m
Sum of anticlockwise moments m2 = 80 g = 0.08 kg
= sum of clockwise moments F2 = ?
F1 × d1 = F2 × d2 d2 = ?
1.0 N × 0.20 m = 0.8 N × d2
1.0 N × 0.2 m
d2 = _____________
0.8 N
= 0.25 m (250 mm)
Place the 80 g mass 250 mm from the pivot.

Practical application of moments

We use moments to help us do many tasks.
F
d pivot
F
pivot
F

Turn a door handle to open a door. Turn the tap’s handle to turn on the water.

anti-
large
clockwise
upward
clockwise small
force
effort
pivot

weight
of load
On a see-saw, a small weight far from A crowbar enables the man to move a
the pivot can balance a large weight heavy rock.
close to it.
Figure 55 Moments help us to do many tasks.

70 Topic 2 Physics: Mechanics

 TOPIC 2
Activity 20 Moments
Carry out this activity in pairs.
1. Explain the meaning of the term moment in physics.
2. State the principle of moments.
3. If you need to tighten a nut on a bolt, would you choose a spanner with a
long handle or with a short handle? Give reasons for your answer.
4. Most wheelbarrows have long handles. Explain whether to hold the handles
near the load or at the ends of the handles.

Figure 56
5. A person opens a bottle of orange juice with a bottle opener.

Figure 57
His hand applies a force of 20 N, 75 mm from the pivot. Calculate the force
on the edge of the bottle cap if it is 15 mm from the pivot.
6. The diagram shows three people on a see-saw.

2.1 m

2m 1.4 m

665 N 500 N 300 N

Use a calculation to show that the see-saw is in equilibrium.
7. Figure 58 shows a coin and a weight on a ruler that is balanced at its midpoint.
0.4 m 0.25 m
coin

0.16 N
F1
Figure 58
Use the information on the diagram to calculate:
a) the weight of the coin
b) the mass of the coin.

Sub-topic 3 Moments of forces 71

SUB-TOPIC 4 Work, energy and power

Define work, energy and

power
A crane does work when it lifts a load and it
needs a source of energy to be able to do so. If it
lifts the load faster, it does more work in each
second, and the power of the crane is greater.

Figure 59 A crane does work

when it lifts a load.

Remember
To calculate work, d is the
distance moved by the force
Work but to calculate a moment d is
In physics, work is defined as follows: the distance between the force
work = force × distance moved in the and the pivot.
direction of the force

In symbols: W = Fd New words

where: work: the force multiplied by
F = force (N) the distance moved in the
d = distance (m) or displacement moved in the direction of the force
direction of the force
W = work (J). direction
of movement

The unit of measurement of work is the joule (J).

direction
Work is a scalar quantity and has magnitude
of
only. This means that, if you apply a force of force
10 N while you push a box 3 m across the floor,
you do 30 joules (30 J) of work.

When is work done?

It is important to know when work is done. The
words moved in the direction of the force are very Figure 60 The man is doing
important: work. He moves the boxes in
No work is done on a box of items that is the direction of the force as
stationary on a floor. he lifts them.

72 Topic 2 Physics: Mechanics

 TOPIC 2
No work is done on these boxes as the man
carries it across the room at constant velocity.
This is because the boxes are not moving in the
direction of the force.

Energy
For a crane to do work, it must have a source of
energy such as the fuel in the tank.

Energy is the ability to do work.

The symbol for energy is E. Like work, energy is

Figure 61 No work is done on
measured in joules (J) and is a scalar quantity. these boxes. The force and
displacement are at right angles.
Power
Rate means the “amount per time unit”. We
give a special name to the amount of work that is done each second, power.

Power is the rate of doing work. New words

Power, symbol P, is measured in watts (W) and energy: the ability to do work
is a scalar quantity. power: the rate of doing work

Did you know?

200 years ago James Watt
designed a new type of steam
engine and James Prescott
Joule discovered the
relationship between work and
heat.

Tip
W in an equation means
“work”.
Figure 62 An electric drill with a power of W after a number means
550 watts (550 W): It does 550 joules (550 J) “watts”.
of work each second.

Sub-topic 4 Work, energy and power 73

Calculate work
Calculate work with the equation, W = Fd, where F is the force and d is the
distance moved in the direction (line of action) of the force.

Worked example 1
A force of 4 N acts on a block over a distance of 5 m. Calculate the work done
on the block:

F
4N
d
5m

Figure 63

Answer
W = Fd
=4N×5m
= 20 J
The force does 20 J of work.

Activity 21 Work, energy and power

Answer the following questions in pairs.
1. Make a table of the following information about each of energy, work and
power: definition and symbol of the quantity, unit and symbol of
measurement.
2. For each of the following situations, explain whether work is being done:
a) A woman carrying a baby walks at constant velocity along a horizontal road.
b) A boy pushes against a wall.
c) A girl pushes a book across the table.
3. Calculate the work done in the following situations:
a) A force of 15 N is applied to an object while it moves 8 m in the direction
of the force.
b) A boy applies a constant upwards force of 50 N while he lifts a bag 1.5 m
vertically upwards.
c) A person pushes a crate 10 m at constant velocity across a level concrete
floor. The floor exerts a frictional force of 150 N on the crate.

74 Topic 2 Physics: Mechanics

 TOPIC 2

Forms of energy
There are two main forms of energy:

Kinetic energy
Kinetic energy is the energy that a body has because it is moving.

Figure 64 The kinetic energy of the Figure 65 The flowing water of the
ball does work: It knocks the bails Zambezi River has kinetic energy
off the stumps. because it is moving.
Equation for kinetic energy
Kinetic energy (Ek) = __1 mv2 New words
2
where: kinetic energy: the energy that
m = mass (kg) a body has because it is
v = velocity or speed (m/s) moving
Ek = kinetic energy (J)
Kinetic energy is proportional to the square of the velocity. If a body doubles its speed,
it has four times (22) the kinetic energy. This is why, for the same force, the brakes of a
car need four times the distance to stop a car driving at 40 m/s than at 20 m/s.

Potential energy
Potential energy is the energy which is stored in a system because of its position,
shape or state.

Figure 66 Examples of potential energy

Water in a dam has energy because of its position above a power plant. A
compressed spring has energy because of its shape. Water has more energy in the
gas state than when it is ice: The photo on the far right shows hot water and steam
(from beneath the earth’s surface) erupting onto the cold surface in Iceland.

Sub-topic 4 Work, energy and power 75

Types of potential energy
There are several types of potential energy. Some
of these are:
• Gravitational potential energy: This is the
energy a body has because of its position
relative to the ground. A stone that is
dropped can do work when it hits the
ground.
• Chemical potential energy: The chemicals in
a battery provide the energy that lights a light
bulb.
• Electrical potential energy: Lightning flashes
result from the energy of electric charges in Figure 67 Lightning is a release
thunder clouds. of electrical potential energy.

Equation for gravitational potential

New words
energy
potential energy: the energy
Gravitational potential energy (Ep) = mgh
which is stored in system
where: because of its position, shape
m = mass (kg) or state
g = acceleration due to gravity (m/s2 of N/kg) gravitational potential energy:
h = height of body (m) the energy a body has because
Ep = gravitational potential energy (J) of its position relative to the
ground
Gravitational potential energy is the work done
to lift a body of weight mg to a height h.

Mechanical energy
When the bob of a pendulum swings
downwards, its kinetic energy increases
but its gravitational potential energy
decreases. As it swings up again, the
E p = max E p = max
change of energy is the other way Ek= 0 Ek= 0
round. Kinetic and gravitational
potential energy are forms of E p = min
mechanical energy. E k = max

Figure 68 In a pendulum, kinetic

The mechanical energy of a body is
energy and gravitational potential
the sum of its kinetic energy and energy transfer from one to the other.
gravitational potential energy.

76 Topic 2 Physics: Mechanics

 TOPIC 2
Worked example
At a certain point, a 200 g pendulum bob is 120 mm above the lowest point of
its motion and has a speed of 0.90 m/s. Calculate:
1. the kinetic energy of the bob
2. the gravitational potential energy of the bob
3. the mechanical energy of the bob.

Answer
1 mv2
1. Ek = __ Variables
2
Change mass to kilograms and
= 0.5 × 0.2 kg × (0.90 m/s)2
height to metres:
= 0.081 J
m = 200 g = 0.2 kg
= 0.08 J (to 2 significant figures)
v = 0.90 m/s
2. Ep = mgh
h = 120 mm = 0.12 m
= 0.2 kg × 10 m/s2 × 0.12 m
Ek = ?
= 0.24 J
Ep = ?
3. Mechanical energy = Ek + Ep
Mechanical energy = ?
= 0.08 J + 0.24 J
= 0,32 J

Tip
In questions, “gravitational potential energy” is sometimes shortened to “potential energy”.

Some energy values

Gravitational potential energy
of 1 kg (1 m above the ground) 10 J
Kinetic energy
of a car travelling at 40 km/h 75 kJ
Chemical potential energy
of 1 litre of petrol 35 MJ
(35,000 kJ)
Heat energy
needed to boil 2 litres of water 600 kJ
Electrical potential energy
of a fully charged car battery 2,000 kJ
Figure 69 The average car’s
petrol tank can hold between
50 and 60 litres, so one tank
of fuel has the chemical
potential energy of between
1,750 MJ and 2,100 MJ.

Sub-topic 4 Work, energy and power 77

 Worked example
Worked example
Calculate the speed of a 150 g ball that has a kinetic energy of 4.8 J.

Answer
1 mv2
Ek = __ Variables
2
1 × 0.15 kg × v2 m = 150 g = 0.15 kg
4.8 J = __
2 Ek = 4.8 J
4.8 = 0.075 × v2 v=?
0.075 × v2 = 4.8
v2 = 64
v = 8 m/s (take the square root of 64)

Activity 22 Mechanical energy

Answer the following questions on your own.
1. Describe what is meant by mechanical energy.
2. A 160 g ball is thrown upwards, as shown below:

5 m/s

7m

Figure 70
Use the data in Figure 70 to calculate its:
a) kinetic energy
b) gravitational potential energy (measured from the ground)
c) mechanical energy.
3. Calculate the speed of a 100 g ball that has a kinetic energy of 20 J.

Sources of energy New words

Farms, offices, shops, vehicles, factories and our
renewable energy: the energy
homes all need sources of energy. The source of the of the energy source can be
energy is not always obvious: Electricity can be replaced
generated from a number of energy sources such non-renewable energy: the
as coal, hydroelectricity and natural gas, to name energy of the source cannot be
a few. replaced

Renewable and non-renewable energy sources

Energy sources are either renewable or non-renewable energy.

78 Topic 2 Physics: Mechanics

 TOPIC 2
Renewable energy sources
The energy of these sources can be replaced. Our food is from renewable energy
resources such as grain, vegetables, fruit and animals. Firewood is a renewable fuel.
If we do not cut down too many of them, the trees and bushes will grow and
provide fuel in the future.

Hydroelectric energy Wind energy

Water stored in a dam loses its gravitational In places with strong winds, wind
potential energy as it flows down through turbines turn generators
pipes. The water turns blades in turbines that
drive generators and produce electricity. The
energy is renewable because rainwater flows
into rivers that fill the dam. Zambia produces
the bulk of its electrical energy in this way.
Many African
countries, such as
Zambia, rely on
hydroelectric power. A wind turbine changes the
The The Kariba kinetic energy of the wind
hydroelectric dam into electrical energy.
supplies the
Copperbelt with Energy from biofuels
electricity Plant matter and animal waste is
burnt to release its stored energy.
Firewood is one of the most
Types of renewable important biofuels. In some
energy sources countries, alcohol is produced from
sugar cane and added to petrol.
Biogas is a type of biofuel. It forms
Geothermal energy when organic matter breaks down in
The interior of the earth is very hot, and at the absence of oxygen. Most of the
places near volcanoes and hot springs, gas that is formed is methane, which
this heat reaches the surface. It can be can be used for heating and
used to heat buildings and, if there is electricity generation.
sufficient energy, to generate electricity.

Solar energy
Sunlight heats water
directly in water panels or
becomes electrical energy
in photovoltaic panels.

Solar energy Photo-voltaic panels change solar

heats water. energy into electrical energy.

Figure 71 Renewable energy sources

Sub-topic 4 Work, energy and power 79
Non-renewable energy sources
At some point, we will run out of non-renewable sources of energy. It is important
that we conserve these resources, otherwise they will become depleted.

Types of non-renewable
energy sources

Fossil fuel energy Nuclear energy

Once they have been burnt, fossil fuels In nuclear power stations, reactions in
cannot be replaced. They are the remains the nuclei at the centre of uranium atoms
of plant and animal life that lived millions release energy.
of years ago and formed coal, petroleum
oil and natural gas.
The world is heavily dependent on fossil
fuels for vehicles and power stations.

Nuclear power stations generate

much electricity from small quantities
of uranium. But, the used uranium is
still very dangerous and will be so for
thousands of years.
A train carrying coal to the power
station.

Tip
Except for nuclear energy, the
sun is the original source of all
the energies we use.

Coal-fired power stations, like this

one, can generate much electricity.
But, they also cause large scale
pollution.

Figure 72 Non-renewable energy sources

80 Topic 2 Physics: Mechanics

 TOPIC 2

Energy use: The effects on the environment

When we use energy sources, we sometimes New words
damage the environment.
environment: conditions that
Pollution people, plants and animals live in
pollution: damage to the
Pollution is damage to the environment that environment that results from
results from human activity. Good planning and human activity
management keeps this to a minimum. land degradation: reduced
ability of the land to support life
Air pollution
Burning a fuel such as coal causes air pollution. The
smoke particles damage our lungs and some of the
gases damage our health.
Fuels produce carbon dioxide when they burn. This
is considered to be the main cause of global warming
which brings about changes to the climate.
Water pollution
Figure 73 Air pollution
Petroleum oil that spills from ships or oil wells into the
seas or into rivers causes water pollution.

Land degradation
When land is degraded, it cannot support life as well
as it did before.
Mining: Open cast mines
Figure 74 Water pollution
To reach coal that is near the surface, the topsoil and
rock is stripped away. Even if the soil is replaced, it is
difficult and costly to replace the plant and animal life.
Deforestation
When too many trees and bushes are removed for
fuel, erosion causes land degradation.
Figure 73 Land degradation:
Hydroelectricity and the environment
open cast mines pollution
Hydroelectric power stations use renewable energy
and do not produce pollution. However, a dam across
a river can cause environmental problems such as
preventing the migration of fish. People who lived in
the flooded area need to be assisted with housing,
jobs or new land. Environmental authorities carry out
an environmental impact assessment before a new
project is started.
Figure 73 Deforestation

Sub-topic 4 Work, energy and power 81

 Activity 23 Energy sources and the environment
Discuss the following questions in groups of four and record your answers:
1. What is meant by renewable and non-renewable sources of energy? In each case,
give an example of a source of energy.
2. Make a list of the energy sources that people make use of in your community.
For each of the energy sources on the list:
a) discuss the effects on the environment of obtaining and using the energy
b) suggest ways of reducing damage to the environment that is caused by the
supply and use of the energy.

Energy transformation
New words
As we have seen with the pendulum, one form
of energy can change to another. These are energy transformation: energy
energy transformations. changes from one form to
another

Activity 24
In this experiment, you will work with an electric circuit.
Carry out this experiment in groups of four.
Experiment
Materials Aim
You will need: Observe energy transformation in an electric circuit.
• 2 × torch batteries
(1.5 V)
• 1 × 3.0 V torch bulb
• 2 × connecting wires
• a switch (optional)

Figure 77 How to set up the apparatus

Procedure
1. Connect the circuit as shown in Figure 77. Leave the switch open (circuit
disconnected).
2. Close the switch (circuit connected).
3. Observe the energy radiated by the light bulb. Touch the bulb and see if its
temperature has changed.

Results
The light bulb gives out light and becomes hot.

82 Topic 2 Physics: Mechanics

 TOPIC 2
Energy transformation in an electric circuit
Figure 78 is a diagram of the energy
New words
transformations in the electrical circuit.
Chemical energy in the battery becomes heat: the transfer of energy
electrical energy in the wires. In the light bulb, from a hotter body to a cooler
electrical energy becomes light energy and heat. body
Electrical energy is very useful because we can
change it to other forms of energy, such as: kinetic energy with a motor, heat
energy with a resistance wire, or light energy with a light bulb.

heat
heat

chemical electrical
potential potential
energy energy light

battery circuit lightbulb

Figure 78 Energy transformations in the circuit with a light bulb.

Activity 25 Energy transformations

Answer the following questions in pairs:
1. Fill in the missing words: Water in a dam has – (a) – potential energy. This
becomes – (b) – when it falls through a pipe and turns the blades of a turbine.
In the generator, mechanical energy becomes – (c) – energy.
2. Describe the energy transformations that take place from when sunlight falls
on a tree to when its wood is burnt in a fire.

Sub-topic 4 Work, energy and power 83

Efficiency
Energy input is the energy supplied to a device.
Not all of the energy input becomes the energy
New words
output that we want. In the previous efficiency: how well a system
experiment, a lot of the output energy of the changes an input into an output
bulb was heat. For this type of bulb, as little as with as little waste as possible
10% of the input energy becomes light. Such a
bulb is only 10% efficient.
energy output
efficiency = ______________ × 100%
energy input

Worked example
The input energy of a motor is 800 J. Calculate its efficiency if its output energy
over the same time interval is 680 J.

Answer
energy output
efficiency = ______________ × 100% Variables
energy input
input energy = 800 J
680 J
= _____ × 100% output energy = 680 J
800 J
= 85%

Conservation of energy
In science, when we say that something is conserved, we mean that the total
amount remains constant. Conservation of energy is one of the important ideas of
science.

The principle of conservation of energy: Energy cannot be created or destroyed

but it can change from one form to another.
This means that a machine cannot have an energy output that is larger than the
input. When we consider energy transformations in a process, the total output
must equal the input. So if 10 J of electrical energy enters a light bulb, all the types
of energy that leave it will add up to 10 J.

10 J of electrical energy
9 J of heat

1 J of light
} 10 J of
energy

Figure 79 Energy transformations in the circuit with a light bulb.

84 Topic 2 Physics: Mechanics

 TOPIC 2

Calculate power
Two boys, with the same mass, race each other to the top of a hill. The amount of
work is the same for both of them, but the power of the one who gets there first is
greater. Calculate power as follows:
work done
power = ___________
time Some power values
In symbols: P = W
__ , where:
t electric kettle up to 2,000 W
W = work (J)
small car 55 kW
t = time (s)
P = power. Unit of measurement: Kariba North Bank 1,080 MW
watt, symbol W. power station

Figure 80 Sources of light: a candle, an incandescent bulb,

an energy-saving bulb and an LED bulb.
For the same amount of light, the energy input of an LED bulb
is less than that of all the other sources of light.

Activity 26 Energy, work and power

Answer the following questions on your own:
A small electric motor transforms 40 J of electrical energy to 32 J mechanical
energy and the reminder to heat.
1. Calculate the quantity of heat produced.
2. Name and state the principle applied in Question 1.
3. Calculate the efficiency of the motor.
4. If the power output of the motor is 10 W, calculate the time taken for the
motor to have an output of 32 J.

Sub-topic 4 Work, energy and power 85

SUB-TOPIC 5 Simple machines

We use machines to make it easier to do jobs

where we need to apply a force. Some machines
enable a large load to be overcome by a smaller
effort force.

A machine is a mechanical device that

enables an effort force to overcome a load.
Example: A wheelbarrow makes it easy to carry a
Figure 81
load of bricks. The weight of the bricks is the
load and the force of the hand on the handle is New words
the effort. See Figure 81.
machine: a mechanical device
that enables an effort force to
Types of simple machines overcome a load force
effort force (effort): the force
There are six types of simple machines. A exerted on a machine so that it
wheelbarrow is a simple machine. Other can overcome a load force
machines, such as bicycles, combine a number load force (load): the force that
a machine overcomes
of simple machines.
inclined plane: a sloping
Inclined plane surface used to lift loads
wedge: a V-shaped object that
It is easier to pull a load up a ramp than to lift it changes the effort force into a
vertically. An inclined plane is a sloping strong sideways force
surface. Example: a mountain pass. screw: an inclined plane that
curves in a spiral
It is easier to pull the load up the inclined plane
than to lift it vertically.

Wedge
A wedge is V-shaped and
changes the effort force into
a strong sideways force.
Examples: chisel, clothing
zip, scissor blades.
A wedge changes the
effort force into a strong Figure 82 An inclined plane Figure 83 A wedge
sideways force. By striking the wedge downwards, the
wedge transfers the energy sideways to split the wood.

Screw
A screw is an inclined plane that curves in a spiral. Figure 84 Nut and bolt
Examples: screws, bolts, cork screw. with a screw thread

86 Topic 2 Physics: Mechanics

 TOPIC 2
Lever
A lever is a rigid bar that turns on a pivot
(a central point around which something
can turn or move). Examples: wheelbarrow,
pair of scissors.

Pulley
Figure 85 The handle (lever) on
A pulley is a wheel with a groove in the rim that the water pump makes it easy
takes a rope, belt or chain. Example: a crane. to pump water from below the
ground – even a child can
operate the pump.
New words
lever: a rigid bar that turns on a
pivot
pulley: a wheel with a grooved
rim that takes a rope, belt or
chain
wheel and axle: a wheel is fixed
to an axle
Figure 86 This pulley changes the direction of
the force.

Wheel and axle

A wheel and axle has a wheel fixed to an axle.
Example: The steering wheel of a bus or car is
fixed to an axle or shaft. This transfers the
turning force to the turning mechanism of the
vehicle. Figure 87 The steering wheel is
attached to an axle.
Activity 27 Simple machines
Answer the first two questions in pairs.
1. For each of the following, identify the type of simple machine: knife; circular
knob on a radio; crowbar; shovel; jar lid; ramp; carpentry nail; screw driver;
flag hoist.
2. A library has five steps leading up to its
front door. Discuss how the entrance could
be changed so that it is easier for people
in wheelchairs to access the library. See
Figure 88.
3. As a class, discuss ways that we use
machines to perform tasks and make
Figure 88
life easier.

Sub-topic 5 Simple machines 87

Calculations involving simple machines
A bottle opener must be able to remove the cap
of a bottle with the force applied by one hand.
There are a number of equations that can help
us design the machine we want.

Mechanical advantage
Mechanical advantage is a ratio of two forces Figure 89 A bottle opener
is a simple machine.
(load and effort) and does not have units.
load
The definition of mechanical advantage is: MA = ______
effort
Velocity Ratio
The velocity ratio compares the distance moved New words
by the effort with the distance moved by the
mechanical advantage: a ratio
load in the same time. of the two forces, load and effort
The definition of the velocity ratio is: velocity ratio: a ratio that
distance moved by effort compares the distance moved
VR = ________________________ by the effort with the distance
distance moved by load
The further the effort force moves, the larger the moved by the load in the same
time
velocity ratio and the easier it is to move the load.

