Logic Midterms

Introduction to
Arguments
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Meaning and Nature of
Philosophy
“Wonder is the feeling of a philosopher,
and philosophy begins in wonder”
- Socrates
Philosophy vs. Other Disciplines
• Philosophy deals primarily with issues.

• Contents in philosophy are not the
specific subject matters, but issues, which
are universal in nature
Etymology of Philosophy
• the word ―philosophy comes from two Greek words:

• ―philo MEANS love of
• ―Sophia mean wisdom
• Thus, the literal definition of philosophy is “love of
wisdom”
Etymology of Philosophy
• Pythagoras(Gr.) was the first to use the word

philosopher to call a person who clearly shows a
marked curiosity in the things he experiences
• seeking wisdom is among the various essences of
philosophy that it has got from its etymological
definition
•What do you think is the
wisdom that philosophers
seek?
• Based on the Socratic understanding of
wisdom, philosophy, as a pursuit of wisdom,
is, thus, the development of critical habits, the
continuous search for truth, and the
questioning of the apparent.
• To interrogate the obvious means to deal
creatively with the phenomenal world, to
go beyond the common understanding,
and to speculate about things that other
people accept with no doubt
• Questioning/criticism is not the final end of
philosophy.
• “An active imaginary process of formulating
proper questions and resolving them by
rigorous, persistent analysis” - Vincent Barry
Suggested definition of Philosophy
Philosophy is the systematic

inquiry into the principles and
presuppositions of any field of
inquiry.
Psychologically, philosophy is an
attitude, an approach, or a calling to
answer, or to ask, or even to comment
upon certain peculiar problems.
Basic Features of Philosophy
•Philosophy is a set of views or

beliefs about life and the universe,
which are often held uncritically.
•Philosophy is a process of
reflecting on and criticizing our
most deeply held conceptions and
beliefs.
•Philosophy is a rational
attempt to look at the world
as a whole.
•Philosophy is the logical analysis

of language and the clarification
of the meaning of words and
concepts.
• Philosophy is a group of perennial

problems that interest people and for
which philosophers always have sought
answers
Core Fields of Philosophy
Metaphysics
•Metaphysics is the branch of

philosophy that studies the
ultimate nature of reality or
existence.
Main Branches of Philosophy
Divided based as to the nature of

the questions asked in each area.
1. Axiology
• Axiology is derived from the Greek

language Axios – worth or value of
something, and logos – logic or thesis.
Axiology
• What principles should one live by?

• What are the desirable values?
• Is morality defined by what we speak or
feel?
Axiology
• What is the blueprint of family values?

• What is true beauty?
• What is immoral and moral?
It can be divided into:
•Ethics
•Aesthetics
Ethics
•How one ought to act, not how

one does in fact act or how one
thinks one should act.
Aesthetic
• The study of beauty.

• Are beautiful shapes and sounds describable mathematically as
Pythagoras thought?
• Does art relate to ethics? Is there a truth in aesthetic
representation?
• Is emotion an essential part of artistic appreciation?
2. Metaphysics
• Study of what is “really” real.

• Deals with the so-called first
principles of the natural order.
Metaphysics
• The term metaphysics is derived from the

Greek words “meta” means (beyond,
upon or after) and physika, means
(physics).
Metaphysics
• What is reality?
• What is the ultimately real?
• What is the nature of the ultimate reality?
• Is it one thing or is it many different
things?
Metaphysics
• Can reality be grasped by the senses, or it is
transcendent?
• What makes reality different from a mere appearance?
• What is mind, and what is its relation to the body?
• Is there a cause and effect relationship between reality
and appearance?
Metaphysics
• Does God exist, and if so, can we prove it?
• Are human actions free, or predetermined by a supernatural
force?
• What is human being? A thinking mind? A perishable body? Or
a combination of both?
• What is time?
• What is the meaning of life?
Metaphysical questions may be divided into
four subsets or aspects.
• Cosmological Aspect:
• Cosmology consists in the study of theories about the origin,
nature, and development of the universe as an orderly system.
• Questions such as these populate the realm of cosmology:
How did the universe originate and develop? Did it come
about by accident or design? Does its existence have any
purpose?
• Theological Aspect:
• Theology is that part of religious theory that deals with
conceptions of and about God. ―Is there a God? If so, is
there one or more than one? What are the attributes of
God? If God is both all good and all powerful, why does
evil exist? If God exists, what is His relationship to human
beings and the real‘ world of everyday life?
• Anthropological Aspect:
• Anthropology deals with the study of human beings and asks
questions like the following: What is the relation between mind and
body? Is mind more fundamental than body, with body depending
on mind, or vice versa? What is humanity‘s moral status? Are
people born good, evil, or morally neutral? To what extent are
individuals free? Do they have free will, or are their thoughts and
actions determined by their environment, inheritance, or a divine
being? Does each person have a soul? If so, what is it?
• Ontological Aspect:
• Ontology is the study of the nature of existence, or what it means for
anything to exist.
• Several questions are central to ontology: Is basic reality found in matter or
physical energy (the world we can sense), or is it found in spirit or spiritual
energy? Is it composed of one element (e.g., matter or spirit), or two (e.g.,
matter and spirit), or many? Is reality orderly and lawful in itself, or is it
merely orderable by the human mind? Is it fixed and stable, or is change its
central feature? Is this reality friendly, unfriendly, or neutral toward humanity?
3. Epistemology
• Epistemology is the other field of philosophy that

studies about the nature, scope, meaning, and
possibility of knowledge. It deals with issues of
knowledge, opinion, truth, falsity, reason,
experience, and faith. Epistemology is also referred
to as “theory of knowledge.”
Epistemology
• Etymologically, the word epistemology has been derived from the

Greek words episteme, meaning “knowledge, understanding”, and
logos, meaning “study of ”. In other words, we can say that
Epistemology is the study of the nature, source, and validity of
knowledge
Epistemology
• The following are among the questions/issues with which
Epistemology deals:
• What is knowledge?
• What does it mean to know?
• What is the source of knowledge? Experience? Reason? Or both?
• How can we be sure that what we perceive through our senses is correct?
• What makes knowledge different from belief or opinion?
Epistemology
• The following are among the questions/issues with which
Epistemology deals:
• What is truth, and how can we know a statement is true?
• Can reason really help us to know phenomenal things without being
informed by sense experiences?
• Can our sense experience really help us to know things beyond our
perception without the assistance of our reasoning ability?
• What is the relationship and difference between faith and reason?
So, to which of these branches
of philosophy do you think
logic belongs?
Logic and Critical An Introduction
Thinking
Play the game
https://www.britannica.com/quiz/diagnose-this
What is thinking?
We can say that… As long as you are conscious, there is always
something going on up there (on your mind). In
this sense, you can’t help thinking.
Thinking is a particular kind of
mental activity, the kind involved in
In a narrower solving a problem, planning an
sense… action, studying for a test, or
defending your position on a
controversial issue.
Thinking is a cognitive process we use in the attempt to gain
knowledge or to understand something, as distinct from our
emotional responses to things.
Thinking versus
feeling
Question
Is it wrong to assume that
someone with strong emotions is
necessarily illogical or that a
logical person must be
unemotional? Why? Why not?
Thinking is purposive
It is something we have to do, usually with some
degree of effort. And since it aims at a goal, it is
something that can be done with varying degrees
of success.
It is a skill that everyone Thinking
is a skill
has. And since it is a skill,
it can be improved. How?
When we engage in thought, what is
our goal?
Think about these • Why does the car not start?
• Why is the child crying?
• Why is the patient in pain?
• Why is the patient dying?
• Why does this patient have these
kind of vitals?
To answer these questions,
we have to do some
reasoning.
Reasoning
Reasoning is a process of thought in which we make

