Reference Book on

Cables and Accessories

A Project of the Doble Client Committee on
Arresters, Capacitors, Cables and Accessories

Doble Engineering Company

85 Walnut Street
Post Office Box 9107
Watertown, Massachusetts 02471-9107 (USA)

Telephone: 6 17-926-4900
FAX: 61 7-926-0528

RBCA -6960

Part # 500-344M2A-1976-Rev A
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
SECTION PACE

1.00 GENERAL Sec. 1-1

2.00 SCOPE Sec. 2-1

3.00 SAFETY

General Sec. 3-1

Static Charges Sec. 3-2
Induced Charges Sec. 3-2
Disconnect Devices Sec. 3-3
Grounding De-Energized Conductors Sec. 3-3
High Voltage Tests Sec. 3-3
Power Factor Tests Sec. 3-4
Test Equipment Sec. 3-4

Sec. 4-1

5.00 TYPES OF CABLE FAILURES

5.0 1 Failures in Paper and Varnished-Cambric Insulated Cable Sec. 5-1

5.011 Type A Sec. 5-1
5.012 Type B Sec. 5-1
5.013 Type C Sec. 5-2
5.014 Type D Sec. 5-3

5.02 Failures in Rubber-Insulated Cable sec. 5-4

5.03 Failures in Cable Accessories sec. 5-4
5.04 Failures During DC Tests Sec. 5-4
5.05 Bibliography Sec. 5-5

6.00 TEST METHODS

6.01 General Sec. 6-1

6.02 Definitions Sec. 6-1
6.03 High-Voltage AC Withstand Tests Sec. 6-2
6.04 High-Voltage DC Withstand Tests Sec. 6-3
6.05 AC Loss Characteristic Measurements Sec. 6-5
6.06 DC Loss Characteristic Tests Sec. 6-13
6.06 1 Theoretical Considerations Sec. 6-13
6.062 Practical Considerations Sec. 6-17
6.063 Temperature Effects Sec. 6-19
6.064 Test Techniques Sec. 6-20
6.065 Interpretation of Test Results Sec. 6-21
6.066 Test Devices Sec. 6-22

6.07 AC Corona Measurements Sec. 6-24

6.08 Insulation Thickness Measurements Sec. 6-24
6.09 Bibliography Sec. 6-25
 REFERENCE BOOK O N CABLES AND ACCESSORIES

PREFACE

It is the intent of this guide to assemble and place in the hands of operating personnel information cover-
ing the inspection and testing of cables and accessories, usually found on powi: systems, and the location of
faults therein. An extensive Bibliography is included for those who require more detailed information.

In some cases in the guide. the names of manufacturers of test equipment, devices, and instruments have
been included for the convenience of Clients. Such inclusion is for the purpose of giving examples and does
not imply that the particular devices listed are recommended or that other devices are not suitable. It is
apparent that there may be numerous other manufacturers of equal, lesser, or superior devices.

This guide is a project of the Doble Client Committee on Arresters, Capacitors, Cables and Accessories,
but it does not offer any recommendation of either the Committee or the Doble Engineering Company.
REFERENCE BOOK ON CABLES AND ACCESSORlES
 SECTION 1 . 0 0

GENERAL

Properly applied and installed c a b l e c i r c u i t s a r e one of the m o s t trouble-free

components of a power system. However, many things can happen after installation,
the m o s t prevalent being:
a. Lead Sheath
1. Breaks due to cable movement
2. Corrosion
3. Holes due t o s t r a y a-c c u r r e n t s
4. Holes due t o rodents and i n s e c t s
5. Wear a t duct mouths
6. Mec hanical damage
b. Non-metallic Sheath
1. Holesdue t o insects
2. Damage due to fungi
3. Mec hanic a1 damage

c . The entrance of moisture through defective wipes and s e a l s on s p l i c e s and

terminals.
d. Insulation deterioration d u e t o
1. Compounddrainage f r o m r i s e r c a b l e s a n d t e r m i n a l s
2. Corona cutting of r u b b e r , rubber-like and plastic insulation
3. Excessive ambient t e m p e r a t u r e s and hot spotr
4. Ionization
5. Lightning and switching s u r g e s
6. Overloading
T h e possibility of all of these aud o t h e r t y p e s of troubles indicates that an inspection
and t e s t p r o g r a m may be advantageous f o r cable circuits.
T h e extent of c u r r e n t inspection and t e s t programs v a r i e s widely with t h e size
of and experience with individual cable s y s t e m s . Utilities with a s m a l l amount of cable
find it difficult t o justify expensive t e s t equipment, particularly i f they have not exper-
ienced c a b l e failures of s e r i o u s consequences. On the other haad, s o m e utilities with
a r e l a t i v e l y large amount of cable find that i t is advantageous to make annual t e s t s on all
power c a b l e c i r c u i t s , but no t e s t s on c o n t r o l and communication c i r c u i t s . O t h e r s
periodically t e s t and Inspect c a b l e s , while a few that do not periodically t e s t cable
c i r c u i t s periodically inspect them.

Sooner o r later the problem of the location of s e r v i c e f a i l u r e s in concealed .

c a b l e will be ericountered. F u r t h e r m o r e , it is impractical to apply high-voltage t e s t s
t o a c a b l e c i r c u i t ullless suitable d e v i c e s a r e available for locating t e s t failures.
 SECTION 2 . 0 0

SCOPE

This guide covers field t e s t s and inspection of power cable circuits of all types
that a r e insulated with plastic, rubber and rubber-like materials, varnished-cambric
and paper insulation of the solid type and all types of a c c e s s o r i e s used in these circuits.
Although much of this information is applicable to gas and oil p r e s s u r e , and pipe-type
cables, it is the intent of the guide to cover only electrical t e s t s on circuits of these
types of cable. * This guide a l s o covers field test and inspection of commrtnication and
control cables of all types with all types of insulation.

Methods of locating electrical faults in power, communication and control cable

circuits of all types and with all kinds of insulation a r e a l s o included. The location
of gas and oil leaks i s not within the scope of this guide.

The t r a c e r current method of locating electrical faults in cable circuits is also

suitable for locating electrical faults in insulating jackets on the lead sheaths of cables
and the insulating coatings on underground pipes.

Corrosion problems a r e not within the scope of this guide.

*If and when a sufficient number of requests a r e received from the

Doble Clients, the Committee will consider the inclusion of methods
of inspection and t e s t for g a s and/or oil p r e s s u r e and/or pipe-type
cable circuits and accessorie s used in these circuits.
REFERENCE BOOK ON CABLES AND ACCESSORIES

SECTION 3.00

SAFETY

Revised 1996
 REFERENCE BOOK ON CABLES AND ACCESSORIES M7.b
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3.01 GENERAL
Safety procedures should be followed for checking that electrical devices being prepared for tests are de-
energized. disconnected, and will not be energized by any personnel except those responsible for the tests.
Procedures vary between organizations and are usually different for communication and control cable than
for power cable operating at higher voltages. This section of the Reference Book on Cables and Accessories
highlights the cable safety practices of contributing Committee Member organizations and the recommenda-
tions noted within various sources of manufacturers' literature.

Prior to beginning field tests, most organizational procedures recommend that all personnel involved in
performing the tests should have a discussion concerning the safety and procedural steps involved in complet-
ing the task. Topics for discussion should include:
clearance coordination with the Load Dispatcher or Systems Operations
decision hierarchy when more than one department is involved
switching. tagging, and lockout responsibilities
informing others of your presence and purpose
potential hazards
stationing of safety personnel, protective barriers, warning signs, flags. etc.
special permits for compliance with regulations
required safety clothing and devices
identification 'of the device to be tested
isolation of the test specimen
tests to determine that the device is de-energized
apparatus grounding requirements
exposed cable ends insulation and isolation requirements
preparation of the test specimen
the influence of nearby energized apparatus
test voltages and test sequence

Electrical equipment and cables must always be considered energized unless positively proven to be
de-energized. Before beginning work, a preliminary inspection and tests should be conducted in order to
prove that the electrical equipment and cables are de-energized. Tests for potentialshould be made with a
hot line tool. switch stick, or other approved device. This precaution applies to both normally energized and
normally grounded conductors.

Field tests on cables and accessories often require work adjacent to energized circuits and devices. Definite
safety measures musr be taken to prevent test personnel from contacting energized equipment.
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- REFERENCE BOOK O N CABLES A N D ACCESSORIES

3.02 STATIC CHARGES

Static charge is the charge that remains trapped in a device after it is disconnected from a voltage source or
that accumulates on the ungrounded surfaces of a device as a result of external influences. Static charges on
cable circuits can be hazardous. The hazard increases with increasing voltage and increasing electrostatic
capacity. Even a cable of low electrostatic capacity charged at low voltage may startle a worker who contacts it.
The worker's impulsive reaction to the shock may result in another accident much more serious than that
caused by the electric current.

When a cable circuit is switched out of service, restrikes across a breaker or switch may result in the cable's
being charged to a voltage greater than the normal crest voltage. Using a simple single phase model, it can be
shown that an unfaulted cable may charge to an odd multiple of the normal crest voltage (1.3.5 ...). The
ungrounded surfaces of a cable circuit with good insulation can maintain charge for a long period of time. The
capacitance and surface resistivity control the rate at which an ungrounded cable circuit will discharge.

The application of a ground for a short period of time, then removing it. does not render a cable circuit safe
to personnel. Residual charge may exist; therefore, a dangerous voltage may still be present. It is essential to
ground the cable whenever personnel may contact it. Additionally, after completing a high voltage test and
prior to handling, some organizations recommend applying a ground for a minimum of four times the period
that the cable was energized.

A11 phases of all isolated cables not under test should be grounded at the conductor and shield.

3.03 INDUCED CHARGES

Sufficient clearance should be maintained between the cable under test and other energized circuits and
devices to ensure against dangerous induced charges. Nearby energized high voltage cables are considered
sources of induced charges. Non-shielded non-metallic jacketed cables used in underground ducts which
contain energized circuits are particularly vulnerable to induced voltages. When testing shielded cable it is
necessary to ground the shield. As an added safety measure, some organizations require that shielded cable be
grounded at both ends of the shield.

Dangerous charges may be induced by the tested cable in de-energized circuits and devices. Precautions
should be taken to protect personnel and prevent damage to the de-energized circuits and devices.

3.04 DISCONNECT DEVICES

The authority to open and close switches should be obtained from the Load Dispatcher or Systems Opera-
tions. Switching orders, tagging, and lockout procedures should be followed in accordance with an established
procedure.

High voltage tests on a cable circuit connected to one side of an open disconnect switch require careful
consideration when the opposite side of the disconnect switch is energized with system operating voltage. A
flashover may occur across the open disconnect switch or to ground. A flashover across the open disconnect
will energize the high voltage test equipment circuit with the system operating voltage. which could result in a
system phase to ground fault. The test equipment operator would then be exposed to shock, arc flash, and
explosive hazards. Similarly, a flashover to ground may spread across the open disconnect switch with the
same consequences.

