•All living organisms in this universe are made up of cells.

•They either exist as a single cell or as a combination of multiple cells.

Discoveries about Cells – The Fundamental Unit of Life

Period of
Discovered By What they discovered?
time
Robert Hooke 1665 noticed the presence of cells in a cork slice

Leeuwenhoek 1674 found the presence of living cells in the pond water

Robert Brown 1831 recognized the existence of a nucleus in the cell

invented the term ‘Protoplasm’ which is the liquid present in a
Purkinje 1839
cell
Schleiden and presented the cell theory that all organisms are actually made up
1838, 1839
Schwann of cells
suggested that all cells come from cells that already exist in
Virchow 1855
nature
How can cells perform distinct
functions in organisms?
Cells are capable of performing multiple functions in an
organism. A cell contains specific components which are
called Organelles. Each organelle in the cell can perform
different functions such as making new cells or clearing the
waste of the cell. Thus, organelles allow a cell to perform
several kinds of activities in an organism.
A cell contains three features –
•The Plasma Membrane
•Nucleus
•Cytoplasm
Hypotonic Solutions

•If the concentration of water outside the cell is higher than the concentration of water
inside the cell the cell gains water by the process of osmosis.
•Water can move into the cell from the cell membrane. In the case of hypotonic solutions,
more amount of water enters the cells which results in swelling of the cells.
Isotonic Solutions

•If the cells are put in an environment which has similar concentration of water as present inside. This state allows
for the free movement of water across the membrane without changing concentration of solutes on either side.

•Therefore, the size of the cell does not vary in an isotonic solution because there is no net movement of water.
Hypertonic Solutions
•If the cells are kept in an environment which has lower concentration of water than what is present
inside the cells then due to the process of osmosis water moves out of the cells.
•This results in a decrease in size of the cells (they shrink) as more amount of water comes out of the cell.
 The Nucleus
Nucleus is a prominent, organelle present in cell which is the controlling centre of all activities of cell.

The Structure of the Nucleus

•A nucleus has a nuclear membrane which covers it all around.

•There are pores present on the nuclear membrane that allow

movement of substances in and out of the nucleus.

•There are chromosomes, rod-shaped structures present in the

nucleus which contain genetic information.

The chromosomes contain two types of things –

1. DNA - This is responsible for organizing and constructing

new cells

2. Proteins - These help in packaging and condensation of

DNA.
Chromatin
Chromatin is thread-like material present in a cell. The
chromatin organizes itself into chromosomes whenever the
cell is about to divide.
Nucleolus
It is called as the Brain of the Nucleus. It comprises of 25% of the volume of the nucleus. It consists of proteins and
ribonucleic acids (RNA). It helps in formation of ribosomes which help in formation of proteins inside the cell.

What is a nucleoid?

Sometimes cells do not have a well-defined nucleus because they lack a nuclear membrane. Such a nucleus
with no definite nuclear boundaries is called a Nucleoid.

What are the prokaryotes?

Organisms whose cells do not have a definite cell membrane are called Prokaryotes.

What are eukaryotes?

Organisms whose cells contain a well-defined nuclear membrane are called Eukaryotes
Cytoplasm
•The plasma membrane has a fluid like substance in it which is called the cytoplasm.
•The cytoplasm contains several organelles that can perform distinct functions of the cell

Functions of Cytoplasm
•It supports and suspends the cell organelles and molecules.
•The cellular processes occur in cytoplasm such as formation of proteins.
•It allows movement of substances in the cell such as hormones.
•It dissolves cellular wastes.
What is the significance of membrane-bound organelles in a cell?

The cells perform several functions. The organelles are useful because they
allow separation of different functions that are being performed by the cell.