inferences: starting with information we already have,
an inference draws some further conclusion based on
that information.
Information…
All this information, if it is to be useful to us, must be processed:
• Understood
• Sorted for relevance
• Checked for accuracy and completeness
• Balanced against competing information
• Organized coherently
• Analyzed for its implications
They are tools that allow us to navigate
Logic and critical the flow of information, to sort out the
good from the bad, to find patterns, to
thinking
combine apparently unrelated bits, and to
figure out how information can enrich our
intellectual lives and help us manage our
practical affairs.
What is logic?
Logic
(etymology)
The term “logic” came from the Greek

word logos which is sometimes
translated as “sentence”, “discourse”,
“reason”, “rule”, and “ratio”.
Logic
(based on how it is used)
We may define logic as:

• “the study of the principles of correct reasoning”;
• “study of the methods and standards of inference

(reasoning)”
The purpose of logic is to answer
questions. However, logic alone
Purpose of logic won’t tell you whether to support
said answers. It will give you a
method to follow in making that
decision and backing it up.
It will show you how to break an
Purpose of logic issue down into sub-issues, so
that you can be sure to consider
all relevant points.
It will give you standards for
deciding what sort of evidence is
Purpose of logic appropriate to a particular issue,
and it will give you standards for
determining how much weight to
give a piece of evidence.
It is not only limited to political arguments.
What are the value of It is important whenever we are discussing
these logical standards? ideas critically, that is, when we are
presenting reasons for or against certain
ideas.
In our personal lives, we all have choices to
make (whether major or minor ones), and
here we too need to weigh the reasons on
each side and try to consider all the relevant
issues.
What is the Purpose of these
methods and standards?
In this context, it means
staying aligned with the
Objectivity facts, guiding our thought
processes by a concern for
truth.
Objectivity, to some
extent, is a matter of
choice. Why?
Objectivity also involves a skill – we cannot really be objective
unless we know how to use our cognitive equipment:
• How to follow and evaluate the arguments we hear
• How to isolate the relevant issues clearly
• How to avoid ambiguity and vagueness in the words we use.
The essence of objectivity is the ability to step back from
our train of thought and examine it critically. It is the only
way to:
• Avoid jumping to conclusions
• Check the results of our thinking
• Make sure we are in touch with the facts
Objectivity also has
a social aspect
• Present your ideas but also listen to what others say.
• It does not require you to be neutral or indifferent to the issue.
• It does require that you try to look at the matter from the other person’s
perspective.
• See the whole truth.
• It requires that you give a fair hearing to the evidence and arguments for
the other side (so that you know why you reject them and will give you a
better understanding of your position)
Another aspect of
objectivity is…
To take account the other

person’s context.
Logic, like language, is a shared
framework without which we
could not communicate.
What is critical thinking?
Critical thinking
It is the conscious, deliberate process of

evaluating arguments to make reasonable
decisions about what to believe about
ourselves and the world as we perceive it.
We want to know how to assess the evidence offered to support
various claims and to offer strong evidence for claims we are
interested in.
❑ Are any of these claims true?
❑ Should we accept them or reject them or shrug our shoulders in
skepticism?
Is the process of evaluating the strength
of the reasons given for believing various
Critical claims like:
• God exists.
thinking… • We should raise the minimum wage.
• This drug will make me lose weight.
• Abortion is safe and legal.

We are especially interested in:
1. Analyzing meanings;
2. Recognizing arguments and evaluating their

strengths;
3. Recognizing and avoiding fallacies; and
4. Making decisions in light of available information

or evidence. In critical thinking…
BASIC CONCEPTS OF
LOGIC
Lesson 3
WARM-UP
▪Five people were eating apples, A finished
before B, but behind C. D finished before
E, but behind B. What was the finishing
order?
WARM-UP
▪The day before two days after the
day before tomorrow is Saturday.
What day is it today?
WARM-UP
▪A girl meets a lion and unicorn in the forest.
The lion lies every Monday, Tuesday
and Wednesday and the other days he speaks
the truth. The unicorn lies on Thursdays,
Fridays and Saturdays, and the other days of
the week he speaks the truth. “Yesterday I
was lying,” the lion told the girl. “So was I,”
said the unicorn. What day is it?
WARM-UP
▪A farmer wants to cross a river and take with him
a wolf, a goat and a cabbage. He has a boat, but it
can only fit himself plus either the wolf, the goat
or the cabbage. If the wolf and the goat are alone
on one shore, the wolf will eat the goat. If the goat
and the cabbage are alone on the shore, the goat
will eat the cabbage. How can the farmer bring the
wolf, the goat and the cabbage across the river
without anything being eaten?
BASIC CONCEPTS OF LOGIC:
ARGUMENTS, PREMISES AND
CONCLUSIONS
Lesson 1
LOGIC
▪Came from Greek word logos,
which means sentence, discourse,
reason, truth and rule.
LOGIC
▪Logic is the science, which
evaluates arguments and the study
of correct reasoning
▪the study of methods and
principles of correct reasoning or
the art of correct reasoning.
BENEFITS OF STUDYING LOGIC
“Logic sharpens and refines our
natural gifts to think, reason and
argue.”
- C. S. Layman
▪It helps us to develop the skill needed to
construct sound (good) and fallacy-free
arguments of one‘s own and to evaluate the
arguments of others;
▪It provides a fundamental defense against the
prejudiced and uncivilized attitudes that
threaten the foundation of a civilized and
democratic society;
▪It helps us to distinguish good arguments from
bad arguments;
▪It helps us to understand and identify the
common logical errors in reasoning;
▪It helps us to understand and identify the
common confusions that often happen due to
misuse of language;
▪It enables us to disclose ill-conceived policies in
the political sphere, to be careful of disguises,
and to distinguish the rational from irrational and
the sane from the insane and so on.
▪by studying logic, we are able to increase our
confidence when we criticize the arguments of
others and when we advance arguments of our
own.
ARGUMENT
▪Argument is a systematic
combination of two or more
statements, which are
classified as a premise or
premises, and conclusion
STATEMENT
▪a declarative sentence
that has a truth-value
of either true or false.
STATEMENT
▪Example of statement
▪ Ischemic heart disease is the leading cause of
death among Filipinos in 2020.
▪ Type 2 Diabetes can be hereditary.
▪ Dr. Teodoro J. Herbosa is the current Health
secretary of the Philippines.
STATEMENT
▪Example of not a statement
▪ Can you buy antibiotics without ➢ Question
doctors prescription?
▪ Let us do our best to save the ➢ Proposal
patient.
▪ I suggest you read more surgical ➢ Suggestion
books.
➢ Command/request
▪ Please pass me the scalpel.
PREMISE
▪A premise refers to the
statement, which is claimed to
provide a logical support or
evidence to the main point of
the argument, which is known
as conclusion
CONCLUSION
▪A conclusion is a statement, which is
claimed to follow from the alleged
evidence.
▪Depending on the logical and real
ability of the premise(s) to support the
conclusion, an argument can be either a
good argument or a bad argument
ARGUMENTS
▪Example of arguments
▪Example 1
▪All nurses are health worker.
▪Jasmine is a nurse.
▪Therefore, Jasmine is a health worker.
ARGUMENTS
▪Example of arguments
▪Example 2
▪James is having fever.
▪Fever is a symptom for CoViD-19.
▪Therefore, James has CoViD-19.
HOW TO IDENTIFY CONCLUSION
Look for the indicator word
Here are some conclusion indicator:
▪ Therefore ▪ Thus
▪ Wherefore ▪ Consequently
▪ Accordingly ▪ It implies that
▪ We may conclude that ▪ As a result
▪ Entails that ▪ So
▪ Hence ▪ It follows that
Here are some premise indicator:
▪ Since ▪ As
▪ As indicated by ▪ For
▪ Because ▪ In that
▪ Owing to ▪ Inasmuch as
▪ Seeing that ▪ For the reason that
▪ Given that
▪ Example
▪ As a student nurse, you should never take picture of
the patient’s chart because it is against the law.
▪ Jaime is a competent nurse, since DMMMSU