The possibility of a flashover in liquid-filled switches is greater. The electrostatic field may align moisnue
and other contaminants such that a path is established across the switch or to ground. A system fault from
phase to ground within a liquid-filled switch may result in an explosion, fire. or both.
 REFERENCE BOOK ON CABLES AND ACCESSORIES
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3.05 GROUNDING DE-ENERGIZED CONDUCTORS
Electrical equipment and cables must not be worked on until all exposed ungrounded conductors have been
de-energized, tested for potential, and properly grounded with suitable devices. When installing the
grounding devices. they should first be solidly connected to a ground before the connections are made at the
de-energized conductors. When removing the grounding devices, they must first be disconnected from the
de-energized conductors before disconnecting from the system ground.

3.06 HIGH VOLTAGE TESTS

Personnel safety and the potential for damaging apparatus dictate that only qualified personnel operate high
voltage test equipment and interpret the results. The operating safety guidelines within the test equipment
manufacturer's instruction manual should be observed. Additional test equipment safety precautions may be
- -
found in Section 6.00 Test Methods, and Section 8.00 Cable Fault Location, of this manual.

Damaged and defective apparatus may fail violendy during high voltage tests. Possible safety hazards, such
as an exploding porcelain rain-shed cable terminal due to an internal failure, should be considered.

As stated earlier, particular attention should be given to non-shielded cable with non-metallic sheaths. A
dangerous potential may exist from the sheath to ground. Ungrounded cable sheaths and shields present a
similar hazard.

3.07 POWER FACTOR TESTS

The following is a summary of the general safety precautions that should be observed while conducting
power factor tests on high voltage cable with Doble power factor test equipment. A thorough discussion can be
found within the Doble Engineering Company Instruction Manuals.

Doble power factor tests are performed with the apparatus to be tested completely de-energized and iso-
lated. The apparatus to be tested should be visually inspected prior to applying the test voltage. High voltage
cable shields, sheaths, and non-energized isolated conductors should be grounded; furthermore. safety
grounds should be applied to all apparatus terminals before doing any work on them and before connecting
and disconnecting leads.

The Doble test set should be located where the operator will have an unobstructed view of both the appara-
tus under test and personnel. If both ends of a cable specimen are not visible because of the remote location of
one end, appropriate barriers or observers must be posted. Proper clearance between the test set and appara-
tus should be maintained.

The following steps should be conducted prior to making any test set to apparatus connections. Pint. ensure
that the test set is properly grounded. Second, all test leads should be connected to the test set. Third, the
operation of the safety switches should be verified. The safety switch function must not be defeated, and the
switches must be operated manually at all times.

Although the High Voltage Test Cable is double shielded. it must not be handled while it is energized.

After tests are completed, all of the test leads should be removed from the apparatus and brought to the
ground before they are disconnected from the test set. The heavy duty ground cable is the last lead removed
from the test set.

RBCA-6960 Sec. 3-3

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REFERENCE BOOK ON CABLES AND ACCESSORIES

3.08 TEST EQUIPMENT

It is suggested that all high voltage test equipment be designed so that:
1. Measuring instruments in high voltage circuits and high voltage test leads are isolated and insu-
lated in a manner that will ensure safety to personnel.
2. Measuring instruments in.10~voltage circuits are provided with protective devices that will ensure
safety to personnel in case of an accidental opening in the measuring circuit or a failure of the
device being tested.
3. The power supply circuit breaker (or fuse) trips at the lowest practical current.
4. A grounding switch automatically grounds the output when the equipment is turned off or the
power supply circuit breaker trips. It should remain in the ground position until the test equip-
ment is energized.

On large high voltage test equipment it is advantageous to include:

1. A voltage control device that automatically reduces the output voltage to zero when the power
supply circuit breaker trips or the test equipment is turned off.
2. An audible alarm that sounds before the test equipment output transformer is energized.
3. Warning lights that are automatically enabled before the test equipment output transformer is
energized. The warning lights should remain on until the, automatic grounding switch closes.
REFERENCE BOOK ON CABLES AND ACCESSORIES

SECTION 4.00

INSPECI'ION
 SECTION 4 . 0 0

INSPECTION

Where utilities find periodic inspection of exposed cable and a c c e s s o r i e s

advantageous, the frequency of such inspections i s seldom g r e a t e r than once a
y e a r and depends on the amount of t r o u b l e experienced on the s y s t e m . the importance
of the cable c i r c u i t and the a c c e s s i b i l i t y of the cable and a c c e s s o r i e s .

In manholes c a b l e s a r e inspected for:

1. C r a c k s in rigid f i r e p r o o f i n g that may indicate

excessive s t r e s s on the cable sheath.

2. Deteriorated c o v e r i n g o n t h e c a b l e and s p l i c e s .

3. Excessive cable movement.

4. Oil leaks.

5. Sheath wear at c a b l e s u p p o r t s and duct mouths.

6. S w o l t e n o r collapsed l e a d splice s l e e v e s .

At t e r m i n a l s c a b l e s and a c c e s s o r i e s a r e inspected for:

1. Excessive c a b l e movement.

2. Oil o r compound leaks.

3. Sheath wear a t c a b l e s u p p o r t s and the e n t r a n c e to the r i s e r pipe.

4. Condition of connections to cable t e r m i n a l s

RENCE BOOK ON CABLES 1

TYPES OF CABLE FAILURES

 SECTION 5 . 0 0

TYPES OF CABLE FAILURES

5.01 FAILURES IN PAPER AND VARNISHED-CAMBRIC INSULATED CABLE

All failures in paper and varnished-cambric insulated cable a r e either of one o r ,

m o r e often, of a combination of four distinct types (5.051), i. e.:

A. Puncture
B. Coring and Tracking
C. T h e r m a l Instability
D. Corona

Unfortunately, in the c a s e of s e r v i c e f a i l u r e s , high s h o r t - c i r c u i t c u r r e n t s often

r e s u l t in the destruction of all evidence of the c a u s e of failure.

5.011 TYPE A

The puncture type of failure leaves a n e a t puncture f r o m

conductor t o sheath. the diameter of which is determined by the
fault c u r r e n t and its duration. The punctures a r e usually, but
not necessarily, radial. If the fault c u r r e n t is limited t o a few
milliamperes, for l e s s than a second, the puncture will be s o
small that i t will be quite difficult t o locate. Insulation deteriora-
tion, tracking, t r e e i n g o r wax formatiour will not be found adjacent
to the puncture. T h i s o c c u r s very quickly, in a few reconds a t the
most, after very high a-c o r d-c voltages a r e applied. U this type
of failure should o c c u r in s e r v i c e on a n a-c system, it will be due t o
high t r a n s i e n t voltages resulting f r o m lightning o r switching surges.

5.012 TYPE B

The c o r i n g and tracking type of failure a p p e a r s a s a slanting

fault from the conductor to the insulation shielding o r lead sheath.
Tree-like carbon markings and wax deposits a r e always found on
i n s u l a t ~ n gt a p e s around the fault. The treeing i s usually longitudinal;
however, tangential treeing has been observed. This type of f a i l u r r
r e s u l t s t r o m a s p a r k discharge in a void in the insulation, usually at
the conductor o r conductor shield, and p r o g r e s s e s radially through
the insulation until sufficient tangential stre ss is built up t o c a u s e it
t o t r a c k f r o m butt s p a c e to butt space u r o r r the s u r f ~ c ed the insulating
tapes, resulting in a sloping. failure, f r o m conductor t o #heath, accom-
panied by an acrid s m e l l . This type of f a i l u r e o c c u r s only during n o r m a l
a - c s e r v i c e o r high voltage a-c t e s t s o£ relatively long duration. A
f ailure o r partial f a i l u r e of this ty pe usually d o e s not occur during d-c
 t e s t s because these t e s t s d o not normally produce tangential s t r e s s e s in
good cable insulation. The time f r o m the initial spark discharge until
complete failure i s relatively long. It may require hours during a high-
voltage a - c test o r months o r y e a r s of normal a-c service. High-voltage
a - c t e s t s may cause partial f a i l u r e s of t h i s type which may l a t e r appear
a s s e r v i c e failures.

5.013 TYPE C

T h e thermal-instability type of f a i l u r e is r a d i a l and is surrounded

by scorched, brittle insulation with a burnt- sugar smell. Tracking,
t r e e i n g and wax deposits will not be found on insulation around the
failure. T h i s type of failure frequently o c c u r s in normal a-c s e r v i c e
and happens when the heat due t o c o p p e r , dielectric and sheath l o r ses
exceeds the amount of heat that c a n be dissipated into the surrounding
m a t t e r . The main c a u s e s f o r e x c e s s i v e heating a r e a s follows:

a. High power f a c t o r resulting f r o m insulation d e t e r -

ioration, contamination of c a b l e insulation with m o i s t u r e
o r compounds used f o r filling s p l i c e r and t e r m i n a l s , o r
possibly other c a u s e 8 .

b. Excesrive ambient t e m p e r a t u r e , such a s that caused by

s t e a m lines n e a r the cable.

d. Excesrive ionization caused by o i l drainage out of

impregnated-paper insulation.

e. Hxcesrive s h e a t h c u r r e n t s i n t h e c a s e of a single-
conductor c a b l e .

A s previously mentioned, thir type of f a i l u r e o c c u r s in a-c s e r v i c e and

a l s o o c c u r s during high-voltage a-c t e s t a . It may develop in a few h o u r s
d u r i n g high-voltage a-c t e s t s o r in a few months o r y e a r s in a-c s e r v i c e .
High-voltage a-c t e s t s may also c a u s e p a r t i a l f a i l u r e s due t o t h e r m a l
instability. F a i l u r e s of t h i s type can b e explained by the f o r m u l a f o r
a - c d i e l e c t r i c heating:

Where: W = Power l o r s , ar heat, i n watts

C = Capacitance i n m i c r o f a r a d s .
E = RMS a - c voltage in v o l t s
f = Frequency i n ' c y c l e s per recond
PF t Power f a c t o r at frequency f and at the insulation
temperature.

and the f o r m u l a f o r d-c d i e l e c t r i c 1088:

 Where: W = P o w e r loss, a s h e a t , i n w a t t s
E = D-c voltage in volts
R = D-c insulation r e s i s t a n c e in ohms at voltage E

F r o m the formalae, it is evident that the d i e l e c t r i c l o s s in the a-c

c a s e is much l a r g e r than in the d-c case. A s a consequence, d i r e c t
c u r r e n t does not usually r e s u l t in a t h e r m a l instability type of
f a i l u r e unless the cable insulation is sufficiently contaminated with
water o r other foreign matter t o r e s u l t in v e r y low insulation
resistance.

F a i l u r e s , and more often partial f a i l u r e s , of the thermal-

instability type a r e a l s o caused by high voltages a t high frequencies
due to damped oscillations (5.052) aad (5.053), resulting from:

a. Lightning
b. Switching o r other s u r g e s during n o r m a l operation
c. Switching surges during a-c or d-c t e s t s
d. Impulse t e s t s
e. A failure in cable or an a c c e s s o r y , o r a t e r m i n a l
flashpver during operation o r any type of high-
voltage t e s t

F a i l u r e s a t high frequencies m a y take place very quickly due t o the

fact that in general the dielectric heating of insulation is much higher
a t high frequencies.

