ea.nel II,.., - , • .

l In so doing they~Ieav~ behjnd holes in t . 245

le~:ient dopant at01'?s negatively charged io!e vale~ce bancl,,apd make the
tJ'l~ can carry el~ctnc currents., the ionized
art ddo not contribute to currents.
t·
W~de the holes are mobile
mpunty atoms are immob'I
all fhe dopant atoil}s that produce hol . . •e
. th , , es m a sem1c d
,ntors since ey accept electrons. Sem· d on uctor are called
accer•rnpunt1 . .es are re.1erre
c d to as p-tupe icon
. . uctors having. accepto
type i • • h, . •J, semiconductor. . r
. rriers are pos1tiv~ c arges, i.e. holes. The hole 3' sin_ce the current
:ned e,xcess holes. . s created tn this way are

CONDrTION BAND

BAND GAP

· :t
------ -----
- ACCEPTOR
LEVEL
VALENCE BAND
F~. J.15: Acceptor level in energy diagram.
In a p-~e sermconductor the •oles are the majority carriers and
thermally pro~uced electrons are the minority earners. A p-type semicon-
ductor also satisfies Eq. (3.35). For each dopant atom in such semiconduc-
tors there is a hole in the valence band but no corresponding free electron
in the con?uction band. Addition of acceptors make p > P; so that n <
ni, accordm:g to Eq. (3.35).

Effect of temperature on extrinsic semiconductors

Consider an n-type semiconductor and assume that the donors are
completely ionized. If the temperature of the material is raised, the number
of thermally generated electrons and holes will increase. At a sufficiently
hightemperature, the number of thermally generated free electrons will be
much greater than the number of donor atoms. Then the·numbers of free
~lectrons and hoies will be nearly equal and the semiconductor will bt:have
intrinsically: The same conclusion can be arrived at f~r p-~ sem.tcon-
ductor. Thus as the temperature is increased, an extnns1c sem.tconductor
beco""es . . . one.
u, an mtrms1c ·
~ARIUER CONCENTRATIONS AND FERMI LEVEIS
IN SEMICONDUCTORS
l'he c d . . d · d by the concentration of
el on Uchvity of a semiconductor 1s ~termme . h al band We
ectrons hi the conduction band and that of holes in t e ence ·
shall c I 1 · .- d h Ii Ole concentrations.
(')a cu ate here the e~ectron an t e • ba d . Quantum statistics
sho· I Electron concentration in the conducti~n th ne~ergy interval E and
\Vs that the concentration of free electrons m e
 .
248 SoUd State Physice

E + dE in the conduction band•ia given by (see 'Statistical Mechanies•,

Chap 2).
n (E) dE == f (E) g (E) dE, ...(3.36)
where/ (E) is the Fermi-Dirac diatribution function andg (E) is the density
of states:
(2m3)1/2
g(E) =- . e 3 (E - Ec)112, ...(3.37)
n2 1f
where me is the effective mass of the electron and Ec ·is the lowest energy
in the conduction band. If E Fis the Fermi leYe~ ·WC have

f (E) = 1 + e(E ! Ep )/kn T ....(3.38)

where k8 is the Boltzmann constant and Tis the absolute temperature.

Substituting for f (E) ~d g (E) in Bq. (3.36), we find that the· concentration
of electrons i11 the conduction band i6

~u (1m~)V2 Eu {E - Ec)112 dE
n =Ef n (E) dE = 2 3
n1f
f
E l+e
(E-E )lk T
F B
... (3.39)
C ' C

Here Eu is the highest occupied energy in the conduction band.

=
Let x (E - Ec)lk8 T. Since Ep usually lies below the conduction
band .and E is in the conduction band above E e, we h ave
(E - Ep)lko T » l. Thus we can neglect unity in the denominator of the
integrand in Eq. (3.39) and write
(2m3)1/2
/1f3
00

n = (kB T)312 e<EF - EcVksT f x112 ,e -x dx ...(3.40)

J'l 0

Here the upper limit of integration has been shifted to infinity because
112
x is a slowly v~g function of.x whereas e-x decreases rapidly with
increasing x. Since f x 112e-x dx = f(3/2) = ./ii/2 we obtain
0 '

... (3.41)

where 1
nc = V2
(mo,r1J2ks) (me)
mo
312 312

73/
2
= 4.82 x 1()2t
(
:;
) 3/2
• 73/2 ... (3.42)

Here m 0 • ts the electron rest mass The qn,.,. .... ,t,1_ · th

· y n , 1s I of
· • , '. 1 e va ue
· ne whenEp = Ee, i.e., when.the Fermi level C""m· ·d · -~1. th b . of
· v . CJ es Wlw. · e ottom .
the conduction band. nc is expressed in m-3 in Bq. ( . ) . -~
3 42
....--
sand fh80'Y of Sofkjs . 247 1
• (ii) Concentration or boles In the v11ente band : Let£, be,the energy
the top of the valence band, so that the density of states is
.