Activity 28 Mechanical advantage and velocity ratio

In this experiment, you will work with a pulleys and a spring balance.
Carry out this experiment in groups of four.
Experiment
Materials Aim
You will need: Compare the mechanical
• 2 × pulleys advantage and the velocity ratio
• a piece of string for a pulley system.
• 100 g mass piece
Part 1: Procedure
• a ruler
• a spring balance 1. Use the spring balance to
measure the combined
weight of the mass piece
and lower pulley (load).
2. Suspend the mass piece
from the pulley system and Figure 90 Measure
measure the effort as the effort
shown in Figure 90.
3. Calculate the mechanical advantage of the system.

88 Topic 2 Physics: Mechanics

 TOPIC 2
Part 2: Procedure
1. Measure the height of the load above the table.
2. Lift the load. Pull 100 mm of string from the top pulley.
3. Measure the height of the load above the table and calculate the distance
that the load has moved.
4. Calculate the velocity ratio of the system.

Results and conclusion

Compare the mechanical advantage of the pulley system with its velocity ratio.
Suggest an explanation for the results.

Compare MA and VR of a pulley system

In the experiment, you pulled a length of 100 mm of string from the top pulley.
Therefore, the distance moved by effort = 100 mm.

In the same time, each length of the string that supported the bottom pulley
became 50 mm shorter, and the load rose by 50 mm.
Therefore, the distance moved by load = 50 mm.

distance moved by effort Remember

VR = ________________________
distance moved by load If you can ignore friction, the
= 100 mm
________ mechanical advantage is the
50 mm same as the velocity ratio.
=2
The effort moves twice as far as the load does in
the same time.
If there is no friction, the load is twice the
effort. However, because of friction in the pulley
system, it is less than that. The mechanical
advantage is slightly less than 2.

An easy way to find out the velocity ratio of a

pulley system is to count the number of lengths
of string that support the load. In the
experiment it is two. In Figure 91, it is 4 and
1 of the load.
each string supports __
4

Figure 91 The velocity ratio

of this pulley system is 4.

Sub-topic 5 Simple machines 89

Work and machines
In a machine, forces cause movement and so work is done:
work = force × distance moved in the direction of the force

Efficiency
To be efficient is to produce something with as little work or waste as
possible. If it were possible for a machine to have no friction, all of the
work done by the effort would be transferred to the load.
Such a machine would be 100% efficient. However, there is always some
friction and we calculate the efficiency of a machine as follows:
MA × 100%
efficiency = ____
VR
Friction causes the MA to be less than the VR and so the efficiency is less
than 100%.

Worked example
The velocity ratio of the pulley system is 4
(this is the same pulley system as that in Figure 91 on
the previous page).
If the weight of the mass piece and pulley is 1.08 N,
and the effort force is 0.3 N, calculate the machine’s:
1. mechanical advantage (MA)
2. efficiency.

Answers
load
1. MA = ______ Variables
effort
1.08 N VR = 4
= _______ load = 1.08 N
0.3 N
= 3.6 effort = 0.3 N
MA = ?

efficiency = ?
The mechanical advantage is 3.6
Figure 92
(i.e. the load is 3.6 times the effort).
MA × 100%
2. efficiency = ____
VR
= 3.6
____ × 100%
4
= 0.9 × 100%
= 90%
The efficiency of the pulley system is 90%.

90 Topic 2 Physics: Mechanics

 TOPIC 2
Inclined plane

effort 750 N

180 kg

or t
ef f e 1 m load
m
3 tanc distance
dis

weight
Figure 93 A ramp is an inclined plane.
Study Figure 93 of a barrel that is rolled up a ramp (inclined plane). The
effort distance of 3 m raises the barrel 1 m above the ground. So, the
velocity ratio is 3.0. Because of friction, the mechanical advantage is less
than 3.0. However, it is still much easier to roll the barrel up the
inclined plane than to lift it up vertically.

Activity 29 VR, MA and efficiency

Answer the following questions about the ramp in Figure 93 in pairs:
1. Show by calculation that the velocity ratio of the ramp is 3.0.
2. The barrel has a mass of 180 kg, and the effort force is 750 N
Calculate the:
a) load force
b) mechanical advantage of the ramp
c) efficiency of the ramp.
3. Give a reason why the MA is less than the VR.

Distances moved by effort and load

The following summarises what you have found out about the distances
that the effort and load forces move in a simple machine:

VR and MA greater than 1: Force multiplier

An inclined plane has a VR greater than 1 and the load is larger than the
effort. It multiplies the force. However, the distance that the load moves
is less than that of the effort.

VR and MA greater than 1: Distance multiplier

A machine with a VR and MA that are less than 1 multiplies the distance
that the load moves but the load is less than the effort.

Sub-topic 5 Simple machines 91

Levers: velocity ratio and mechanical advantage
In Figure 94, a girl uses a lever
to lift a weight. She pushes the
effort side of the lever down
1.0 m and lifts the load 0.5 m
upwards. Therefore, the VR is 2. 1m
Assuming there is no friction, 2m 1m
the MA is also 2. If so, the load
of 80 N is twice the effort and 0.5 m
the effort force is 40 N (half the
load). 40 N effort pivot
You can see on the diagram that
80 N load
the load is half the distance that
Figure 94 The velocity ratio of this lever is 2.
the effort is from the pivot.

Classes of levers
There are three ways to arrange the effort, load and pivot of a lever.
Study the velocity ratios and mechanical advantages that are possible in
the three classes of levers.

Class 1 lever: Pivot between effort and load

Class 1 levers can increase either the load force or the load distance.
In Figure 95, the pair of pliers increases the load force (VR > 1, MA > 1)
but the boom increases the load distance (VR < 1, MA < 1).

pivot

effort
load

pivot

load

effort

Figure 95 Class 1 levers

92 Topic 2 Physics: Mechanics

 TOPIC 2
Class 2 lever: Load between pivot and effort
A class 2 lever increases the load force (VR > 1, MA > 1).

effort

pivot
load

Figure 96 Class 2 lever

Class 3 lever: Effort between pivot and load

A class 3 lever increases the load distance (VR < 1, MA < 1).

effort
pivot

load

Figure 97 A stapler is a class 3 lever

Gears
Gears are toothed wheels that can be fixed on axles or shafts. When
they are in contact they transmit motion from one axle to another. The
gear turned by a handle or a motor is the input gear and the other Figure
97 output gear.
In the case of gears, the velocity ratio is also
called the gear ratio. New words
For gears, the velocity ratio is the number of
gear: a toothed wheel that can
times that the input gear turns for one turn of
be fixed on an axle or shaft
the output gear.

Sub-topic 5 Simple machines 93

In Figure 98, you can see that the input
gear has to turn round twice to make the
output
output gear go round once, so its VR is 2. gear shaft
The large gear turns slower but its or axle
moment is larger than the small gear.
Another way to calculate the VR of a gear input
gear
system is: shaft
number of teeth on output gear or axle
VR = ______________________________
number of teeth on input gear
Notice that we do not measure the
distance that the teeth move.

Uses of gears
Figure 98 A small input gear
A bicycle uses gears to make the back turning a larger output gear.
wheel go round. The distance that the
wheel moves over the ground is much
further than the distance that the chain
moves, so the VR and the MA are both
less than one. A bicycle is a machine that
multiplies the distance that the rider’s
feet move.
A car has a gearbox that has a number
of combinations of gears. This allows the
driver to change gears to adjust for the
circumstances. Approximate velocity Figure 99 A chain links the gear at the
ratios for a car are 3 for first gear and 1 pedals to the one on the wheel.
for fourth gear.

Activity 30 Levers and gears

Answer the following questions on your own:
1. An input gear has 40 teeth and is linked to an output gear which has
120 teeth.
a) Calculate the velocity ratio of the gear system.
b) If the input gear turns 6 times, how many times does the output gear turn?
2. Explain why we say that:
a) a pair of pliers is a force multiplier
b) the human arm is a distance multiplier.
3. Which class of levers is a pair of scissors? Give a reason for your answer.

94 Topic 2 Physics: Mechanics

TOPIC

2 Summary, revision and assessment

Summary
Linear motion
• A scalar quantity is one which has only magnitude (size).
• A vector quantity has both magnitude and direction.
• Distance (symbol d) is the total path length that an object travels along from
one position to another.
• Displacement (symbol s) is a change of position. It is the magnitude and
direction of the straight line drawn from the initial to the final position.
• Speed is the distance travelled per unit time.
• Velocity (symbol v) is the rate of change of displacement.
• Acceleration (symbol a) is the rate of change of velocity.
• Displacement-time, speed-time, velocity-time and acceleration-time graphs
represent the motion of a body.
• Braking distance explains why speeding can be dangerous.
• A body is in free fall when the only force that acts on it is the gravitational force.
• Acceleration of free fall is constant and independent of mass.
• Terminal velocity is the maximum velocity of a body falling in air.

Forces
• A force is a “push” or a “pull”.
• Possible effects of a force on an object:
» change its state of rest by making it start to move
» change its state of motion (i.e. accelerate it)
» have no effect on its motion if the net force acting on it is zero
» change its shape.
• Inertia is the property of matter that causes it to resist any change in its motion.
• The net (or resultant) force is the combined effect of all the forces that act on a
body.
• Newton’s first law of motion: A body continues in a state of rest or uniform
velocity in a straight line unless a non-zero net force acts on it.
• Newton’s second law of motion: A net force that acts on a body accelerates it in
the direction of the force. The acceleration is directly proportional to the net
force, and is inversely proportional to the mass being accelerated.
• 1 newton is the net force that gives a mass of 1 kg an acceleration of 1 m/s2.
• Hooke’s law: The extension of a material is directly proportional to the force
that is stretching it.
• The frictional force opposes the motion of an object in contact with a surface.
• A centripetal force acts on a body to cause it to move in a circular path.

Topic 2 Summary, revision and assessment 95

Summary, revision and assessment continued

Moment of forces
• Calculate moments as follows: moment = force × perpendicular distance to pivot
• The units for moments are newton-metres, symbol N∙m.
• Principle of moments: A body is in rotational equilibrium provided the sum of
the clockwise moments equals the sum of the anticlockwise moments.

Work, energy and power

• Work = force × distance moved in the direction of the force, measured in joules.
• Energy is the ability to do work, measured in joules (J).
• Power is the rate of doing work, measured in watts (W).
• The two main types of energy:
» Kinetic energy: The energy that a body has because it is moving.
» Potential energy: The energy which is stored in a system because of its
position, shape or state.
• Some examples of potential energy are gravitational, chemical and electrical
potential energy.
• Mechanical energy is the sum of the kinetic energy and gravitational potential
energy of a body.
• Gravitational potential energy, Ep = mgh
• 1 mv2
Kinetic energy, Ek = __
2
• The energy of a renewable energy source can be replaced but the energy of a
non-renewable source cannot.
• Environmental effect: Use of energy sources can cause pollution and land
degradation.
• Energy transformation takes place when energy changes from one form to another.
energy output
• Efficiency = ______________ × 100%
energy input
• Principle of conservation of energy: Energy cannot be created or destroyed but
it can change from one form to another.
• work done
Power = ___________
time
Simple machines
• A machine is a device that enables an effort force to overcome a load force.
• Some machines enable a large load to be overcome by a small effort force (VR > 1
and MA > 1). Others increase the distance that the load moves (VR < 1 and MA < 1).
• There are six types of simple machine: inclined plane, wedge, screw, lever,
pulley, wheel and axle.
load
• Mechanical advantage, MA = ______
effort

96 Topic 2 Summary, revision and assessment

 distance moved by effort
• Velocity ratio, VR = ________________________
distance moved by load
• Work done = force × distance moved in the direction of the force
MA × 100%
• Efficiency = ____
VR
• Gears are toothed wheels that can be fixed on axles or shafts.
• Velocity ratio (gears) = number of turns of input gear for one turn of output gear.

Revision
Answer the following questions on your own:
1. The gradient of a velocity vs. time graph represents ...
A speed B velocity C displacement D acceleration (1)
2. A ball falls from rest. Its downward velocity after falling for 5 s is ...
A 10 m/s2 B 10 m/s C 50 m/s D 5 m/s (1)
3. When a net force of 1 N is applied to a trolley its acceleration is 1.2 m/s2.
The net force required to accelerate the trolley at 1.8 m/s2 is ...
A 0.5 N B 1.0 N C 1.5 N D 2.0 N (1)
4. A net force of gives a body of mass m an acceleration of 4 m/s2. A net
force of the same size that acts on a body of mass 2 m (twice the mass)
will give it an acceleration of ...
A 1 m/s2 B 2 m/s2 C 4 m/s2 D 8 m/s2 (1)
5. The unit of measurement of the moment of a force is the ...
A newton-metre B second C joule D watt (1)
6. To undo a tight nut and bolt choose a spanner with a handle that is ...
A short B long C narrow D wide (1)
7. When a force moves a body 1 m, it does 4 J of work. When the same force
moves the body 2 m, the work it does is ...
A 2J B 4J C 8J D 16 J (1)
8. The power of a fan that does 500 J of work in 4 s is ...
A 2,000 W B 500 W C 125 W D 0.008 W (1)
9. The gear attached to the back wheel of a bicycle is an example of a ...
A wheel and axle B screw C lever D wedge (1)
10. A machine lifts a 400 N load with an effort force of 500 N. The
mechanical advantage of the machine is ...
A 0.25 B 0.80 C 1.25 D 5.00 (1)
[10]

Topic 2 Summary, revision and assessment 97

Summary, revision and assessment continued

Assessment
Answer the following questions on your own:

Linear motion
1. Explain the difference between distance and displacement. [2]
2. A car accelerates for 8 s from rest from a stop street.
a) Use the following data to plot an accurate velocity-time graph of its
motion. (5)
Time (s) 0 2 4 6 8
Velocity (m/s) 0 4 8 12 16
b) Is the acceleration of the car uniform? Use the shape of the graph as a
reason for your answer. (2)
c) Use the graph to determine the car’s speed 5 s after it started moving. (1)
d) Draw a displacement vs. time sketch graph of the car’s motion. (3)
e) Give a reason why it is dangerous to drive a car above the speed limit. (1)
[12]
3. A train travelling at 15 m/s slows down with a uniform acceleration
of –0.5 m/s2.
a) Calculate the train’s speed after it has travelled a further 125 m. (3)
b) Calculate the time taken to travel 125 m in Question 3(a). (3)
c) Draw a speed-time sketch graph of the train’s motion. (3) [9]
4. A boy on a bridge throws a ball downwards with a velocity of 16 m/s.
Calculate the ball’s velocity after it has fallen 24 m. [3]

Forces
5. State Newton’s second law of motion. [2]
6. Calculate the net force required to give a body with a mass of 4 kg an
acceleration of 0.5 m/s2. [3]
7. In an experiment a learner uses a stretched spring to apply a force of
0.5 N to a 800 g trolley. The effect of frictional forces on the trolley is 0.1 N.
a) Calculate:
i) the net force acting on the trolley (2)
ii) the acceleration of the trolley. (3)
b) If the extension of the spring is 10 mm when it applies a force of
0.5 N, what is its extension when it applies a force of 1.5 N? (2)
c) Name the law that applies to the situation in Question 4(b). (1) [8]
8. A child rides a bicycle in a circle. Name and give the direction of the force
that causes a body to move in a circle. [2]

98 Topic 2 Summary, revision and assessment

Moments
9. Explain why it is easier to open a window or a door by pushing on it as
far from the hinge as possible. [2]
10. A mother of mass 60 kg and a child of mass 24 kg are sitting on opposite
sides of a see-saw. The child is 2.0 m from the pivot.
a) Draw a diagram to show the information. (3)
b) Calculate how far the mother sits from the pivot so that the see-saw
balances. (The pivot supports the beam of the see-saw directly below
its centre of mass.) (4) [7]

Work, energy and power

11. A boy throws a 150 g ball vertically upwards.
a) Calculate the gravitational potential energy of the ball when it is 3 m
above the ground. (2)
b) If the kinetic energy of the ball at a height of 3 m above the ground is
2.7 J, calculate its speed at that height. (3) [5]
12. The output of a small generator is 1 kW. Calculate how much energy the
generator supplies in one hour. [3]
13. Choose either coal or firewood as an energy source and answer the
following questions:
a) State whether it is a renewable or non-renewable energy source. (1)
b) Describe how the energy source can cause land degradation and
pollution and suggest possible ways to prevent this. (3) [4]

Simple machines
14. Name the six types of simple machines and give an example of each one. [12]
15. A crane has a pulley system that has a velocity ratio of 4 and lifts a
load of 300 kg.
a) Calculate:
i) the length of rope that is pulled from the pulleys at the top of the
crane to make the load rise 2 m (2)
ii) the weight of the load (2)
iii) the mechanical advantage of the crane if the effort force is 1,000 N (3)
iv) the efficiency of the crane. (3)
b) Give a reason why the mechanical advantage of a machine is less
than its velocity ratio. (1) [11]
TOTAL MARKS: 85

Topic 2 Summary, revision and assessment 99

Chemistry

Detailed contents
Topic 1 Chemistry: Introduction to Chemistry 101
Sub-topic 1 Introduction to Chemistry ....................................................................... 102
Summary ............................................................................................................................. 107
Revision ............................................................................................................................. 107
Assessment ............................................................................................................................. 108
Topic 2 Chemistry: The particulate nature of matter 109
Sub-topic 1 Matter and kinetic theory ......................................................................... 110
Sub-topic 2 Diffusion .......................................................................................................... 119
Summary ............................................................................................................................. 123
Revision ............................................................................................................................. 123
Assessment ............................................................................................................................. 124
Topic 3 Chemistry: Experimental techniques 125
Sub-topic 1 Measuring of quantities ............................................................................. 126
Sub-topic 2 Criteria of purity ........................................................................................... 131
Sub-topic 3 Separating mixtures ..................................................................................... 135
Summary ............................................................................................................................. 147
Revision ............................................................................................................................. 147
Assessment ............................................................................................................................. 148
Topic 4 Chemistry: Atoms, elements, compounds and molecules 149
Sub-topic 1 Atomic structure and the Periodic Table ............................................. 150
Sub-topic 2 Bonding ............................................................................................................ 162
Sub-topic 3 Chemical formulae and equations ........................................................ 174
Summary ............................................................................................................................. 178
Revision ............................................................................................................................. 179
Assessment ............................................................................................................................. 180

100
TOPIC

1
Chemistry: Introduction
to Chemistry

Sub-topic Specific Outcomes

Introduction to • Describe chemistry.

Chemistry • Classify the branches of chemistry.
• Explain the importance of chemistry.
• Describe the challenges of chemical industrial activities.
• Demonstrate an appreciation of safety in the laboratory.

Starter activity
Answer these questions in pairs.
1. Why do some substances burn easily and others do not?
2. Where do the medicines that we use come from?

3. Think about how a house is built

from bricks and cement.
a) Describe how to change
powdered cement into mortar
that holds the bricks together.
b) What is the main difference
between the powdered cement in
the bag and the mortar once it
has set?

4. Explain how you would purify river water so that it is safe to drink.

Topic 1 Chemistry: Introduction to Chemistry 101

SUB-TOPIC 1 Introduction to chemistry

What is chemistry?
Chemistry is the study of the particles that make
Did you know?
up matter and the changes that the particles can A chemist is a person who does
undergo. By studying chemistry, we discover chemical research and
what the particles themselves are made of, and experiments. A person who
dispenses medicine is also
also how they behave. This helps chemists to
known as a chemist, or a
make new substances, such as new medicines or pharmacist.
materials, which help us in our everyday lives.

What do chemists do?

1. They investigate the 2. They investigate the 3. They investigate how

structure of matter properties of matter matter changes
Copper is a metal After a while, the ice
that can conduct blocks (solid water) will
electricity – that is melt and become
why it is used in liquid water. But,
electrical wires. you could freeze
the water to get
The same particles can Plastic is strong, ice again.
be combined in different inexpensive to make,
ways to create many and can be see- This nail has rusted,
different types of through - that is why it and a new chemical
substances. is used to make food substance has formed in
containers and juice the process. Is it possible
bottles. to reverse this process?

Figure 1 What do chemists do?

Branches of chemistry
There are five major branches of chemistry.

1. Analytical chemistry
This branch of chemistry investigates what substances are made of. Analytical
chemistry helps chemists to identify the chemicals that are present in a sample, as
well as measure the quantity of each chemical. For example, an analytical chemist
can identify whether a sample of water has salt in it and, if so, how much.
Analytical chemistry is therefore very useful in the treatment of water, the
identification of poisons, the analysis of ore from copper mines, and the
production of soaps and detergents.

102 Topic 1 Chemistry: Introduction to Chemistry

 TOPIC 1
2. Physical chemistry The difference between
organic and inorganic
In this branch of chemistry, the link between
chemistry
chemistry and physics is strong. Physical
chemistry is the study of the physical H
characteristics of materials, and how they react
with other materials. For example, a physical H C H

chemist may study oil molecules to learn why oil H

is slippery, and why oil and water do not mix.
Figure 2 Methane
3. Organic chemistry
Methane (CH4) contains carbon, so
This is the study of substances that contain it is an organic molecule. Methane
carbon. Such substances are the basis of life and is a colourless and odourless gas
there are millions of them. Organic chemists that is found abundantly in nature.
have also produced many organic molecules We use it as a fuel.
that we do not find in nature, such as plastics.
H
4. Inorganic chemistry H N
H
This is the study of substances that do not contain
carbon – and there are more than a million of
Figure 3 Ammonia
these, too. Water, glass, cement and salt are just a
few examples of inorganic substances that we use Ammonia (NH3) does not contain
in our daily lives. carbon, so it is an inorganic
molecule. Ammonia is a colourless,
5. Biochemistry strong smelling gas that is found in
nature, but we produce it on a large
“Bio” means life, so biochemistry is the study of scale to make fertilizers and
the chemical nature of living matter. Therefore, cleaning products.
in this branch of chemistry, chemists investigate
the chemical compounds and energy changes in Did you know?
biological systems. For example, biochemical The hardest substance in the
reactions take place in order for our bodies to use human body is tooth enamel
the food that we eat. (not bone).
All of these branches of chemistry overlap
with one or two others.
There are also specialized branches of chemistry such as nuclear chemistry
which is about the chemical effects of radioactive elements such as uranium.

Activity 1 What is chemistry?

Answer these questions on your own:
1. Describe what chemistry is.
2. List the three things that chemists do in their line of work, and give an
example of each.
3. Briefly explain each of the five main branches of chemistry.

Sub-topic 1 Introduction to chemistry 103

The importance of chemistry
Knowledge of chemistry has great importance in our everyday lives.

Agriculture
• Fertilizers: Farmers use fertilizers made from chemical
elements such as nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium
can be to improve soil quality.
• Herbicides and pesticides: Farmers also use herbicides
and pesticides to improve the yield of the crop.
• Medicines and food supplements for livestock: Farm
animals need medicines and supplements to keep them
healthy.
• Processing agricultural products: Agricultural Figure 4 Chemistry helps
products must be processed so that they can be us to grow sugar cane
consumed. For example, a number of chemical and to extract the sugar.
processes are needed to extract sugar from sugar cane.