produces competent nurses and Jaime is a graduate
of DMMMSU.
▪When no word indicator is used, ask
yourself the following questions:
▪What single statement is claimed
(implicitly) to follow from the others?
▪What is the arguer trying to prove?
▪What is the main point in the passage?
▪Example
▪ The government increased the budget for the
department of Health for the year 2023. During the
height of the pandemic, there was a need to
increase the number of health workers in
hospitals. The need for more equipment was also
evident.
▪Example
▪ During the height of the pandemic, there was a
need to increase the number of health workers in
hospitals. (P1)
▪ The need for more equipment was evident also
evident. (P2)
▪ Thus, the government increased the budget for
the department of Health for the year 2023. (C)
MORE EXAMPLES
▪Pregnant women should never use
recreational drugs, since the use
of these drugs can jeopardize the
development of the fetus.
▪It is vitally important that wilderness
areas be preserved, for wilderness
provides essential habitat for wildlife,
including endangered species, and it
is a natural retreat from the stress of
daily life.
▪Modernizing our nation’s crumbling
infrastructure is long overdue. Many
of our bridges are practically falling
down, and our transit system is in dire
need of repair. Furthermore, making
these improvements would create
jobs for millions of workers.
▪We can re-structure the argument according
to logical principles:
▪P1: Many of our bridges are practically
falling down.
▪P2: Our transit system is in dire need of
repair.
▪P3: Making these improvements would
create jobs for millions of workers.
▪C: Modernizing our nation’s crumbling
infrastructure is long overdue.
NOTE:
▪When restructuring arguments such as
the one we made, one should remain as
close to possible to the original version,
while at the same time attending to the
requirement that premises and
conclusion be complete sentences that
are meaningful in the order in which they
are listed.
▪Carbon monoxide molecules happen to be
just the right size and shape, and happen to
have just the right chemical properties, to fit
neatly into cavities within hemoglobin
molecules in blood that are normally
reserved for oxygen molecules.
Consequently, carbon monoxide diminishes
the oxygen-carrying capacity of blood.
▪The fact that there was never a land
bridge between Australia and mainland
Asia is evidenced by the fact that the
animal species in the two areas are very
different. Asian placental mammals and
Australian marsupial mammals have not
been in contact in the last several million
years.
▪Poverty offers numerous benefits to the
nonpoor. Antipoverty programs provide
jobs for middle-class professionals in
social work, penology, and public health.
Such workers’ future advancement is tied
to the continued growth of bureaucracies
dependent on the existence of poverty.
REMEMBER!
For an argument to be an argument, it must
contain the following:
1. At least one of the statements must claim to
present evidence or reasons.
2. There must be a claim that the alleged
evidence supports or implies something –
that is, a claim that something follows from
the alleged evidence or reasons.
A claim can either be:
1. Explicit – usually asserted by premise or
indicator words.
2. Implicit – exists if there is an inferential
relationship between the statements in an
argument, but the argument contain no
indicator words.
TYPES OF ARGUMENT
Deductive and Inductive Arguments

DEDUCTIVE ARGUMENTS
▪claim that it is impossible for
the conclusion to be false
given that the premises are
true
DEDUCTIVE ARGUMENTS
▪Example
All nurses are health worker.

Jasmine is a nurse.
Therefore, Jasmine is a health worker.
DEDUCTIVE ARGUMENTS
▪Example
A person who has gastritis suffers from