5.014 TYPE D

Corona, on the outer surface of non- shielded cable with a non-

metallic covering over the inrulation, r e s u l t s in f a i l u r e s that may
r e s e m b l e either the puncture o r coring and tracking type of failure,
o r both. Small punctures will be found in the outer insulating t a p t r
o v e r the e n t i r e a r e a a t which c o r o n a occur red. Many of the punctures
will be microscopic in size and difficult t o detect particularly in black
varnished-cambric insulation. Tree-like carbon deposits and wax
d e p o s i t s a r e often found on the inner insulating t a p t r around the l a r g e r
of these punctures. This type of fault o c c u r s only during a-c s e r v i c e
o r high-voltage a-c t e s t s of relatively long duration. It may r e q u i r e
h o u r s d u r i n g a high-voltage a-c t e s t o r months o r y e a r s during a - c
service.
 5 . 0 2 FAILURES IN RUBBER-INSULATED CAELE

The puncture (Type A) and t h e r m a l - instability (Type C ) f a i l u r e s described above

a l s o o c c u r in cable with rubber and rubber-like insulations. F a i l u r e s in this type of
c a b l e may a l s o occur due to corona cutting which d o e s not r e s e m b l e the corona (Type D)
f a i l u r e s d e s c r i b e d above.

The corona-cutting type of failurn is caused by ozone, resulting f r o m corona

(ionization), deteriorating r u b b e r and rubber-like insulation. Ozone d e t e r i o r a t e s
t h i s type of insulation s o rapidly that o t h e r effects of corona a r e insiginificant. Corona
cutting is most s e v e r e a t points a t which the insulation i s under tension, e . g . , on the
outside of bends in t h e cable. T h i s type of f a i l u r e can be identified by numerous small
c i r c u m f e r e n t i a l c r a c k s adjacent to the fault.

F a i l u r e s due t o corona cutting m a y occur within a few minutes d u r i n g high-voltage

a - c t e s t s o r a f t e r m m t h s o r y e a r s of a - c service. Numerous c a s e s have been reported
of damage t o cable rated 5 kv and higher, with rubber o r rubber-like insulation, due
t o c o r o n a cutting resulting f r o m high-voltage a - c factory t e s t s . T h i s type of failure
d o e s not o c c u r during d-c t e s t s .

5.03 FAILURES IN CABLE ACCESSORIES

'
Most of what h a s been said r e g a r d i n g f a i l u r e s in cable a l s o a p p l i e s t o a c c e s s o r i e s ,
i. e . , s p l i c e s and t e r m i n a l s in power c a b l e c i r c u i t s . F a i l u r e s a l s o o c c u r in a c c e s s o r i e r
due to:

1. S t r e s s concentration
2. Tangential and r a d i a l s t r e s s e s
3. Insufficient f l a s h o r leakage distance over the e x t e r i o r
s u r f a c e of t e r m i n a l s
4. Faulty workmanship

E x c e s s i v e s t r e s s concentration and r a d i a l s t r e s s r e s u l t in f a i l u r e s of the puncture

type. Excessive tangential stress results in f a i l u r e s of the longitudinal type which
under s o m e conditions may be p a r t i a l l y longitudinal and a p a r t i a l puncture. The
puncture type of f a i l u r e h a s been described. The longitudinal f a i l u r e r e s u l t s in a long
sloping carbonized path f r o m the cable connector o r conductor in the s p l i c e o r t e r m i n a l
t o the shield o r metallic sheath of the cable. F a i l u r e s in s e r v i c e o r d u r i n g d-c t e s t s , due
t o the s e c a u s e s a r e e a s i l y identified. T h e y can be eliminated by proper d e s i g n ( 5 . 0 5 4 ,
5 . 0 5 5 and 5 . 0 5 6 ) and installation.

5 . 0 4 FAILUR fS DURING D-C TESTS

Obviously t e r m i n a l s will f l a s h o v e r i f their flashover voltage is exceeded.

Occasional e x t e r n a l f l a s h o v e r s during d-c t e s t s d o not damage t e r m i n a l s , even those
6 on long high-voltage c a b l e c i r c u i t s , provided the t e s t s e t t r i p s v e r y fast.

High-frequency voltages, due t o switching s u r g e s during d-c t e s t s , can be .

r e d u c e d t o a s a f e level by turning the t e s t s e t on and off only when i t s output voltage
is p r a c t i c a l l y z e r o , r a i s i n g and lowering the d i r e c t voltage at a r a t e not exceeding
two p e r c e n t of the t e s t voltage p e r second and discharging the c a b l e upon completion
of e a c h t e s t through a suitable r e s i s t o r . T h e d u r a t i o n and magnitude of high-
f r e q u e n c y voltage, r e s u l t i n g f r o m a f a i l u r e in a power cable c i r c u i t o r a t e r m i n a l
f l a s h o v e r d u r i n g a d - c t e s t , c a n be m i n i m i z e d by v e r y f a s t tripping of the d - c t e s t s e t ,
T h e r e i s no o t h e r method of c o n t r o l l i n g high-frequency voltages r e s u l t i n g f r o m d - c
t e s t s ( 5 . 052 and 5.053). If t h e s e p r e c a u t i o n s are taken, high-frequency voltages
will not be h a z a r d o u s u n l e s s t h e r e a r e a l a r g e n u m b e r of f a i l u r e s on a c i r c u i t , a t v e r y
high d - c t e s t voltages, o r u n l e s s it i s n e c e s s a r y to f l a s h o v e r a f a u l t many t i m e s , a t
v e r y high d i r e c t voltages, in o r d e r t o r e d u c e i t s r e s i s t a n c e to a value that will p e r m i t
the u s e of a v a i l a b l e f a u l t - l o c a t i o n m e t h o d s . F o r t u n a t e l y , such c a s e s a r e r a r e l y
encountered.

5 . 0 5 BIBLIOGRAPHY

5.051 D i e l e c t r i c P h e n o m e n a in High Voltage C a b l e s , D. M. Robinson,

C h a p m a n and Hall, London.

5.052 Electrical Transients, C. E. Magnusson, M:Graw Hill, 1926.

5.053 Traveling-Wave Voltages in C a b l e s , 11. G. B r i n t o n , F. H.B u l l e r
and W. J. Rudge, J r . , AIEE T r a n s a c t i o n s , Volume 52, M a r c h 1933.

5.054 P o w e r C a b l e Shielding, John C. P a r k e r , Minutes of t h e 1952 D o b k

Client Conference.

5.055 D e s i g n F u n d a m e n t a l s of P o t h e a d s 6 9 , 0 0 0 Volts and Below,

J . H. Nicholas, AIEE T r a n s a c t i o n s , - V o l u m e 68, 1949.

5.056 A t h e o r e t i c a l and P r a c t i c a l Approach t o the Design of High-'

Voltage C a b l e J o i n t s , H. D. S h o r t , A I E E T r a n s a c t i o n s ,
Volume 6 8 . 1949.
 REF'ERENCE BOOK ON CABLES AND ACCESSORIES

SECX'ION 6.00

..

TEST METHODS

-
 SECTON 6.00

TEST METHODS

6.01 GENERAL

The three general methoda that may be used in the field for testing the
insulation of cables and a c c e s s o r i e s are:

1. High-voltage a-c and d-c withstand t e s t s (Sections 6.03 aad 6. 04).

2. A-c and d-c l o s s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c measurements (Sections 6.05 and 6.06).

3. A-c corona m e a s u r e m e n t s (Section 6.07).

Of these t e s t s , the high-voltage d-c t e s t i s the most popular f o r power cable. High-
voltage a - c t e s t s a r e r a r e l y used when high-voltage d-c t e s t equipment is available.
A-c loss characteristic m e a s u r e m e n t s , e. g., Doble t e s t s , a r e often used for short
lengths of power cable and f o r potheads. D-c l o s s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c measurements,
e. g., insulation resistance t e s t s , a r e popular f o r all types of cable. A-c corona t e s t s
a r e seldom used in the iield; however, they should r e c e i v e f a r m o r e attention, partic-
ularly in the c a s e of rubber-~nsulatedcable.
-
In considering t e s t methods that may be used for cable c i r c u i t s , i t i s well to
consider just how a defect that may be indicated by a t e s t may be located. It is evident
that a defect, indicated by a-c o r d-c loss c h a r a c t e r i s t i c m e a s u t e m e n t s , such a s the
entrance of moisture into paper insulation through a hole in the cable sheath can not be
located until t h e r e is e i t h e r a s e r v i c e failure o r a failure during a high-voltage t e s t
(Section 8.00). This a l s o applies t o defects indicated by a-c c o r o n a t e s t s .

Section 6 . 0 8 on Insulation Thickness Measurements h a s been included because

it is often advantageous t o m e a s u r e insulation thickness t o d e t e r m i n e the maximum
a-c or d - c test voltage that may be applied to a cable (Section 7.00).

6 . 0 2 DEFINITIONS

The definitions of the various high-voltage withstand t e s t s covered h e r e i n a r e :

FAC TORY TESTS

A-C T e s t

The A-C F a c t o r y T e s t i s the high-voltage a-c withstand t e s t applied

t o e a c h length of cable p i o r to shipment f r o m t h e factory.
 D-C T e s t

The D-C F a c t o r y T e s t i s the high-voltage d - c withstand t e s t that

may be applied to cable with rubber- like insulation prior t o ship-
m5nt f r o m the factory. It is r a r e l y used f o r cable with other
types of insulation.

FIELD TESTS

Proof T e s t

A R o o f T e s t i s a high-voltage a-c o r d - c withstand t e s t that

may be made during cable installation.

Acceptance T e s t

An Acceptance T e s t (installation acceptance t e s t ) i s a high

voltage a-c o r d - c withstand t e s t that may be made after cable
installation and before the cable is placed in r e g u l a r service.

Periodic T e s t

A Periodic T e s t i s a high voltage a-c o r d - c withstand t e s t

that may b e made a t any time a f t e r t h e c a b l e is placed in
regular service.

6.03 HIGH-VOLTAGE A-C WITHSTAND TESTS

High-voltage a-c withstand t e s t s a r e r a r e l y uaed f o r testing cables and

a c c e s s o r i e s in the field when d - c t e s t equipment i s available. The maximum a-c t e s t
voltage, r a t e of voltage r i s e , and time of application given in the S t a d a r d Cable
Specific ations will be found in Section 7.0 5.

A m a j o r objection t o h i g h ~ o l t a g ea-c field t e a t s is t h a t they may r e s u l t in d a m a g e

t o good cable insulation d u e t o dielectric heating and d a m a g e t o r u b b e r insulation due t o
corona cutting. It is suggested that high-voltage a-c t e s t 8 should not be made on r u b b e r
insulated cable, p a r t i c u l a r l y non-metallic sheathed, non-shielded cable with rubber
insulation and cable with non-ozone r e s i s t a n t r u b b e r insulation.