Industry
• Mining: We apply chemistry to extract minerals
such as copper from copper ore. This is a valuable
export product for Zambia.
• Plastics: Plastics are made from crude oil or coal.
Plastic materials are made into a wide range of
Figure 5 Chemistry helps
products, such as food containers, plastic bags, us to turn raw copper
water pipes, chairs, tents and so on. ore, like this ...
• Construction: The building industry uses cement
which is manufactured from limestone.
• Medicines: Many medicines are chemical
substances that were first identified in plants.
Chemists make copies of these substances in a
laboratory, and make sure that the medicines can
be produced on a large scale. Figure 6 ...into a valuable
• Other examples of chemistry in industry are fuels copper product.
produced from crude oil and the manufacture
of textiles, clothes, paint, soap, toothpaste New words
and so on.
laboratory: a room or building
in which scientific experiments
In the home or work happens
• Cooking: You combine ingredients, and add
energy (heat) to make a final product – a hot, cooked meal.
• Water: Tap water has been chemically treated to make it safe to drink.
• Cleaning products: Household soaps and detergents are designed to do the best
job possible.

104 Topic 1 Chemistry: Introduction to Chemistry

 TOPIC 1

The challenges of chemical industrial activities

The appreciation of chemistry means that we value
Did you know?
and understand the knowledge that the subject
gives us. So, while we can use the products of Kabwe suffers from
chemistry to benefit society, we must remember contamination of the soil and
water after many years of
that it can also do harm. For example, we can use
unregulated lead mining.
explosives to break up the ore in mines, but this
can cause damage to the natural landscape.

Harm to the environment

Although chemicals can improve our living conditions they can also cause pollution.
• Some chemical industries, such as the plastics manufacturing industry, produce
harmful by-products in the process: These by-products must be stored safely or
changed into less harmful substances. If not, there is a danger that they can
pollute the soil and water systems.
But, analytical chemistry helps us to identify pollutants and put measures in
place to prevent them from entering the environment.
• Sometimes, a product that is useful to humans is dangerous to the
environment: Plastic products are extremely
useful, but plastic bags, for example, can end Did you know?
up as litter. Because plastic does not degrade Plastic shopping bags do not
(break down) very much over time, the biodegrade. Over time (and
plastics remain in the natural environment for even inside a landfill site), the
a long time. Animals are especially harmed by plastic simply breaks down into
plastics in the environment. smaller and smaller pieces, but
does not degrade completely.
But, if we use chemical processes to recycle
On the other hand, a piece of
waste products, we can avoid this paper biodegrades completely
environmental damage. Plastics, glass and within one month.
paper are easily recycled into new products.

Activity 2 The importance of chemistry

Discuss and answer the following questions in groups of four:
1. Make a list of ten items that you use every day that involved a chemical
process to produce.
2. Name two agricultural activities in Zambia that show how important
chemistry is. (If necessary, do some research to find out how chemistry plays a
role in these activities.)
3. Name two industrial activities in Zambia that show how important chemistry
is.(If necessary, do some research to find out how chemistry plays a role in
these activities.)
4. List at least five different types of pollution that you see in your neighbourhood.
5. Suggest ways to reduce the types of pollution that you listed in question 4.

Sub-topic 1 Introduction to chemistry 105

Safety in the laboratory
Chemists have to follow certain rules when they
perform experiments in a laboratory. This is to
ensure the safety of everyone in and around the
laboratory. Most accidents in the laboratory are
due to carelessness and ignorance.

Figure 7 Laboratory equipment

The following rules must be observed
whenever you are in a laboratory:
1. Do NOT eat or taste anything in the laboratory.
2. Do NOT enter the laboratory without permission.
3. Do NOT carry out any experiments without permission, and never carry
out experiments alone.
4. Do NOT run inside the laboratory.
5. Do NOT leave any apparatus on the floor or in the passage ways.
6. Do NOT eat or drink in the laboratory.
7. Always keep your work space and apparatus clean and tidy, and put pieces
of apparatus back where you found them.
8. Do NOT pour chemicals down the sink. Ask your teacher how to dispose of
chemicals correctly.
9. Always make sure that the laboratory is well ventilated.
10. When mixing acids and water, always add the acid to the water and not the
other way round.
11. Tell your teacher immediately if you have some sort of accident in the
laboratory. If you have a burn, cut or chemical splash, wash it with lots of
water and then report it to your teacher.
12. If there is a serious emergency, such as a fire, walk calmly out of the
laboratory. Do NOT run to the exit and do not panic.

Activity 3 Safety in the laboratory

Discuss with your partner and write down your conclusions:
1. Why is it important not to leave apparatus and school bags in the
passageways of a laboratory?
2. Why must you never run inside a laboratory?

106 Topic 1 Chemistry: Introduction to Chemistry

TOPIC

1 Summary, revision and assessment

Summary
• Chemistry is the study of the particles that make up matter and the changes
that the particles can undergo. It is also the study of the structure and
properties of matter.
• There are five main branches of chemistry:
» Analytical chemistry
» Physical chemistry
» Organic chemistry
» Inorganic chemistry
» Biochemistry.
• Chemistry is an area of knowledge that has important applications in
agriculture, industry and in the home, but also in other fields.
• We can appreciate (value and understand) the role of chemistry in industrial
activities, but need to understand that these activities sometimes have
disadvantages for humans and the environment.
• Much of a chemist’s work is done in the laboratory.
• There are safety rules that apply to everyone in a laboratory.

Revision
1. Copy the paragraph below and fill in the missing words:
Chemistry is the study of the particles that make up _______ and the
_______ that the ______ can undergo. By studying chemistry, we discover
what the particles themselves are made of, and also how they _______. (4)
2. Match the branch of chemistry in column A with its description in column B:
1) Analytical A The study of compounds that contain the
chemistry element carbon.
2) Physical B The study of the chemical compounds
chemistry and energy changes in biological
systems.
3) Organic C The study of compounds that do not
chemistry contain the element carbon.
4) Inorganic D The study and measurement of
chemistry chemicals that are present in a sample.
5) Biochemistry E The study of the physical characteristics
of materials. (5)
3. Name three uses of plastics in the home. (3)
4. Name any three safety rules in the laboratory. (3)
[15]

Topic 1 Summary, revision and assessment 107

Summary, revision and assessment continued

Assessment
1. Write a short paragraph that describes the three important aspects of a
chemist’s work. [6]
2. Organic and inorganic chemistry:
a) Explain the difference between these two branches of chemistry. (2)
b) Give an example of a substance that would be studied in each of the
two branches. (1) [3]
3. Name, with reasons, three branches of chemistry that would help us to decide
how to purify water. [6]
4. Write a short paragraph that contains five facts about the importance of
chemistry in agriculture. [5]
5. Choose one of the following research topics:
A The effect of plastic pollution in Zambia.
B The impact of mining pollution in Zambia.
C Recycling waste products can reduce the levels of pollution in the country.

Step 1: Conduct research (at the library, on the internet or by talking to

people in your community) on your topic.
Step 2: Write a one-page report on your findings.
Step 3: Provide a list of references (books, websites or the names of the
people who you spoke to) on the second page of your report. [15]
TOTAL MARKS: 35

108 Topic 1 Summary, revision and assessment

TOPIC Chemistry:

2 The particulate
nature of matter

Sub-topic Specific Outcomes

Matter and the • Describe matter.

kinetic theory • Classify the basic units of matter.
• Classify the states of matter.
• Illustrate changes of states of matter.
• Describe the absorption of heat and release of heat
during changes of states of matter.

Diffusion • Describe diffusion.

• Demonstrate diffusion in fluids.
• Describe the factors that affect the rate of diffusion.

Starter activity
Answer the following questions in pairs:
1. When you add table salt (sodium chloride) to water and stir it:
a) What happens to the salt?
b) Can you see the salt particles in water after a few minutes?
c) How can you tell that there is salt in the water?
d) What does this tell you about the salt?
2. What happens when:
a) a solid (ice) is heated?
b) a liquid (water) is heated?
c) a gas is heated?
d) a liquid (water) is cooled?
3. Explain why you can smell if someone is cooking food, even if you are not
in the same room as them.

Topic 2 Chemistry: The particulate nature of matter 109

SUB-TOPIC 1 Matter and the kinetic theory

What is matter?
Matter is any substance that has mass and occupies space. All matter
is made up of very small and separate particles. We need to find out
what they are.

He
The basic units of matter
Ne
Some substances, such as carbon, cannot be broken down by
Ar
chemical means to form other substances. We say that carbon is
an element. Oxygen is also an element. Particles of these Figure 1 Examples
elements react chemically and combine to form carbon dioxide. of atoms
We call the smallest particles of each element that have the
chemical properties of that element, atoms. H H
H C
O
• They cannot be broken down any further by chemical means. O
H
• Some substances are made up of atoms alone, such as
neon (Ne) – the gas that is used in neon signs to make O C O
the letters glow.
Figure 2 Examples
If two or more atoms are joined together, they form a molecule. of molecules
• Molecules can consist of two or more atoms of the same type
(such as a molecule of oxygen, O2). O _
N O
• Or, they can consist of two or more different types of atoms
O +
(such as a molecule of carbon dioxide, CO2). _ Na
Cl
Some substances consist of ions.
• Ions are atoms or groups of atoms that carry an electric charge. Figure 3 Examples
• Table salt (sodium chloride, NaCl) is an example of a substance of ions
that consists of ions (Na+ and
New words
Cl–).
matter: any substance that has mass and occupies space
These particles are held together element: a substance that is made up of only one type of
by forces called intermolecular atom
forces. Even though they are held atom: the smallest particle of an element that has the
together, sometimes the force is chemical properties of that element
not enough to keep the particles molecule: two or more atoms that have been joined (or
bonded) together and that can exist independently
from moving. The strength (or
ion: an atom or a group of atoms that carries an electrical
weakness) of the intermolecular charge
forces that hold these particles intermolecular forces: a push or pull force between
together, and the kinetic energy particles of matter
that the particles have determine kinetic energy: the energy an object has because of its
movement
the state of matter.
110 Topic 2 Chemistry: The particulate nature of matter
 TOPIC 2

The states of matter

Matter exists in three states. These are solid, liquid and gas states.
Examples of these states of matter are shown in the table below.
The three states of matter
State Characteristics How are the Examples
particles arranged?
Solid Solids have fixed volume and shape. stones, wood
To change the shape of a solid and table salt
requires force, such as when it is
broken or cut with an instrument.

Liquid Liquids have fixed volume, but not water,

fixed shape. paraffin and
A liquid can change its shape and cooking oil
take on the shape of the container
that it is in.
Gas Gases do not have fixed volume or oxygen,
shape. carbon
A gas will expand to take up the full dioxide and
volume of the container that it is in. chlorine gas

Did you know?

There is a fourth state of matter – plasma. At very high temperatures, or when an
electrical current is passed through a gas, the gas particles break down into smaller,
charged particles, which we call plasma. Because plasma is similar to gas, we do not
include it when we talk about the three states of matter.

Although all matter is made up of particles, the New words

particles in each of the states of matter behave
plasma: gas particles that have
differently. For each state, the particles are
been broken down into smaller,
arranged differently, and move in different ways. charged particles

Activity 1 The states of matter

Answer the following questions in pairs:
1. What is matter?
2. Name the three basic units of matter.
3. Explain the difference between atoms and ions in terms of electrical charge.
4. Explain what intermolecular forces do.
5. Name the three common states of matter.
6. For each of the states named in question 5, give two everyday examples.

Sub-topic 1 Matter and the kinetic theory 111

Particle arrangement and movement
The kinetic theory states that the particles of matter are in a continual state of
random motion in gases and liquids, and vibrate rapidly in solids. It tries to
explain why the three states of matter (solid, liquid and gas) behave in the
manner that they do.

Did you know? New words

Random motion is motion in which a particle kinetic theory: a theory that helps
changes direction whenever it bumps into another to explain the behaviour of the
particle or the side of the container that it is in. particles in the three states of
‘Random’ means that we cannot predict where matter
the particle will be found, or in which direction it fluid: a substance that can flow and
will move. that does not have a fixed shape

Solids
The particles in a solid are closely packed and are not
free to move (see Figure 4). This is because the
particles have very little kinetic energy – not enough
to overcome the forces of intermolecular attraction.
The particles can only vibrate about their average Figure 4 The particles in a
solid only vibrate about
fixed positions.
their fixed positions: They
do not move around.
Liquids
A liquid is nearly incompressible (it cannot be
squeezed into a smaller container). In liquids, the
particles have enough energy to resist the force of
intermolecular attraction. So, they are free to move
randomly and can therefore move past each other. Figure 5 The particles in a
liquid can move randomly,
but they are confined to the
Gases shape of the container.
The particles in gases are much further apart than in
solids and liquids, and they move much faster. A gas
is compressible (it can be squeezed into a smaller
space). In a gas, the particles have enough kinetic
energy to overcome the effect of intermolecular
forces.

Both gases and liquids are able to flow and therefore Figure 6 The particles in a gas
they can be called fluids. move about randomly, and at
very high speed.

112 Topic 2 Chemistry: The particulate nature of matter

 TOPIC 2
Activity 2 Particle arrangement
Complete the following table on your own:
Copy the table into your exercise book and fill in the missing words in the first
two rows. Fill in the remaining cells to make the information correct.
State of matter Solid Liquid Gas
Example ________ ________ _________
Kinetic energy: low, medium or high?
Intermolecular forces: strong,
medium or weak?
Spaces between particles: very big,
big or small?
Does the substance have a fixed
mass: yes or no?
Does the substance have a fixed
volume: yes or no?
Does the substance have a fixed
shape: yes or no?
Can the substance flow: yes or no?

The kinetic theory and change of state of matter

The kinetic theory of matter tells us that:
i. All matter is made up of particles.
New words
ii. These particles are in constant random endothermic: a reaction or process
motion or vibrate rapidly. that absorbs heat from the
iii. When the temperature of matter increases, the surroundings
particles in solids vibrate more rapidly, and the exothermic: a reaction or process
that gives out heat to the
particles in liquids and gases move even faster.
surroundings

The kinetic theory explains why some substances are able to change from one state to
another. These changes are usually caused by either heating or cooling the substance.
When a substance gains heat, it gains kinetic energy which allows the particles to
move further apart. This can cause a change in state, but some substances need more
energy than others to do so. For example, an ice block will melt at room temperature,
but a piece of iron will melt only when it is heated to around 1,500 °C.
Think about what happens when ice cream in
Tip
a cone melts: We say that this type of process is
endothermic, because the ice cream is taking Remember that endo- in the word
heat energy (i.e. it is absorbing heat) from the endothermic sounds a bit like
“indoor”: Heat energy is taken in.
surroundings to use in the change of state from
Exo- in the word exothermic
solid to liquid. In an exothermic process, heat is reminds us of the word “exit”:
released to the surroundings as the change of Heat energy goes out.
state takes place.

Sub-topic 1 Matter and the kinetic theory 113

What causes a change of state?
Increasing the temperature
In Figure 7, a solid that is initially at room temperature is heated. Because heat is added
to the system, an endothermic process can take place. The heat energy causes the
particles to vibrate more violently. The solid will expand, but will still remain a solid.
This continues until the substance’s melting point is reached: At this temperature,
the particles have enough energy to break free from the intermolecular forces that were
holding them in the solid structure. Once this happens, the solid becomes a liquid.
room warmer than
melting point
temperature room temperature
(liquid)
(solid) (solid, but expanding)

heat heat
energy energy

Figure 7 To melt a solid, the solid’s melting point must be reached.

If the temperature is increased even more, it will reach the liquid’s boiling point.
What will happen then?

Decreasing the temperature

By cooling a substance down, we are removing heat from the system, so an
exothermic process can take place. Consider the liquid that was formed in Figure 7:
The reverse process of melting is freezing (or solidifying), so the particles in the
liquid will become less and less mobile. The liquid will contract as it cools.
Eventually, the particles will only have enough
energy to vibrate, but not move around. The New words
temperature at which this happens is the
freezing point. It is the same temperature as the melting point: the temperature at
which a solid becomes a liquid
solid’s melting point, in Figure 7 above.
boiling point: the temperature at
If a gas is cooled beyond its condensation which boiling occurs
point, it will become a liquid. freezing point: the temperature at
which a liquid becomes a solid
Changing the pressure condensation point: the
By changing the pressure on a substance, you temperature at which a gas
becomes a liquid
change the temperature.

Activity 3 The change of state of matter I

Answer the following questions in pairs.
1. Explain the difference between endothermic processes and exothermic processes.
2. Explain the processes named below and give an example from everyday life
of each:
a) condensation b) melting.
114 Topic 2 Chemistry: The particulate nature of matter
 TOPIC 2
Change of state: Melting
What is the change What happens to the Examples
of state? particles?
liquid When a liquid is heated up, its • A block of ice melts if left
particles gain heat. outside the freezer.
This means that there is an • A piece of butter melts in
increase in the kinetic energy pan on a stove.
and random motion of the • Ice cream melts on a
solid particles. hot day.
Eventually, the particles will
Endothermic or
gain enough energy for them to
exothermic? break free from the orderly
Endothermic arrangement in the solid and
move around freely as a liquid.
At what The temperature remains
temperature? constant until the whole solid
melts.
The melting point of
the solid Figure 8 The ice cream
melts because heat from
the surrounding
environment is being
absorbed.

Change of state: Freezing (or solidifying)

What is the change What happens to the Examples
of state? particles?
liquid When a liquid is cooled down, • Jelly sets when you put it
its particles lose heat. in a fridge.
This means that there is a • Molten gold solidifies to
decrease in the kinetic energy form gold bars.
and random motion of the
solid particles.
It also means that the
Endothermic or
distances between the
exothermic? particles become shorter.
Exothermic As a result, the intermolecular
forces between the particles
At what are able to hold the particles in
temperature? a regular pattern. Figure 9 The temperature
Therefore, the liquid becomes in a freezer is low enough
The freezing point of
the liquid a solid (it solidifies). to change liquid water
The temperature remains into solid ice blocks.
constant until all the liquid has
solidified.

Sub-topic 1 Matter and the kinetic theory 115

Change of state: Evaporation
What is the What happens to the particles? Examples
change of
state?
gas Evaporation only occurs on the • A glass of water contains
surface of a liquid. less water if you leave it to
The liquid particles on the stand for a day or two.
surface of the liquid can get heat • Clothes that have been
energy from the air directly above washed dry when you hang
liquid the liquid. them outside.
This increases their kinetic
Endothermic or
energy and allows them to
exothermic? escape from the liquid into the air
Endothermic (as a gas).
At what If the air is much warmer than the
liquid, then more particles will be
temperature?
able to escape.
All temperatures
Note: Evaporation is not the Figure 10 Water loss
same as boiling. Boiling requires because of evaporation is
the whole volume of liquid to be a big problem for Lake
heated, but increasing the Kariba: Evaporation
temperature does increase the causes the water level in
rate of evaporation. the lake to drop by around
one metre every year.

Change of state: Condensation

What is the What happens to the particles? Examples
change of
state?
gas When a gas is cooled down, its • Tiny droplets of water form
particles lose heat. on an item after you have
This means that there is a taken it out of the fridge.
decrease in the kinetic energy • Water droplets form on the
and random motion of the inside of the lid of a cooking
liquid particles. pot.
It also means that the distances
Endothermic or
between the particles become
exothermic? shorter.
Exothermic As a result, the intermolecular
At what forces between the particles are
able to hold the particles closer
temperature?
together.
The Therefore, the gas becomes a
condensation liquid (it condenses). Figure 11 In the morning
point of the gas after a cool night, droplets
of dew form on plants and
grass.

116 Topic 2 Chemistry: The particulate nature of matter

 TOPIC 2
Change of state: Sublimation
What is the What happens to the Examples of substances that
change of state? particles? undergo sublimation
gas Sublimation is the change in • solid carbon dioxide (‘dry ice’)
state from solid to gas (on • naphthalene
heating), without changing to • iodine crystals
the liquid state in between. • ammonium chloride
liquid The particles get enough heat
energy to move straight into
the gas state, without melting
solid first.
Endothermic or At what temperature?
Figure 12 A block of carbon
exothermic?
dioxide sublimates at room
Endothermic The sublimation point of the solid temperature

Activity 4 Changes of state of water

This experiment investigates some of the changes of state that you have learnt
about. Carry out this experiment in groups of four.
Experiment
Materials Aim
You will need: Investigate the changes of state of water.
• a 250 ml beaker
Procedure
• 100 ml of crushed ice
• a tripod stand and 1. Put the ice in the beaker and measure (and record)
gauze the temperature with the thermometer.
• a Bunsen burner (or 2. Set up the apparatus as shown in Figure 13,
other heat source) and light the Bunsen burner.
• a thermometer 3. Start the stopwatch and take temperature readings
• a stopwatch every half a minute. Remember: Do not let the
thermometer touch the bottom of the beaker,
and do not use the thermometer to stir.
4. Record all your readings in a table.
5. After some time, the water will boil. Continue taking
readings until the temperature does not change any more.

Conclusion
1. How many of the states of matter did you observe?
2. At what point of the experiment did you observe each state? Figure 13
3. Plot a graph of your recorded results: Let time (in minutes) be on the horizontal
axis, and let temperature (in degrees Celsius) be on the vertical axis.
4. Is your graph a smooth curve, or are there places where the graph is flat?

Sub-topic 1 Matter and the kinetic theory 117

Heating and cooling curves
The graph that shows your results

s
of the previous experiment is

ga
called a heating curve. A heating D E
100 boiling

Temperature (ºC)
curve shows that, as the point
temperature of the ice increased, it d
ui
heated up until it started to melt. liq
The temperature of the ice does
B C
not change while it melts to liquid 0 melting point
il d
form, because the heat energy is s o
A
being used to weaken the 0 5 10 15 20
Time (min)
intermolecular forces between the
Figure 14 The heating curve for water
ice particles instead. See how the
graph remains flat between the
second and sixth minute (between B and C), in Figure 14.
Once all the ice had melted (at C), the temperature continued to increase: The heat
energy makes the particles in the liquid move faster, but is not enough to allow them
to break free from their intermolecular forces.
But, when the temperature rose to 100 degrees Celsius, the liquid water started to
boil and produce steam (gas). Again, the temperature remained the same (between D
and E) while the heat energy was being used to overcome the intermolecular forces.
A cooling curve shows how the states of matter change as the substance is
cooled down.

Activity 5 The change of state of matter II

Answer the following questions in pairs: A
1. Study the following diagram which Liquid Gas Solid
shows the three states. Give the names B C

of the processes A, B and C.