Organelles which carry out important activities in a Cell –

1. Endoplasmic Reticulum
2. Golgi Apparatus
3. Lysosomes
4. Mitochondria
5. Plastids
6. Vacuoles
7. Centrioles
8. Ribosomes
9. Peroxisomes
 Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
•The structure of the ER is quite similar to that of the
plasma membrane. It is a network-like structure which
consists of membrane-bound tubes and sheets.
•Two types of ER –
• Rough ER
• Smooth ER
•Rough ER contains ribosomes that are responsible for
the manufacturing of proteins in the cells. They give a
rough texture to the cell.
•The smooth ER manufactures fats or lipids in the cell
which allow the functioning of the cell.
•What are the functions of lipids and proteins?
• Proteins and lipids synthesized on ER are used
for making cell membrane. The process is
known as Membrane Biogenesis.
• Proteins can act as an enzyme
• Both protein and lipids can act as hormones
Functions of ER
•Transportation of material between different parts of the cytoplasm and also between the nucleus and
cytoplasm
• Folding of proteins which are synthesized by ribosome on RER.
•Detoxifying poisons and drugs out of the cell is the function of SER.
 Golgi Apparatus

•Camillo Golgi discovered the Golgi Apparatus.

• It contains vesicles that are arranged parallel in
stacks. These stacks are called Cisterns. These
vesicles have their own membranes. These
membranes are sometimes connected to those
of the ER.
•Functions of Golgi Apparatus
• Golgi apparatus carries materials synthesized by
the ER to different parts of the cell. The material
is stored and packaged in vesicles.
• Formation of complex sugar
• Formation of lysosomes.
Lysosomes
•They are single membrane vesicles which are responsible
for cleaning the cell. They can digest any foreign material
such as food or bacteria and even the worn out cell
organelles.

•How lysosomes can digest any foreign material that

enters the cell?

• Lysosomes are capable of doing so because they

have digestive enzymes in them. These enzymes
break the materials and digest them. These
enzymes are synthesized by RER and packaged into
lysosome by Golgi bodies.

•Why lysosomes are called ‘suicide bags’?

• If the cell’s own material gets damaged or dead

gets there are chances that lysosomes burst out,
thus digesting its own cell.
 Mitochondria
It is a double membrane organelle which has its own DNA and that is why often called ‘Semi Autonomous
Organelle’

•The cell requires energy in order to carry out several

activities. This energy is generated by mitochondria
which are often called as the ‘Powerhouse’ of the Cell.
Mitochondria are site of cellular respiration. They use
oxygen from air to oxidize the carbohydrates and
thereby release energy.
•What are energy currencies of a cell?
•The Mitochondria generates ATP (Adenosine
Triphosphate) which are energy giving molecules of the
cell that are often called as their ‘Energy Currency’.

•The two membranes of Mitochondria

• Outer Membrane – Porous in Nature
• Inner Membrane – Deeply Folded
•The Inner Membrane of Mitochondria called
as Cristae Facilitates Generation of ATP molecules as
it has a larger surface area.
 Plastids
Just like mitochondria it is also double membraned organelle which has its own DNA and ribosome.
Plastids exist in plant cells only. Depending upon the type of function they play in the cell they can be classified as –

Types of Plastids
Chromoplast Leucoplast

Coloured in nature, contain

Colourless in nature
a pigment called chlorophyll

Cause photosynthesis in Act as storage spaces of the

plants cells

Contain orange and yellow

Contain starch, proteins and oil
pigments

Can further be divided into

Can further be divided into
amyloplast, elaioplast and
Chloroplasts
proteinoplast or aleuroplast.
 Classification of Plastids
1. Amyloplast
•They are found in tubers, cotyledons and endosperm in plants.
•They are used to store starch.

2. Elaioplast
•They are found in epidermal cells of the plants
•They store oil.

3. Proteinoplast
•They are found in seeds and nuts.
•They store proteins.
Chloroplasts

•Chloroplasts are cell organelles that conduct photosynthesis in plants.

•Chloroplast is derived from two Greek words Chloro and Plasts which means green and plants respectively.