T h i s method a l s o h a s the disadvantage that the equipment and power supply m x s t

have sufficient kva c a p a c i t y t o supply the charging c u r r e n t for the cable c i r c u i t a t the
d e s i r e d t e s t voltage. T h e k v a required a t 60 c y c l e s is:

KVA = 0 . 3 1 1 ~ ~ ~

Wirere: C = Capacitance in m i c r o f a r a d s
E = T e s t kilovolts
If a n a-c t e s t voltage in e x c e s s of approximately 40 kilovolts i s t o be applied t o
a cable, the cable m u s t be terminated in potheads o r t e r m i n a l s that will withstand t h e

Sec. 6-2
 t e s t voltage. This i s due to the f a c t that the s t r e s s concentration a t the end of the
metallic sheath o r shielding will result in failures at that point. The minimum
voltage a t which such failures a r e probable is dependent upon the d i a m e t e r of the cable
conductor, the insulation thickness and the dielectric constant (SIC)of the insulation.
This paragraph does not apply to d - c tests.

A test set for this method c o n s i s t s of a 100% voltage regulator o r variable

auto-transformer, step-up t r a n s f o r m e r , output voltmeter and a m m e t e r , grounding
switch and the necessary c o n t r o l s and accessories. Complete high-voltage a-c t e s t
s e t s a r e available from the General Electric Company and other manufacturers.

6.04 HIGH-VOLT AGE D -C WITHSTAND TESTS

The high-voltage d-c withstand t e s t is the most widely used f i e l d t e s t for power
cables. This test, unlike the high-voltage a-C withstand t e s t s , will not r e s u l t in damage
to cable insulation due to d i e l e c t r i c heating and corona cutting. The power supply
requirements a r e f a r l e s s and the equipment i s lighter and l e s s bulky.

High-voltage d-c t e s t s e t s c o n s i s t of a 100% regulator o r v a r i a b l e auto-transformer

f o r voltage control, a step-up t r a n s f o r m e r , a rectifier, the n e c e s r a r y charging
r e s i s t o r s , a grounding switch with discharge r e s i s t o r s , i n s t r u m e n t s f o r measuring the
output voltage and c u r r e n t and the necessary controls and a c c e s s o r i e s . Regulators t o
a s s u r e a constant d - c output voltage with a varying a-c input voltage a r e not considered
practical f o r d-c t e s t s e t s with a high d-c output voltage and c u r r e n t . Commercially
available t e s t s e t s have maximum output voltage ratings up t o 375 kv with c u r r e n t
ratings a t maximum voltage up to 250 milliamperes. The higher-voltage t e s t s e t s often
have provision for connections f o r double the rated c u r r e n t output up t o half the'maximum
rated voltage and in some c a s e s f o r four times the rated c u r r e n t output up to one fourth
the maximum rated voltage.

The cost. weight, bulk and power supply requirements of a d - c t e s t s e t depend on

the maximum output voltage and c u r r e n t . In selecting a d-c t e s t set f o r cable testing
the maximum output voltage will depend on the highest t e s t voltage t h a t will be advanta-
geous and that can be economically justified. The maximum c u r r e n t output f o r cable
testing will depend on the d-c l o s s e s in the t e s t s e t and output bushings, the d-c l o r r e s
in the insulation of t e s t leads f r o m the t e s t s e t t o t h e cable t e r minals, d-c l o s s e s i n and
over the s u r f a c e s of the cable t e r m i n a l s and inthe cable under t e s t s . T h e s e l o s s e s
inc r e a s e rapidly with inc r e a r i n g voltage and humidity. Another consideration in d e t e r -
mining the maximum output c u r r e n t f o r cable testing i s how rapidly it i s advantageous to
c h a r g e the capacitance of the c a b l e circuit requiring the highe s t charging c u r r e n t t o the
d e s i r e d d-c t e s t voltage.

An indication of the output c u r r e n t requirements of a d-c cable t e s t s e t , when

charging the capacitance of s e v e r a l typical cables, and the maximum output c u r r e n t of
the t e s t s e t a f t e r the t e s t voltage had been applied t o the cable f o r one minute, a r e given
in Table 6-1. The values of c u r r e n t a r e for t e s t s during the w o r s t weather conditions
encountered by one utility during c a b l e t e s t s . The t e s t s on t h r e e conductor c a b l e s w e r e
f r o m one conductor t o the other two conductors and ground.

The d-c c u r r e n t n e c e s r a r y t o reduce faults (Section 8.05) should a l s o be considered

in selecting a d-c t e s t set.
 The following, and no doubt other companies have supplied complete high-
voltage d - c cable t e s t sets that have proven satisfactory:

Beta Electric Corporation

J a m e s G. Biddle Company
General Electric Company

The maximum d-c t e s t voltages given in the Standard Cable Specifications and
the maximum time of application will be found in Section 7. 06. The initially applied
voltage should not exceed the rated voltage of the cable. The rate of r i s e of test voltage
should be uniform and such that t e s t voltage i s not reached in l e s s than thirty seconds.
Slower r a t e s of r i s e a r e permissible and may be advantageous for minimizing charging
cur rent, particularly on long circuits having high capacitance. Usually , high v o l b g e
d-c t e s t s e t s have extremely poor regulation, and when the charging c u r r e n t i s high
c a r e should be taken to insure that when the desired t e s t voltage i s reached, the decay
of charging c u r r e n t will not result in overshooting the t e s t voltage.

It i s not necessary that cables be terminated in a pothead o r other terminatiag

device for d - c t e s t regardless of the t e s t voltage. It is merely necessary t o remove
the metallic sheath, coverings and shielding from the insulation a t each end of the cable
for a sufficient distance to prevent flashover. Figure 6-1 indicates the length of insula-
tion that must be cleared a t the ends of cable for various test voltages. T h i s procedure
i s time saving when it i s desirable to t e s t cable without potheads. This paragraph
does not apply t o high-voltage a-c tests.

Single -conductor cables and multi-conductor shielded cables a r e usually tested -

from conductor to ground with the coaductor negative and with all other conductors of
the cable c i i c u i t grounded. A t e s t may be applied from all conduc-tors of a circuit, with
these types of cable, to ground. However, it is generally advantageous t o make a
separate t e s t f r o m each conductor to ground s o that the d-c lor s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the
insulation of each conductor may be determined, and compartd.

The insulation of each conductor of multi-conductor cables without insulstioa

shielding aud multi-conductor belted cable may b e tested by applying negative d-c t o
each conductor with all other conductors grounded, but with this method the maximum
permissible t e s t voltage can not be applied from conductor to conductor without
exceeding the conductor-to-ground t e s t volta#e. The insulation between two conductors
and' f r o m the c oaductors to ground may be tested a t the same time by energizing one
conductor with positive and another with negative d-c from a three-wire d-c t e s t s e t
with the neutral and a11 other conductors grounded. F o r three-wire d - c t e s t s neither
the maximum conductor-.to-conductor nor the conductor-to-ground t e s t voltage should be
exceeded. If it ia desirable to apply a higher voltage from conductor t o ground than
can be obtained with the three -wire t e s t without exceeding the maximum coaductor-to-
conductor t e s t voltage, an additional t e s t may be made with a l l conductors negative.

Periodic readings o r recordings of the d-c t e s t voltage and c u r r e n t permit the

estimation of the d-c l o s s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a s outlined in Section 6 . 0 6 .

Experience has indicated that when high ,voltage d-c t e s t s a r e made i t i s a l s o

advantageous t o make a - c l o s s measurements, i . e . , Hot-Collar t e s t s , on potheads
(Section 6 . 0 5 ) .
 6 . 0 5 A-C LOSS CHARACTERISTIC MEASUREMENTS

The A-C L o s s C h a r a c t e r i s t i c M e a s u r e m e n t s , e . g.
in the field on power c a b l e and a c c e s s o r i e s a r e :
. Doble t e s t s , that a r e made
1. Power-factor m e a s u r e m e n t s usually on r e l a t i v e l y s h o r t lengths
of cable.

2. Power-factor measurements o n c a b l e accessories.

3. A-c l o s s m e a s u r e m e n t s , i. e . , Hot-Collar t e s t s , on potheads.

A Doble Power-Factor T e s t Set i s generally used f o r t h i s purpose since no o t h e r

suitable t e s t s e t i s c o m m e r c i a l l y available. Experience h a s proven that e i t h e r the
2 . 5 o r 10 kv t e s t s e t s a r e suitable, r e g a r d l e s s o f the r a t e d voltage of the c a b l e o r
pothead, provided that t h e maximum a - c t e s t voltage given in Section 7.05 is not
exceeded.

The length of a c a b l e that may be tested i s limited by the volt-ampere output

rating of the t e s t s e t . If the capacitance per foot of a c a b l e and the maximum volt-
a m p e r e output of a t e s t s e t i s known, the maximum length of the cable that c a n b e tested
a t a given voltage i s :

Where: C F = Capacitance of c a b l e in m i c r o f a r a d s per foot

K V = T e s t kilovolts

L = Length of c a b l e in f e e t

V A = Required v o l t - a m p e r e s

Likewise, if the c a p a c i t a n c e of a cable i s m e a s u r e d , the r e q u i r e d v o l t - a m p e r e s

are:

Where: C = Capacitance of the cable in m i c r o f a r a d s

P o w e r - f a c t o r m e a s u r e m e n t s on cable a r e useful f o r detecting g e n e r a l d e t e r i o r a -

tion o r contamination of c a b l e insulation. However, they a r e of little u s e f o r d e t e c t i n g
spot contamination o r d e t e r i o r a t i o n . T h i s is due t o t h e f a c t that the m e a s u r e d power
f a c t o r of the insulation is the a v e r a g e power f a c t o r of a l l of the insulation in t h e c a b l e
and high power.factor of a s m a l l percentage of the i a s u l a t i o n will be masked by t h e low
power f a c t o r of the m a j o r portion of the insulatioa.

P o w e r - f a c t o r t e s t s a r e of no value f o r non-shielded c a b l e with a non-conducting

covering because a l l m a t t e r between t h e insulation and t r u e e l e c t r i c a l ground i r included
 In the tests. This also applies to non-shielded cable with a non-metallic sheath or
covering between the insulation and conducting covering unless the power factor of
the non-metallic sheath o r covering is known and is not appreciably g r e a t e r than the
insulation power factor.

Power-fac tor measurements of the insulation of single-conduc tor cable with a

metallic sheath or shield o r the insulation of a conductor of a multi-conductor shielded
cable a r e made f r o m the canductor t o ground. In making such measurements, it is
good practice to ground all other conductors of the circuit.

The power factor of the conductor t o conductor and the conductor t o ground
insulation of a non- shielded, multi-conductor belted cable with a metallic sheath or
metallic covering directly over the belt of insulation may be determined f r o m the
following t t s t s and calculations:

TEST PHASE INSULATION TESTED

NUMBER ENERGIZED GR OUNDED GUARDED PHASE TO GROUND

1 A
2 A
3 B
4 B
5 C
6 C C
7 ABC ABC*

CALCULATED RESULTS
I
ABC*
-

PHASE TO PHASE

Test I -2
Test 3 -4
Test 5 -6
*NOTE: The measured and t a l t u l a t e d values of charging c u r r e n t s
and watts l o s s should be equal.

The power f a c t o r of the insulation between any two conductors, of this type of
cable, may be measured directly using the ungrarnded specimen teat (UST) technique,
with all other conductor a grounded.

Power-factor testa may be made on the insulation of short sections of non-

shielded c a b l e s without a metallic sheath o r covering by graundiag the d u c t o r s and
wrappirrg the insulation of the w c t o n of cable with metallic foil. The suitability of t h i s
method for a particular cable c a n be determined by 8 t e s t on a section of an identical
cable that is kaown to be good.