2. Decide if the following statements are true or false. If false, correct the
statement so that it is true.
a) Intermolecular forces are strongest when the particles are furthest apart.
b) In an endothermic process, the temperature of the substance increases constantly.
c) Droplets of dew on grass show us that sublimation has occurred.
3. Study this cooling curve for an unknown substance, and answer the questions
that follow.
a) Name the states of matter at A, B and C. 50
Temperature (ºC)

A
b) At which temperature did this substance
40
become a solid? B
c) At which temperature did this substance 30
C
become a liquid?
20
d) Explain why the graph is flat between 0 10 15 20 25
minutes 16 and 21. Time (min)

118 Topic 2 Chemistry: The particulate nature of matter

 TOPIC 2
SUB-TOPIC 2 Diffusion

Diffusion of particles in fluids

Diffusion is the movement of particles of a fluid (gas or liquid) from a region of higher
concentration to a region of lower concentration, so that the particles become evenly
distributed.
As the particles move away from each other,
they bump into the particles of the fluid that
New words
they are moving through. This random diffusion: the movement of particles
movement of particles is known as Brownian from a higher to lower concentration
motion. Brownian motion: the random
movement of particles in a gas or
liquid because of their collisions with
one another

Did you know?

Brownian motion is named after
the person who first discovered
it: Robert Brown was a botanist
who found that tiny particles of
Figure 15 Diffusion explains how we can smell pollen moved randomly on the
flowers from a distance: The sweet-smelling surface of a beaker of water.
particles diffuse through the air.

Diffusion of gases
The rate of diffusion is greater in gases than in liquids because gas particles move
at higher speeds, and the spaces between the particles are greater.
If you sprayed some air freshener at the front of the class, the particles would try to
spread out through the volume of the classroom: People in the front of the class would
smell it first, and some time later (once the particles have spread out to the back of the
class), the people in the back of the class would smell it too. Figure 16 shows how gas
particles spread through air until
there is an even distribution of gas air
and air particles. particles

gas
particles
This proves that:
• particles of matter can move,
and Figure 16 Before After diffusion:
• there are spaces between the diffusion: There is a The particles are
particles of matter. concentration of evenly distributed
So, diffusion provides evidence for particles in one throughout the
region. volume of air.
the kinetic theory of matter.

Sub-topic 2 Diffusion 119

 Activity 6 Diffusion of gases
A university carries student out a diffusion experiment. Follow the process and
answer the questions that follow in pairs.
Step 1 Step 2 Step 3

glass cover
glass dark brown
jar gas forms

petroleum jelly
concentrated ball of nitric acid
nitric acid copper wire turns green
Figure 17 A gas diffusion experiment
The dark brown gas (nitrogen dioxide) starts to fill the glass jar. Once the brown
gas reaches the glass cover in Step 3, the student places another glass jar (upside-
down) on top of the first glass jar, and removes the glass cover. The student
monitors the experiment over the next 30 minutes.
1. What does the student see after 30 minutes? Choose the correct answer:
A The brown gas stays mostly in the bottom jar.
B The brown gas disappears.
C The brown gas fills both glass jars completely.
D The brown gas moves to the top of the upper glass jar.
2. What happened to the air molecules that were present in the upper glass jar at
the start of the experiment?
3. Would the experiment be any different if the student used very large glass jars
(i.e. three times the volume of the glass jars used above) instead? Give a
reason for your answer.

Diffusion in liquids
Diffusion in liquids is slower than in gases, because the liquid particles
are closer together and they move at slower speeds. However, even
though it takes longer, a substance that is dissolved in a liquid will
diffuse through it completely.
The solid at the bottom of the measuring cylinder is dissolving. As
it dissolves, particles of it diffuse through the lighter-coloured liquid
until eventually, the two substances are evenly mixed. Figure 18
Diffusion in
liquids
Factors that affect the rate of diffusion
1 Temperature
The higher the temperature of a fluid, the higher the random speed and energy of
the particles, and the higher the rate of diffusion of a substance.

120 Topic 2 Chemistry: The particulate nature of matter

 TOPIC 2
2 Concentration
The greater the concentration of a substance, the greater the difference in
concentration between two points will be, and the higher the rate of diffusion will
be. The rate slows down as the difference decreases.

3 Molecular mass
The smaller the molecular mass of a substance, the higher the rate of diffusion,
provided the temperature is kept constant.
This is because at constant temperature, all particles have the same average
kinetic energy – whether they are large and heavy or small and light. Smaller
particles will therefore travel faster than larger particles, and diffuse faster than
larger molecules.

Activity 7 Rates of diffusion

This experiment allows you to observe how the rate of diffusion can be affected.
Carry out this experiment in groups of four (if using food colouring). Otherwise,
your teacher will do a class demonstration.

Experiment
Materials Aim
You will need: Demonstrate the effect that temperature
• 4 × 250 ml beakers and concentration have on diffusion.
• water
Procedure
• 4 ice cubes
• about 40 g of 1. Place the beakers (label Warning
potassium them A, B, C and D) on
a level surface. Potassium permanganate
permanganate
can be dangerous. If any
crystals 2. Pour water into each
crystals are spilt, they
• a small spatula beaker until each is must be swept up and
• a clock or watch to about three-quarters full. flushed down the drain.
monitor the time 3. Place two ice cubes in Wear latex gloves.
beakers C and D, and let
Note them stand for a few minutes.
4. Pour a little more water into beakers A and B, so
If potassium that the water level in all four beakers is equal.
permanganate is not
5. Place one full spatula of potassium permanganate
available, you can use ink,
food colouring or water- crystals into beakers A and C, and two full
based paint instead, but spatulas of crystals in beakers B and D.
you will have to add water 6. Do not stir the beakers.
to make a less 7. Note the time at the start of the experiment.
concentrated solution to 8. Note the time when each beaker has a uniform
use in beakers A and C. colour (i.e. when you can’t see any more
movement of the purple colour).

Sub-topic 2 Diffusion 121

 9. Copy and complete the table:
Beaker Ice 1 or 2 spatulas Start time End time Time
blocks? of crystals difference
A
B
C
D

Results and conclusion

1. Which beaker reached a uniform colour first?
2. How much longer did the first beaker take than the second?
3. Use the results to draw conclusions about the factors that affect the rate of
diffusion.
4. How do you think the time would change for beakers A and B, if you
heated the water to at least 50 °C?

Activity 8 A diffusion experiment

Discuss the following experiment in groups of four:
A university student sets up a
diffusion experiment in a fume A glass tube B
cupboard NH3 gas HCl gas
as follows:
Cotton wool soaked in ammonium Figure 19
hydroxide (NH4OH) is at A, and A B
cotton wool soaked in hydrochloric white smoke
acid (HCl) is at B, and the glass tube is
Figure 20
sealed on either side.
The ammonium solution releases ammonia gas (NH3) while HCl gas is released at B.
The molecular mass of HCl is approximately double the molecular mass of NH3.
After a few minutes, white smoke appears in the glass tube, but closer to B than A.
Why did the smoke not form exactly at the halfway point of the tube?

Activity 9 Diffusion
Answer the following questions on your own:
1. Explain what is meant by diffusion.
2. In which state(s) of matter does diffusion occur?
3. Describe an experiment that shows how one gas can diffuse through another.
4. Use the concept of diffusion to explain:
a) what happens when a teabag is placed in a cup of boiling water.
b) whether we see the same as in (a) if the water is only at 60 °C.

122 Topic 2 Chemistry: The particulate nature of matter

TOPIC

2 Summary, revision and assessment

Summary
• Matter is anything that has mass and occupies space.
• The basic building blocks of matter are atoms, molecules and ions.
• Matter is found in three states that we can observe: solid, liquid and gas.
• The kinetic theory of matter states that matter is made up of particles which are
in a continuous state of motion or vibration.
• Matter can be made to change from one state to another by heating or
cooling it.
• Important changes in states of matter are:
» melting » freezing (or solidifying) » evaporation
» condensation » sublimation.
• Exothermic processes are chemical processes in which heat is released.
• Endothermic processes are chemical processes in which heat is absorbed.
• Diffusion is the movement of particles from an area of high concentration to an
area of low concentration resulting in an even distribution of particles.
• Brownian motion is the random movement of particles as they diffuse through
another substance.
• The rate of diffusion is affected by:
» temperature » relative molecular mass » concentration.
Revision
1. State two properties of the following:
a) a solid (2) b) a liquid (2) c) a gas. (2)
2. Describe the movement of the particles in:
a) a solid (2) b) a liquid (2) c) a gas. (2)
3. How does the movement of the particles change as the temperature is
increased, for:
a) a solid? (2) b) a liquid? (2) c) a gas? (2)
4. Choose the correct answer. An endothermic process that involves the
liquid and solid states is:
A evaporation B freezing C melting D sublimation (1)
5. Explain what Brownian motion is. (2)
6. Choose the correct answer. Which factor will decrease the rate of
diffusion of a gas?
A increasing the concentration
B using another gas with a greater molecular mass
C increasing the temperature
D using another gas with a smaller molecular mass (1)
[10]

Topic 2 Summary, revision and assessment 123

Summary, revision and assessment continued

Assessment
1. Complete the table:
State change is Endothermic or At what
Process exothermic temperature
from to process? does this occur?
Melting
Freezing
Evaporation
Condensation
Sublimation [20]
2. Draw a diagram to show what happens to the particles when a gas cools
down and changes into a liquid. [4]
3. Use the kinetic theory to explain why the inner tube of a bicycle tyre
expands when you pump it up. [4]
4. Study the table of melting points and boiling points of some common
substances, and answer the questions that follow.
Substance Melting point (°C) (at Boiling point (°C) (at
atmospheric pressure) atmospheric pressure)
Ethanol –114 78
Water (ice) 0 100
Salt (NaCl) 801 1,467
Iron 1,538 2,890
a) Which of these substances are liquids at room temperature (20 °C)? [2]
b) Which of these substances are solids at room temperature (20 °C)? [2]
c) Which substance will change its state if the temperature increases from
50 °C to 90 °C? Give a reason for your answer. [2]
5. A student carried out two experiments.
a) In experiment 1, a gas jar containing air was placed upside down and
on top of another gas jar containing bromine vapour. Bromine
molecules have more mass than air molecules. A piece of cardboard
was placed in between the two mouths of the jars.
i) What was seen when the cardboard was removed? [1]
ii) Explain why this change occurred. [2]
b) The experiment was repeated using the brown gas nitrogen dioxide.
This gas's molecules have less mass than bromine molecules.
i) How would the rate of change be different from that in experiment 1? [1]
ii) Explain why this happens. [2]
TOTAL MARKS: 40

124 Topic 2 Summary, revision and assessment

TOPIC

3
Chemistry: Experimental
techniques

Sub-topic Specific Outcomes

Measuring of • Demonstrate how different quantities are measured.

quantities • Identify different measuring apparatus used in chemistry.
• Identify various measuring instruments and other
apparatus used in chemistry.

Criteria of purity • Describe the differences between a pure substance and

a mixture.
• Demonstrate how to determine the purity of a substance.
• Explain the importance of purity of a substance.

Separating mixtures • Distinguish between physical and chemical changes.

• Demonstrate different methods of separating mixtures.
• Interpret simple paper chromatograms.

Starter activity
Answer the following questions in pairs:
1. Time, mass, temperature and volume are measurable quantities. What do
we use to measure each of these quantities?
2. What is a pure substance?
3. How can you tell if a substance is pure or not?
4. Suggest a way to separate each of these mixed substances:
a) water and oil
b) water and alcohol (ethanol)
c) water and salt
d) sawdust and fine iron powder.

Topic 3 Chemistry: Experimental techniques 125

SUB-TOPIC 1 Measuring of quantities

Important quantities in chemistry

Four important quantities that are measured in chemistry are time, temperature,
mass and volume. Many of the other quantities that can be measured, such as
density and energy, can be derived from these four quantities.

Time Remember
Chemical reactions and processes occur over a
60 seconds = 1 minute
time period that needs to be measured: The start 60 minutes = 1 hour
time and the end time of a reaction are two 24 hours = 1 day
separate events, separated by time. This period of
time in between is known as the time interval. In a laboratory, time is often
measured with a stopwatch or stop clock (see Figure 1). The interval can be measured
in seconds, minutes or hours, but the standard unit of time is the second.

Both the digital stopwatch (left) and

analogue stop clock (right) start measuring
time when you press one of the buttons,
and stop when you press the other button.
The analogue stop clock records minutes
on the smaller clock face, while seconds
are measured on the large clock face.

Figure 1 Measuring time New words

Temperature time interval: the difference
Temperature is the measure of hotness or between the start time and end
time of an event
coldness of matter. In a laboratory, temperature
is measured with a laboratory thermometer, as
seen in Figure 2. It is measured in degrees Celsius
Did you know?
(°C) or kelvin (K), but the base unit for The temperature in kelvin is the
temperature is the kelvin. same as the temperature in
degrees Celsius plus 273.15
Most laboratory thermometers can (which is normally rounded off
measure any temperature from –10 °C to 273 for ease of calculation):
to 110 °C, unlike medical 0 °C = 273 K and 100 °C = 373 K
thermometers, which only measure
temperatures from 35 °C to 42 °C. Remember
Why do laboratory thermometers
have such a large range? At sea level, the freezing point
of water is 0 °C, and the boiling
Figure 2 Measuring temperature point of water is 100 °C.

126 Topic 3 Chemistry: Experimental techniques

 TOPIC 3
Mass
Mass is the amount of matter in an object. In a Remember
laboratory, mass is measured using a beam
balance or electronic balance (see Figure 3), in 1,000 g = 1 kg
grams (g) or kilograms (kg). But, the standard
unit for mass is the kilogram.

Figure 3 Measuring mass

An electronic laboratory balance (left) is very sensitive: It can measure mass correct to three
decimal places. You have already learnt how to use a triple beam balance (right) in Physics.

Volume
Volume is the space that is occupied by matter. In a laboratory, it is measured
using volumetric apparatus, such as measuring cylinders, burettes, pipettes and
volumetric flasks. The units of measurement that are commonly used in chemistry
are litres, millilitres (ml), cubic decimetres (dm3) and cubic centimetres (cm3), but
the standard unit for volume is the cubic metre (m3).

Figure 4 A burette Figure 5 Measuring cylinders

A burette is a long glass tube with a tap Measuring cylinders come in different
at the bottom. A burette can measure sizes. Small measuring cylinders can
volumes between 1 ml and 50 ml more measure up to 50 ml of liquid, but the
accurately than a measuring cylinder larger measuring cylinders can measure
(up to 0.1 ml). To use a burette, you pour up to 500 ml. They can only measure
the liquid into the tube and take the first volumes accurately to the nearest millilitre.
reading. Then, you open the tap to let
some liquid out into the beaker below, Remember
close it again, and take another reading.
1,000 ml = 1 litre
The difference between the two readings
= 1 dm3
gives you the accurate volume of the liquid = 1,000 cm3
in the beaker below. Burettes are usually
held upright using a stand and clamps.
Sub-topic 1 Measuring of quantities 127
 tube
(or chamber)

plunger

gas produced
in a reaction

Figure 6 A pipette Figure 7 A volumetric flask Figure 8 A gas syringe

A pipette is similar to a A volumetric flask comes A gas syringe measures the

burette, but it is used for with a stopper, so you can volume of a gas. It is similar
smaller fixed volumes of shake the flask to mix the to a normal syringe, but a
liquid and does not have a solution without losing any gas syringe is usually made
tap at the bottom. A liquid or causing an of glass and is always
pipette holds liquid in the accident. Each volumetric airtight, so that the gas
tube because of suction flask has an indicator line on inside cannot escape from
pressure: You have to the stem that shows where the tube. To make it airtight,
cover the top of the its maximum volume is: You the surfaces of both the
pipette with your finger to can place a measured glass plunger and the glass
hold the liquid inside, and amount of a solid inside the tube (or chamber) have a
release your finger to allow flask and then fill up the rough texture, so that when
the liquid to flow out the flask with liquid to make a they move past each other,
bottom. Warning: Do not solution with an exact no gas can escape.
suck up the liquid with concentration. Such a
your lips. Use a suction solution is known as a
attachment. standard solution.

Activity 1 Measuring quantities

Answer the following questions on your own:
1. Which quantities do the following measurements represent?
a) 23 minutes b) 33 K c) 35 °C
d) 0.01 seconds e) 72 kg f) 25 ml
g) 20 litres
2. For each quantity, state the name of the piece of apparatus and two examples
of units that you would use to measure that quantity.
a) Temperature b) Volume c) Time d) Mass
3. Give the name of the piece of apparatus that is best suited for:
a) delivering 20 cm3 of liquid, drop by drop
b) measuring the temperature of a heated liquid
c) accurately measuring a fixed volume of liquid
d) collecting ammonia gas.

128 Topic 3 Chemistry: Experimental techniques

 TOPIC 3
Activity 2
This experiment allows you to use some of the measurement apparatus mentioned
on the previous pages. However, if some of them are not available, find practical
alternatives, such as a kitchen measuring jug instead of the measuring cylinder, or
a cellphone to measure the time instead of the stopwatch.
Carry out this experiment in groups of four.

Experiment
Materials Aim
You will need: Determine how long it takes to heat water, milk and oil
• 3 × 250 ml beakers to 50 °C
• a 250 ml measuring
Procedure
cylinder
• 100 ml of water 1. Accurately measure 100 ml of water, milk and oil
• 100 ml of milk (using the measuring cylinder) and pour each liquid
• 100 ml of cooking oil into a separate beaker. Remember to wash the
(all three liquids cylinder after each use, so that the liquids do not
must be at room become contaminated.
temperature) 2. Set up the tripod and Bunsen burner, and place the
• a tripod stand and beaker of water on the wire gauze. Place the
wire gauze thermometer in the beaker.
• a Bunsen burner (or 3. Switch on the Bunsen burner and start one of the
other heat source) stopwatches. Stop the stopwatch once the
• a thermometer, or temperature of the water reaches 50 °C.
three, if possible 4. Record the time in Remember the safety rules:
• 2 × stopwatches your notebook.
• Be careful when you work
5. Switch off the Bunsen burner and start the with Bunsen burner. Keep the
second stopwatch as you do so. Remove the area around the burner free
beaker from the tripod and let it stand to from other apparatus, books
the side to cool down. and clothing.
• Don’t let the thermometer
6. Record the time at which the liquid cools touch the bottom of the
down to 30 °C, and stop the stopwatch. beaker while the Bunsen
7. Repeat steps 3 to 6 for the milk and the oil. burner is on.
Use a different thermometer for each if you
have three thermometers available. Otherwise, remember
to rinse the thermometer after it has been in the milk or oil.

Conclusion
1. Which liquid took the longest time to reach 50 °C?
2. Which liquid took the longest time to cool down to 30 °C?
3. Discuss reasons why the three liquids had different heating and cooling times.

Sub-topic 1 Measuring of quantities 129

Measuring instruments and other apparatus
The study of chemistry involves practical work in the form of experiments.
Experiments are performed with the use of various laboratory apparatus. Each
piece of apparatus is designed for a specific use. Some of these pieces of apparatus
are shown in the table below.

Common laboratory apparatus and their uses

test tube evaporating dish

For holding liquids For evaporating

and solids a solution

Bunsen burner glass rod stand and clamp

A source of For stirring For holding

heat in the solutions other
laboratory apparatus
in place

conical flask spatula funnel beaker

For mixing For taking and For separating

liquids transporting solids from
small amounts liquids in a
of solids mixture

Activity 3 Laboratory apparatus

Answer the following questions in pairs:
1. Use the names of the pieces of apparatus in the list below to complete the
statements that follow.
thermometer glass rod spatula burette beam balance
gas syringe Bunsen burner test tube pipette volumetric flask

a) Write down the names of all the pieces of apparatus that are used to
measure quantities in the laboratory.
b) Only one piece of apparatus on the list can be used to add energy to a
system. Which one is it?
c) The primary function of a _______ is the preparation of standard solutions.

130 Topic 3 Chemistry: Experimental techniques

 TOPIC 3
SUB-TOPIC 2 Criteria of purity

Pure and mixed substances New words

A pure substance is one that contains no pure substance: a substance that
contaminants or impurities. It contains only contains only one type of material
mixture: a combination of two or
one type of material, and has definite chemical
more different substances that did
and physical properties. A pure substance has a not require a chemical reaction to be
fixed, sharp melting point and a fixed, sharp created
boiling point under specific, given conditions. heterogeneous mixture: a
The melting and boiling points of all known non-uniform mixture of substances
homogeneous mixture: a uniform
pure substances are found in tables in chemistry
mixture of substances
books. An example of a pure substance is 100%
distilled water.
If a substance contains any amount of impurity,
we call it a mixture. A mixture usually
melts or boils over a range of temperatures. Water
with some salt dissolved in it is called a mixture,
because it contains both water and salt particles
that have been physically combined.

Types of mixtures
Mixtures can be homogeneous or heterogeneous.
In a homogeneous mixture: Figure 9 In this conical flask, a
• you cannot see the different components solid has dissolved completely in
• the substance is uniform (it has the same water to make a homogeneous
colour or texture throughout) mixture.
• the components are evenly distributed

Example: Any solution that consists of a solute

that has dissolved completely in a solvent, such
as a glass of water with a teaspoon of sugar
fully dissolved in it.

In a heterogeneous mixture:
• you can usually see the different components
• the substance is non-uniform (the colour or
texture of the components will differ from Figure 10 It is possible to
each other) separate this heterogeneous
• the components are not evenly distributed mixture of beans into groups
that are homogeneous,
Example: Any mixture of a solid and liquid because you can identify the
where the solid does not dissolve in the liquid, colours, sizes and textures of
such as sand and water. the different types of beans.

Sub-topic 2 Criteria of purity 131

Determining the purity of a substance
In Topic 2, we saw that pure substances have fixed melting and boiling points. A
pure substance also has a fixed density. These facts can be used to separate a
mixture into its pure components.

Using the melting point of the

substance melting
point tube
A university student wanted to determine the purity
of a small piece of potassium, and set up the apparatus thermometer
as shown alongside. The melting point of pure solid sample
potassium is 63.38 °C. When the piece of potassium in
glycerol
the test tube started to melt, the thermometer read
heat
60 °C. Once the entire piece of potassium had melted,
the thermometer read 62.7 °C. This proves that the
sample contains some impurities.
Figure 11 Using a substance’s
Using the boiling point of the melting point to determine purity

substance
Activity 4 Using boiling point to determine purity
In this experiment, you will determine the purity of a volume of ethanol.
Carry out this experiment in groups of four.

Experiment
Materials Aim
You will need: Determine the purity of a sample of ethanol.
• a 250 ml beaker
Procedure
• a test tube
• stand and clamp 1. Pour the water into the beaker, and pour the ethanol
• Bunsen burner sample into the test tube.
• a glass rod (stirrer) 2. Set up the stand and clamp so that the clamp holds the
• a thermometer test tube in the beaker, but not touching the bottom of
• 30 ml sample of the beaker, with the Bunsen burner below the beaker.
ethanol 3. Switch on the Note:
• 100 ml water Bunsen burner
and hold the Glycerol is poured into the
beaker because glycerol has a
thermometer
very high boiling point. That
in the sample. means it will supply heat all
4. Note the temperature at which the ethanol around the text tube while
sample starts to boil. protecting the test tube and
thermometer from direct heat.

132 Topic 3 Chemistry: Experimental techniques

 TOPIC 3
Results and conclusion
1. At which temperature did your sample of ethanol start to boil?
2. The boiling point of pure ethanol is 78.37 °C. Was your recorded boiling
temperature higher or lower than this temperature?
3. What can you conclude about the purity of your sample of ethanol?