stomach pain.
Rukawa is diagnosed with gastritis.
Thus, Rukawa must be feeling stomach
pain.
INDUCTIVE ARGUMENTS
▪an argument incorporating
the claim that it is improbable
for the conclusion to be false
given that the premises are
true.
INDUCTIVE ARGUMENTS
▪Example
▪In most cases, children with weak immune
system easily catches colds and fever.
▪Jaime is having fever and cold
▪Therefore, Jaime probably has a weak
immune system.
INDUCTIVE ARGUMENTS
▪Example
▪Chrisel was prescribed antibiotic
for his prolonged coughing. Her
sister Abegail is suffering from
prolonged coughing so she decided
to take the same medicine.
MORE EXAMPLES
DIFFERENTIATING
DEDUCTIVE AND
INDUCTIVE ARGUMENTS
DETERMINE IF DEDUCTIVE OR INDUCTIVE
The meerkat is closely related to
the suricat.
The suricat thrives on beetle
larvae.
Therefore, probably the meerkat
thrives on beetle larvae.
DETERMINE IF DEDUCTIVE OR INDUCTIVE
The meerkat is a member of the
mongoose family.
All members of the mongoose
family are carnivores.
Therefore, it necessarily follows
that the meerkat is a carnivore.
▪Deductive arguments are those
that rest on necessary reasoning,
while inductive reasoning are
those that rest on probabilistic
reasoning.
DIFFERENTIATING DEDUCTIVE AND
INDUCTIVE ARGUMENTS
1. The occurrence of special indicator
words,
2. The actual strength of the inferential link
between premises and conclusion, and
3. The character or form of argumentation
the arguers use.
INDUCTIVE ARGUMENTS
words
▪ certainly
▪ Necessarily
▪ Absolutely
▪ Definitely
indicate that the argument should be taken as
deductive
INDUCTIVE ARGUMENTS
1. The occurrence of special indicator words
▪ Probable
▪ improbable
▪ plausible
▪ Implausible
▪ Likely
▪ Unlikely
▪ reasonable to conclude
suggest that an argument is inductive
INDUCTIVE ARGUMENTS
words
the occurrence of an indicator word is not a
certain guarantee for the deductiveness or
inductiveness of an argument unless it is
supported by the other features
INDUCTIVE ARGUMENTS
2. The actual strength of the inferential link
between premises and conclusion
▪Deductive - the conclusion actually does
follow with strict necessity from the premises
▪Inductive - the conclusion of an argument
does not follow with strict necessity but does
follow probably
EXAMPLE
All entertainers are The vast majority of
extroverts. entertainers are
Stephen Colbert is an extroverts.
entertainer. Stephen Colbert is an
Therefore, Stephen entertainer.
Colbert is an Therefore, Stephen
extrovert. Colbert is an
extrovert.
INDUCTIVE ARGUMENTS
3. The character or form of
argumentation the arguers
use
FORMS FOR DEDUCTIVE ARGUMENTS
▪Many arguments have a distinctive character
or form that indicates that the premises are
supposed to provide absolute support for the
conclusion
▪Arguments based on mathematics,
▪arguments from definition,
▪syllogisms: categorical, hypothetical,
and disjunctive syllogisms.
▪Arguments based on mathematics
▪it is an argument in which the
conclusions depend on some purely
arithmetic or geometric computation
or measurement.
▪Arguments based on mathematics
▪Since all arguments in pure
mathematics are deductive, we can
usually consider arguments that
depend on mathematics to be
deductive as well.
▪Exception: Statistics
▪ Arguments based on mathematics
▪ Example
The Clark’s Rule is used to calculate
pediatric medication dosage based on the
patient’s weigh and the known recommended
dosage for adults. The rule states that the child’s
dose is equal to the recommended adult’s dose
multiplied to the quotient of the child’s weight
divided by 150. When the adult’s dose is 500 mg,
and an 11 year old child weighs 70 lbs, he should
take 235 mg of the medicine.
▪arguments from definition
▪it is an argument in which the
conclusion is claimed to depend merely
up on the definition of some words or
phrase used in the premise or
conclusion.
▪Example:
The doctor prescribed acetaminophen to
Dexter since he is having fever.
Acetaminophen is a medicine used to
relieve high fever. Thus, Dexter’s fever
will subside after taking the medicine.
▪Example:
Claudia is mendacious, it follows that she
tells lies.
▪Syllogisms - are arguments consisting of
exactly two premises and one conclusion.
▪syllogisms:
▪categorical,
▪hypothetical, and
▪disjunctive syllogisms.
▪Categorical Syllogisms - a
syllogism in which the statement
begins with one of the words “all”,
“no” and “some”
▪Categorical Syllogisms
▪Example
All COVID 19 positive are infectious.

Infectious patients needs to be
quarantined.
Hence, COVID 19 positive needs to be
quarantined
▪Categorical Syllogisms
▪Example
All ancient forests are sources of wonder.

Some ancient forests are targets of the
timber industry.
Therefore, some sources of wonder are
targets of the timber industry.
▪Hypothetical Syllogisms
▪It is a syllogism having a
conditional statement (if-
then) for one or both of its
premises.
▪Hypothetical Syllogisms
▪Example:
If you take your medicine, you will get
well. If you get well then I will buy you
the toy you want.
Therefore, if you take your medicine
then I will buy the toy you want.
▪Disjunctive Syllogisms
▪a syllogism having a
disjunctive statement
(Either…or statement)
▪Disjunctive Syllogisms
▪Example:
HFMD is either viral or bacterial.
HFMD is not bacterial.
Therefore, HFMD is viral.
FORMS FOR INDUCTIVE REASONING
▪PREDICTION
▪ Argument that proceeds from our knowledge of
the past to a claim about the future.
▪PREDICTION
▪ Patient A is diagnosed of Stage 1 Colon cancer.
Based on previous cases, He will only live for
up to 6 years if the cancer is not treated.
▪AN ARGUMENT FROM ANALOGY
▪ An argument that depends on the existence of
analogy, or similarity, between two things or
states of affairs.
▪ Because of the existence of this analogy, a
certain condition that affects the better-known
thing or situation is concluded to affect the
similar, lesser-known thing or situation.
▪AN ARGUMENT FROM ANALOGY
▪ Pfizer is known for producing high quality and
effective medicines. Thus, Pfizer-BioNTech
COVID-19 Vaccines might also be effective
since it is a product of Pfizer.
▪AN INDUCTIVE GENERALIZATION
▪An argument that proceeds from the
knowledge of a selected sample to some
claim about the whole group.
▪Because members of the sample have a
certain characteristic, it is argued that all
the members of the group have the same
characteristic.
▪AN INDUCTIVE GENERALIZATION
In a certain hospital, ¾ of all patients
suffering from HFMD are children.
Therefore, Mostly children are affected
with HFMD in the Philippines.
▪AN ARGUMENT FROM AUTHORITY
▪an argument in which the conclusions rest
upon a statement made by some presumed
authority or witness
▪AN ARGUMENT FROM AUTHORITY
▪Example: Martha claimed that a specific
herbal remedy cured her cough, prompting
her to share it with her neighbors.
Convinced by her testimony, her neighbors
began using the remedy whenever they
experienced cough symptoms.
▪AN ARGUMENT BASED ON SIGNS
▪an argument that proceeds from the knowledge of
a sign to a claim about the thing or situation that
the sign symbolizes.
▪“sign” means any kind of message (usually visual)
produced by an intelligent being.
▪AN ARGUMENT BASED ON SIGNS
▪EXAMPLE:
▪when driving on an unfamiliar highway one
might see a sign indicating that the road
makes several sharp turns one mile ahead.
Based on this information, one might argue
that the road does indeed make several
sharp turns one mile ahead.
▪CAUSAL INFERENCE
▪an argument that proceeds from knowledge
of a cause to a claim about an effect, or,
conversely, from knowledge of an effect to a
claim about a cause.
▪CAUSAL INFERENCE
▪Example:
▪From the knowledge that a bottle of wine
had been accidentally left in the freezer
overnight, Jessica concluded that it had
frozen. (cause to effect)
▪CAUSAL INFERENCE
▪Example:
▪After tasting a piece of chicken and finding it
dry and tough, Gordon concluded that it is
overcooked. (effect to cause)
THINK ABOUT THIS:
▪ Deductive argument – from general to particular
▪ Inductive argument – from particular to general
Is this ALWAYS true?