~ When the rneta\lk base of a pothead can be isolated f r o m grarlrd, the cable
shielding and the metallic sheath and coverings d the cable, the power factor d the
insulation, above the s t r e s s cone and metallic cable sheath and between the metallic
 pothead base and the cable conductor, can be measured b y grounding the c onductor
and energizing the pothead base, provided the t e s t set has sufficient capacity. It is
also possible t o make an ungrounded specimen t e s t by connecting the isolated pothead
base to the UST lead and energizing the conductor. This i s seldom practical except in
the c a s e of non-shielded cable without a metallic sheath or covering. It h a s been
suggested that a pothead can be isolated from c a b l e shielding and the metallic cable
sheath and/or coverings by removing a short section of the jnielding and/or metallic
sheath and/or covering from the cable below the pothead. Unless extreme c a r e i s taken
in the removal and replacement of this material. t h e r e will probably be a subsequent
failure at this pdint. Particular c a r e m u s t be taken not to damage the cable insulation
and t o insure that in making the r e p a i r s a f t e r t h e t e s t neither rough metallic edges nor
sharp metallic points a r e left in contact with the cable insulation and there a r e no
voids between the insulation and the shielding o r c a b l e sheath. Experienced cable
engineers d o not approve of this practice. The r e s u l t s of such t e s t s can be evaluated
by comparison with the r e s u l t s of t e s t s on identical potheads.

The power factor of the insulation between t h e shielding, metallic sheath o r

coverings and the conductor of a splice o r a s h o r t section of cable can be measured in
the same manner a s described above for a pothead. The cautions that apply to potheads
a l s o apply t o splices and short sections of cable.

In general the most satisfactory method of evaluating the r e s u l t s of power -factor

m e a s u r e m e n t s on cable insulation in the field i s t o compare the t e s t r e s u l t s with the
r e s u l t s of t e s t s on an identical cable with insulation that is known to be in a satisfactory
condition. The maximum power f a c t o r at various t e m p e r a t u r e s specified in the
Standard Cable Specifications f o r impregnated paper insulated cable d all s i z e s , types
and voltage ratings and varnished-cambric insulated cable rated 8 kv o r m o r e with
insulation shielding and/or a lead sheath a r e given in Table 6 - 2 . The actual power factor
of new cable is considerably l e s s when the cable is tested a t the factory. The power
factor of varnished cambric insulated cable rated l e s s than 8 kv and cable with the
various rubber and rubber-like insulations vary widely and must be obtained by measure-
ment if f a c t o r y t e s t r e p o r t s a r t not available o r the value of power factor c a n not be
obtained f r o m the cable manufacturer.

Table 6 - 2 i d i c a t e s the variation of the power factor with t e m p e r a t u r e s over

a range of 60' t o 90°C f o r impregnated paper insulated cable and SO0 t o 8S°C f o r
varnished-cambric insulated cable rated 8 kv o r m o r e . Correction f a c t o r s f o r ternper-
a t u r e s out of t h i s range and f o r different types of insulation a r e not available and i f
required m u s t be obtained either f r o m the cable manufacturer or by m e a s u r e m e n t .

A-c l o s r m e a s u r e m e n t s , i. e. , Hot-Collar t e s t s , a r e very satisfactory for

detecting m o i s t u r e in that portion of the insulation between the porcelain body of a
pothead and the cable conductor. They will not d e t e c t moisture in the insulation
between the metallic b a s e of a pothead and the cable conductor. Usually, but not
in e v e r y c a r e , when moisture e n t e r s the base of a pothead i t will travel up into the
insulation under t h e porcelain body and may be detected by a-c l o s s ' m e a s u r e m e n t s .
Such m e a s u r e m e n t s a r e a l s o useful for detecting insulation deterioration and voids
in the insulation of compound filled potheads.

Hot-Collar t e s t s consist of placing a metallic band around the porcelain, under

a petticoat, and measuring the watts l o s s f r o m the metallic band to the grounded cable
' conductor. The watts l o s s will be the sum of the l o s s in the insulation and the leakage
 on the outer surface of the porcelain. Therefore, significant t e s t r e s u l t s can not
be obtained when the outer porcelain i s contaminated with moisture or other foreign
m a t t e r . F o r 23 kv and lower-voltage potheads, collar t e s t s a r e usually made under
the top and bottom petticoats. Additional t e s t s a r e made on h i g h e r ~ v o l t a g epothead s.

When it i s n e c e s s a r y to m a k e Hot-Collar t e s t s on a pothead w!.rn high humidity

o r condensation r e s u l t in a very thin film of moisture on the outer s u r f a c e , it may be
possible to remove the moisture by warming the porcelain by blowing w a r m a i r on it
o r with i n f r a - r e d heat lamps. T h e use of a blowtorch for this purpose may r e s u l t in
a c r a c k e d porcelain, due t o t h e r m a l shock, unless used v e r y carefully. It h a s been
reported that the application of Silicone g r e a s e is helpful in some c a s e s . Another
method that may be useful in s o m e c a s e s i s t o place a c o l l a r , connected t o the guard
t e r m i n a l of the t e s t set, around t h e base of the petticoat above and below the energized
collar.

T o properly evaluate the condition of the insulation of a pothead with a clean,

d r y outer surface f r o m the a-c milliwatts l o s s m e a s u r e d with a Hot-Collar, it i s
n e c e s s a r y t o either c o m p a r e the m e a s u r e d value with the r e s u l t s af t e s t s on identical
potheads o r to know just what m a t e r i a l i s between the Hot-Collar and the cable con-
d u c t o r and the effect of t h i s m a t e r i a l on t h e measured watts loss. T h i s is due t o the
f a c t that, as illustrated in F i g u r e 6-2, m a t e r i a l used in a pothead f o r s t r e s s grading
will i n c r e a s e in milliwatts loss. In lower voltage potheads, i. e . , 34.5 k v aad l e s s ,
the s t r e s s grading m a t e r i a l that e f f e c t s the milliwatts l o s s is r a r e l y found and if
p r e s e n t is always under the lower petticoats of the porcelain. The milliwattr l o r s ,
m e a s u r e d with a Hot-Collar a t 2500 volts, of the insulation of a pothead with 8 clean,
d r y o u t e r s u r f a c e and 'dry i n t e r n a l insulation without voids, will not exceed t h r e e
milliwatts, if t h e r e i s no s t r e s s grading m a t e r i a l in t h e field of the Hot-Collar.

The only effect of t e m p e r a t u r e on the r e s u l t s of Hot-Collar t e s t s on potheads

that h a s been found is that the milliwattr l o s s will be quite high if m e a s u r e d r f t e r
filling a pothead with hot compound aad before t h e pothead aud a11 m a t t e r t h e r e i n h a s
c w l e d t o ambient t e m p e r a t u r e .
 TABLE 6- 1

D-C CURRENT R EOUIR EM ENTS FOR HIGH VOLTAGE D-C TESTS O N TY PlCAL CABLES

Type T Y~e Cable Circuit D-C Maximum Maximum Milliamperes

of of Rating Length Test Charging T i m e Charging During
Cable Insulation - - -
KV Feet KV Minutes Current Test

Single Conductor,
Shielded Rubbc r 5 400 15 1

Single and T h r e e
Conductor Belted
L e a d Covered* Paper 5 10,000 20 1

Single and T h r e e
C o d u c t o r Shielded
Lead Covered* Pa pe r 15 12,000 60 I

Single and T h r e e
Conductor Shielded,
Lead Covered Paper 23 15,500 90 1

Pipe-Type, High-
P r e s s u r e Oil Paper 115 25,400 320 2

*Network f e e d e r s , e a c h terminated in n u m e r o u s disconnect switches of network t r a n s l o r m e r s .

FIGURE 6- 1
 TABLE 6 - 2

INSULATION POWER FACTOR IN PERCENT

FOR LEAD-C OVER ED CABLE

Varnished-Cambric
Shielded and/or Lead Sheathed Impregnated-Paper
Rated 8 KV o r More Solid-Type

Power F a c t o r
Temperaturr Single-Conductor Multi-Conductor Temperature
Degrees and Shielded Belted Degree8 Power
C Cable Cable C - Factor

Room t o 50 8.0 Room t o 60 0.9

55 8.9 70 1.5
60 10.0 75 1.8
65 11.1 80 2.1
70 12.5 85 2.5
75 14.0 90 3.0
80 16.0
85 18.0

Impregnated- P a p e r Impregnated- Paper

Low- P r e s s u r e , Gaa-Filled Oil-Filled and
Rated 8 KV o r More High-Prer8ure. Pipe -Type

Temperature Temperature
Power Degrees Power
Factor C Factor

Room to 60 0.9 Room to 60 0.60

70 1.3 70 0.75
75 1.5 75 0.82
80 1.8 80 0.90
85 2.2 85 0.97
90 2.7 90 1.05

NOTES:
1. The temperature. shall be'uniform throughout the cable.
The values of power factor for temperatures between those
listed shall be obtained by linear interpolation.
 RESULTS OF
HOT COLLAR TEST

FIGURE 6-2
 6 . 0 6 D-C LOSS CHARACTERISTIC TESTS

The t e r m "D-C L o s s C h a r a c t e r i s t i c Tests" is used herein to designate the

various techniques based on the d-c resistance of insulation, that a r e useful for d e t e r -
mining the condition of the insulation of a cable circuit, r e g a r d l e s s of whether the
d - c insulation resistance i s m e a s u r e d directly with a Wheatstone bridge, a d i r e c t
reading ohmmeter o r by the comparison method, o r if it is determined from sirnrll-
taneous potential and c u r r e n t m e a s u r e m e n t s . The measured values of the d-c
r e s i s t a n c e of insulation a r e usually expressed a s insulation r e sistance when measured
d i r e c t l y in ohms and a s leakage c u r r e n t when simultaneous potential and c u r r e n t
m e a s u r e m e n t s a r e made. Dimensionless properties, e . g. , polarization index and the
various components of the total charging c u r r e n t , of the d-c l o s s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of
insulation, that a r e quite valuable in appraising insulation. may b e calculated f r o m the
v d u e s of leakage c u r r e n t o r insulation resistance m e a s u r e d a t various times after the
application of the test voltage.

D-c r e s i s t a n c e m e a s u r e m e n t s a r e the most widely used field t e s t s in attempts

t o determine the condition of the insulation of cables of a l l s i z e s , types and voltage
ratings. Unfortunately, few u s e r s of this t e s t understand even t h e simplest fundamen-
t a l s and the limitations of this type of test, e.g., to many, a significant insulation
+
r e s i s t a n c e t e s t consists of connecting a "Megger" f r o m a cable t e r m i n a l t o ground.
twisting its tail and taking a r e a d i n g with no r e g a r d to the speed of cranking the instru-
ment o r the time of voltage application. Of c o u r s e , a v e r y low "Megger" reading taken
in this manner will indicate the absence of insulation o r insulation in a horrible condition.
T h i s is unfortunate since far m o r e can be learned about the condition of insulation by
using the proper techniques i n ' m e a s u r i n g the d-c r e s i s t a n c e of insulation arid then
calculating the dimensionless d -c l o s s characteristic s of the insulation.