•Chloroplasts contain photosynthetic pigments called ‘Chlorophyll’ along with lipids, carbohydrates, minerals,
DNA, RNA, grana, thylakoids and stroma.
The main functions of chloroplasts are:

•Conducting photosynthesis in plants.

•Protein synthesis
•Releases oxygen
•Storage of Starch

Light-dependent Reactions in Photosynthesis – During photosynthesis chlorophyll absorbs the light energy which is then
used to for two molecules ATP and NADPH.
Thylakoids – They are pillow shaped compartments in the chloroplast. The light-dependent reactions in photosynthesis take
place in the thylakoids.
Stroma – It is a fluid-filled matrix in the chloroplasts. It is colorless fluid that contains all the enzymes that are needed for the
light-dependent reactions in Photosynthesis.
Grana – Stacks of thylakoids are called Grana. They are found in the stroma. They provide a large surface area so that the
reactions of photosynthesis can take place.
Sap Vacuoles

These vacuoles are filled with a fluid called Vascular Sap.

The fluid contains Amino Acids, Salt, Sugar, Proteins, Water,
and Waste Materials. Sap vacuoles are separated from the
cytoplasm by a semi-permeable membrane
called Tonoplast. Their main function is to allow rapid
exchange between cytoplasm and the surrounding
environment.
A number of sap vacuoles are found in young plant cells and
animal cells. In mature plants the small sap vacuoles
combine together to form a single large central vacuole
Contractile Vacuoles

They are found in protistan and algal cells in fresh water. The membrane of the contractile vacuoles is
highly extensible and collapses easily. These vacuoles are responsible for osmoregulation
(maintaining the water content of the cells) and excretion in the cells.
Centrioles
• A centriole is a small set of microtubules arranged in a specific way.
•Their main purpose is to help a cell in cell division.
•They are found near the nucleus but they can be seen only during the cell division.
•They are found in pairs and form a special substance called Centrosome which appears near
the nucleus.
•When the cell divides, the centrosome divides into two parts and each part moves to opposite
sides of the cell.
Ribosomes
•They are cell organelles responsible for protein synthesis.
•Ribosomes can be found in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes because the synthesis of proteins is
important in both of them.
•In prokaryotes, the ribosomes float freely in the cytoplasm.
•In eukaryotes, they can be found floating in the cytoplasm or they are often attached to the
endoplasmic reticulum.
•The ribosomes attached to the ER synthesize proteins that are to be exported out of the cell while the
ribosomes floating inside the cell synthesize proteins that are used inside the cell

Peroxisomes
•Peroxisomes are small vesicles found in the cells.
•These enzymes are used to break the toxic materials inside the cell.
•They digest the fatty acids of the cell as well as amino acids by carrying
out oxidation reactions in the cell.
•They are also responsible for digestion of alcohol in the human body.
Hence, the liver contains a large number of Peroxisomes.
Question 1: The largest cell in the human body is -________
Question 2. Name the Reticulum which has ribosome’s attached to it .
Question 3. Name a cell that does not have a nucleus, what are they called?
Question 4. What is osmosis?
Question 5 Who discovered Golgi Apparatus?
Question 6 Name the cell organelle which is involved in the formation of lysosomes. Why this cell organelle commonly
referred as the suicidal bags of the cell?
Question 7 What are the chromosomes made up of?
Question 8 What is mitochondria?
Question 9 Who discovered Protoplasm?
Question 10. The word cell was derived from a Greek word ---------- which means small room
Question 11. Name the person who first coined the term “Cell”

