William Stallings

Computer Organization
and Architecture
8th Edition

Chapter 5
Internal Memory

Semiconductor Memory Types

Memory Type Category Erasure Write Mechanism Volatility

Random-access
Read-write memory Electrically, byte-level Electrically Volatile
memory (RAM)

Read-only
Masks
memory (ROM)
Read-only memory Not possible

Programmable
ROM (PROM)

Erasable PROM
UV light, chip-level
(EPROM) Nonvolatile

Electrically

Electrically Erasable Read-mostly memory

Electrically, byte-level
PROM (EEPROM)

Flash memory Electrically, block-level

Semiconductor Memory
• RAM
—Misnamed as all semiconductor memory is
random access
—Read/Write
—Volatile
—Temporary storage
—Static or dynamic

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Memory Cell Operation

Dynamic RAM
• Bits stored as charge in capacitors
• Charges leak
• Need refreshing even when powered
• Simpler construction
• Smaller per bit
• Less expensive
• Need refresh circuits
• Slower
• Main memory
• Essentially analogue
—Level of charge determines value

Dynamic RAM Structure

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DRAM Operation
• Address line active when bit read or written
— Transistor switch closed (current flows)
• Write
— Voltage to bit line
– High for 1 low for 0
— Then signal address line
– Transfers charge to capacitor
• Read
— Address line selected
– transistor turns on
— Charge from capacitor fed via bit line to sense amplifier
– Compares with reference value to determine 0 or 1
— Capacitor charge must be restored

Static RAM
• Bits stored as on/off switches
• No charges to leak
• No refreshing needed when powered
• More complex construction
• Larger per bit
• More expensive
• Does not need refresh circuits
• Faster
• Cache
• Digital
—Uses flip-flops

Stating RAM Structure

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Static RAM Operation
• Transistor arrangement gives stable logic
state
• State 1
—C1 high, C2 low
—T1 T4 off, T2 T3 on
• State 0
—C2 high, C1 low
—T2 T3 off, T1 T4 on
• Address line transistors T5 T6 is switch
• Write – apply value to B & compliment to
B
• Read – value is on line B

SRAM v DRAM
• Both volatile
—Power needed to preserve data
• Dynamic cell
—Simpler to build, smaller
—More dense
—Less expensive
—Needs refresh
—Larger memory units
• Static
—Faster
—Cache

Read Only Memory (ROM)

• Permanent storage
—Nonvolatile
• Microprogramming (see later)
• Library subroutines
• Systems programs (BIOS)
• Function tables

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Types of ROM
• Written during manufacture
—Very expensive for small runs
• Programmable (once)
—PROM
—Needs special equipment to program
• Read “mostly”
—Erasable Programmable (EPROM)
– Erased by UV
—Electrically Erasable (EEPROM)
– Takes much longer to write than read
—Flash memory
– Erase whole memory electrically

Organisation in detail
• A 16Mbit chip can be organised as 1M of
16 bit words
• A bit per chip system has 16 lots of 1Mbit
chip with bit 1 of each word in chip 1 and
so on
• A 16Mbit chip can be organised as a 2048
x 2048 x 4bit array
—Reduces number of address pins
– Multiplex row address and column address
– 11 pins to address (211=2048)
– Adding one more pin doubles range of values so x4
capacity

Refreshing
• Refresh circuit included on chip
• Disable chip
• Count through rows
• Read & Write back
• Takes time
• Slows down apparent performance

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Typical 16 Mb DRAM (4M x 4)

Packaging

256kByte Module
Organisation

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1MByte Module Organisation

Interleaved Memory
• Collection of DRAM chips
• Grouped into memory bank
• Banks independently service read or write
requests
• K banks can service k requests
simultaneously

Error Correction
• Hard Failure
—Permanent defect
• Soft Error
—Random, non-destructive
—No permanent damage to memory
• Detected using Hamming error correcting
code

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Error Correcting Code Function

The theory – Venn Diagram

Correcting Single Bit Errors

• For K check bits and M data bits we must
have:

2K – 1 = M + K

Find k when (i) M = 5 (ii) M = 8

(iii) M = 16
• What is the length of the code word in
each case? What percentage of the code
word constitutes check bits?

8
Error Correction effect on word length

Data and Check Bit Layout

Find the check bits for the 8-bit data word

00111001

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Table Illustration

Example #2
Ex Using the Hamming algorithm,
determine the check bits that should be
stored in memory with the 10-bit data
word 10 0111 1001. Suppose that when
the word is read from memory, the check
bits are calculated to be 1001. What is
the data word that was read from
memory?

SEC-DED

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Advanced DRAM Organization
• Basic DRAM same since first RAM chips
• Enhanced DRAM
—Contains small SRAM as well
—SRAM holds last line read (c.f. Cache!)
• Cache DRAM
—Larger SRAM component
—Use as cache or serial buffer

Synchronous DRAM (SDRAM)

• Access is synchronized with an external clock
• Address is presented to RAM
• RAM finds data (CPU waits in conventional
DRAM)
• Since SDRAM moves data in time with system
clock, CPU knows when data will be ready
• CPU does not have to wait, it can do something
else
• Burst mode allows SDRAM to set up stream of
data and fire it out in block
• DDR-SDRAM sends data twice per clock cycle
(leading & trailing edge)

SDRAM

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SDRAM Read Timing

RAMBUS
• Adopted by Intel for Pentium & Itanium
• Main competitor to SDRAM
• Vertical package – all pins on one side
• Data exchange over 28 wires < cm long
• Bus addresses up to 320 RDRAM chips at
1.6Gbps
• Asynchronous block protocol
—480ns access time
—Then 1.6 Gbps

RAMBUS Diagram

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DDR SDRAM
• SDRAM can only send data once per clock
• Double-data-rate SDRAM can send data
twice per clock cycle
—Rising edge and falling edge

Cache DRAM
• Mitsubishi
• Integrates small SRAM cache (16 kb) onto
generic DRAM chip
• Used as true cache
—64-bit lines
—Effective for ordinary random access
• To support serial access of block of data
—E.g. refresh bit-mapped screen
– CDRAM can prefetch data from DRAM into SRAM
buffer
– Subsequent accesses solely to SRAM

Reading
• The RAM Guide
• RDRAM

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