6.061 THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS

The relation of d - c voltage t o c u r r e n t , a s e x p r e s s e d by Ohms Law

f o r e l e c t r i c a l conductors, is not the s a m e f o r insulation because time
e n t e r s into this relationship as a parameter. Theoretically, the
proportionality c o n s t a n t R, which r e l a t e s voltage and c u r r e n t in Ohms
Law, i s applicable for insulation only at infinite time. P r a c t i c a l l y ,
the t i m e will be dependent on the type of insulation s y s t e m and will
v a r y f r o m l e s s than one second to many hours. T h i s relationship
may be expressed in simple t e r m s d Ohms Law if insulation
r e s i s t a n c e is defined as an apparent r e s i s t a n c e a t some particular
time after the application of full t e s t voltage. When a d i r e c t voltage
i s suddenly applied t o the e l e c t r o d e s of a d i e l e c t r i c s y s t e m , e . g . ,
f r o m the conductor to the lead sheath of a single-conductor cable, and
maintained at a constant value, the initial c u r r e n t i s high and c o n s i s t s
of:

1. G e o m e t r i c a l capacitance charging c u r r e n t :
 2. Reversible absorption current:

3. Irreversible absorption current:

4. Conduction current:

Where: E=2.718
C = Geometric capacitance of the dielectric
s y s t e m . (The capacitance measured at
60 cycles i s c l o r e enough for this purpose. )

D = A constant, dependent upon the type,

condition and temperature oi the insulation.

i l = C u r r e n t at t = 60.

iI0 = Current a t t = 600.

IT = Total charging c u r r e n t at time t.

n = Storage coefficient, usually in the range

of 0. 1 t o 1.0. I€ ic i s negligibly small:

R e = Leakage rcsist8ncc.

R, = Resistance of the voltage source.

t = Time in seconds after the application of

voltage

V = Applied voltage.
The c u r v e s in Figure 6-3 give the charging current and i t s various
components, from 0.0 1 t o 1000 seconds after applying t e s t voltage
t o a cable c i r c u i t having the following characteristics:
 P = 2 . 2 9 = Polarization Index
5
R, = 10 Ohms
4
V = 10 Volts

If the t e s t voltage i s disconnected from the t e r m i n a l s of a dielectric

system and the terminals a r e short circuited through a resistance
R,, the discharge c u r r e n t will consist of:

1. Geometric capacitance d i s c h a r g e current:

2. Reversible absorption c u r r e n t :

Where: t = Time in seconds that the specimen i s short

1
c ircuited.

The c u r v e s in Figure 6-4 give the discharge c u r r e n t and i t s various

components when the cable, for which charging c u r v e s a r e given in
Figure 6-3, i s discharged through a 1000 Ohm circuit. The equations
and f i g u r e s a r e based on c u r r e n t s flowing at the electrodes of the
d i e l e c t r i c system. They a r e u s e l e s s when a n appreciable c u r r e n t
flows over the surface of the dielectric between electrodes, e. g. , i f
appreciable leakage c u r r e n t , over the outer surface of potheads, is
included in the measured values.

A number of pertinent f a c t s that a s s i s t in understanding the techniques

of making insulation resistance t e s t s , the interpretation of t e s t r e s u l t s
and the limitations of this t e s t a r e revealed by the figures and the equations,
including t h e following:

1. The values of ia, i and i. d e c r e a s e t o z e r o at various r a t e s of

8 1
t i m e leaving only the conduction c u r r e n t component ic. T h e r e f o r e ,
t o b e significant, a r e p o r t of an insulation resistance t e s t m u s t
. include the exact time of voltage application prior to the instant .
of m e a s u r e m e n t unless the m e a s u r e m e n t is made after the values
of ia, i and ii have d e c r e a s e d ,to insignificant values. '

8
2. The values of ia, ic, i and i. at any instant t, i a dependent upon
B 1
the t e s t voltage V; t h e r e f o r e , any variation in V will r e s u l t in
 wide variation in the charging current. Furthermore, t h e
g r e a t e r V is, the g r e a t e r the initial value of i,, i and ii
g
and the value of ic.

3. When the electrodes of a dielectric system a r e short circuited,

the discharge i s not instantaneous. An appreciable length
of time i s required f o r complete discharge.

4. If a short c i r c u i t i s removed from the electrodes of a

dielectric system before the discharge current reaches
zero, a recovery voltage will appear a c r o s s the electrodes.
Under some conditions t b s voltage may be hazardous.

5. If a dielectric system i s not completely discharged prior to

a test, all components of the charging c u r r e n t except the
conduction c u r r e n t will be reduced, thus measurements may be
of little, if any, valke.

The conduction c u r r e n t , Figure 6- 3, i s the component of the measured

c u r r e n t that flows after the measured current is asymptotic a t a constant
ualue. It consists of volume and surface components and i s affected in
various complex ways by contaminmta, moisture, temperature, and
voltage s t r e s s . The presence of moisture in insulation may be indicated
by several phenomena.

1. If moisture i s distributed through the insulation at any point in

a cable, from i t s conductor to its sheath, the conduction current
will be g r e a t e r than f o r an identical cable with d r y insulation.

2. The presence of moisture may r e s u l t in a dirproportionately

l u g e increase in conduction c u r r e a t with aa increase in t e s t
voltage. This is known a8 the Evershed Effect.

3. Moisture in insulation i r r t t ~ a c t e dt o the negative t e r m i n a l due

to electroendosmosis. This may result in conriderable
difference in conductioo c u r r e n t depending upon the polarity
of the s m a l l e r electrode d the dielectric system. In the case
oE a cable where moisture e n t e r s the insulation through a hole
in its lead sheath the conduction current may increase with
time. due to t h i s phenomenon, if the cable conductor i s negative.

The laws governing the i r r e v e r bible absorption c u r r e n t component,

Figure 6-3, a r e not c l e a r , but i t appears that this is a transient component
of the c aoduc tion current.

The r e v e r r i b l t absorptioa c u r r e n t compoaent, F i g u r e s 6 - 3 and 6-4, is

due to the phenomenon of absorption and i s identical when charging and
discharging a dielectric system. This phenomenon may a l s o b e referred
t o as R e v t r rible Absorption o r P o l u iaation. The duration of sigaif ic ant
absorption c u r r e n t v a r i e r f r o m l e s s than a recond t o m i w t e s in cable
 insulation. The magnitude and significant duration of reversible
absorption c u r r e n t may be affected by moisture o r other contamination,
temperature and deterioration of insulation.

The geometric capacitance c u r r e n t com2onent. F i g u r e s 6 - 3 and 6 - 4 ,

i s the c u r r e n t required t o c h a r g e and to disct.srge the geometric
capacitance of a dielectric system. The magnitude of the geometric
capacitance c u r r e n t and the time required t o charge and discharge the
geometric capacitance of a cable depends on i t s value and the value of
the test voltage and resistance of the charging voltage source o r discharge
circuit.

T w o dimensionless quantities that a r e useful in determining the

condition of insulation a r e the Polarization Index and the RC Proauct.
The Polarization Index i s a dimensionle s s quantity that e x p r e s s e s the
general shape of the c u r r e n t time curve and is defined a s the ratio of
c u r r e n t measured after one minute of voltage application to that a f t e r
ten minutes. It i s based on the assumptions that full t e s t voltage is
instantaneous ly applied and that the test voltage d o e s not flue tuate during 7
the test. Polarization Index may a l s o be defined a s the r a t i o of i n s u l a t i a
resistance a t ten minutes to that at one minute. The RC Product is the
product of the geometric capacitance C and the leakage r e s i s t a n c e R. It
may be useful in comparing identical dielectric s y s t e m r of different
physical dimensions.

6.062 PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS

Contamination o r deterioration of cable insulation c a n be determined

f r o m the d-c l o s s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the insulation OPfLY if the c o n t r m -
ination o r deterioration of the insulation r e s u l t s in an appreciable
reduction of the r e s i s t a n c e af the insulation f r o m a conductor t o g r a n d
o r another conductor a t s o m e point in the cable e i t h e r p r i o r to o r during
t h e test.

The equivalent c i r c u i t of the d-c insulation resist.nce of one end of a

c i r c u i t of single-conductor, leadaheathed cable is shown in F i g u r e 6-5.
The insulation r e s i s t a n c e of t h i s c i r c u i t c o n s i s t s of the r e s i s t a n c e "Ar*
o v e r the outer surface of the potheads in parallel with the parallel r a d i a l
r e s i s t a n c e s "B," "C. *'"D,*' and "El1 . . . .. through the cable and pothead
insulation. T h e r e a r e a l s o longitudinal components "F" and "G" of
insu1atio:l resistance which, under some conditions, aifect the m e a s u r e d
value of insulation r e s i s t a n c e of a cable circuit. If the radiaI r e s i s t a n c e
at "C" i s low compared with the r a d i a l r e s i s t a n c e through the c a b l e
insulation a t all other points "B, *' "D," "E," . .. . . and the r e s i s t a n c e @lA1l
o v e r the s u r f a c e of the potheads, the measured value.of the insulation
r e s i s t a n c e of t h e cable c i r c u i t will be l e s s than the r e r i s t a n c e a t *'Cw
because the r a d i a l r e s i s t a n c e at "C" i s in parallel with the r a d i a l r e s i s t a n c e
at all other points in the cable and the r e s i s t a n c e over the outer s u r f a c e
of the potheads. Likewise, if the r e s i s t a n c e of a path consisting of t h e
r a d i a l r e s i s t o r s '?D"and "EW in s e r i e s with the longitudinal r e s i s t o r
"G" i s low compared with the r a d i a l r e s i s t a n c e through the cable insula-

Sec. 6-17
 tion at all other points and the resistance over the outer s u r f ace of
the potheads, the measured value of the insulation resistance of the
cable circuit will be l e s s than the resistance of the path consisting
of r e s i s t o r s "D," "E,*' and "G. Therefore, insulation contamination
o r deterioration that reduces the insulation resistance f r o m cable
conductor t o another eonductor o r ground a t any point in a cable
circuit can be detected f r o m the results of d-c resistance measurements.

One layer of good insulation, having high resistance prior to and

during a test, between o r in contact with contaminated o r deteriorkted
cable insulation, having low resistance, will prevent the detection of
the contamination o r deterioration unless the d-c t e s t voltage is high
enough to puncture the good insulatioa, e. g., if due t o contamination,
deterioration o r any other cause the resistance "Dl' in F i g u r e 6-5 is
reduced to z e r o and the resistance of "B" is equal to o r g r e a t e r than
the resistances 'PA. "B,** " C , '' "E," .. . . .
in parallel, the z e r o
resistance at aDgecan not be detected with any d-c r e s i s t a n c e measure-
ment that does not r e s u l t in a failure at "B. ''

The effect of good insulation in s e r i e s with contaminated insulation

c a n also be illustrated by setting a clean, d r y , g l a s s bottle, with
mercury in the bottom of it, in mercury and measuring the d-c
resistance d the glass insulation between the two m e r c u r y electrodes,
then replacing the m e r c u r y in the bottle with water with a n electrode
on its upper surface and repeating the measurement. Regardless
of the d-c t e s t technique, the t e s t results will not indicate the presence
of water even if the applied voltage is high enough to punckrrt the
g l a s s or to flash over i t s surface. This i s a l s o true if a s m a l l bottle,
containing a small amount of mercury, i s placed ia a l a r g e r bottle,
setting in mercury, and the d-c resistaace of the g l a r s insulatioa i s
measured first with d r y air and then with water between the bottles.
Another example is a rubber insulated l e d covered cable in which corona
h a s cut partially through good inrulation. No d-c l o s s me arurement
technique will indicate the preaencc d the corona cutting unless
sufficient voltage i s applied t o puncture the remaining good insulation.