Question 1. Write the functions of following:

a) Golgi bodies
b) Nucleus
Question 2. Draw a labelled diagram of
(a) plant cell
(b) animal cell
Question 3 Differentiate between
a) Osmosis and diffusion
b) Chromatin and chromosome
Question 4. Describe:
c) Plastid
d) centrosome
Question 5 Why plasma membrane is called selectively permeable?
1. What do you mean by cell division? Write its different types.
2. What is plasmolysis?
3. Why are lysosomes known as ‘suicide-bags’ of a cell?
4. Why does the skin of your finger shrink when you wash clothes for a long time?
5. Why is endocytosis found in animals only?
6. A person takes concentrated solution of salt, after sometime, he starts vomiting. What is the phenomenon
responsible for such situation? Explain.
7. Name the organelles which show the analogy written as under
(a) Transporting channels of the cell——
(b) Power house of the cell——
(c) Packaging and dispatching unit of the cell——
(d) Digestive bag of the cell——
(e) Storage sacs of the cell——
(f) Kitchen of the cell——
(g) Control room of the cell——
8. How is a bacterial cell different from an onion peel cell?
9. How do substances like carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O) move in and out of the cell?
10. Which kind of plastid is more common in
(a) roots of the plant
(b) leaves of the plant
(c) flowers and fruits
11. How are chromatin, chromatid and chromosomes related to each other?
12. What are the consequences of the following conditions?
(a) A cell containing higher water concentration than the surrounding medium
(b) A cell having low water concentration than the surrounding medium.
(c) A cell having equal water concentration to its surrounding medium.
13. Draw a plant cell and label the parts which
(a) determines the function and development of the cell
(b) packages materials coming from the endoplasmic reticulum
(c) provides resistance to microbes to withstand hypotonic external media without bursting
(d) is site for many biochemical reactions necessary to sustain life.
(e) is a fluid contained inside the nucleus
14. Draw a neat labelled diagram of an animal cell.
15. Differentiate between rough and smooth endoplasmic reticulum. How is endoplasmic reticulum important
for membrane biogenesis?
1. Why are lysosomes known as ‘suicide-bags’ of a cell?
2. Do you agree that “A cell is a building unit of an organism”? If yes, explain why?
3. Why does the skin of your finger shrink when you wash clothes for a long time?
4. Why is endocytosis found in animals only?
5. A person takes concentrated solution of salt, after sometime, he starts vomiting. What is the phenomenon responsible for
such situation? Explain.

6. Name any cell organelle which is non-membranous.

7. We eat food composed of all the nutrients like carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins, minerals and water. After digestion,
these are absorbed in the form of glucose, amino acids, fatty acids, glycerol etc. What mechanisms are involved in the
absorption of digested food and water?

8. If you are provided with some vegetables to cook, you generally add salt to the vegetables during the cooking process.
After adding salt, vegetables release water. What mechanism is responsible for this?