If a pure substance contains an impurity, then:

• the melting point will be lower than the melting point of the pure substance,
and the substance will melt over a range of temperatures
• the boiling point will be higher than the boiling point of the pure substance.

Heating and cooling curves 100

Temperature (ºC)
In Topic 2, we saw that heating and cooling 64

curves show the changes in state that a

0
substance goes through as it is heated or
cooled. If the heating or cooling curve for a
given sample does not match the heating or –97,7
cooling curve of the pure substance, then we Time (min)
know that the sample is impure. Figure 12 The heating curve for
methanol
In this example, a solid sample of methanol was heated. The blue graph in Figure
12 is the heating curve for pure methanol. The dashed line shows the results of
the experiment with the sample. The graphs do not match completely, and the
graph for the sample does not have any flat sections. The sample’s graph shows
that melting started before the temperature reached –97.7 °C, and only started to
boil once the temperature was higher than the 64 °C boiling point for methanol.

Similarly, a comparison between a pure substance’s cooling curve and that of a

sample will also show whether the sample is pure or not.

Using the density of the substance

Densities of some common pure substances
A pure substance has an exact,
at standard temperature and pressure
known density. Impurities will
lower or raise the density of a Substance Density (in g/cm3)
pure substance. Carbon dioxide (CO2) (gas) 0.001977
For example, the density of Potassium (K) 0.86
pure water is 1.00 g/cm3, but Sodium (Na) 0.97
the density of sea water (which
Water (H2O) (liquid) 1.00
contains many dissolved salts)
is 1.03 g/cm3. Carbon (C) 2.27
Compare the densities of the Iron (Fe) 7.87
pure substances in the table Lead (Pb) 11.34
alongside.
Sub-topic 2 Criteria of purity 133
The importance
p of p
purity of substances
Pharmaceuticals Food
• New pharmaceuticals are developed • The food that we eat must
every day. These must be tested for be free from germs and
purity at every stage of the pollutants. Especially food
development, as a contaminant in a for babies and toddlers
medicine may cause harm. must have 100% purity.
• Making sure that foodstuffs are free
The from contaminants starts at the farm:
Industry importance Animal feed must be free from
• The purest form of of purity pollutants, and the herbicides and
silicon must be pesticides that are used on crops must
used in computer be tested to make sure that they do not
processing chips, otherwise pass through to the foods that we eat.
the device will fail.
Cosmetics
Technology • Any make-up or beauty product
• Any impurities in building materials, must be tested to make sure that
such as concrete and steel, may no contaminants are absorbed by
cause the structure to collapse. the skin.

Figure 13 Why is purity important?

Activity 5 Pure and mixed substances

Answer the following questions on your own:
1. Define:
a) a pure substance b) a mixture
2. State three characteristics of a pure substance.
3. A given sample of a substance is known to have a melting point between
40 °C and 55 °C, but the melting point of the pure form of the substance is
unknown. Explain how you would check whether the sample is pure or not.
4. Draw up a table to show the three major differences between homogeneous
and heterogeneous mixtures.
5. Describe an experiment that can be used to test the purity of a glass of water.
6. Copy and label the heating curve for ethanol. E
Give your heating curve correct axis labels, and
(axis label)

D
name each of the states or processes labelled A 78

to E. C
0
B
–114 A
(axis label)

7. State five examples of where the purity of a substance is very important in

everyday life.

134 Topic 3 Chemistry: Experimental techniques

 TOPIC 3
SUB-TOPIC 3 Separating mixtures

Physical and chemical changes

Substances undergo various changes when they are subjected to different
temperatures. Sometimes they undergo a physical change, but sometimes the
change is permanent (a chemical change).

Physical changes
A physical change is a change in which no new
chemical substance is formed.
You can identify a physical change in the
following ways:
• No new chemical substance is formed
• The mass of the substance remains the same
• The process can be reversed easily
• Energy changes occur during changes of state.

Figure 14 Glass can be recycled

Examples of physical changes include melting,
many times because waste
boiling, evaporation, condensation, freezing, glass can be melted down and
sublimation and dissolving. made into other products. There
is no change in mass when glass
Chemical changes is melted down, and the process
A chemical change is a change in which one or is reversible because the glass
more new chemical substances are formed. The will cool and solidify again.
new substances will have physical properties and chemical compositions that are
very different from the original substance. A
chemical change is therefore often permanent.
You can identify a chemical change in the
following ways:
• A new chemical substance is formed
• The mass of the original substance changes
• The process is often irreversible (cannot be
reversed), or is difficult to reverse.
Figure 15 Heat energy was
• Energy is given out or taken in as the new
added to the egg to cook it:
chemical substances form. Now that it is cooked, it has
solidified and a number of
Examples of chemical changes include biochemical changes have
electrolysis, decomposition, combustion taken place. Even if we cool the
(burning) and rusting (oxidation). egg down, it will never return to
its raw state. In this case, the
chemical change is permanent
and irreversible.

Sub-topic 3 Separating mixtures 135

 Activity 6 Investigate chemical and physical changes
For this activity, work in groups of four. As a group, you will have to decide which
examples to research and how the report will be written.
The aim of this investigation is to explain the differences between
physical and chemical changes. Your group will have to find examples
from everyday life that illustrate that either a chemical or a physical
change has taken place.
1. The task is to find examples that illustrate the differences between physical
and chemical changes, and write a paragraph (for each) to explain what
changes have taken place and how they occurred. Marks will be awarded for
your comparison in each case.
2. To find examples, think about processes that happen in cooking, or processes
that occur when the weather changes. Alternatively, there might be good
examples in the economic activities that occur in your area. If you are not
sure, speak to your teacher for some ideas.
3. Your report must state the aim of the investigation, your findings, a list of
references if you researched anything at the library or on the internet, and it
should indicate which group member was responsible for or involved in
which aspects of the report.

The four cases that you need to investigate are:

A A new chemical substance is formed when a chemical change takes place,
but not when a physical change takes place.
B In a chemical change process, the mass of the original substance changes,
but this does not occur in the physical change process.
C A physical change is reversible, but a chemical change is not.
D There is a change in energy when a chemical change takes place. When a
physical change takes place, there is a change in energy only when there is
a change of state.

Methods of separating mixtures

A chemist uses different methods or techniques
to separate mixtures. However, the method or
New words
technique that is used depends on the physical solubility: the ability of a substance
properties of the different substances in the to dissolve in another substance
mixture. Some of these physical properties are:
• particle size
• solubility
• physical state
• magnetic properties
• density

136 Topic 3 Chemistry: Experimental techniques

 TOPIC 3

Methods of separating solids and fluids

1. By decantation
If a mixture contains solid particles that you can
see, and that will settle to the bottom of the
New words
container if left to stand, it can be separated by insoluble: a word that describes a
decantation. You can carefully pour off the substance that cannot dissolve in
liquid so that the solid substance remains. another substance
However, the result will not be perfectly pure. residue: the solid substance that is
left on the filter paper after filtration
2. By flotation filtrate: the liquid or gas substance
that is collected after filtration
We use flotation to separate small particles of solute: the substance that
solid material from liquids, especially in the dissolves in another substance to
copper mining industry. Crushed ore is put in a form a solution
tank with water, and a chemical is added to solvent: the substance in which a
solute dissolves to form a solution
make the copper particles repel the water
saturated: when a solvent cannot
molecules. Then, air is pumped into the bottom ‘hold’ any more solute in solution
of the tank: The air bubbles carry the water-
repelling particles to the top of the tank as a froth. The froth is removed from the
top of the tank, and is processed some more to get the pure copper particles.
This method is also used in waste water treatment and paper recycling.

3. By filtration
We use this physical method of
separation for separating insoluble solids
from a fluid with a filtering material,
such as filter paper. The filter paper has mixture
tiny holes through which the fluid (and filter funnel
any dissolved particles) can pass. Any
filter paper
insoluble solids will not be able to pass
through the filter paper. The substance residue
that remains on the filter paper is called
filtrate
the residue, and the fluid that is
collected after filtration is called
the filtrate. Figure 16 Filtration

4. By crystallization
We use this technique for separating crystals (solids) from a solution (liquid) by
cooling. A liquid solution that contains dissolved solids will usually remain a
liquid, homogeneous solution if heated. As the temperature increases, more of the
solid substance (the solute) can be dissolved in the solvent. But, if it is cooled, the
solubility of the solute decreases, and the solution becomes saturated.

Sub-topic 3 Separating mixtures 137

When a solution becomes saturated, it means that the solvent cannot
“hold” any more solute in solution at that temperature, so the solute
is forced out of the solution in the form of solid crystals.

The formation of crystals

therefore depends on:
• the solubility of the solute
mixture evaporating dish
• the concentration of the (solvent
solution and solute)
• the temperature of the solute (crystals)
solution.

Figure 17 Crystallization
5. By evaporation
Evaporation is used to separate a solute from a solvent when the
solubility of the solute does not change very much with temperature.
For example, table salt dissolved in water will not crystallise on
cooling. In order to obtain solid salt from the solution, the solution
must be heated until all of the solvent (the water) has been
evaporated. Because the salt particles cannot evaporate, they stay
behind in the container as solid salt grains.

Activity 7 Separating solids and fluids

Answer the following questions on your own:
1. List four differences between physical and chemical changes.
2. Explain what is meant by the following terms:
a) filtrate b) residue c) solvent
3. Complete the table:
Separation What does the Which physical Example of
method to obtain method separate property does mixture that can
a pure solid the solid from? the method be separated
depend on? using this
method
Using sublimation
Using magnetism
Decantation
Filtration
Crystallisation
Evaporation

138 Topic 3 Chemistry: Experimental techniques

 TOPIC 3

Methods of separating immiscible liquids

Immiscible liquids are liquids that do not mix
with each to form a homogeneous solution. An
example of a mixture of two immiscible liquids
is water and vegetable oil: Because the oil is less
dense than the water, it floats on top of the
water, without any mixing occurring between
the two layers.

There are a few methods that can be used to

Figure 18 The oil floats on top of
separate two immiscible liquids. Some of these
the water, with a clear boundary
are described below. between the two layers.

The simplest way to separate a mixture of oil

New words
and water is to pour off the oil into a new
container, so that the water is left behind. immiscible liquids: liquids that do
However, there is a good chance that some oil not mix with each other to form a
will remain on the water layer, or that you homogeneous (uniform) solution
might pour some of the water into the new
container. Either way, obtaining pure substances in this way is very
difficult. Better methods would be to use a separating funnel or a
centrifuge.

1. Using a separating funnel

Because the liquids are immiscible, they quickly separate into layers
once poured into the funnel. The tap at the bottom of the funnel is
opened to pour off the bottom layer, leaving the upper layer or layers
in the funnel.

separating funnel

oil
water separating funnel

collection beaker

water

Figure 19 Using a separating funnel

Sub-topic 3 Separating mixtures 139

Using this piece of apparatus makes it easier to New words
see exactly where the oil layer starts and
centrifuge: a machine that by
therefore one can turn off the tap just before
spinning the substances at a very
any oil contaminates the water sample. A small high speed separates more dense
amount of oil can then be discarded, just to substances from less dense
make sure that all the water particles have been substances
removed from the funnel, before the pure oil
can be collected in another container.

2. Using a centrifuge
Another method that can separate two or more immiscible liquids is
centrifugation. This method uses a piece of apparatus known as a centrifuge,
which rotates the container holding the sample liquid around a fixed axis, but at
an angle to the vertical. As the centrifuge rotates, the more dense liquids are
pushed outwards and towards the bottom of the container, while the less dense
liquids are pulled inwards and upwards. Pour off the liquid on top, or use a pipette
to remove it.

Figure 20 A laboratory centrifuge

As the rotor rotates, more dense substance collect at the bottoms of the containers.

Activity 8 Separating immiscible liquids

Discuss and answer the following questions in pairs:
1. Which physical property are the three common methods of separating
immiscible liquids dependent on?
2. Explain why separating immiscible liquids using decantation is more likely to
result in contaminated final products.
3. Which of the following mixtures can be separated using a separating funnel:
water and ethanol; concentrated sulfuric acid and water or petrol and water?

140 Topic 3 Chemistry: Experimental techniques

 TOPIC 3
Methods of separating liquid solutions
1. Simple distillation
This technique is used for separating a solvent from a solution. The process
involves evaporating a solution, and then condensing the solvent back to liquid
form, while leaving the solute behind. This can only work if the solvent has a
higher boiling point than the solute. The liquid that is separated from the original
solution is called the distillate.

cool water out

solution condenser

distillate

cool water in
Figure 21 Simple distillation apparatus

Step 1: The solution is heated to the boiling point of the solvent. In this case, the
solution will be heated to the boiling point of water, so that it can evaporate.
Step 2: The water vapour senter the condenser. Cold water is constantly fed
through the outer glass tube of the condenser, so the inner tube through
which the vapours move is always cold.
Step 3: The vapours condense in the cold condensing tube and drip down into
the collecting beaker as pure, liquid water. The salt (and any other
contaminants that may have been in the solution) stay behind in the
original solution's container.

2. Fractional distillation
This technique is used for separating two or
New words
more miscible and volatile liquids that have
different boiling points in the same range of distillate: the liquid that is
temperatures. To separate a mixture of ethanol separated from the original solution
and water, for example, the apparatus must be in a simple distillation process
miscible liquids: liquids that mix
set up as shown on the next page. The
with each other to form a
fractionating column, which is packed with homogenous (uniform) solution
glass beads, is situated above the mixture. The volatile: a word to describe a
glass beads are there to act as a large surface area substance that evaporates very
on which the vapours can condense, but still easily, even at room temperature
allow vapours to move through the column.
Sub-topic 3 Separating mixtures 141
fractionating column
cool water out

glass beads

condenser
solution

fractionating column
distillate

Figure 22 Fractional distillation apparatus

As the mixture is heated, vapour from both the water and ethanol travel up into
the fractionating column. Once there, the vapours condense on the glass beads.
The boiling point of ethanol (78.37 °C) is lower than that of water, so when the
temperature in the fractionating column reaches 78.37 °C, the ethanol vapours
stop condensing on the glass beads, and move through the column to the
condenser, which changes the ethanol vapour back to liquid form.
We call this the first fraction, as it is the first liquid to be separated from the
mixture. Any water vapour in the column will still condense on the glass beads,
and therefore drip back into the original container.

Uses of fractional distillation

1. It is used in the production of wine and spirits to separate ethanol (alcohol)
from the fermented fruit or grain mixture.
2. The gas components of air can be separated using fractional distillation, provided
the gases are cooled down to liquid form first. This is how pure nitrogen, oxygen
and some noble gases are produced for medical and industrial uses.
3. The petroleum industry makes use of fractional distillation to separate crude
oil into different fuels, such as petrol, diesel, paraffin and fuel oil.

Activity 9 Separating liquid solutions

In groups of four, discuss how you could obtain pure water from
seawater and then answer the question:
1. Do you think your solution is practical for places in the world
where drinking water is scarce, but seawater is available? Give a
reason for your answer.

142 Topic 3 Chemistry: Experimental techniques

 TOPIC 3
Methods of separating mixtures of solids
1. Using sublimation
This technique is used to separate substances that can undergo sublimation from
those that do not. However, it works best when the non-sublimating substance
has a high melting point.
Naphthalene, iodine and ammonium chloride are all substances that can
undergo sublimation.

funnel

solid iodine forms on

the sides of the funnel
purple iodine vapours
solid sodium chlorine and
solid iodine mixture

evaporating dish

Figure 23 Using sublimation to separate a mixture of solids

2. Using magnetism
This method can be used to separate mixtures of magnetic and non-magnetic
substances.
To separate a mixture of iron filings and powdered sulfur, a magnet can be used
to attract the iron filings – so that the sulfur powder is left behind.

bar magnet

iron filings are attracted to the

bar magnet (and the sulfur is left
behind in the evaporating dish)
evaporating dish

mixture of (solid) iron filings and

(solid) sulfur powder

Figure 24 Using magnetism to separate a mixture of solids

Sub-topic 3 Separating mixtures 143

Paper chromatography
This is a separating technique in which a mixture is separated as it moves across a
porous surface, carried by an appropriate developing solvent. Different substances
in the mixture will interact differently with both the solvent and the surface, and
therefore they will separate. The substance that dissolves more readily and is least
attracted to the surface, moves the fastest. It therefore travels furthest from the
starting line, separating itself from the other substances in the mixture.

Types of paper chromatography

1. Ascending paper chromatography

The bottom edge of the chromatogram is
in the solvent. The solvent moves upwards
through the paper, because the solvent's
particles are attracted to the tiny spaces
between the particles of paper. The solvent
dissolves the sample, so the sample moves
upwards along with the solvent.
Ascending paper chromatography is quite Figure 25 Ascending paper
a slow process. chromatography

2. Descending paper chromatography

The moving solvent moves vertically
downwards as the mixture separates. The
chromatography paper is saturated with
the solvent beforehand, and more is kept
in a chamber at the top of the apparatus.
The separation of the mixture occurs
faster than in ascending paper
chromatography, because the moving
Figure 26 Descending paper
solvent is helped by gravity. chromatography
3. Radial chromatography
The moving solvent moves outwards
from a central point and separates the
mixture into concentric circles (rings).
The end result looks like this:

Figure 27 Radial chromatography

144 Topic 3 Chemistry: Experimental techniques

 TOPIC 3
Interpretation of a simple chromatogram
A chromatogram is the visual result of a paper chromatography experiment. It
consists of the chromatography paper with the bands or markings that indicate
the separated substances.

y
x New words
starting chromatogram: the result of a
line paper chromatography experiment
solvent
that shows the bands or markings
front
sample made by the separated substances

Figure 28 A chromatogram

A substance that is pure will only produce one spot representing one solute. A
mixture will produce two or more spots – one for each component.
The retention factor (Rf) value is the ratio of the distance travelled by a
component to the distance travelled by the front.
Did you know?
distance moved by component
x = _______________________________
Rf (compound A) = __y distance moved by solvent front
Chromatography is used
to separate pigments in
Rf values are fixed for each substance and are always coloured substances.
smaller than 1.

Activity 10
In this activity, you will perform a paper chromatography experiment.
Carry out this experiment in pairs.
Experiment
Materials Aim
You will need: Separate an ink mixture using paper chromatography.
• a 250 cm3 beaker
Procedure
• 50 ml water
• chromatography 1. Using the pencil, write your initials in the top left
paper (12 cm × 5 cm) corner of the paper strip, and draw a horizontal line
• a ruler across the width of the paper, about 1.5 cm from the
• a paper clip bottom.
• a pencil 2. Using the pen or marker, draw a thick dot in the
• a black ink pen or centre of the pencil line. The dot should be about
marker (make sure 3 mm in diameter. Note
that it is water- 3. Fold the top 2 cm of the
soluble ink) paper over the middle of If chromatography paper
is not available, then use
the pencil, and use the
coffee filter paper or a
paper clip to secure the piece of paper towel.
paper below the pencil.
Sub-topic 3 Separating mixtures 145
 4. Place pencil (and paper) on the beaker so that the paper hangs inside the
beaker: Note how much water needs to be added to the beaker so that only
the bottom 0.5 cm of the paper will be submerged.
5. Lift the pencil and paper out of the beaker, and add in the correct amount of
water. Lower the pencil and paper into the beaker again.
6. Monitor the chromatography paper over the next few minutes: Remove the
pencil and paper from the beaker when the water level approaches the paper
clip.
7. Let the paper dry overnight.
8. Calculate the Rf value of each component that you might have.

Conclusion
1. What happened to the ink spot?
2. How many components were there in your ink sample?

Did you know?

Chromatography is used in a number of way, across
many areas. For example, when athletes are tested for
banned substances, they submit urine samples for
chromatography testing. Crime investigators also use
chromatography to identify substances found at the
crime scene or to determine if there is any alcohol or
drugs in someone’s blood.

Activity 11 Separating liquid solutions

Answer the following questions on your own:
1. Name the method you would use to separate mixtures of the
following substances:
a) sugar and powdered glass
b) chalk and ammonium chloride
c) ink and water
d) the coloured materials in a flower.
2. Study the chromatogram alongside:
Seven substances were tested, but only
three of them could be identified (red,
Red Yellow Blue 1 2 3 4
yellow and blue).
a) Which of the unknown substances contains
only one of the identified colours?
b) Which of the unknown substances contains all of the known colours?
c) Which of the three known colours was the most soluble in the
solvent that was used?

146 Topic 3 Chemistry: Experimental techniques

TOPIC

3 Summary, revision and assessment

Summary
• There are four main quantities that are measured in chemistry: time,
temperature, mass and volume
• In order to measure these quantities, a variety of apparatus are used:
stopwatches or stop clocks (time); thermometers (temperature); balances (mass)
and burettes, pipettes, measuring cylinders and gas syringes (volume).
• A pure substance is one containing only one type of material and no contaminants.
• Each pure substance has an exact and known melting point, boiling point and
density.
» These can be used to determine the purity of a substance.
» Purity of substances is important for food, medicines and cosmetics, and also
in technology and industry.
• A mixture is any substance that is not 100% pure.
» A mixture can be homogeneous (uniform and evenly distributed) or
heterogeneous (non-uniform and unevenly distributed).
• To separate a mixture of solids and fluids, the methods of decantation,
filtration, evaporation or crystallization can be used.
• To separate a mixture of immiscible liquids, you could use a separating funnel
or a centrifuge.
• To separate a mixture of liquid solutions, the methods of simple distillation or
fractional distillation can be used.
• To separate a mixture of solids, you could use sublimation, flotation or magnetism.
• Paper chromatography is a special technique for separating substances.
» There are three types of paper chromatography: Ascending, descending and
radial paper chromatography.
» A chromatogram is the result of a chromatography procedure: It shows how
some substances in the solvent move faster across the paper surface.