EVALUATING
ARGUMENTS
GOOD ARGUMENTS VS. BAD ARGUMENTS
• The evaluation of any argument involves answering two

distinct questions:
(1) Do the premises support the conclusion?
(2) Are all the premises true?
EVALUATING ARGUMENTS:VALIDITY,
TRUTH AND SOUNDNESS
DEDUCTION AND VALIDITY
• Valid deductive argument

• An argument such that if the premises are assumed to be
true, it is impossible for the conclusion to be false.
• The conclusion follows with strict necessity from the
premises
• Invalid deductive argument

• an argument such that if the premises are assumed true, it
is possible for the conclusion to be false.
• the conclusion does not follow with strict necessity from
the premises, even though it is claimed to.
• Valid deductive argument examples

All surgeon are medical practitioners.
Frederick is a surgeon.
Therefore, Frederick is a medical practitioner.
• Invalid deductive argument example

Nurses assist a surgeon during surgery in the OR.
Joan was in the OR while an operation is on going.
Therefore, Joan is a Nurse.
• there is no middle ground between valid and invalid. An

argument is either valid or invalid.
• For an argument to be valid it is not necessary that
either the premises or the conclusions be true, but
merely that if the premises assumed true, it is impossible
for the conclusion be false.
• Example
All television networks are media companies.
NBC is a television network.
Therefore, NBC is a media company.
• Example
All banks are financial institutions.
Wells Fargo is a financial institution.
Therefore, Wells Fargo is a bank.
•the validity of argument is the connection

between premise and conclusion rather than
on the actual truth or falsity of the
statement formed the argument.
•There are four possibilities with respect to

the truth or falsity of the premises and
conclusion of a given argument:
1. True premises and True conclusion,

2. True premises and False conclusion,
3. False premises and True conclusion, and
4. False premises and False conclusion
1. TRUE PREMISES AND TRUE CONCLUSION
EXAMPLE
• All humans are mammals. (Tp) • All surgeon are medical practitioners. (Tp)
• My father is a human. (Tp) • Park Hoon is a medical practitioner. (Tp)
• Therefore, my father is a mammal. (Tc) • Therefore, Park Hoon is a surgeon. (Tp)
• VALID • INVALID
2.TRUE PREMISES AND FALSE CONCLUSION
• Always invalid.
• Example:
Patients with Dengue Fever have skin rashes (Tp)
Mikee is experiencing skin rashes (Tp)
Therfore, Mikee has Dengue Fever (Fc)
3. FALSE PREMISES AND TRUE CONCLUSION
• All birds are mammals. (Fp) • All security guards are medical practitioners. (Fp)
• All women are birds. (Fp) • Gary is a medical practitioner. (Fp)
• Therefore, All women are mammals. (Tc) • Therefore, Gary is a security Guard. (Tc)
4. FALSE PREMISES AND FALSE CONCLUSION
• All birds are mammals. (Fp) • All security guards are medical practitioners. (Fp)
• All snakes are birds. (Fp) • Bongbong is a medical practitioner. (Fp)
• Therefore, All snakes are mammals. (Fc) • Therefore, Bongbong is a security Guard. (Fc)
SUMMARY
Valid Invalid
True premises All flowers are plants. All flowers are plants.
True conclusion All daisies are flowers. All daisies are plants.
Therefore, all daisies are plants. Therefore, all daisies are flowers.
[sound] [unsound]
True premises None exists All roses are flowers.

False conclusion All daisies are flowers.
Therefore, all daisies are roses.
[unsound]
False premises All flowers are dogs. All dogs are flowers.
True conclusion All poodles are flowers. All poodles are flowers.
Therefore, all poodles are dogs. Therefore, all poodles are dogs.
[unsound] [unsound]
False premises All flowers are dogs. All roses are cats.
False conclusion All tigers are flowers. All daisies are cats.
Therefore, all tigers are dogs. Therefore, all daisies are roses.
[unsound] [unsound]
SUMMARY
Premise Conclusion Validity

T T ?
T F Invalid
F T ?
F F ?
SUMMARY
Merely knowing the truth or falsity of the

premises and conclusion tells us nothing about
the validity except in the one case of true
premises and false conclusions. Any deductive
argument having true premises and a false
conclusion is necessarily invalid.
DEDUCTION AND SOUNDNESS
• A sound argument is a deductive argument

that is valid and has all true premises.
• an unsound argument is a deductive
argument that is either valid with one or more
false premises, or invalid, or both.
• For an argument to be unsound, the false

premise or premises must actually be needed to
support the conclusion.
• An argument having a conclusion that is validly
supported by true premises but having an
excessive false premise would still be sound.
•But what if we add a false premise to an

originally sound argument? Will that make
the argument unsound?
•Every premise is either true or false.

• Every deductive argument is either valid or
invalid.
• Every deductive argument is either sound or
unsound.
EVALUATING INDUCTIVE ARGUMENTS:
STRENGTH, TRUTH, AND COGENCY
INDUCTION AND STRENGTH
• a strong inductive argument is an argument such

that if the premises are assumed true, it is
improbable for the conclusion to be false.
• a weak inductive argument is an argument such
that if the premises are assumed true, it is probable
for the conclusions to be false.
• All inductive arguments depend on what

philosophers call the uniformity of nature.
“the future tends to replicate the past, and regularities
that prevail in one spatial region tend to prevail in other
regions”
• From the 40 people who were victim • From the 40 people who were victim
of food poisoning, 2 out of 10 said of food poisoning, 8 out of 10 said
that they ate pancit palabok during that they ate pancit palabok during
their Christmas party. Therefore, the their Christmas party. Therefore, the
food poisoning was probably caused food poisoning was probably caused
by the pancit palabok. by the pancit palabok.
• WEAK • STRONG
TEST STRENGTH OF INDUCTIVE ARGUMENTS
• Assume premises are true, then determine

whether based on that assumption, the
conclusion is probably true.
• Use your experiential background.
All dinosaur bones discovered to this day have

been at least 50 million years old.
Therefore, probably the next dinosaur bone to
be found will be at least 50 million years old.
All meteorite found to this day have

contained salt.Therefore, probably the next
meteorite to be found will contain salt.
Dom Perignon champagne, which is made in

France, sells for over $100 per bottle.
Marquis de la Tour is also a French
champagne. Therefore, probably it, too, sells
for over $100 per bottle.
During the past fifty years, inflation has

consistently reduced the value of the
American dollar. Therefore, industrial
productivity will probably increase in the
years ahead.
Strength of an inductive argument does not

depend on the actual truth or falsity of the
premises and the conclusion, but from the
probabilistic support the premises give to the
conclusion.
SUMMARY
Strong Weak
True Premise Every previous US president was older that 40. A few US president were lawyers.
Therefore, probably the next US president will be Therefore, probably the next US president
Probably True older than 40 will be older than 40
Conclusion [cogent] [uncogent]
True Premise None exists Every previous US president were
unmarried.
Probably False Therefore, probably the next US president
Conclusion will be unmarried.
[uncogent]
False Premise Every previous US president was a TV debater. A few US president were dentists.
Therefore, probably the next US president will be Therefore, probably the next US president
Probably True a TV debater. will be a TV debater.
Conclusion [uncogent] [uncogent]
False Premise Every previous US president died in office. A few US president were dentists.
Therefore, probably the next US president will die Therefore, probably the next US president
Probably False in office. will be a dentist.
Conclusion [uncogent] [uncogent]
SUMMARY
Premise Conclusion Strength

T Probably T ?
T Probably F Weak
F Probably T ?
F Probably F ?
INDUCTION AND COGENCY
• A cogent argument is an inductive argument

that is strong and has all true premises.
• an uncogent argument is an inductive
argument that is either strong with one or
more false premises, or weak, or both.
• A cogent argument is an inductive argument

that is strong and has all true premises.
True in the sense of meeting the total
evidence requirement.
• Total evidence requirement

- The premises must not exclude or overlook
some crucial piece of evidence that undermines
the stated premises and requires a different
conclusion.
COGENT OR UNCOGENT?
Swimming in the Caribbean is usually lots of

fun. Today the water is warm, the surf is
gentle, and on this beach there are no
dangerous currents. Therefore, it would be
fun to go swimming here now.
CAN WE DETERMINE COGENCY OF AN
ARGUMENT ALWAYS?
No.
• Many inductive arguments, especially those about complex real-
life subjects, are not susceptible to being evaluated as clearly
strong or clearly weak.
• And many premises have truth values that are unknown or
impossible to determine.
LOGIC AND
LANGUAGE
LOGIC AND MEANING
LANGUAGE IS USED TO…
The Function of Language
Argument
>>> statements
>>>declarative sentences
>>>Words
*Words are the most basic units in any language

When do you use language?