9. Bacteria do not have chloroplast but some bacteria are photoautotrophic in nature and perform photosynthesis. Which part
of the bacterial cell performs this?
10. Name the organelles which show the analogy written as under
(a) Transporting channels of the cell——
(b) Power house of the cell——
(c) Packaging and dispatching unit of the cell——
(d) Digestive bag of the cell——
(e) Storage sacs of the cell——
(f) Kitchen of the cell——
(g) Control room of the cell——
11. Write the name of different plant parts in which chromoplast, chloroplast and leucoplast are present.
12. How is a bacterial cell different from an onion peel cell?
13. How do substances like carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O) move in and out of the cell?
14. How does amoeba obtain its food?
15. Name the two organelles in a plant cell that contain their own genetic material and ribosomes.
16. Why do plant cells possess large-sized vacuole?
17. How are chromatin, chromatid and chromosomes related to each other?
18. What are the consequences of the following conditions?
(a) A cell containing higher water concentration than the surrounding medium
(b) A cell having low water concentration than the surrounding medium.
(c) A cell having equal water concentration to its surrounding medium.
19. Draw a plant cell and label the parts which
(a) determines the function and development of the cell
(b) packages materials coming from the endoplasmic reticulum
(c) provides resistance to microbes to withstand hypotonic external media without bursting
(d) is site for many biochemical reactions necessary to sustain life.
(e) is a fluid contained inside the nucleus
20. In brief state what happens when
(a) dry apricots are left for sometime in pure water and later transferred to sugar solution?
(b) a Red Blood Cell is kept in concentrated saline solution?
(c) the Plasma membrane of a cell breaks down?
(d) rheo leaves are boiled in water first and then a drop of sugar syrup is put on it?
(e) golgi apparatus is removed from the cell?
1. Which plastids are colourless? ________ is called the energy currency of the cell
a. Chromoplasts a. Endoplasmic reticulum
b. Chloroplast
b. Oxygen
c. Leucoplasts
c. ATP
d. All of the above
d. Mitochondria
e. None of the above
e. None of the above
2. An unripe green fruit changes colour when it ripens. The reason
being: ________ is called the powerhouse of the cell
a. Chromoplasts changes to chlorophyll a. Mitochondria
b. Chromoplasts changes to chromosomes b. ATP
c. Chromosomes changes to chromoplasts
c. Lysosomes
d. Chloroplast changes to chromoplasts
d. Red blood cells
e. None of the above
e. None of the above
3. The phenomenon where cytoplasms shrink in a hypertonic
medium is called: ________ coined the term “cell.”
a. Frontolysis a. Gorbachev
b. Plasmolysis b. Himmler
c. Acidolysis c. Robert Hooke
d. Allolysis
d. Anton Von Leeuwenhoek
e. None of the above
e. None of the above
Which of the following statements is incorrect? The process by which water moves through a semi-
a. Cytoplasm is also known as protoplasm permeable membrane from a region of high concentration to
a region of lower concentration, thereby equalizing water
b. Lysosomes are known as the suicide bags of the cell
concentration is called:
c. Mitochondria has its own DNA
a. Evaporation
d. All of the above are incorrect
b. Diffusion
e. None of the above
Which of the following is not a function of the vacuole in plants? c. Osmosis

a. They store toxic metabolic wastes d. All of the above

b. They help with the process of cell division
c. They help to maintain turgidity
d. They provide structurally support
e. None of the above
Where are the essential proteins and lipids required for cell
membrane, manufactured?
a. Lysosome
b. Chromosomes
c. Endoplasmic reticulum
d. Mitochondria
e. None of the above
1. A cell will swell up if
(a) The concentration of water molecules in the cell is higher than the concentration of water molecules in the
surrounding medium.
(b) The concentration of water molecules in the surrounding medium is higher than the concentration of water
molecules in the cell.
(c) The concentration of water molecules is same in the cell and in the surrounding medium
(d) The concentration of water molecules does not matter.

2. Which of the following statement marks as a difference between plant cell and animal cell?
(a) Plant cells have cell wall which animal cells do not.
(b) Plant cells do not have vacuole while animal cells do have.
(c) Plant cells have only cell membrane while animal cells have both cell wall as well as cell membrane.
(d) Plant cells have more plastids while animal cells have few plastids.

3. Endoplasmic reticulum one of the cell organelles, exists as a membranous network that extends from outer
membrane of nucleus to the plasma membrane making a connection between them.
Which of the following statements is not related to the endoplasmic reticulum?
(a) It behaves as transport channel for proteins between nucleus and cytoplasm.
(b) It transports materials between various regions in cytoplasm.
(c) It can be the site of energy generation.
(d) It can be the site of some biochemical activities of the cell.
4. Osmosis is a process by which molecules of a solvent tend to pass through a semipermeable membrane
from a less concentrated solution into a more concentrated one. Can you pick out the option among the
following which does not belong to this process?
(a) The movement of water across a semipermeable membrane is affected by the amount of substances
dissolved in it.
(b) Membranes are made of organic molecules such as proteins and lipids.
(c) Molecules soluble in organic solvents can easily pass through the membrane.
(d) Plasma membranes contain chitin sugar in plants.

5. The nucleus controls all the activities of the cell and acts as a site of
DNA material and protein synthesis. It is composed of some components
which all together give the nucleus its functionality. Here is shown a figure
of nucleus with some of its components labeled as A, B, C and D. can you
name these components correctly?