In addition to the above limitations there a r e othea defects that

r e s u l t in s e r v i c e failures which c r a not be detected in cable insulation
with any d-c t e s t technique that doer not r e s u l t in an insulation failure
a t the defect, i. e. :

1 Voids in insulation.

2. Insufficient o r improperly applied insulation in splices and

potheads.
3. Excessive a-c s t r e s r distributroa due to: s h a r p points on
conductors and connector#, improper application of o r the
omission of the shielding in splices o r in the s t r e s s coner
in potheads.
6.063 TEMPERATURE EFFECTS

A difficulty in the interpretation of the r e s u l t s of insulation resistance

(measurements in the field r e s u l t s from the impossibility of accurately
determining the t e m p e r a t u r e of the insulation in m o s t cable c i r c u i t s
and the temperature coefficient of the resistance of the cable insulation.

The ambient t e m p e r a t u r e along a cable c i r c u i t usually v a r i e s widely

due ro variations In the environment, e. g. , the ambient t e m p e r a t u r e
in an underground duct i s not the s a m e a s in a r i s e r pipe, and the ambient
temperature in a duct system will vary widely with the number of, and
loads on, the various c a b l e s in e a c h section of the duct system and also
with the variation of the t h e r m a l r e s i s t a n c e of the e a r t h around the duct
system. F u r t h e r m o r e , when a cable circuit i s de-energized t h e r e will
be an indeterminate t e m p e r a t u r e gradient through i t s insulation, which
will probably be different at different points along the circuit, that may
take hours to r e a c h an insignificant value.

Various insulation s y s t e m s have l a r g e negative t e m p e r a t u r e coefficients

of insulation r e s i s t a n c e that v a r y widely, i. e . , insulation r e s i s t a n c e
d e c r e a s e s rapdily with increasing temperature. The following formula
h a s been used in calculating t e m p e r a t u r e c o r r e c t i o n s of r e s i s t a n c e when
the value of K for the p a r t i c u l a r insulation system w a s known:

Where: K = A constant depending on the type of insulation s y s t e m

R1 = Resistance at t l

R Z = Resistance at t2
t l = Higher t e m p e r a t u r e in C 0

t2 = Lower t e m p e r a t u r e

The value of K i s d i f f e r e n t f o r different types of insulation s y s t e m s and

for ident:cal insulation s y s t e m s in different stages of contamination and
deteriora:ion. Values of 0 . 6 3 have been used for K f o r c l a s s B insulation
and 0 . 4 4 f o r K f o r c l a s s A insulation. Values d K a r e not available for
cable insulation. A r u l e of the thumb that h a s been used f o r t h e insulation
r e s i s t a n c e of rotating machinery i s that for c l a s s A insulation t h e
r e s i s t a n c e doubles f o r e v e r y 10°C d e c r e a s e in t e m p e r a t u r e and B°C f o r
c l a s s B insulation.

R e g a r d l e s s of these difficulties it is often advantageous to d e t e r m i n e

the approximate t e m p e r a t u r e of the insulation of c a b l e c i r c u i t s and convert
m e a s u r e d values of insulation r e s i s t a n c e t o a c o m m o n b a s e temperature. A
 base t e m p e r a t u r e of 30°C i s usually used in the w a r m e r sections of
our country and 15. b°C in the cooler sections.

The t e m p e r a t u r e of insulation should be above the freezing point of

water, a t the t i m e insulation resistance m e a s u r e m e n t s a r e made, to
avoid the possibility of moisture freezing in the insulation, thus changing
the l o s s e s due t o f r e e moisture and making it difficult t o detect, if not
impossible.

6.064 TEST TECHNIQUES

P r i o r to a n insulation r e s i s t a n c e t e s t the c a b l e conductors must be

grounded for a sufficient time to d i s s i p a t e any c h a r g e that may exist.
Usually a few minutes i s sufficient t o dissipate any c h a r g e left on a cable
when it is removed f r o m service. However, if a d - c t e s t h a s been made
on the cable, the cable should be discharged f o r a s long a s it was charged.
A s a practical m a t t e r , ten to fifteen minutes i s usually adequate. The
c h a r g e remaining on a cable can be m e a s u r e d with an e l e c t r o s t a t i c volt-
meter having a suitable range. Connections t o c a b l e t e r m i n a l s f o r insula-
tion r e s i s t a n c e t e s t s a r e made in the same m a n n e r a s for d - c withstand
t e s t s (Section 6. 04). Negative potential i s applied t o the conductor unless
i t i s d e s i r a b l e t o t e s t f i r s t with negative and then with positive potential.
When t e s t s a r e made with d-c potentials in e x c e s s of the r a t e d voltage
of the c a b l e , the maximum t e s t voltage and r a t e of voltage r i s e given in
Section 6.04 should not be exceeded.

If practical, e a c h cable t e r m i n a l should be guarded during insulation

r e s i s t a n c e t e s t s . T h i s may be accomplished by wrapping the e x t e r n a l
s u r f a c e of the t e r m i n a l insulator with a n a r r o w band of metallic braid
and connecting i t to the guard t e r m i n a l of the t e s t device. The width of
the wrapping i s i m m a t e r i a l as lcng as the braid is in continuous contact
e n t i r e l y around the t e r m i n a l insulator. In t h e c a s e of a r e m o t e t e r m i n a l ,
a conductor of t h e cable t o be tested may b e used for the guard lead t o
the r e m o t e t e r m i n a l , provided i t is shielded f r o m the conductor to be
tested. T h i s i s often found to be i m p r a c t i c a l due t o induced voltages f r o m
adjacent c a b l e s and s t r a y c u r r e n t s .

A f t e r e a c h t e s t the conductors involved in t h e t e s t should be grounded

-4f o r a sufficient t i m e t o d i s s i p a t e the c h a r g e , f o r safety and t o insure
against e r r o n e o u s r e s u l t s of f u r t h e r t e s t s .

-L3- F o r insulation r e s i s t a n c e per s e i n s t r u m e n t s a r e read one minute

a f t e r the application of t e s t voltage. When it is d e s i r a b l e to determine
the polarization index the i n s t r u m e n t s a r e r e a d one and ten minutea after
. t h e application of t e s t voltage. More frequent r e a d i n g s a r e taken when
c u r v e s of c u r r e n t o r r e s i s t a n c e v e r s u s time are to be plotted. Such
c u r v e s m a y be obtained d i r e c t l y with a recording i n s t r u m e n t .

Step voltage tests a r e useful in detectiag m o i s t u r e by the Pvershcd

Effect. They c o n s i s t of a s e r i e s of m e a s u r e m e n t s a t two o r m o r e t e s t
voltages They m a y be made by t.king the first series of readings at
 the lowest test voltage, then immediately raising the voltage to the next
step and proceeding thus until the test i s complete. A preferable, but
f a r more time consuming method, is to completely discharge the cable
between steps.
-
It is often impractical to reduce the ieakage c u r r e n t over the e x t e r i o r
surface of t e r m i n a l insulation and the losses in test lead insulation to an
insignificant value by guarding. Likewise, it is impractical to guard
out the l o s s e s in high capacity, high-voltage t e s t s e t r . In such c a s e s ,
the most significant t e s t i s to apply the highest practical d-c test voltage
far five minutes and either read the leakage c u r r e n t a t frequent intervals
o r record it with a recording milliammeter. The leakage c u r r e n t in the
t e s t set and t e s t leads should be measured in the s a m e manner a s the
leakage c u r r e n t of the cable and deducted f r o m the total.

6.065 INTERPRETATION OF TEST RESULTS

P r i o r to the evaluation of the r e s u l t s of leakage c u r r e n t t e s t s the

known o r measured leakage c u r r e n t in the t e s t s e t a d leads must be
deducted from the measured values. Likewise, the t r u e insulation
resistance may be obtained from the following equation:

Where: R = Resistance of the cable circuit.

R L = Measured r e s i s t a n c e with the t e s t l e d in
place, but disconnected f r o m the c a b l e terminal.

R T = Measured resistance of the cable c i r c u i t .

The most significant indication a[ the condition of t h e insulation of a
cable c i r c u i t c a n be obtained by comparing the r e s u l t 8 of a t e s t with the
r e s u l t s of identical t e s t s made in the past on the s a m e cable circuit.
Where this is not practical, a comparison of t e s t r e s u l t s with the r e s u l t s
of identical t e s t s on other cable c i r c u i t s with identical inrulation will be
helpful.

T h e following c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t e s t r e s u l t s indicate the prerence d

moisture, contamination o r the deterioration of cable insulation:

1. Low values of insulation r e s i s t a n c e o r high values of leakage

current.

2. A d e c r e a s e in insulation r t r i s t u r c e o r an i n c r e a s e in leakage
c u r r e n t with time.

3. A low polarization index.

 4. A low RC product.

5. A disproportionately large decrease in insulation resistance

or increase in leakage current with an increase in test voltage.

6.066 TEST DEVICES

T e s t devices consist of two components that a r e often combined in one

unit, i. e . , the t e s t voltage source and the instrumentation.

Numerous devices a r e used f o r obtaining the d-c potential for insulation

resistance tests. Batteries a r e used up to about 500 volts. 'Hand and
motor cranked generators and battery -vibrators with a transformer And
rectifier a r e used up to about 2500 volts. Rectifiers with step-up trans-
f o r m e r s operating on light and power c i r c u i t s a r e used at all voltages
u p to 300 kilovolts o r more.

Small variations in test voltage result in wide variations in c u r r e n t

when making insulation resistance tests. Line voltage transients, even
of the smallest magnitude, result in charging current transients that
may be g r e a t e r than the conduction current. It i s , therefore, advantageous
t o have a t e s t voltage source that is f r e e of transients and that h a s
excellent regulation. This is easily accomplished at the lower voltage,
but it i s impractical a t the higher voltages, i. e. , 50 KV o r m o r e ,
particularly when it i s necessary to have a d-c voltage source with
sufficient c u r r e n t capacity t o reduce faults (Section 8.05). Saturable -
c o r e t r a n s f o r m e r s have been used to stabilize d-c test voltage; however,
changes in wave shape may cause variation in d-c voltage even though
the a-c input voltage to the rectifier i s held constant. F i l t e r s a r e often
used in devices for supplying t e s t voltage t o reduce the ripple voltage.
They a r e not necessarv for testing appreciable lengths of cable since the
ripple voltage i s l e s s than one percent when the RC Product of the cable
i s l e s s than 0 . 4 (either rnegohms t i m e s microfarads or ohms t i m e s
f a r a d s ) . F u r t h e r m o r e , they a r e not practical in t e s t voltage sources
that have sufficient output c u r r e n t for fault reduction.