Language is used to: (according to L. Wittgenstein)
Ask Give Issue

questions directions commands
Tell jokes Guess at Launch
Tell stories answers verbal
Sing songs assaults
Flirt with
someone Form Greet
hypotheses someone
Tell lies and so on.
Two important functions in

Linguistics:
1.To convey information

2.To express or evoke feelings
“Death penalty was abolished in the
Philippines in 2006 after President Gloria
Arroyo signed RA 9364. A total of 74
executions were carried out in the
Philippines from the presidency of Elpidio
Quirino until Estrada.”
“Death penalty is a cruel and inhuman

form of punishment in which hapless
prisoners are dragged from their cells and
summarily slaughtered only to satiate the
bloodlust of a vengeful public.”
Terminology that conveys

information is said to have
cognitive meaning
terminology that expresses or
evokes feelings is said to have
emotive meaning
Two important points:
statements usually have both

cognitive meaning and emotive
meaning. Since logic is concerned
mainly with the cognitive
meaning, it is important to
distinguish and disengage the
cognitive meaning from the
emotive meaning.
Two important points:
Part of the cognitive meaning of

statements is a value claim.
Value claim is a claim that
something is good, bad, right, wrong,
or better, worse, more important or
less important than some other thing.
 For example, the claim that the death penalty is immoral
cannot simply stand by itself.
 It needs reasons to support it.
 When value claims are couched in emotive terminology,
it tends to obscure the fact that a value claim is being
made, and it simultaneously gives psychological
momentum to that claim.
 As a result, readers and listeners are inclined to swallow
the value claim whole without any evidence.
 Furthermore, the intellectual laziness of many
speakers and writers, combined with their inability to
supply supporting reasons for their value claims,
reinforces the desirability of couching such claims in
emotive terminology
 Many people, for example, will refer to someone as
crazy, stupid, or weird when they want to express
the claim that what that person is doing is bad or
wrong and when they are unable or unwilling to
give reasons for this claim.
Emotive Terminologies in Arguments
 In arguments, emotive terminology accomplishes

basically the same function as emotive terminology
in statements.
 It allows the arguer to make value claims about the
subject matter of the argument without providing
evidence, and it gives the argument a kind of
steamroller quality by which it tends to crush
potential counter arguments before the reader or
listener has a chance to think of them.
Example:
Now that we know that the rocks on the moon
are similar to those in our backyard and that
tadpoles can exist in a weightless environment,
and now that we have put the rest of the world in
order, can we concentrate on the problems here
at home? Like what makes people hungry and
why is unemployment so elusive?
 P-1: The space program has been confined to work on

ordinary rocks and tadpoles.
 P-2: Ordinary rocks and tadpoles are less important than
domestic hunger and unemployment.
 P-3: Our international efforts have restored order to every
nation on earth but our own.
 P-4: These efforts have been directed to problems that are
less important than our own domestic problems.
 C: Therefore, our government should redirect funds that have
been spent on these projects to solving our own domestic
problems.
Deficiency of Cognitive Meanings:
Vagueness and Ambiguity
Vagueness
A linguistic expression is said to be
vague if there are borderline cases in
which it is impossible to tell if the
expression applies or does not apply.
Vague expressions often allow for a
continuous range of interpretations.
Examples of vague words:

Love normal
Happiness polluted
Peace poor
Fresh rich
Vagueness can also affect entire

statements. Such vagueness may
arise not so much from the
individual words as from the way in
which the words are combined.
Example
The patient is having
headache.
Poor people needs
more medical attention.
Not all cases of vagueness, however, are
problematic. To describe an acquaintance as
“tall” or “thin” often causes no trouble in
ordinary conversation. Indeed, it may be
burdensome to describe this person in more
precise language. Trouble arises only when
the language is not sufficiently precise for
what the situation demands.
Ambiguity
An expression is said to be
ambiguous when it can be
interpreted as having more
than one clearly distinct
meaning in a given context.
Example of words which can be ambiguous:
Light chest
Proper bank
Critical sound
Stress race
mad
As is the case with vagueness,

ambiguity can also affect entire
statements. Such ambiguity often
results from the way in which
certain words are combined.
Example
Mary’s father is having dialysis three times a
week. They need type O+ blood thus she
always go to the bank.
Mike is rushed to the hospital after drinking
liquor that is light.
Difference between Vagueness and
Ambiguity
Vague terminology allows for a relatively
continuous range of interpretations, whereas
ambiguous terminology allows for multiple
discrete interpretations.
A vague expression creates a blur of meaning,
whereas an ambiguous expression mixes up
otherwise clear meanings.
Ambiguity
However, many forms of expression are ambiguous
in one context and vague in another.
Example:
The word “slow” in one context could mean
either mentally challenged or physically slow, but
when the word refers to physical slowness, it
could be vague. How slow is slow?
Ambiguity
Ambiguity and vagueness are important in logic
because there are countless occasions in which
the evaluation of an argument leads to the
observation:
“Well, that depends on what you mean by . . . .”
Role of Vagueness and Ambiguity
The role of vagueness and

ambiguity in arguments may be
conveniently explored in the context
of conflicting arguments between
individuals.
Example:
Amelia: Mrs. Wilson abuses her children. And how do I
know that? I saw her spank one of her kids the other day
after the kid misbehaved.
Jane: Don’t be silly. Kids need discipline, and by disciplining
her children, Mrs. Wilson is showing that she loves them.
Example:
Brenda: I’m afraid that Smiley is guilty of arson. Last night
he confided to me that he was the one who set fire to the
old schoolhouse.
Warren: No, you couldn’t be more mistaken. In this country
no one is guilty until proven so in a court of law, and Smiley
has not yet even been accused of anything.
Disputes that arise over the meaning

of language are called verbal
disputes
There are also some disputes that
arise over a disagreement about
facts. These are called factual
disputes
Factual Disputes (Example)
Javier: I know that Freddie stole a computer

from the physics lab. Barbara told me that she
saw Freddie do it.
Camille: That’s ridiculous! Freddie has never
stolen anything in his life. Barbara hates
Freddie, and she is trying to pin the theft on
him only to shield her criminal boyfriend.
Dealing with Disputes
Ask yourself the following questions:

1. Is the dispute factual, verbal, or some
combination of the two?
2. If the dispute is verbal, then ask the
second question:
1. Does the dispute concern ambiguity or
vagueness?
More Examples
Instruction: Identify the conclusion.