(1nt3)112
g(E) = n[1'13 (Ev - E) 112 ...(3.4'.3)

ff ere mp is the effective mass of a hoJc and£ < Ev· Since a hole sipifics
an eJllpty energy state, the Fermi function for a hole is 1-/ (E), which is the
robability for the level E to be unoccupied. So, the number of holes in the
~nergy intervaJ E and E + dE per unit crystal volume is given by
(2m3)3/2
p (E)dE = ;,r,2~ 3 (Ev - E) 112 (1 - /(E)J dE ... (3.44)

We have
eCE-EpYksT
1 - J'"(E) =- ---
1 +eCE-EFYksT
... (3.45)

As (EF - E) > > k8 Tfor Es Ev, the exponential in the denominator can
be neglected Therefore, we have
1 - /(£) = e(E -Ep)/kB T ... (3.46)

Substituting for [1 - /(£)Jin Eq. (3.44) we fmd that the hole concentration
:n the valence band is given by

(1m3)3/2 Ev
p = P f (Ev _ E)l/2 ef.E - Epy1c8 r dE
:,r21f3 EL

where EL is the lowest unoccupied energy in the valence band. As before,

we put x = (Ev - E)lkn T and obtain
( 1m3 k 1)312 co
p= p B e<Ev -Ep)lk8 T f
x112 e-z ta ... (3.47)
1t2n3 o
~ince e-x rapidly decreases with increasingx, the upper limit of integration
15
taken to be infinity in Eq. (3.47). Thus
p =Pv e-(Ep-Ev)/Kn T (3 48)
...•
Where

Pv ::: 7; (mr:J<.2B)'
2 n1l
3/2 (··~ )-3/2 T3/2 = 4.82 X 1021 (~) 3/2 T3/2
mo, . ',mo
... (3.49)

Note thatp = Pv whenEp = Ev, i.e., when the Fermi level lies at the top of
th
eva1ence band.pv is expressed in m- 3 in Eq. (3.49).
Transport Phenotnena
. in Metal s and Semiconductors
213

. EF(O) = m,vl,,- ...(4.29)

Smee TF IS• • .it'
mversely proportional to T E (4 .
ordinary temperatures the therm I . ' . q. .28) e~plams why at
pendent of temperature. a coDtluchvtty of metals 18 nearly inde-

Rado of Kand a
From Eqs. (4.28) and (4.25) we obtain

K n2 (kl!.)2
a= J 7-rii T, ... (4.30)

which is th~ Wi:em:;-(F;:): Law. e Lorenz number is given by

. . aT_= J 7 = 2.45 x 10-s y2;K2, ... (4.31)

which JS nearly twice the value indicated by Eq. (4.24) and is close to the
value for many metals at ordinary temperatures.
4.5. ELECTRICAL CONDUCTM1Y OF SEMICONDUCTORS
'
In a semiconductor, both the free e~ectrons in th.e conduction band and the
holes in the valence band can carry electric currents.
When an electric field ! is applied in a semiconductor ~e electrons
are drifted in the direction opposite to ! since the charge on the eledrons
is negative (Fig. 4.5). The conventional current due to the electrons is
however in the direction of~. The holes carry positive charges and theTefore
they drift in the direction of! and contribute a current in the same direction.

' .
+ Drift of holes

Drift of electrons

Fig. 4.5: Movement of electrons al).d holes in an electric field.

If a denotes the conductivity of a semiconductor due to the electrons
n
then we write from Eq. (4.6).
a!J = neµn, ... (4.32)
where n is the concentration qfthe electrons and µn is the electron mobility.
The conductivity of a s~miconductor due to holes is sim.ilarly"given by
 264 Solid State Ph~

ap =peµP' ··•(4.33)
_
where p is the concentration of holes andµP is the hole mobility. Generau,.
µ,. is greater thaaµP'
Since the electric currents due to the electrons a~d the holes flow .
the same direction, the overaJI conductivity of the semiconductor is ltl
a= an + ap = e (nµ,. + pµp) · ... (4.34)
In the case of an intrinsic semiconductor,~ . _P . n;, wher_e _n; is the
intrinsic carrier concentration. Therefore, the mtnnstc CQnduct1vity is
a, = enp,. (1 + b), ... (4.35)
where b = µPlµ,.. Since b < 1, the electrons dominate in the conductivity
of an intrinsic semiconductor.
For an n-type semiconductor n :::.:-- p, and we get from Eq. (4.34)
an-type ::::: ne µn. (4.36) ..

For a p-type semiconductor, p»n , and if the product pµP is greater

than nµ,. we obtain from Eq. (4.34)
'
pe µp.
ap-type::::: .. ..(437)
The conductivity due to electrons or holes, a,. or ap, is expressed by
Eq. (4.25) with n representing the electron (or hole) concentration, me rep-
resenting the electron (or hole) effective mass and r p replaced by an
average value of -r . The last step is required since for a semiconductor the
Fermi level generally lies inside the band gap and the distribution function
is practically a Maxwell-Boltzmann one. Electrons in all energy states can
therefore undergo collisions, and as r is a function of energy, an average
value of i- has to be used. 1

4.6. HALL EFFECT

When a _Piece of ':°11ductor {metal or semiconductor) carrying an electric

current th mdu
placed
d · isbin a transverse
. magn· etic field , an. e1ect nc
· fi1eId 1·s devel-
ope wit . e .con . ctor ~n a direction perpendicular to both the current
and the magn.etic field. !his phenomenon is referred to as the Hall effect,
and the generated electnc field as the Hall field.
Assume that a rectangular · f .
I · h •. . .piece O conductor carrving an electric 1
current m t e positive x-d1rection is pl d . 'f . .B
applied in the positive z drr·e t· p· ace m a magnetic flux density
- C IOU ( 1g 4 6) Th . will
experience a Lorentz force in the . · · ·. e current earners
carrier_s will be deflected towards t::i~;~e y-duection. Consequently, t~e
accumulate there. When the curre t 0
~
s urface of the sampk and will
in an n-type semiconductor, the ac:U;a:in~rs are electrons, for examp~e,
bottom surface negatively charged .• h allon of electrons will make u~e
gives rise to an electric field, the Ha;~el~espect to the top surface. ~h15
' along the negative y-direct10°•