Revision
1. State whether the following are true (T) or false (F):
a) Impure water will boil at a temperature above 100 °C. (1)
b) Impurities lower the melting point of a substance. (1)
c) During boiling, the temperature keeps rising steadily. (1)
2. Below are some processes that are used in the laboratory, industrially and
at home:
crystallisation distillation filtration neutralisation combustion evaporation
Which one of these processes can be used to separate the following from
sea water?
a) salt (1) b) water (1) c) sand (1)

Topic 3 Summary, revision and assessment 147

Summary, revision and assessment continued

3. Draw and label the laboratory apparatus that you would need if you wanted
to separate a mixture of water and alcohol by means of distillation. (5)
4. Describe how to use a burette. (3)
5. Briefly explain how chromatography works. (3)
6. X and Y are soluble mixtures, while A, solvent front
B, C, D, E and F are soluble pure x
substances. A learner carries out a

5 cm

3 cm
chromatography experiment to
separate the mixtures. Alongside is
a chromatogram that shows the start
result of the separation: X Y A B C D E F
a) Which pure substance is found in both X and Y in the mixture? (1)
b) Which pure substances are in mixture X but not in mixture Y? (1)
c) Which pure substances are in mixture Y but not in mixture X? (1)
[20]

Assessment
1. Explain the following terms:
a) physical change (2)
b) chemical change. (2) [4]
2. Name four laboratory instruments for measuring volume. [4]
3. State whether each of the following are physical or chemical changes:
a) melting wax (1)
b) heating copper(II) carbonate (1)
c) burning wood (1)
d) hydrogen is produced when sodium is placed on water. (1) [4]
4. List the laboratory apparatus that you would need if you wanted to
obtain pure water from a mixture of sugar and water, using distillation. [5]
5. Some of the gas components of air are
Gas Boiling point
given in the table, along with their
component (°C)
boiling points.
Nitrogen –196
If a volume of air was fractionally distilled,
in which order would these gases be Krypton –153
collected? Xenon –108 [3]
6. Describe the procedure for determining Oxygen –183
the purity of a sample of ethanol. [5]
TOTAL MARKS: 25

148 Topic 3 Summary, revision and assessment

TOPIC Chemistry: Atoms,

4 elements, compounds
and molecules

Sub-topic Specific Outcomes

Atomic • Describe an atom and its structure.
structure and • Describe the relative charges and approximate relative masses of
the Periodic protons, neutrons and electrons.
Table • Describe the proton (atomic) number and nucleon (mass) number
and nuclide notation.
• Describe what an element is.
• Identify elements using their chemical symbols.
• Describe the basis of the Periodic Table.
• Describe what isotopes are.
• Calculate relative atomic mass of an element given the percentage
abundances of its isotopes, or from mass spectrum results.
• Describe the use of radioactive isotopes.
• Demonstrate the build-up of electrons in shells.
Bonding • Describe what a compound is.
• Describe the formation of ions (radicals).
• Describe the formation of ionic (electrovalent) bonds.
• Describe the formation of covalent bonds.
• Describe the electronic arrangement in simple, multiple covalent
molecules.
• Describe the use of ionic and covalent compounds.
• Describe what a molecule is.
• Describe what valency and valence electrons are.
• Demonstrate how to deduce valency of an element.
• Formulate chemical formulae of compounds.
• Identify the differences in properties of ionic and covalent compounds.
• Describe metallic bonding.
• Describe the electrical/thermal conductivity of metals.
Chemical • Demonstrate how to construct word equations.
formulae and • Formulate balanced chemical equations.
equations • Construct net ionic equations from balanced chemical equations.

Starter activity
Answer the following questions in pairs:
1. Everything around us is made of matter, but what do you think matter is
made up of?
2. What happens when you add table salt to a glass of water?
3. Why do you think a metal, like copper, is able to conduct both heat and
electricity, but a non-metal, like glass, cannot?

Topic 4 Chemistry: Atoms, elements, compounds and molecules 149

SUB-TOPIC 1 Atomic structure and
the Periodic Table
The structure of the atom
As you saw in Topic 2, matter consists of An atom
particles. An atom is the smallest particle of an
element that has the chemical properties of that
element. The element carbon (C) consists of
carbon atoms while iron (Fe) consists of atoms protrons
of iron.
neutrons
electrons
Atoms are too small to see, and for a long time
it was thought that they were solid spheres.
However, today we know that atoms consist of Figure 1 An atom contains
even smaller particles. protons and neutrons in the
nucleus, while the electrons
Sub-atomic particles move in energy levels – called
shells – around the nucleus.
All atoms are made up of three sub-atomic
particles: protons, neutrons and electrons. The
protons and neutrons are found in the nucleus, New words
which is at the centre of the atom. Compared proton: a positively charged
with the rest of the atom, the nucleus takes up a sub-atomic particle
very small volume. Even so, it gives the atom neutron: a sub-atomic particle with
most of its mass. no overall charge
electron: a negatively charged
sub-atomic particle
The electrons are much smaller particles than nucleus: the centre of an atom
the protons and neutrons. They move in the where protons and neutrons are
space around the nucleus. Electrons that are far found
from the nucleus have more energy than those electron shells: energy levels in
that are close to it. Scientists were surprised to which electrons move around the
nucleus
find that electrons in an atom have certain –
specific – amounts of energy. These energy levels
are called electron shells. Electron shells closer
to the nucleus have lower energy.

Did you know?

The Danish physicist, Niels Bohr, found (in 1913) that electrons
must be arranged in shells around the atom, otherwise they
would simply collapse into the nucleus because of the attraction
between the negatively-charged electrons and positively-charged
protons in the atom. Today, we refer to the Bohr model when we
talk about electron shells surrounding the nucleus of an atom.

150 Topic 4 Chemistry: Atoms, elements, compounds and molecules

 TOPIC 4

Charges and masses of sub-atomic particles

A proton is a positively charged particle, an electron is a negatively charged
particle and a neutron has no charge. The positively charged protons attract the
negatively charged electrons.

Approximate mass, charge and location of sub-atomic particles in an atom

Sub-atomic Approximate Charge Location Did you know?
particle mass in in an
The mass of a proton is
atomic mass atom approximately 1,840 times
units (amu) greater than that of an electron,
proton 1 +1 nucleus which is why we say that an
electron’s mass is ____
1
1,840
amu.
neutron 1 0 nucleus
_____
1
electron 1,840 –1 shells
New words
Every atom has the same number of protons as electrically neutral: having no
electrons, which means that every atom has no overall charge
overall charge. But, atoms from different elements valence electrons: electrons that
have different numbers of these sub-atomic particles, are found in the outermost shell of
and the numbers are specific to the element. an atom

Numbers of protons and electrons for three elements

Element Number Number Overall
of of charge
protons electrons
hydrogen (H) 1 1 0
nitrogen (N) 7 7 0
sodium (Na) 11 11 0

The table above shows that atoms are Helium (He) Carbon (C)
e–
electrically neutral (in other words,
they have no overall charge), because e– e– e–
p+
the positive charges from the protons n n n
n + +
p p+ p+ +
cancel out the negative charges of the p+ n p n p
n +n
e– p e–
electrons. The neutrons do not e–
valence
contribute any charge at all. electrons e–

Figure 2 Helium (He) has only one shell,

The electrons in the outermost shell of
so both electrons in that shell are
an atom are called valence electrons. valence electrons. Carbon (C) has two
They are important because they are shells, and there are four electrons in its
involved when atoms bond together. outermost shell, so carbon has four
valence electrons.

Sub-topic 1 Atomic structure and the Periodic Table 151

Proton numbers, nucleon numbers and nuclide
notation
Proton (atomic) number ( Z )
This is the total number of protons contained in the nucleus of an atom of any
given element. Since an atom is electrically neutral, the number of protons is the
same as the total number of electrons found in the shells around the nucleus. All
atoms of the same element have the same proton number, so it can be used to
identify the element. The proton number is also called the atomic number.
Nucleon (mass) number ( A)
The nucleon number is the total number of protons and neutrons contained in
the nucleus of an atom of any given element. Because these two sub-atomic
particles make up most of the mass of an atom, the nucleon number is also called
the mass number.
Nuclide notation
The atomic number and nucleon number of an atom are related in this way:
Nucleon number = Number of protons + Number of neutrons
In symbols: A = Z + N

The proton and nucleon numbers for a

nucleon number A
specific atom can be written in nuclide element
notation, like this: proton number Z X symbol

Worked example
An atom of lithium (Li) has a nucleon number of 7 and a proton number of 3.
Determine the number of protons, neutrons and electrons in a lithium atom.

Answer
Protons: The proton number is 3, therefore the number of protons is 3.
Neutrons: A = Z + N
7 = 3 + N therefore N = 4
Electrons: The number of electrons is the same as the number of protons: 3.

Activity 1 Protons, electrons and neutrons

Answer the following questions on your own:
1. Explain why atoms have no overall charge.
2. Choose the correct answer. The symbol for the proton (atomic) number is ...
A Pr B Z C A D N
3. Determine the number of protons, neutrons and electrons in:
a) copper (Z = 29; A = 64) b) iodine (Z = 53; A = 127)

152 Topic 4 Chemistry: Atoms, elements, compounds and molecules

 TOPIC 4

The elements
An element is a pure substance that cannot be broken down further by chemical
means. This is because an element consists of only one type of atom. Of all the
elements listed on the Periodic Table, only around 100 occur naturally – the others
have only ever been created under laboratory conditions.

The chemical symbols of the elements

Each element has a chemical symbol. It is made up of either one or two letters
that are derived from either the English or Latin name for that element.
If the symbol contains only one letter, it is written as a capital letter. If it
contains two letters, then the first is capitalised and the second is in small case.

Names and symbols of some elements

One-letter symbols Two-letter symbols
Name Symbol Name Symbol
Carbon C Helium He
Sulfur S Magnesium Mg
Potassium K (from the Latin Sodium Na (from the Latin
name, kalium) name, natrium)
Oxygen O Zinc Zn
Nitrogen N Aluminium Al

The numbers that are used in chemical formulae Did you know?
are usually related to the relative numbers of
atoms that are found in a compound.

Elements in our environment

In central and southern Africa, chemical elements
play an important role in the economies of some
countries, from copper (Cu) mines in Zambia to Diamond is one of the world’s
gold (Au) mines in South Africa and cobalt (Co) in most expensive substances,
the Democratic Republic of the Congo. but chemically, it consists only
Even diamonds, which are mined in South of carbon atoms - much like
charcoal. The difference
Africa, Zimbabwe and Botswana, can be between the two substances is
classified in this group because diamond is made how the carbon atoms bond
up entirely of carbon (C) – another element. with each other.
In the local environment:
• The air that we breathe contains oxygen (O), nitrogen (N) and carbon dioxide
(a compound made from carbon and oxygen), among other gases.
• All humans, plants and animals are carbon-based forms of life.

Sub-topic 1 Atomic structure and the Periodic Table 153

The Periodic Table
Did you know?
The elements are arranged in the Periodic Table
according to their proton numbers. The first 20 The Periodic Table was
devised by a Russian
elements of the Periodic Table are shown in the table scientist named Dmitri
below, along with their symbols and numbers. Mendeleev in 1869.

The first 20 elements of the Periodic Table: Names,

symbols and important numbers Note
Element Symbol Proton Nucleon The nucleon number in the
number ( Z ) number ( A ) table is only for one
1 hydrogen H 1 1 isotope of that element.
2 helium He 2 4 You will learn about
isotopes on page 159.
3 lithium Li 3 7
4 beryllium Be 4 9
5 boron B 5 11 Did you know?
6 carbon C 6 12
7 nitrogen N 7 14
8 oxygen O 8 16
9 fluorine F 9 19
10 neon Ne 10 20
11 sodium Na 11 23
12 magnesium Mg 12 24
13 aluminium Al 13 27
14 silicon Si 14 28
15 phosphorus P 15 31 Helium is a gas that is
16 sulfur S 16 32 sometimes used in party
17 chlorine Cl 17 35 balloons. This is because it
18 argon Ar 18 40 is so much lighter than air,
the balloons always stay
19 potassium K 19 39
buoyant (or afloat).
20 calcium Ca 20 40

Activity 2 The elements

Answer the following questions in pairs:
1. Use the table above to identify the element in each case:
a) This atom contains 10 neutrons, and has a nucleon number of 20.
b) The proton number of this atom is 19.
c) This atom has an even number of protons and neutrons, and the number
of neutrons is the same as in a potassium atom.
2. Use the table above to find the chemical symbols of:
a) boron b) sulfur c) aluminium

154 Topic 4 Chemistry: Atoms, elements, compounds and molecules

 The Periodic Table of the Elements
I II III IV V VI VII VIII (or 0)
1
4
H
1 Hydrogen He
1 Helium
2
7 9 11 12 14 16 19 20
Alkali metals Other metals Halogens
2 Li Be B C N O F Ne
Lithium Beryllium Noble gases Boron Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine Neon
3 4 Alkaline earth metals Metalloids 5 6 7 8 9 10
23 24 Lanthanoid series 27 28 31 32 35.5 40
3 Na Mg Transitition metals Other non-metals Actinoid series Al Si P S Cl Ar
Sodium Magnesium Aluminium Silicon Phosphorus Sulfur Chlorine Argon
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
39 40 45 48 51 52 55 56 59 59 64 65 70 73 75 79 80 84
4 K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
Potassium Calcium Scandium Titanium Vanadium Chromium Manganese Iron Cobalt Nickel Copper Zinc Gallium Germanium Arsenic Selenium Bromine Krypton
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
85 88 89 91 93 96 101 103 106 108 112 115 119 122 128 127 131
5 Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
Rubidium Strontium Yttrium Zirconium Niobium Molybdenum Technetium Ruthenium Rhodium Palladium Silver Cadmium Indium Tin Antimony Tellurium Iodine Xenon
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
133 137 139 178 181 184 186 190 192 195 197 201 204 207 209
6 Cs Ba La Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
Caesium Barium Lanthanum Hafnium Tantalum Tungsten Rhenium Osmium Iridium Platinum Gold Mercury Thallium Lead Bismuth Polonium Astatine Radon
55 56 57 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
226 227
7 Fr Ra Ac
Francium Radium Actinium
87 88 89
140 141 144 150 152 157 159 162 165 167 169 173 175
Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
Symbol key Cerium Praseodymium Neodimium Promethium Samarium Europium Gadolinium Terbium Dysprosium Holmium Erbium Thulium Ytterbium Lutetium
58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
9 Relative atomic mass
Symbol 232 238
Be
Beryllium Name Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr
4 Thorium Protactinium Uranium Neptunium Plutonium Americium Curium Berkelium Californium Einsteinium Fermium Mendelevium Nobelium Lawrencium
Proton (atomic) number

Sub-topic 1 Atomic structure and the Periodic Table

90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103
TOPIC

Figure 3 The Periodic Table

155
4
The Periodic Table is an arrangement of the elements in order of increasing proton
number, but also according to their trends in chemical properties. These trends
become apparent when you read the table in terms of the periods (rows) or groups
(columns). It is therefore a tool for classifying elements.

Groups
The groups are the vertical columns that each contain up to seven elements. The
elements in each group have the same number of valence electrons.
They are numbered I to VIII (or 0) from the left. However, the elements in groups I, II
and III to VIII (or 0) (except hydrogen) are called the main group elements, while the
elements between Group II and Group III are called the transition metals. Hydrogen
does not actually belong to a specific group.

Some of the groups have names, as seen in the table below.

The main group elements and their valencies
Group Number of VIII
I groups (0)
number valence electrons
1 II III IV V VI VII
I 1 2
periods

II 2 3
III 3 4
5
IV 4
6
V 5 7
VI 6
VII 7
VII (or 0) 2 for helium, 8 for
the others Figure 4 There are 7 periods in the Periodic
Table. Here, you can see where the main group
elements (in green) and the transition metals (in
blue) are found.

New words
Periods
The periods are the horizontal rows that each group (Periodic Table): the vertical
columns of elements in the Periodic
contain between two and eighteen elements (see
Table
Figure 4). They are numbered from 1 to 7, and main group elements: the elements
each one contains elements that have the same in groups I, II and III to VIII (or 0),
number of electron shells. For example, hydrogen except hydrogen
and helium both have only one electron shell, transition metals: the metals in the
therefore they are found in Period 1. Lithium and Periodic Table that are found in
groups 3 to 12
neon both have two electron shells, therefore they
period (Periodic Table): the
are found in Period 2. horizontal rows of elements in the
Periodic Table

156 Topic 4 Chemistry: Atoms, elements, compounds and molecules

 TOPIC 4
More about the Periodic Table
• Refer back to the Periodic Table on page 155.
New words
• Elements can be classified as non-metals,
metals and metalloids (substances that have noble gas: an unreactive and
only some metallic properties). monatomic gas that has a filled
• Non-metals include all the gases, such as outer electron shell
monatomic: atoms that occur
hydrogen, helium and oxygen, but also solids
naturally as single atoms
such as carbon and a liquid – bromine (Br).
• The metals take up most of the Periodic Table. Did you know?
Some of the elements in the
lowest two rows are artificial (or
not found naturally), so they can
only be made in laboratories.

Activity 3 The Periodic Table

Answer the following questions on your own:
1. Explain the following terms:
a) the Periodic Table b) a group c) a period.
2. An element, X, has a proton number of 12. State the group and period in
which X is found.

The build-up of electrons in shells

Some shells are filled when they have two electrons. Some others are filled when
they have eight electrons. The maximum number of electrons that a shell can hold
depends on the type of shell (its energy level).

The first shell (nearest to the nucleus) is filled when it has two electrons.
• The second shell (from the nucleus) is filled when it has eight electrons.
• The third shell is filled when it has 18 electrons, but once the first eight
electrons are in place, the next two go to the fourth shell before the third
shell continues to fill up.

The noble gases

The elements in Group VIII all have filled outer shells. They are called the noble
gases. The noble gases do not form bonds, because they do not have electrons
available to take part in bonding. This makes the noble gases very stable. The noble
gases are also monatomic, which means that they occur naturally as single atoms.
Other elements react in such a way that they achieve a stable structure (they do
so by either electron transfer or electron sharing).

Sub-topic 1 Atomic structure and the Periodic Table 157

Valency number
New words
The number of electrons that an atom of any
element loses or gains in order to form the stable valency number: the number of
structure of a noble gas, is called its valency electrons an atom can lose or gain
to reach noble gas configuration
number, or combining power. Elements that have:
• 1 to 3 valence electrons tend to lose those
electrons (aluminium's valency number is 3)
• 4 valence electrons tend to share those electrons (carbon's valency number is 4)
• 5 to 7 valence electrons tend to gain electrons to complete the noble gas
configuration (oxygen's valency number is 2 and fluorine's valency number is 1)
• filled outermost electron shells (the noble gases), have a valency number of zero.
Electronic configurations
Electronic configurations can be represented by:
1. writing down the number of electrons in each shell, separated by a comma.
For example: sodium (2311
Na) : 2, 8, 1 or chlorine (35
17
Cl) : 2, 8, 7
2. drawing concentric circles around the nucleus and using dots or crosses to
indicate electrons. For example:
e– e–
e– ××
e–
Na e– ×
11× p+ e– Na × Na ××
or × ×
e– 12× n
e– e– ×
××
e– –
e

Figure 5 These diagrams are called dot and cross diagrams.

Worked example
Use the electronic configuration of sodium (in the example above) to determine
in which group and in which period we find sodium. Also, state sodium's
valency number.

Answer
Sodium’s electronic configuration is Na: 2, 8, 1. Therefore, sodium must belong
to Group I, because it has only one valence electron. Sodium has three electron
shells, therefore it must belong to Period 3. Its valency number is 1.

Activity 4 Electronic structure and valency

Answer the following questions on your own:
1. Write and draw the electronic structure of:
a) 6C b) 7N c) 1H d) 13Al e) 8O
2. Refer to the Periodic Table on page 155. Write down the electronic
structure and state the valency numbers of the following:
a) boron b) magnesium c) argon

158 Topic 4 Chemistry: Atoms, elements, compounds and molecules

 TOPIC 4

Isotopes Did you know?

Atoms of the same element must always have Isotopes can be detected and
the same proton number. However, in nature, their natural abundances
most elements have atoms that have slightly measured by an instrument
different masses. This is because the number of known as a mass spectrometer.
neutrons may be different. We call these atoms
of the same element, but with different numbers
New words
of neutrons isotopes.
isotope: atoms with the same
Usually, one isotope is more common than the proton number, but different
others. We call this isotope the most abundant nucleon numbers
radioactive: a word to describe
isotope of an element. matter that emits radiation from the
nucleus of its atoms and decays in
Examples of isotopes
the process
Oxygen radioisotope: an isotope that is
Oxygen atoms have 8 protons and radioactive
8 electrons. The majority of naturally
occurring oxygen atoms have Nucleus of Nucleus of Nucleus of
8 neutrons, but a small percentage oxygen-16 atom oxygen-17 atom oxygen-18 atom
p+ p+ p+
have 9 neutrons, while others have 10. n n n + n n n + n n n +
p+ p+ p+ p p+ p+ p+ p p+ p+ p+ p
The most common isotopes of oxygen n n n n p+ n n n n p+ n n n n n p+
are therefore: p+ + n p+ +n n p+ +n n
p p p
• 168O (abundance: 99.76%)
• 17
O (abundance: 0.038%) Figure 6 Isotopes of oxygen
8
18
• O
(abundance: 0.2%)
8
Oxygen-16 is the most abundant oxygen isotope.

Carbon
Carbon also has three naturally occurring isotopes: carbon-12 (126C), carbon-13
(136C) and carbon-14 (146C). Carbon-12 has an abundance of 98,9%, while
carbon-13 has an abundance of 1,07%. Carbon-14, therefore, is the least
abundant carbon isotope, by far.

Radioisotopes
Carbon-14 is a very different type of isotope when compared to the other two
carbon isotopes: it is radioactive. This means that carbon-14 nuclei decay (break
down) naturally and give out rays, sub-atomic particles and energy at a slow but
steady rate. Therefore, we call it a radioisotope. In the process, carbon-14 becomes
nitrogen-14. Only some elements have radioisotopes amongst their isotopes.

Sub-topic 1 Atomic structure and the Periodic Table 159

Uses of radioisotopes
Medical and health-related uses
1. Cobalt-60 is used to treat cancer. This radioisotope
gives off rays named gamma rays as it decays.
Gamma rays are effective at targeting and killing
cancer cells, so a cancer patient has a beam of
gamma rays from a sample of cobalt-60 directed to
the part of the body where the cancerous cells are Figure 8 This linear
accelerator is the
located. This type of treatment is called radiotherapy.
device that is used to
2. Cobalt-60 is also commonly used to treat food.
treat cancer in
Gamma rays kill dangerous bacteria and parasites, so hospitals. The entire
those foods that are more likely to contain such device can move
dangers are irradiated with gamma rays before they about so that the
are packaged and sold. beam of radiation can
be targeted anywhere
Industrial uses on the patient’s body.
1. Radioisotopes are used as tracers in oil and gas pipes.
Radioisotopes are added to the oil or gas (they have no
effect on the purity of the oil or gas) so that, in the
event of a leak, a Geiger counter (a device that detects
radiation) can be used to detect any radiation outside
the pipe, thereby indicating where the leak is.
2. Uranium-235 is commonly used in the production of Figure 9 Oil and gas
nuclear fuels for generating nuclear energy. Nuclear pipelines sometimes
energy has the advantage that large quantities of run for hundreds of
energy can be produced from very little starting kilometres. By using a
radioisotope tracer
material. But, nuclear energy produces waste that is still
and a Geiger counter,
radioactive and must be stored safely so that it does not leaks can be detected
impact humans or the environment negatively. quickly and easily.

Activity 5 Isotopes and radioisotopes

Answer the following questions in pairs:
1. Explain what an isotope is. Number of: 24
X 25
X 26
X
12 12 12
2. Name and write the symbols of the three
protons
naturally occurring isotopes of oxygen.
neutrons
3. An element, X, has three isotopes with electrons
mass numbers 24, 25 and 26 and
proton number, 12. Copy and complete the table.
4. Explain what a radioisotope is.
5. Give two examples of radioisotopes.
6. Explain how radioisotopes are used in medical science.