Then disengage the covert
assumptions, value claims, and other
cognitive assertions from the emotive
language and translate them into
emotive neutral premises.
More Examples
Why don’t animal lovers do something about

these dog sled races? Have you ever witnessed
a race on television? Talk about torture. It’s
sickening to watch the dogs, panting and their
tongues hanging out, pull a heavily laden sled
with a driver through snow and ice in bitter
cold.
More Examples
God, guts, and guns made this great

country of ours free, and you can bet
your buns it will take more of the
same to keep it that way. One of the
very last things in this world we need
is handgun control.
More Examples
Instruction: Determine whether the

following disputes are verbal, factual,
or some combination of the two. If
verbal, discus whether the dispute
arises from vagueness or ambiguity.
More Examples
Frank: Look at that huge tree that fell last

night. It must have made a tremendous crash
when it came down.
Shirley: No, I’m afraid you’re quite wrong.
Sound is a perception, and perceptions depend
on a perceiver. Therefore, since nobody was
around here last night, there was no crash.
More Examples
Roger: I think modern society is becoming more and more

violent every day. Just look at the increase in murder, rape,
and robbery. Violence is clearly an evil that must be
eradicated.
Mark: You might be right about the increase in crime, but
the idea that violence is an evil is nonsense. Violence is
quite natural. The universe was created in a tremendously
violent big bang, the nuclear reactions that bring us sunlight
are extremely violent, and insects and animals kill and
devour one another all the time.
MEANING, TYPES, AND PURPOSES OF DEFINITIONS
THE MEANING OF DEFINITION
Definition is a group of words

that assigns a meaning to
some word or group of
words.
THE MEANING OF DEFINITION
2 parts of a Definition
1. Definiendum
2. Definiens
DEFINIENDUM
The definiendum is the word or

group of words that is supposed
to be defined.
DEFINIENS
The definiens is the word or

group of words that does the
defining.
EXAMPLE OF DEFINTION
Definiendum
Arthritis is the inflammation or

swelling of one or more joints.
Definiens
EXAMPLE OF DEFINTION
Definiendum
 Stethoscope is a medical instrument used

in listening to sounds produced within the
body, chiefly in the heart or lungs.
Definiens
DEFINITION
THE TYPES AND PURPOSES OF DEFINITIONS
1.Stipulative Definitions
2.Lexical Definitions
3.Précising Definitions
4.Theoretical Definitions
5.Persuasive Definitions
STIPULATIVE DEFINITIONS
 Stipulative definition assigns a new meaning to

an expression (or a meaning to a new expression);
the expression defined (definiendum) may either
be a new expression that is being introduced into
the language for the first time, or an expression
that is already current.
 New Diseases
 New Medicines
 Codes
 Strategies
 Since stipulative definition is a completely arbitrary

assignment of a meaning to a word for the first time,
there can be no such thing as a “true” or “false”
stipulative definition.
 A stipulative definition cannot provide any new
information about the subject matter of the
difiniendum.
“using the word ‘stipulatively’”

- Stipulative definitions are misused in verbal
disputes when one person covertly uses a word in a
peculiar way and then proceeds to assume that
everyone else uses that word in the same way.
LEXICAL DEFINITIONS
 The definition which reports the meaning of a

word or a phrase as it is actually used by
people is called a lexical definition.
 Dictionary definitions are all instances of
lexical definitions.
LEXICAL DEFINITIONS
 eliminates the ambiguity that would otherwise

arise if one of these meanings were to be
confused with another.
LEXICAL DEFINITIONS - EXAMPLE
 Light: (1) Something that makes things visible; (2)

electromagnetic radiation; (3) of little weight; (4)
having fewer calories than the standard product.
 Bank: (1) The slope bordering a stream or river; (2) the
inclination of an aircraft during a turn; (3) an
institution for receiving, lending, and safeguarding
money.
LEXICAL DEFINITIONS
 Because a lexical definition lists the various

meanings that a word can have, a person who
consults such a definition is better prepared
to avoid ambiguous constructions of his or
her own and to detect those of others.
PRÉCISING DEFINITIONS
 precising definition is a definition that

contracts or reduces the scope of the lexical
definition of a term for a specific purpose by
including additional criteria that narrow down
the set of things meeting the definition.
Reduces the vagueness of a word.

Once the vagueness of such words is
reduced by a precising definition, one can
reach a decision as to the applicability of
the word to a specific situation.
 Example:
 You are allowed to go out of the hospital during lunchtime.
Lexical Definition: The time in the middle of the day when
most people eat a meal.
Précising Definition: The allotted time for lunchtime is one
hour between 11:00 AM and 2:00 PM.
 Example:
Rogers WA, Walker MJ. Précising definitions as a
way to combat overdiagnosis. J Eval Clin Pract.
2018 Oct;24(5):1019-1025. doi:
10.1111/jep.12909. Epub 2018 Mar 30. PMID:
29603505.
 Example:
Surgical transplantation of vital organ
“moment of death”
The courts have decided that moment of death‘ should be taken
to mean the moment the brain stops functioning, as measured by
an electroencephalograph.
THEORETICAL DEFINITIONS
 A theoretical definition defines a term in an

academic discipline, functioning as a proposal
to see a phenomenon in a certain way. A
theoretical definition is a proposed way of
thinking about potentially related events.
THEORETICAL DEFINITIONS
 Example: Heat means the energy associated with the

random motion of the molecules of a substance.
 Example: Light as a form of electromagnetic radiation
 Example: “Force”, “mass”, “acceleration” in Newton’s
second law of motion
PERSUASIVE DEFINITIONS
 to create a favorable or unfavorable attitude

toward what is denoted by the definiendum.
 assigns an emotionally charged or value-laden
meaning to a word while making it appears that
the word really has (or ought to have) that
meaning.
 Example:
“Abortion” means the ruthless murdering of innocent human
beings.
“Abortion” means a safe and established surgical procedure
whereby a woman is relieved of an unwanted burden.
 Example:
“Taxation” means the procedure by means of which our
commonwealth is preserved and sustained.
“Taxation” means the procedure used by the politicians to rip off
the people who elected them.
 The objective of a persuasive definition is to influence the

attitudes of the reader or listener; thus, such definitions may be
used with considerable effectiveness in political speeches and
editorial columns.
 While persuasive definitions may, like lexical definitions, be
evaluated as either true or false, the primary issue is neither
truth nor falsity but the effectiveness of such definitions as
instruments of persuasion.
TECHNIQUES OF DEFINITION
INTENSION AND EXTENSION
The cognitive meaning of terms comprises of

two kinds:
1. Intensional meaning or intension
2. Extensional meaning or extension
Intensional meaning or intension

- consists of qualities or attributes that the
term connotes.
Intensional meaning or intension

Example:
The intensional meaning of the term “cat” consists
of the attributes of being furry, of having 4 legs, of
emitting certain sounds, and so on.
Extensional meaning or extension

- consists of the members of the class that the
term denotes.
Extensional meaning or extension

Example:
The extensional meaning of the term “cat”
consists of cats themselves – all the cats in the
universe.
A. The Extensional (Denotative) Definitional Techniques
1. Demonstrative (Ostensive) Definitions
2. Enumerative Definitions
3. Definition by Subclass
B. The Intensional (Connotative) Definitional Techniques.
1. Synonymous Definition
2. Etymological Definition
3. Operational Definition
4. Definition by Genus and Difference
A. THE EXTENSIONAL (DENOTATIVE) DEFINITIONAL TECHNIQUES
Assigns meaning to a term by

indicating the members of the class
that the definiendum denotes.
A.1. DEMONSTRATIVE (OSTENSIVE) DEFINITION
 Done by POINTING
 This is a syringe (pointing on the syringe).