(a) A – Nucleons; B – Chromatin; C – Nuclear membrane; D – Nucleoplasm

(b) A – Nucleus; B – Chromatin; C – Nuclear membrane; D – Nucleoplasm
(c) A – Nucleolus; B – Chromatin; C – Nuclear membrane; D – Nucleoplasm
(d) A – Nucleolus; B – Chromatin; C – Nuclear membrane; D – Nuclear wall
6. You must have observed that a fruit when unripe is green but it becomes beautifully coloured when ripe.
According to you what is the reason behind this colour change.
(a) Chloroplasts change to chromosplasts
(b) Chromosplasts change to chromosomes
(c) Chloroplasts change to chromosomes
(d) Chromosplasts change to chloroplasts

7. Rahul’s mother was going to make pickle. For this she cut the vegetables into small pieces and put them in the
sun for few hours. Rahul was observing all her activities very curiously and asked his mother if why she had put
the salted vegetables in the sun. among the following what might be the most appropriate answer for his
question?
(a) So that the pickle may get extra flavour.
(b) So that the cut vegetables may absorb the vitamin d as a nutrient from the sun rays.
(c) So that the vegetables may lose all the water by diffusion and evaporation and become dry.
(d) So that the salt may get evenly and properly absorbed by the vegetables.

8. The process of plasmolysis in plant cell is defined as:

(a) Breakdown of plasma membrane in hypotonic solution.
(b) Shrinkage of cytoplasm in hypertonic medium.
(c) Shrinkage of Nucleoplasm.
(d) None of these.
9. Mitochondria are the sites of respiration in the cell. They oxidize carbohydrates and fats present in the
cell to produce carbon dioxide, water and a lot of energy. The energy so released is stored in the form of
ATP molecules. Since mitochondria in the cell are used to synthesize energy so, they are also called:
(a) Energy currency of the cell
(b) Energy generator of the cell
(c) Kitchen of the cell
(d) Power house of the cell
11. In a test, a teacher collected the answers written by four students as the definition of osmosis as
given below. Read carefully and select the correct one.
(a) Movement of water molecules from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower
concentration through a semipermeable membrane.
(b) Movement of solvent molecules from its higher concentration to lower concentration.
(c) Movement of solvent molecules from higher concentration to lower of solution through a permeable
membrane.
(d) Movement of solute molecules from lower concentration to higher concentration of solution through
a semipermeable membrane.
12. Among the following statements which one is incorrect?
(a) Golgi apparatus is involved with formation of lysosomes.
(b) Nucleus, mitochondria and plastid have DNA, hence they are able to make their own structural
proteins.
(c) Lysosomes are called the suicide bags as they eat up their own cells.
(d) Cytoplasm is called known as protoplasm.
 13. Anjali wanted to eat rice and kidney bean (rajmah). She requested her mother to cook the same on next day.
At night her mother took a cup of kidney beans and put them in a container having some water and the kept the
container covered overnight. Next day it was observed that the kidney beans got swollen and were ready to be
cooked. What is this phenomenon due to which kidney beans got swollen is known as?
(i) Osmosis
(ii) Diffusion
(iii) Endosmosis
(iv) Exosmosis
Choose the correct option among the following:
(a) Only (iii)
(b) Both (i) and (iii)
(c) Both (i) and (iv)
(d) Only (i)
14. A vacuole is a space or cavity within the cytoplasm of a cell, enclosed by a membrane and typically containing
fluid. They are a kind of storage sacs that are very large sized in plant cell as compared to that in the animal cell.
Which among the following is not a function of the vacuole?
(a) They help to store the toxic metabolic by-products of the plant cell.
(b) They provide turgidity and rigidity to the plant cell.
(c) They help to maintain the osmotic pressure in the cell.
(d) They help the plant in its growth by the process of cell division.
15. The proteins and lipids, essential for building the cell membrane, are manufactured by:
(a) Endoplasmic reticulum
(b) Golgi apparatus
(c) Mitochondria
(d) Peroxisomes