160 Topic 4 Chemistry: Atoms, elements, compounds and molecules

 TOPIC 4

Relative atomic mass

The relative atomic mass of an element is the average mass of one atom of a
given element, compared to one-twelfth the mass of one atom of carbon-12.
Average mass of atom of element X
Relative atomic mass (Ar ) = __________________________________
__
1
12
the mass of carbon-12 isotope
Therefore, the relative atomic mass:
• has no units (it is a ratio) New words
• (for most elements) is not a whole number. relative atomic mass ( A ): the r
average mass of one atom of a
A mass spectrometer is a device that can detect given element, compared to
the abundances of isotopes in a sample. It one-twelfth the mass of one atom
of carbon-12
produces a chart like this:

In this sample of boron, there are two spikes in the

chart: The tallest spike indicates the isotope that is
most abundant. It has a relative abundance of 100.
Relative abundance

100 This spike has a mass to charge ratio of 11, as you

can see on the horizontal axis. But, the smaller spike
50 (at 10 on the horizontal axis) only has a relative
abundance of 22. So, boron has two isotopes: boron-
10, with a relative abundance of 22, and boron-11,
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 with a relative abundance of 100. So, out of a sample
Mass of 122 boron atoms, 100 of them will be boron-11
Figure 7 The mass spectrum isotopes (82% abundance) and 22 of them will be
chart for boron boron-10 isotopes (18% abundance).

Worked example
Chlorine has two naturally occurring isotopes, where abundances are 25%
chlorine-37 and 75% chlorine-35. Determine the relative atomic mass of chlorine.

Answer
% of isotope % of isotope
Relative atomic mass of chlorine = ( __________
100
A
× AA) + (__________
100
B
× AB)
___
25 ___
75
= ( 100 × 37) + ( 100 × 35)
= 35.5

Activity 6 Relative atomic mass

Answer the questions that follow on your own. Calculate the relative atomic mass
of the following elements, given their percentage abundances:
1. Lithium-6: 7.4%; lithium-7: 92.6%
2. Nitrogen-14: 99.6%; nitrogen-15: 0.4%
3. Silver-107: 51.8%; silver-109: 48.2%

Sub-topic 1 Atomic structure and the Periodic Table 161

SUB-TOPIC 2 Bonding

Compounds
A compound is a substance that consists of two
or more different elements that have been
New words
chemically combined. The ratio of elements in a compound: a substance that
compound is always fixed. The process of consists of two or more different
forming a compound from two or more elements that have been chemically
different elements is called synthesis. Energy is combined
synthesis: the process of forming
either given out or absorbed in compound
compounds from two or more
synthesis. The newly-formed compound has elements
entirely new chemical properties. For example, cation: a positively charged ion
hydrogen reacts with oxygen to form water. anion: a negatively charged ion

The formation of ions

An ion is a charged atom or a charged group of atoms. An ion can be formed by
either a gain or loss of electrons. Both metal ions and non-metal ions can be
formed.

Metal ions
Metal ions form when atoms of metals lose electrons, thereby forming positively
charged ions called cations. The cation is generally represented as Xn+, where n is
the number of electrons lost. The transition metals, such as copper and iron, can
vary the number of electrons that they can lose.

Non-metal ions
Non-metal ions form when atoms of non-metals gain electrons, thereby forming
negatively charged ions called anions. The anion is generally represented as Xn–,
where n is the number of electrons gained.

Some non-metal ions

Element Valency Ion Name The noble gases are also non-metals,
except that they do not gain or lose
Fluorine (F) 1 F– fluoride electrons. Therefore, noble gas atoms
Chlorine (Cl) 1 Cl– chloride do not form ions and they do not
Bromine (Br) 1 Br –
bromide form compounds with other elements.
Oxygen (O) 2 O 2–
oxide Hydrogen is also a non-metal, even
Sulfur (S) 2 S2–
sulfide though it can form a cation (H+).
Nitrogen (N) 3 N3– nitride

162 Topic 4 Chemistry: Atoms, elements, compounds and molecules

 TOPIC 4
Polyatomic ions (radicals)
Some ions are groups of atoms that carry a charge. A polyatomic ion (or radical)
is an ion that is made up of two or more atoms that are bonded together. The
prefix poly- means many.

Valency of some polyatomic ions

Polyatomic ion Valency New words
–
Hydroxide ion (OH ) 1
polyatomic ion (or radical): an ion
Nitrate (NO3–) 1 that is made up of two or more
Ammonium (NH4+) 1 atoms that are bonded together

Carbonate (CO32–) 2
Sulfate (SO42–) 2
Phosphate (PO43–) 3

In compounds, atoms are held together by forces

known as chemical bonds. Valence electrons play a
key role in chemical bonding.

Naming compounds that contain radicals

For compounds that contain radical groups, these
groups are sometimes written in brackets, if more
than one of them is present in a compound.
Magnesium hydroxide, for example, contains
magnesium (Mg2+) and the hydroxide ions, OH–.
The chemical formula for this compound is Figure 10 Magnesium hydroxide
Mg(OH)2, because two hydroxide ions combine is a common ingredient in
with each magnesium ion. antacid effervescent tablets.

Activity 7 Polyatomic ions

Answer the questions that follow in pairs. Refer back to the table on page 154 for
the names of some of the elements.
Write the names (in words) of the following compounds:
1. CaCO3 2. NaNO3 3. NaOH 4. Al(OH)3
5. K2SO4 6. AlPO4 7. NH4NO3 8. Li2CO3

Ionic (or electrovalent) bonds

An ionic (or electrovalent) bond is formed when there is a complete transfer of
one or more electrons from one atom to another. In other words, an electron or
electron pair can be transferred from a metal (which has electrons that it can
donate) to a non-metal (which would prefer to gain electrons in order to achieve
noble gas configuration).
Sub-topic 2 Bonding 163
 This results in the formation of oppositely charged ions.
The transfer of electrons occurs so that each atom involved in the bonding
achieves noble gas configuration (a full outermost shell).
Figure 11 shows how an ionic bond forms between potassium (K, a metal) and
bromine (Br, a non-metal). Potassium has one valence electron and bromine has
seven valence electrons.

× 1+ × 1–
×× ××
×× ××
× ×
××

××
××
××

××
××

××

××
××
××

××
××
K Br K Br
× ×
×× ××
×× ××
×× ××
Figure 11 Potassium and bromine form ions that attract each other. The resulting
bond is an ionic bond.

When one potassium atom approaches a

bromine atom, the potassium atom can give its
New words
valence electron to the bromine atom: That way, ionic (or electrovalent) bond: a
both atoms will have noble gas configuration. bond that is formed between a
But, the potassium atom now has a positive metallic and a non-metallic atom by
charge of +1 because it lost an electron, and the means of electron transfer from one
to the other
bromine atom now has a negative charge of –1.
electrostatic force: the force
The two ions therefore attract one another and between charges that holds ions
form an ionic bond. together in an ionic bond (like
We call the forces that hold the two ions charges attract and unlike
together electrostatic forces. charges repel)

Worked example
Show, using a dot and cross diagram, how atoms are bonded in:
1. magnesium oxide (MgO) 2. calcium chloride (CaCl2).
Answer
1. MgO 2. CaCl2 × 1–
2+ ××
× 2– ×
×
××
××

××
××

Cl
××

××

Mg O 2+ ×
× ××
× ××
Ca × 1–
××
×
××
××

××
××

Cl
×
××
××

164 Topic 4 Chemistry: Atoms, elements, compounds and molecules

 TOPIC 4
The ionic crystal lattice
New word
An ionic crystal lattice structure is an orderly
arrangement of positive and negative ions to lattice structure: a three-
form a regular shape in three dimensions. Table dimensional arrangement of ions or
atoms that has a repeating pattern
salt (NaCl) is an example of an ionic crystal
lattice structure: It consists of an equal number
of Na+ and Cl– ions, and it is held together by strong
electrostatic forces of attraction.

Deducing the valency of an element

in an ionic compound
The ratio of elements in a compound tells you about
the valency of each element.
If the compound contains elements for which you
know the valency, the others can be deduced.
Remember that, for groups I to IV, the valency is the
same as the group number, but for groups V to VIII (or Cl
–

0), the valencies are 3, 2, 1 and 0, respectively. Na

+

Figure 12 Salt grains consist

Worked example of a cubic lattice structure.

Given the formula of the ionic compound, CaCl2:

1. What is the valency of calcium?
2. What is the ionic charge of calcium?

Answer
1. For each calcium atom in the compound, there are two chlorine atoms.
Chlorine is in Group VII, so it has a valency of 1. Together, the two chlorine
atoms need two electrons to achieve noble gas configuration. Therefore, the
calcium atom must give two electrons. Therefore, the valency of calcium is 2.
2. The ionic charge of calcium is 2+, because it loses two electrons in order to
achieve noble gas configuration.

Activity 8 Ionic bonds

Answer the following questions in pairs.
1. Describe how ionic bonds are formed.
2. Use a dot and cross diagram to show how a sodium atom (Na) bonds with a
chlorine atom (Cl) to form the ionic compound, NaCl.
3. Write the formulae of the ions and their electronic configurations for the
following atoms:
a) 73Li b) 168O c) 199F

Sub-topic 2 Bonding 165

Covalent bonds New words
This type of bonding involves the sharing of covalent bond: a bond in which
electrons between non-metallic atoms when their atoms share a pair of electrons,
shells overlap. In Figure 13, two non-metal atoms with each atom contributing one
that each need one more electron in order to electron
achieve noble gas configuration, can share a
valence electron from each atom, so that both end up with a full outer shell. The result
is a very strong covalent bond, because the positively-charged nucleus in one atom
attracts its original valence electron and the new, shared electron from the other atom.

H e– H H H
e–
1 × p+ 1 × p+ 1 × p+ 1 × p+
1× n e– 1× n 1× n e– 1× n

H H H × H
×

Figure 13 A dot and cross diagram of a hydrogen molecule.

Instead of drawing the orbital overlap, we can describe the bonds using dot and
cross diagrams.
If atoms bond covalently, they form molecules.

Electronic arrangement in covalent molecules

Figure 14 shows some more examples of covalent molecules.
Chlorine (Cl2) × × × ×
× ×
Cl + × Cl × Cl × Cl ×
× × × ×
Water (H2O) × ×
× × ×
H × O ×
×
H +× O × + H ×
× H

Ammonia (NH3) × ×
× × ×
H × N H
×
H +× N + H + H ×
× H

Methane (CH4)
H
× ×
× ×
H +× C + H + H + H H × C H
× ×
H

Figure 14 Dot and cross diagrams of some common covalent molecules with single
bonds (only valence electrons shown)
166 Topic 4 Chemistry: Atoms, elements, compounds and molecules
 TOPIC 4
If an atom has two or three valence electrons, it can form two or three covalent
bonds with another atom: Oxygen gas (O2) has molecules with a double covalent
bond (i.e. the two atoms share two electrons with each other, to form two
covalent bonds). Nitrogen gas (N2) has molecules with triple covalent bonds.

Double covalent bonds

Molecule Oxygen (O2) Ethene (C2H4)
Dot and cross
diagram H H
×× ×
× ×
O O C C
× × × ×
×
H H

Triple covalent bonds

Molecule Nitrogen (N2) Ethyne (C2H2)
Dot and cross
× ×
diagram N × N ×
× H C × C ×
H
× ×

Worked example
Show, using a dot and cross diagram, how atoms are bonded in:
1. carbon dioxide (CO2) 2. ethane (C2H6)
Answer
1. 2.
× × H H
O C O
× × ×
×
H C × C H
×
H H

Activity 9 Covalent bonds

Answer the following questions in pairs:
1. Explain how covalent bonds form.
2. Describe the difference between single, double and triple covalent bonds,
giving an example of each type of bond.
3. Without looking at the examples in this book, draw dot and cross diagrams to
show how the atoms bond with each other in:
a) chlorine gas (Cl2) b) oxygen gas (O2)
4. Show, using a dot and cross diagram, how atoms are bonded in:
a) bromine gas (Br2) b) hydrochloric acid (HCl)

Sub-topic 2 Bonding 167

Ionic and covalent compounds
Ionic compounds Covalent compounds
They are made up of ions. They are made up of molecules.
Most ionic compounds are not volatile Most covalent compounds are volatile -
(they do not easily evaporate at room that is why they usually have distinctive
temperature and pressure). smells.
When melted or in solution, ionic They do not conduct electricity.
compounds conduct electricity.
Ionic compounds are usually solids at Covalent compounds are usually gases or
room temperature and pressure. liquids at room temperature and pressure.
Ionic compounds have high boiling points They often have low boiling points and
and high melting points. low melting points.
They do not vapourise easily. This is They vapourise easily. This is because of
because of the very strong electrostatic the very weak electrostatic forces of
forces of attraction between the attraction between the molecules.
oppositely charged ions.
Many ionic compounds are soluble in water. Many covalent compounds are insoluble
in water, but soluble in other covalent
liquids such as alcohol and
tetrachloromethane.
Generally, ionic compounds have greater Generally, covalent compounds have
densities than covalent molecules, but lower densities than ionic compounds.
there are some exceptions.

Figure 15 Calcium carbonate (CaCO3) is Figure 16 Sulfur dioxide (SO2) is a

an ionic compound. It is a very common covalent compound. It is a gas that has
natural substance. The shells of marine a very strong, unpleasant smell. It is
creatures are made of it. released in volcanic eruptions.

Uses of ionic and covalent compounds

Ionic compounds
New words
Because ionic compounds have such high melting
points, they can keep their strength and stability at refractory material: a material that
very high temperatures. This means that they are can withstand very high
temperatures without melting or
very good refractory materials, which play an
losing strength
important role in some industries.

168 Topic 4 Chemistry: Atoms, elements, compounds and molecules

 TOPIC 4
Industries that make use of furnaces need to have linings
in those furnaces that can withstand the extremely high
temperatures. Some of these are:
• Metals: Whenever metals are processed and formed into
products, the metal usually has to be melted down first.
Steel mills contain blast furnaces where this happens, and
Figure 17 Refractory
those are often lined with magnesium oxide (MgO).
materials will not melt
• Glass and cement: Furnaces used in glass- and cement- or degrade, even when
making are often lined with aluminium oxide (Al2O3). the temperature is high
enough to melt metal.
Other uses
• Powder fire extinguishers: These contain an ionic powder that, when heated,
releases carbon dioxide which smothers the fire.
• Bleach: The active ingredient of household bleach is sodium hypochlorite (NaClO).
• Baking: Sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3) (baking soda) is an ionic compound that
is often used in baking breads.

Covalent compounds
Covalent molecules sometimes have a slight negative charge on one end of the
molecule, and a slight positive charge on the other. This gives the molecule polarity.
Other covalent molecules don’t have this polarity, so we call them non-polar
molecules. Polar substances dissolve easily in polar solvents, and non-polar substances
dissolve easily in non-polar solvents. This is why sugar (a polar molecule) dissolves in
water (a polar solvent), but not in turpentine (a non-polar molecule).

Other uses
• Alcohol: Ethanol is an organic, covalent compound that we know as alcohol.
Apart from alcoholic beverages, alcohol is used in medical science as a
preservative and an antiseptic, and it is used in some cleaning agents and fuels.
• Glass: The main ingredient of glass is silicon dioxide (SiO2).

Activity 10 Ionic and covalent bonds

Work with a partner to complete this activity. Use the fact that ionic bonds are
formed between metal (M) atoms and non-metal (NM) atoms, while covalent
bonds are formed between non-metal atoms, to determine whether the following
substances contain ionic or covalent bonds.
Substance Element 1 (M or NM?) Element 2 (M or NM?) Type of bond
1. O2
2. Rb2S
3. K2O
4. CuCl2
5. HF

Sub-topic 2 Bonding 169

Chemical formulae of compounds
A chemical formula is a short-hand way of describing the relative numbers of
atoms (of different elements) that combine to form a compound. Carbon dioxide,
for example, is compound that contains carbon and oxygen, but in a container of
carbon dioxide gas, the number of carbon atoms is not the same as the number of
oxygen atoms. This is because carbon and oxygen combine in the ratio 1 : 2, so
for each carbon atom, there are two oxygen atoms.

The chemical formula of carbon dioxide is therefore written as CO2.

Rules for naming chemical compounds

1. Ionic compounds contain a metal and a non-metal: The name of the metal
comes first, and the non-metal is second. But, the non-metal’s name changes
at the end: The suffix –ide is added.
Example: sodium (a metal) and chlorine (a non-metal) form sodium chloride.
2. Covalent compounds contain non-metals, and sometimes two different
elements can combine in different proportions. To avoid confusion in naming
these different compounds, we use the prefixes in the table below:

Prefixes used in naming

covalent chemicals
Number of atoms Prefix
1 mono–
2 di–
3 tri–
4 tetra–
5 penta–
6 hexa–
7 hepta–
Figure 18 The structures of carbon dioxide
8 octa– (left) and carbon monoxide (right)

Like the ionic compounds, the second non-metal’s name changes so that it ends
with –ide.
Carbon and oxygen can combine in the ratio 1 : 1, but also in the ratio 1 : 2. To
distinguish between these two compounds, we call them carbon monoxide (CO)
and carbon dioxide (CO2).
If one of the elements is hydrogen, then hydrogen is always named first.

170 Topic 4 Chemistry: Atoms, elements, compounds and molecules

 TOPIC 4
Steps for writing the formulae of chemical compounds
Step 1 Write the symbols of the two (or more) combining elements.
Step 2 Write the valency of each element below the symbol.
Step 3 The valencies have to balance, so multiply one valency by a factor that
will give you the second valency. You may have to multiply the other
valency by another factor in order to balance the two. The factor that you
multiply with is the number that will appear at the bottom right of the
symbol in the chemical formula.

Example
zinc chloride ammonia aluminium oxide
Step 1: write the Zn Cl N H Al O
symbols
Step 2: write the 2 1 3 1 3 2
valencies
Step 3: balance (multiply the (multiply the (multiply the
the valencies valency of Cl by 2) valency of H by 3) valency of Al by 2
AND multiply the
valency of O by 3
Chemical formula ZnCl2 NH3 Al2O3

Activity 11 Chemical formulae

Answer the following on your own:
Write the chemical formulae of the following compounds:
1. magnesium chloride 2. titanium dioxide
3. ammonium sulfate 4. calcium hydroxide
5. sodium sulfide 6. calcium nitrate
7. silver nitrate 8. aluminium carbonate

Metallic bonds
This type of bonding involves the force of attraction between cations (positive
ions) and electrons in a metallic lattice structure. In other words, when metal
atoms are packed together tightly in a metal lattice, their valence electrons break
free from their shells and move around the structure. The electrons become
delocalised and form a “sea” of electrons,
which then acts as the glue that holds the lattice New words
together. The attractive forces between the
cations and the sea of electrons is exceptionally delocalised (electrons): electrons
that don’t belong to one particular
strong. The strong metallic bond is the reason
atom
why metals have their characteristic properties.

Sub-topic 2 Bonding 171

 –
+ – + – + + cations (in a metallic
– – lattice structure)
+ – + – + +
+ – + + + – sea of electrons
– –

Figure 19 Cations in a sea of delocalised electrons.

Characteristics of metallic compounds

1. They have very high melting points because very
much heat is required to break the lattice structure.
2. They conduct electricity because electrons are free
to move around the lattice. The electrons can carry
electrical charge throughout the lattice structure.
3. They conduct heat because the electrons both
absorb and transfer heat to the cations very well.
4. Metals are ductile (they can be drawn into a wire) Figure 20 Copper is a
and malleable (they can be hammered into a new very useful metal:
Because it conducts
shape). This is because the positive ions are able to
electricity so well, it is
slide over each other, without breaking the bond.
used in electrical wiring.
Activity 12 Metallic bonds
Answer the following questions on your own:
1. Explain how a metallic bond forms.
2. Explain why metals are good conductors of electricity.

The electrical and thermal conductivity of metals

Activity 13 Metallic bonds
This experiment allows you to use your knowledge of metallic bonds.
Carry out this experiment in groups of four.
Experiment
Materials Aim
For Part 1, you will need: Investigate the thermal and electrical conductivity
• candle wax of metals.
• 1 × 250 ml beaker
• a selection of metal rods of Part 1: Procedure
the same diameter: 1. Put a ball of candle wax on the end of each
Depending on availability, rod - it need not be large, but enough to hold
use 1 × steel, 1 × copper, the pin in place.
1 × brass, 1 × aluminium 2. Secure a pin in each ball of wax (on each metal
rods (or any other rods of a rod).
known metal)

172 Topic 4 Chemistry: Atoms, elements, compounds and molecules

 TOPIC 4
Experiment
• the same number of pins as 3. Place all the rods in
rods the beaker, so that all
• 200 ml boiling water the balls of wax are
• a stopwatch pointing upwards.
For Part 2, you will need: 4. Pour the boiling
• 2 × torch battery cells (and water into the beaker
cradles) and start the
• 1 × 3 V torch bulb (and stopwatch.
holder) 5. Record how long it Figure 21 How to set
• 1 × switch takes for the pins to up the apparatus
• a 10 cm length of copper fall off the ends of
wire the rods as the wax
• a 10 cm length of melts.
resistance wire
• a 10 cm length of steel wire Part 2: Procedure
(all three wires must have 1. Set up the circuit as shown in Figure 21,
the same diameter) connect the crocodile clips, and close the
• connecting wires with switch.
crocodile clips 2. Note how bright the light bulb glows – you
will need this as a reference in the next steps.
3. Open the switch and connect the copper wire
between the crocodile clips. Close the switch.
4. Record the brightness of the bulb, compared
to the brightness in Step 2.
5. Repeat steps 3 and 4 with the resistance wire
and the steel wire.
Part 1: Results
Rank the metal rods according to the amount Did you know?
of time it took for each one to drop the pin.
What conclusion can you draw about the Resistance wire is used in
heaters.
metals, and how effectively they can conduct
heat?

Part 2: Results
Rank the metal wires according to how brightly the bulb glowed for each. What
conclusion can you draw about the metals, and how effectively they can conduct
electricity?

Sub-topic 2 Bonding 173

SUB-TOPIC 3 Chemical formulae and equations

In the previous sub-topic, you learnt about writing and deducing chemical
formulae of ionic and covalent compounds. In this sub-topic, you will learn how
to balance equations using these formulae.

Word equations and chemical equations

A chemical equation represents a chemical reaction. The chemical formulae of the
combining chemicals (the reactants) are written on the left hand side, and the
product(s) of the reaction is written on the right hand side. Instead of an equals
sign, an arrow is used to show what the products are.

Example:
As a sentence: Sulfur and oxygen gas react to form sulfur dioxide.
As a word equation: sulfur + oxygen → sulfur dioxide
As a balanced chemical equation: S + O2 → SO2

Activity 14 Word equations

Answer the following questions in pairs. For each given sentence, write a word
equation to represent the reaction.
1. When hydrogen and fluorine react, they form hydrogen fluoride.
2. When iron reacts with oxygen, iron oxide is formed.
3. Potassium chloride and iodine are the products of the reaction between
potassium iodide and chlorine.
4. Calcium fluoride is produced when fluorine and calcium react.