 Chair means this and this and this (as you
point to a number of chairs)
 It is the most primitive, and the most limited

form of definition.Why?
 What is the definiens of this kind of definition?
A.2. ENUMERATIVE DEFINITIONS
 assign a meaning to a term by naming the

members of the class the term denotes
 Example: Prescription medicines are

medicines such as Losartan, Metformin,
antibiotics or antihistamine.
 Example: Actor means a person like Coco

Martin, Dingdong Dantes and L Delmas.
 Complete enumerative definition are usually more

satisfying than partial ones because they identify the
definiendum with greater assurance.
 Relatively few classes can be completely enumerated
(numbers, stars, persons)
 Some classes have members that have no names (trees,
insects, etc)
A.3. DEFINITION BY SUBCLASS
 assigns a meaning to a term by naming

subclasses of the class denoted by the term
 Example: Doctor means a cardiologist,

dermatologist, hematologist, internist or
neurologist.
 Example: “Fictional work” means a poem, a

play, a novel, or a short story.
 Relatively few terms denote classes that admit

of a conveniently small number of subclasses,
complete definitions by subclass are often
difficult, if not impossible, to provide.
 extensional definition are chiefly used as techniques for
producing lexical and stipulative definitions:
 Lexical definition:
 Not all lexical definitions have to occur in dictionaries. A
lexical definition can just as well be spoken, as when one
person attempts to explain orally to another how a word is
used in a language. Such attempts, incidentally, often have
recourse to all three kinds of extensional definition.
 Stipulative definition:
 Stipulative definitions are used to assign a meaning to
a word for the first time. This task may be
accomplished by all three kinds of extensional
definition.
 extensional definitions suffer serious deficiencies such
as:
 When we define the word “chair” by demonstration, if
all the chairs pointed to are made of wood, observers
might get the idea that “chair” means “wood” instead of
something to sit on.
 When we define the word “actor” by enumeration,
readers /listeners might think that “actor” means
“famous person”- which would include persons
who are not actors
 When we define the word “tree” through a definition by
subclass, they might get the idea that “tree” means
“firmly planted in the ground,” which would also include
the pilings of a building.
 Extensions can suggest intentions, but they
cannot determine them.
B. THE INTENSIONAL (CONNOTATIVE) DEFINITIONAL TECHNIQUES
assigns a meaning to a word by

indicating the qualities or attributes
that the word connotes.
B.1. SYNONYMOUS DEFINITION
 the definiens is a single word that connotes the

same attributes as the definiendum
 the definiens is a synonym of the word being
defined
B.1. SYNONYMOUS DEFINITION
 Example:
 “Physician” is a doctor.
 “Observe” means see.
 “Avian flu” means bird flu.
B.2. ETYMOLOGICAL DEFINITION
assigns a meaning to a word by

disclosing the word‘s ancestry in
both its own language and other
languages.
 Example:
 “License” came from the Latin word licere
which means to be permitted.
 Example:
 the word “principle” derives from the Latin word
principium, which means beginning or source.
 Accordingly, the “principles of clinical ethics” are
those fundamental laws that provide the “source”
of clinical ethics.
B.3. OPERATIONAL DEFINITION
 assigns a meaning to a word by specifying certain

experimental procedures that determine whether
or not the word applies to a certain thing.
 Example:
 One substance is “harder than” another if and
only if one scratches the other when the two
are rubbed together.
 A solution is an “acid” if and only if litmus paper
turns red when dipped into it.
 Example:
 A solution is an ‘acid’ if and only if it has a
pH of less than 7.
 Is this an operational definition?
B.4. DEFINITION BY GENUS AND DIFFERENCE
 assigns a meaning to a term by identifying a genus term

and one or more difference words that, when
combined, convey the meaning of the term being
defined.
 More generally applicable and achieves more adequate
results than any of the other kinds of intentional
definition.
 Genus vs species
 In logic genus simply means a relatively larger class
and species means a relatively smaller class.
 Genus vs species
 Example:
 Genus – Animal, species – mammal.
 Genus – mammal, species – Feline
 Genus – Feline, Species – Tiger
 Genus – Tiger, Species – Bengal Tiger
 “Specific Difference” or simply “Difference” is the

attribute or attributes that distinguish the various
species within a genus.
 Example
Species Difference Genus
“ice” means frozen water
“daughter” means female offspring
“husband” means married man
CORRELATION OF DEFINITIONAL TECHNIQUES WITH TYPES OF
DEFINITIONS

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Introduction to

• Philosophy deals primarily with issues.

• the word ―philosophy comes from two Greek words:

• Pythagoras(Gr.) was the first to use the word

Philosophy is the systematic

•Philosophy is a set of views or

•Philosophy is the logical analysis

• Philosophy is a group of perennial

•Metaphysics is the branch of

Divided based as to the nature of

• Axiology is derived from the Greek

• What principles should one live by?

• What is the blueprint of family values?

•How one ought to act, not how

• The study of beauty.

• Study of what is “really” real.

• The term metaphysics is derived from the

• Epistemology is the other field of philosophy that

• Etymologically, the word epistemology has been derived from the

Reasoning is a process of thought in which we make

The term “logic” came from the Greek

We may define logic as:

• “study of the methods and standards of inference

To take account the other

It is the conscious, deliberate process of

thinking… • We should raise the minimum wage.

• This drug will make me lose weight.

• Abortion is safe and legal.

2. Recognizing arguments and evaluating their

4. Making decisions in light of available information

▪ Jaime is a competent nurse, since DMMMSU

Deductive and Inductive Arguments

All nurses are health worker.

A person who has gastritis suffers from

All COVID 19 positive are infectious.

All ancient forests are sources of wonder.

Is this ALWAYS true?

• The evaluation of any argument involves answering two

• Valid deductive argument

• Invalid deductive argument

• Valid deductive argument examples

• Invalid deductive argument example

• there is no middle ground between valid and invalid. An

•the validity of argument is the connection

•There are four possibilities with respect to

1. True premises and True conclusion,

True premises None exists All roses are flowers.

Premise Conclusion Validity

Merely knowing the truth or falsity of the

• A sound argument is a deductive argument

• For an argument to be unsound, the false

•But what if we add a false premise to an

•Every premise is either true or false.

• a strong inductive argument is an argument such

• All inductive arguments depend on what

• Assume premises are true, then determine

All dinosaur bones discovered to this day have

All meteorite found to this day have

Dom Perignon champagne, which is made in