Steps for writing chemical equations

Step 1: Write the names of the reactants and Did you know?
products in a word equation.
Step 2: Below the word equation, write the The gas that is used as a fuel in
gas stoves is methane. Methane
chemical formulae for each reactant
is a useful fuel, but it is also a
and product.
powerful greenhouse gas.
Step 3: Balance the equation to make sure that
the number of a certain type of atom on
the left hand side is the same as the
number of the same type of atom on
the right hand side. You can do this by
multiplying the formulae (which
represent atoms of that chemical in the
equation) by whole numbers until the
two sides are balanced.
174 Topic 4 Chemistry: Atoms, elements, compounds and molecules
 TOPIC 4
Step 4: Write the state symbols of each reactant and product next to each
formula. The state symbols are (s) for solid, (l) for liquid, (g) for gas and
(aq) for aqueous, which means that the chemical is in a solution of water.

Balancing chemical equations

1. Choose one type of atom. Count the Note
number of times you see the symbol for
The formulae may not change
that atom on the left and right hand sides
when you are balancing an
of the equation. If both numbers are the equation – only the numbers in
same, choose another atom. front of them may change.
2. If the numbers of one type of atom are
different, balance them by writing a
coefficient in front of one or more of the Did you know?
formulae that contain that atom. A Copper oxide is used as a
coefficient is a whole number that shows pigment in glazes (paints) for
how many molecules or atoms of that ceramic (pottery) items. It is
particular substance are involved in the specifically used in red, blue
and green glazes.
reaction. But, remember that a coefficient
applies to the whole formula, not only the
atom you are trying to balance.
3. Balance the numbers for each atom, but if
there is an element that is involved in the
reaction, leave it until last – it will be easier
to balance this without affecting the other
coefficients.

Worked example
Balance the equation that shows the reaction between copper(II) oxide powder
and dilute hydrochloric acid (HCl).

Answer
copper(II) oxide + hydrochloric acid → copper chloride + water (step 1)
CuO + HCl → CuCl2 + H2O (step 2)
There is one Cu atom on the left, and one on the right.
There is one O atom on the left, and one on the right.
There is one H atom on the left, but two on the right. Therefore, write a
coefficient of 2 in front of HCl (on the left):
CuO + 2HCl → CuCl2 + H2O
There are now two Cl atoms on the left, and two on the right.
The equation above is balanced, but not complete. Write the state symbols:
CuO (s) + 2HCl (aq) → CuCl2 (aq) + H2O (l)

Sub-topic 3 Chemical formulae and equations 175

Balancing net ionic equations
A net ionic chemical equation is an equation
that only shows the ions that take part in a
New words
reaction. Some ions that are present do not spectator ions: ions that are
actually take part in the reaction. They are present in a reaction, but do not
called spectator ions. They must be cancelled take part in the reaction
out from the net equation.

To balance net ionic equations, write the ionic substances that are in the aqueous
state as separate components. All the components that are in the solid, liquid or
gas state remain unchanged. Any ions that remain unchanged on both sides must
be cancelled out.

Worked example
Write the net ionic equation for this reaction:
2AgNO3 (aq) + ZnCl2 (aq) → 2AgCl (s) + Zn(NO3)2 (aq)

Answer
2Ag+ (aq) + 2NO–3 (aq) + Zn2+ (aq) + 2Cl– (aq) → 2AgCl (s) + Zn2+ (aq) + 2NO–3 (aq)
2Ag+ (aq) + 2Cl– (aq) → 2AgCl (s)
Ag+ (aq) + Cl– (aq) → AgCl (s)

Activity 15 Chemical equations

Answer the following questions on your own:
1. Formulate balanced chemical equations from the following word equations:
a) copper(II) sulfate + potassium hydroxide → solid copper(II) hydroxide +
aqueous potassium sulfate
b) magnesium + copper(II) oxide → magnesium oxide + copper
c) sodium carbonate + hydrochloric acid → sodium chloride + carbon dioxide
+ water
2. Balance the following equations:
a) Ca + H2O → Ca(OH)2 + H2 b) Al + Cr2O3 → Al2O3 + Cr
c) Fe2O3 + CO → Fe + CO2 d) C8H18 + O2 → CO2 + H2O
3. Write net ionic equations for each of the following chemical reactions:
a) BaCl2 (aq) + Na2SO4 (aq) → BaSO4 (s) + 2NaCl (aq)
b) KCO3 (aq) + 2HCl (aq) → K2Cl2 (aq) + CO2 (g) + H2O (l)
c) Mg (s) + H2SO4 (aq) → MgSO4 (aq) + H2 (g)

176 Topic 4 Chemistry: Atoms, elements, compounds and molecules

TOPIC

4 Summary, revision and assessment

Summary
Atomic structure and the Periodic Table
• All atoms are made up of three sub-atomic particles: protons, neutrons and electrons.
» Protons and neutrons are found inside the nucleus.
» Electrons are found in electron shells around the nucleus.
• A proton is a positively charged particle, an electron is a negatively charged
particle and a neutron has no charge.
• An electron shell is a grouping of electrons (around the nucleus) that have
similar energy.
• Each electron shell has a certain level of energy associated with it: Electron
shells closer to the nucleus have lower energy levels, and those further away
have higher energy levels.
• Electrons in the outermost shell of an atom are called valence electrons.
• The proton (atomic) number is the total number of protons contained in the
nucleus of an atom.
• The nucleon (mass) number is the total number of protons and neutrons
contained in the nucleus of an atom of any given element.
• Nucleon number ( A) = Number of protons (Z ) + Number of neutrons (N )
• An element is a substance that cannot be broken down further by chemical
means, because it consists of only one type of atom.
• The elements are arranged in the Periodic Table according to their proton numbers.
» Groups: Each group represents a group of elements that have the same
number of valence electrons (i.e. electrons in their outermost shells).
» Periods: The periods are numbered from 1 to 7, and each period represents a
collection of elements that have the same number of electron shells.
• Classes of elements: metals, non-metals and metalloids
• The noble gases:
» do not form bonds
» are very stable
» are also monatomic, which means that they occur naturally as single atoms.
• The number of electrons that an atom of any element loses or gains in order to
form the stable structure of a noble gas, is called its valency number, or
combining power. Elements that have:
» 1 to 3 valence electrons tend to lose those electrons
» 4 valence electrons tend to share those electrons
» 5 to 7 valence electrons tend to gain electrons to complete the noble gas
configuration
• Isotopes are atoms of the same element, but with different numbers of neutrons

Topic 4 Summary, revision and assessment 177

Summary, revision and assessment continued

• Radioisotopes are radioactive. Their nuclei break down naturally and give out
rays, sub-atomic particles and energy at a slow but steady rate.
• Radioisotopes are used in medicine (to treat cancer, or to kill bacteria in
foodstuffs) and in industry (as tracers in oil and gas pipes, or nuclear fuels).
Average mass of atom of element X
• Relative atomic mass (Ar ) = __________________________________
__
1
12
the mass of carbon-12 isotope
» To calculate the relative atomic mass of an atom, multiply the percentage
abundance of each isotope by the mass number of the isotope, and add the totals:
% of isotopeA % of isotope
Relative atomic mass of an atom = (_____________ × AA ) + (_____________B × AB ) + ...
100 100
Bonding
• A compound is a substance that consists of two or more elements that have been
chemically combined. The ratio of atoms in a compound is always fixed.
• An ion is a charged atom. An ion can be formed by either a gain or loss of electrons.
» Both metal ions and non-metal ions can be formed.
• Metal ions form by losing electrons and are called cations.
• Non-metal form by gaining electrons and are called anions.
• A polyatomic ion (or radical) is an ion that is made up of two or more atoms that are
bonded together.
• Types of bonds:
» Ionic (or electrovalent) bonding involves the complete transfer of one or
more electrons from one atom to another. This results in the formation of
oppositely charged ions.
» Covalent bonding involves the sharing of electrons between non-metallic
atoms when their shells overlap.
» Metallic bonding involves the force of attraction between cations (positive
ions) and a sea of electrons in a metallic lattice structure.
• Single, double and triple covalent bonds are possible:
» Single covalent bonds occur in water, ammonia and methane.
» Double covalent bonds occur in oxygen molecules and ethene.
» Triple covalent bonds occur in nitrogen molecules and ethyne.

Chemical formulae and equations

• A word equation describes a chemical reaction in words.
• A chemical equation represents a chemical reaction.
» The chemical formulae of the combining chemicals (the reactants) are
written on the left hand side, and the product(s) of the reaction is written on
the right hand side.
» Instead of an equals sign, an arrow is used to show what the products are.

178 Topic 4 Summary, revision and assessment

Revision
Answer the following questions on your own:
1. Silicon is an example of ...
A a metal B a noble gas C a compound D an element (1)
2. A substance that consists of two or more substances that are chemically
combined is called ...
A an element B a noble gas C a compound D an ion (1)
3. What is the mass number of an atom, if its proton number is 19 and it
has 20 neutrons?
A 1 B 21 C 29 D 39 (1)
4. The electronic configuration of sulfur is ...
A 2, 8, 6 B 2, 6, 8 C 2, 8, 8 D 2, 8, 18 (1)
5. An example of a polyatomic ion is ...
A CH4 B OH– C SiO4 D Cu (1)
6. The chemical formula for the compound calcium carbonate is ...
A CaCO2 B CCO3 C CaCO3 D CaCl2 (1)
7. The mass of an electron is ...
A _____
1
1,840
amu B 1 amu C 1,840 amu D __12 amu (1)
8. 2Fe + XCl2 → 2FeCl3. To balance this chemical equation, the letter X
needs to be:
A 1 B 3 C 2 D 4 (1)
9. The valency of chlorine is ...
A 7 B 17 C 1 D 8 (1)
10. The product of the reaction, Mg (s) + Cl2 (g) → MgCl2 (s) is …
A ionic B covalent C metallic D isotopic (1)
11. The balanced chemical equation for the reaction between methane (CH4)
and oxygen (O2) is ...
A CH4 (g) + O2 (g) → CO2 (g) + H2O (l)
B 2CH4 (g) + O2 (g) → 2CO2 (g) + H2O (l)
C CH4 (g) + 2O2 (g) → CO2 (g) + 2H2O (l)
D CH4 (g) + 2O2 (g) → 2CO2 (g) + 2H2O (l) (1)
12. The bond that is formed between positively charged metal atoms and the
electrons around them is called ...
A an ionic bond B a covalent bond
C a polar bond D a metallic bond (1) [12]

Topic 4 Summary, revision and assessment 179

Summary, revision and assessment continued

Assessment
Answer the following questions on your own:
Atomic structure and the Periodic Table
1. For the following atoms, complete the table.
Atoms Number of
protons neutrons electrons
1
Hydrogen 1
H
Helium 42He
Lithium 73Li
Oxygen 168O
Aluminium 27 Al
13 [15]
2. Explain what the proton (atomic) number of an atom is. [2]
3. One element (X) has one valence electron, while another (Y) has seven.
a) Draw possible electronic structures to illustrate these two elements. (4)
b) State which element is likely to be a metal. (1) [5]
Bonding
4. Given the following substances: silicon, seawater, calcium, argon, water,
air, carbon monoxide, iron, sodium chloride, diamond, copper, dilute
sulfuric acid, sulfur, nitrogen and ammonia.
Which of the substances listed above are:
a) elements (7) b) mixtures (3) c) compounds? (4) [14]
5. Use nitrogen as an example to explain the difference between a molecule
and an atom. [2]
27
6. Write the electronic configurations for 13Al. [1]
Chemical formulae and equations
7. Write the chemical formulae for the following elements and compounds:
a) Calcium (1) b) Sodium carbonate (1) c) Magnesium oxide (1) [3]
8. Balance the following equations:
a) H2 (g) + O2 (g) → H2O (l) (2)
b) NH3 (g) + O2 (g) → NO (g) + H2O (l) (3)
c) Na3PO4 (s) + HCl (aq) → NaCl (s) + H3PO4 (aq) (3) [5]
9. Write the net ionic equation for:
Cu (s) + 2AgNO3 (aq) → Cu(NO3)2 (aq) + 2Ag (s) [3]
TOTAL MARKS: 50

180 Topic 4 Summary, revision and assessment

Study and exam skills

How to approach tests and exams

Planning your time
Read through your test or exam paper before you start writing. Plan how much
time you will spend on each question.

How to read questions

Read the instructions twice to make sure you understand what you have to do.

Note the mark allocation so that you do not write a paragraph for one mark. Give
four facts if the question is for four marks.

How to answer the different kinds of questions

Multiple choice questions: Read all the optional answers before you decide. Do
not guess.

Questions with short answers: Give one word only if you are asked to do so. Do
not write full sentences unless you are asked to do so.

Questions that require longer answers: Look at the mark allocation. Make sure
you understand the instructions. For example, do you have to “compare” or
“explain”? Plan your answers.

Study and exam skills 181

Exam words and their meanings
Exam word Meaning
Compare Describe what is similar and different between two or more things
Conclude Give a short interpretation of results or give a summary
Describe Give details and facts in full sentences without giving reasons
Determine Find out
Discuss Giving different ideas and arguments about the topic
Display Show
Evaluate Look at the facts carefully and form your own conclusion
Explain Give the full details in full sentences and give reasons
Formulate Write down an idea or hypothesis that explains the idea clearly
Identify Find, name and mention
Illustrate Give an example of what you mean or explain it visually
Indicate Show
Investigate Follow a systematic way of analysing a problem
Match Pair an item with another to which it is related, or which it resembles
Review Judge something with the intention of making improvements
Select Choose
Sort Order information alphabetically, numerically, by date or importance
State Give, say or write down the information asked for
Suggest Give ideas, solutions or reasons for something
Summarise Give the main points, briefly
Support Use examples to prove what you have said

182 Study and exam skills

Glossary
A contributing one electron
acceleration: rate of change of velocity cycle or oscillation: a complete swing of a
air resistance: when air opposes the motion motion
of an object moving through it
D
amplitude: the maximum distance an object
delocalised (electrons): electrons that don’t
moves from its equilibrium or rest position
belong to one particular atom
anion: a negatively charged ion
density: the mass per unit volume of a
atom: the smallest particle of an element that
material
has the chemical properties of that
dependent variable: variable that the
element
independent variable causes to change
B derived unit: a unit obtained by multiplying
balance (one meaning): an instrument that or dividing two or more base units
measures the mass of an object diffusion: the movement of particles from a
base quantities: the set of basic physical higher to lower concentration
quantities that can be used to describe displacement: a change in position. It is the
other quantities magnitude and direction of the straight
base unit of measurement: the unit of line drawn from the initial to the final
measurement of a base quantity that was position.
defined by international agreement distance: the total path length that an object
biofuel: fuel from plant or animal waste travels along from one position to another
boiling point: the temperature at which distillate: the liquid that is separated from
boiling occurs the original solution in a simple
braking distance: the shortest distance that distillation process
a vehicle’s brakes take to stop the vehicle
E
Brownian motion: the random movement
efficiency: how well a system can output
of particles in a gas or liquid because of
with as little work or waste possible
their collisions with one another
electron shells: energy levels in which
buoyancy: the upward force on an object in
electrons move around the nucleus
a liquid
electron: a negatively charged sub-atomic
C particle
cation: a positively charged ion electronically neutral: having no overall
centre of mass: a point on or in an object at charge
which its entire mass seems to act electrostatic force: the force that holds ions
centrifuge: a machine that uses centrifugal together in an ionic bond
force to separate more dense substances element: a substance that is made up of only
from less dense substances one type of atom
centripetal force: the force that acts on a endothermic: a reaction or process that
body and causes it to move in a circular absorbs heat from the surroundings
path energy transformation: energy changes
coefficient: a constant (a number) that must from one form to another
be multiplied with another quantity energy: the ability to do work
compound: a substance that consists of two environment: conditions that people, plants
or more elements that have been and animals live in
chemically combined equilibrium: an object is in equilibrium
condensation point: the temperature at when the forces that act on it balance and
which a gas becomes a liquid it is steady
covalent bond: a bond in which atoms share exothermic: a reaction or process that gives
a pair of electrons, with each atom out heat to the surroundings

Glossary 183
exponent: the power to which another I
quantity is raised immiscible liquids: liquids that do not mix
with each other to form a homogenous
F
(uniform) solution
filtrate: the liquid or gas substance that is
inclined plane: a sloping surface used to lift
collected after filtration
loads.
fluid: a substance that can flow and that does
independent variable: variable that changes
not have a fixed shape
on its own or that an investigator allows to
following distance: the distance between
change
vehicles on the road
inertia: the property of matter that causes it
force: a push or a pull
to resist any change in its motion
fossil fuels: fuels from plants and animals
initial: at the start of the time interval
that lived millions of years ago, died and
insoluble: a word that describes a substance
became fossilized
that cannot dissolve in another substance
free fall: the only force that acts on a body is
intermolecular forces: a push or pull force
the gravitational force during free fall
between particles of matter
freezing point: the temperature at which a
ion: an atom or a group of atoms that carries
liquid becomes a solid
an electrical charge
frequency: the number of complete
ionic (or electrovalent) bond: a bond that is
oscillations (cycles) per second
formed between a metallic and a non-
friction: the force that opposes the motion
metallic atom by means of electron
of a body in contact with a surface
transfer from one to the other
frictional force (Ffriction): the force that
isotope: atoms with the same proton
opposes the motion of an object in contact
number, but different nucleon numbers
with a surface.
K
G
kinetic energy: the energy an object has
geothermal energy: energy from the heat
because of its movement
from the interior of the earth
kinetic theory: a theory that helps to
gear: a toothed wheel that can be fixed on an
explain the behaviour of the particles in
axle or shaft
the three states of matter
gravitational field: the region or space
where a body experiences a force because L
of its mass land degradation: reduced ability of the
gravitational force: the force of attraction land to support life
that masses exert on each other lattice structure: a three-dimensional
gravitational potential energy: the energy a arrangement of ions or atoms that has a
body has because of its position relative to repeating pattern
the ground. lever: rigid bar that turns on a pivot or
fulcrum
H
heat: the transfer of energy from a hotter M
body to a cooler body machine: mechanical device that enables an
heterogeneous mixture: a non-uniform effort force to overcome a load force
mixture of substances mass: the amount of matter in an object
homogenous mixture: a uniform mixture of matter: any substance that has mass and
substances occupies space
Hooke’s law: The extension of a material is mechanical advantage: a ratio of the two
directly proportional to the force that is forces, load and effort
stretching it melting point: the temperature at which a
hydroelectric energy: Energy that is solid becomes a liquid
generated by the gravitational potential meniscus: the curved surface of a liquid
energy of water micrometer screw gauge: an instrument

184 Glossary
 that measures length, has a vernier scale property of an object
and is more precise than a vernier caliper pivot (fulcrum): turning point
miscible liquids: liquids that mix with each plasma: gas particles that have been broken
other to form a homogenous (uniform) down into smaller, charged particles
solution point of action: the location where a force is
miscible: capable of being mixed applied
mixture: a combination of two or more pollution: damage to the environment that
substances that did not require a chemical results from human activity
reaction to create potential energy: the energy which is stored
molecule: the smallest particle of an element in system because of its position, shape or
or compound that can exist independently state.
moment: the ability of a force to make an power: the rate of doing work
object turn principle of conservation of energy: energy
monatomic: atoms that occur naturally as cannot be created or destroyed, but it can
single atoms change from one form to another
motion: the process of moving or changing proton: a positively charged sub-atomic
position particle
pulley: wheel with a grooved rim that takes a
N
rope, belt or chain
net (or resultant) force: the combined effect
pure substance: a substance that contains
of all the forces that act on a body
only one type of material
nuclear energy: energy from the nucleus of a
uranium atom R
neutral equilibrium: an object stays in its radical: an atom, molecule or group of atoms
new position after being moved that has unpaired electrons
neutron: a sub-atomic particle with no radioactive: a word to describe matter that
overall charge emits radiation from the nucleus of its
newton: the net force that gives a mass of atoms and decays in the process
1 kg an acceleration of 1 m/s2. radioisotope: an isotope that is radioactive
Newton’s first law of motion: A body rate: change per second
continues in a state of rest or uniform relative atomic mass (Ac): the average mass
velocity in a straight line unless a non-zero of one atom of a given element, compared
net force acts on it. Newton’s first law is to one-twelfth the mass of one atom of
often called the inertia law. carbon-12
Newton’s second law of motion: A net force relative density: the density of a substance
that acts on a body accelerates it in the compared with the density of water
direction of the force. The acceleration is renewable energy: the energy of the energy
directly proportional to the net force and source can be replaced
is inversely proportional to the mass being residue: the solid substance that is left on the
accelerated. filter paper after filtration
noble gas: an unreactive and monatomic gas retardation: slowing down
that has a filled outer electron shell
S
non-renewable energy: the energy of the
saturated: when a solvent cannot ‘hold’ any
source cannot be replaced
more solute in solution
nucleus: the centre of an atom where
scalar quantity: a quantity that has only
protons and neutrons are found
magnitude (size)
P scientific notation: expresses a number as a
period: the time needed to complete one product of two numbers: N × 10n
cycle of motion screw: an inclined plane that curves in a
perpendicular: at right angles spiral
physical quantity: a measurable feature or significant figures: the digits in a

Glossary 185
 measurement that indicate how precise it distance moved by the load in the same
is time
solar energy: energy from the sun vernier caliper: an instrument that measures
solubility: the ability of a substance to length and has a vernier scale
dissolve in another substance vernier scale: a sliding scale that enables
solute: the substance that dissolves in accurate measurements
another substance to form a solution volatile: a word to describe a substance that
solvent: the substance in which a solute evaporates very easily, even at room
dissolves to form a solution temperature
spectator ions: ions that are present in a volume: the space occupied by a substance
reaction, but do not take part in the
W
reaction
wedge: V-shaped object that changes the
speed: the distance travelled per unit time
effort force into a strong sideways force
spring balance: an instrument that measures
weight: the gravitational force that the earth
force
exerts on an object
stable equilibrium: an object returns to its
wheel and axle: a wheel is fixed to an axle
original position after being tilted
wind energy: energy that comes from the
synthesis: the process of forming compounds
kinetic energy of wind and is used to
from two or more elements
generate electricity
T
Z
terminal velocity: the maximum velocity of
zero reading: the reading on the scale when
a body falling in air
a measurement should read zero
thinking distance: the distance that a
vehicle moves before the driver applies the
brakes
time interval: the difference between the
start time and end time of an event
transition metals: the metals in the Periodic
Table that are found in groups 3 to 12
triple beam balance: a balance with three
beams
U
unstable equilibrium: an object does not
return to its original position after being
tilted
V
valence electrons: electrons that are found
in the outermost shell of an atom
valency number: the number of electrons an
atom can lose or gain to reach noble gas
configuration
vector quantity: a quantity that has both
magnitude and direction
velocity: the rate of displacement (rate of
change of position)
velocity ratio: a ratio that compares the
distance moved by the effort with the

186 Glossary