The c oatinuous c u r r e n t r a t i n g of t e s t s e t s seldom exceeds a few

milliamperes when they a r e used only f o r inrulation resistance m e a s u r e -
ments per r e . Higher c u r r e n t ratings a r e required when the test voltage
source i s a l s o used for fault reduction (Section 8.05). The short time
c u r r e n t rating of the test voltage source should be a s high a s practical
aad the output resistance a s low a s practical so that the geometric
capacitance of a cable will be fully charged within a time l e s s than that
a t which a measurement i s made after a change in test voltage.

T e s t voltage s o u r c e s should either have sufficient output resistance

o r protective devices to limit the short c i r c u i t c u r r e a t to a safe value
in c a s e of a failure during a test.

The polarity of t e s t voltage applied t o a cable conductor should

preferably be negative, but on occasions i t is advantageous t o use
fir st positive then negative polarity.
 Instruments f o r measuring insulation resistance in the field a r e of
four basic types, i. e. , ohmmeters, c r o s s e d - c o i l ohmmeters and Wheat-
stone bridges and a volt and a m m e t e r . Wheatstone bridges and ohmmeters
a r e seldom used with test voltages in e x c e s s of 500 volts. Crossed-coil
o h m m e t e r s a r e used w i t h t e s t voltages up t o 10 kilovolts. Volt and
a m m e t e r s a r e used a t all voltages.

The instruments for insulation r e s i s t a n c e measurements should either

have a guard terminal or be so connected that a guard circuit is available.

T h e r e a r e innumerable commercially available decives that have proven

s a t i s f a c t o r y f o r measuring the insulation r e s i s t ~ c eof cable using the
techniques described herein. The d e v i c e s described in Section 6.04 f o r
high voltage d - c withstand t e s t s a r e quite s a t i s f a c t o r y for r i e a s p r e m e n t s
a t high voltage. The following devices a r e quite popular f o r measurements
a t lower voltages:

1. The "Megger," manufactured by the J a m e s G . Biddle Company

1316 Arch Street, Philadelphia 7, Pennsylvania, is the b e s t
known instrument. In fact. t o many, m y instrument for
measuring insulation r e s i s t a n c e i s a "Megger" and insulation
r e s i s t a n c e t e s t s a r e "Megger T e s t a . "

T h e s e instruments a r e calibrated i n Megohms, but

actually m e a s u r e voltage and c u r r e n t . They a r e available
with hand cranks, motor d r i v e s , and also with rectifiers
f o r operation with a 120 volt, 60 c y c l e supply. They a r e
available with test voltages of 0. 5,- 1.0, 2 . 5 . 5 . 0 and
10.0 KV and various r a n g e s f r o m 0 t o 50, t o 6 to 200,000
megohms. The higher r a n g e s a r e only available a t the
higher voltages. Marry of these i n s t r u m e n t s have guard
circuits.

2. T h e Type 544-B Megohm Bridge mmufactured by the G e n e r a l

Radio Company, 275 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge 39,
Massachusetts, is a high r e s i s t a n c e Wheatstone bridge that
m e a s u r e s resistance directly i n ohms. It has a range of
0. 1 t o 106 megohrns at 500 volts and a guard c i r c u i t . It
r e q u i r e s a 60 cycle power supply source of l e s s tdan 100
watts a t 120 volts and 60 cycles. It is accurate to plus
6
o r minus 3 to 4 percent t o lo4 megohms and i s useful t o 10
megohms.

3. T h e General R d i o Type l862B Megohmmeter has a fixed 500

volt supply, a high i n p u t - r e s i s t a w e vacuum tube voltmeter a d
an a s s o r t m e n t of high accuracg high resistance standards.
It h a s a range <d 0.5 t o 2 x 10 megohms a t 500 volts and t o
2 x 105 megohms a t 50 volts. . T h i s t e s t s e t r e q u i r e s a power
supply of about 25 watts at 120 volts, 60 cycles.
 6 . 0 7 A - C CORONA MEASUREMENTS

A-c c o r o n a m e a s u r m e n t s a r e quite useful f o r determining whether ionization

o c c u r s i n o r on the surface of cable insulation a t a particular a - c voltage. T h i s is
a v e r y useful t e s t which h a s not received the attention that it d e s e r v e s .

An i n c r e a s e in the power f a c t o r of a cable c i r c u i t a t an i n c r e a s e d voltage is

due t o ionization. In making such t e s t s t h e higher voltage should be equal t o o r
g r e a t e r than the operating voltage of the cable. This i s not a sensitive t e s t with
c o m m e r c i a l l y available t e s t devices.

A r a d i o r e c e i v e r w i t h e range of approximately 0.1 t o 25 megacycles i s useful

f o r detecting c o r o n a in an exposed non-shielded cable with a non-metallic s h e a t h
e i t h e r at nominal operating o r a higher voltage. Where an iadication of the relative
intensity of corona is required a r a d i o noise m e t e r is used.

T h e widely used method of detecting corona in a cable c i r c u i t is t o couple an

oscilloscope with a suitable a m p l i f i e r t o a terminal of the c i r c u i t , e n e r g i z e the cable
with the d e s i r e d potential f r o m a corona f r e e a-c s o u r c e and o b s e r v e the t r a c e on
the oscilloscope tube. Measurements can be made using the Suggested Method f o r
C o r o n a Measurement, printed in Appendix IV of the 1957 Edition of the ASTM
S t a n d a r d s on Flec t r i c a l Insulating M a t e r i a l s p r e p a r e d by Committee D- 9. Some
c o m p a n i e s a l s o use the National Manufacturers' Association Publication "Methods
of M e a s u r i n g Radio Noise, " Publication No. 107, 1940, and o t h e r s have t h e i r own
c o r o n a t e s t s . Complete corona t e a t s e t s a r e available f r o m the J a m e s G. Biddle
Company. 1316 Arch S t r e e t , Philadelphia 7. Pennsylvania.

6 . 0 8 INSULATION THICKNESS MEASUREMENTS

The t e s t voltages used f o r a l l types of a - c and d-c high voltage withstand t e s t s

on all t y p e s of cable a r e based on the type and thickness of insulation. Although field
t e s t v o l t a g e s c a n be determined f r o m the specified type and thickness of insulation,
the s p e c i f i r d type of insulation and r a t e d voltage of a cable, o r f r o m r e p o r t s giving
the a - c f a c t o r y t e s t voltage, t h i s information i s often unavailable t o those i n t e r e s t e d in
applying high voltage tests i n the field. Since field t e s t voltages can a l s o be d e t e r m i n e d
f r o m the type of inrutation and field m e a s u r e m e n t s of insulation thickness, t h e method
of m e a s u r e m e n t is covered in t h i s aection.

In single -conductor cable the a v e r a g e thic Acne ss of insthation shall be

d e t e r m i n e d f r o m the difference between the appropriate c i r c u m f e r e n c e s me ~ s u r e d
in not l e s s than two planes perpendicular to the u i s of the sample, one plane t o be
a t o r n e a r e a c h end.

In shielded multiple-conductor c a b l e t h e average thickness of conductor

insulation s h a l l be taken as t h e a v e r a g e of the thicknesses for a11 coaductors i n
the cable, d e t e r m i n e d as d e s c r i b e d above f o r single-coaductor cable.

In belted multiple-conductor cables t h e average thicknes8 of the belt insulation

and of t h e coaductor insulation s h a l l be calculated f r o m the differences between the
a p p r o p r i a t e c i r c u m f e r e n c e s m e a s u r e d at e a c h end d the sample of t h e cable i n a
plane perpendicular t o t h e axis. Thus, in the c a s e of belted three-conductor cable
the a v e r a g e t h i c k n e s s of the belt insulation would be the a v e r a g e of t h e r e s u l t s of
two s e t s of m e a s u r e m e n t s-- one s e t at e a c h end of the sample. A s e t d m e a s u r e -
 ments would consist of the measurement of t h e circumference over the belt insulation
(i. e . , under the lead) and the corresponding circumference under the belt insulation
(i. e . , over the insulation of the three conductors). Half the difference between the
d i a m e t e r s of these two circumferences would be the average thickness of the belt
insulation a t that point. The average thickness of the conductor insulation would be
the average of the r e s u i t s of s i x s e t s of m e a s u r e m e n t s--
t h r e e s e t s at e a c h end of
the sample. A s e t of measurements would c o n s i s t of a measurement of the c i r c u m -
f e r e n c e ( o r p e r i m e t e r ) over the insulation of one end of one conductor and the c i r c u m -
ference (or p e r i m e t e r ) of the conductor itself.

The m o s t convenient method of making these m e a s u r e m e n t s on both c i r c u l a r

and noncircular conductors i s by means of a d i a m e t e r tape, i. e. , a narrow, flexible
steel tape graduated to read directly the d i a m e t e r of the c i r c l e around which the tope
i s laid o r of the c i r c l e equivalent to the p e r i m e t e r of a noncircuf8r c r o s s section
around which the tape i s laid. The t r u e a v e r a g e thicknesr is obtained f o r sector
conductors as well a s f o r round conductors. Che satisfactory t a p t is the .Lufkin Rule
Company's No. 143-PD D i a m e t e r Tape. T h i s i s a v e r y flexible, l / 4 inch wide s t e e l
tape d i r e c t reading in d i a m e t e r s to 1 /'I00inch on one side and inchea to 1/16 inch on
the other side.

6.09 BIBLIOGRAPHY

6.091 Instruction Books f o r the V a r i o u s Doble Power F a c t o r T e s t Sets.

6.092 "Recommended Guide f o r Making M e a s u r e m e n t r i n the Field, "

AIEE No. 6 2 .

6.093 "Master T e s t Code for Resistance Measurement," AIEE No. 550.

6.094 "Underground Systems Reference Book, " 1957, i d i a o n Electric

Institute.

6.095 "Electrical Measurements," F. K. H a r r i s , John Wiley and Sona, Inc.

6.096 "Electrical M e a s u r e m e n t s , " F. A. L a w s , McGraw-Hill Book Company

6.097 "Tentative Methods of T e s t f o r E l e c t r i c a l Resistance of E l e c t r i c a l

Insulating M a t e r i a l s , " (ASTM Designation D-257).

6.098 "Tentative Methods of T e s t for A-C Capacitance, Dielectric

Constant, and L o s s C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of E l e c t r i c a l Insulating Materials.''
(ASTM Designation D- 150).
CHARGING CURRENT CURVES

FIGURE 6-3
 TIME IN SECONDS

DISCHARGE CURRENT CURVES

FIGURE 6-4
 EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF THE 0-C
RESl9TArUcE OF THE MISUUTION
OF A CIRCUIT OF S1NOl.e COlYWCTOR CABLE

A nrslstrwcc or twr outrr surrrcs or tnr mtwtro.

8,G.O uro Em iwmrr tnburrnok msmtancc.
F am O LO*@(TUO))ULII)UL@TlWI mawtrma .

FIGURE 6-5
 REFERENCE BOOK -ONCABLES AND ACCESSORIES

SECITC V 7.00

TEST VOLTAGES

Revised 1991

I
REFERENCE BOOK ON CABLES AND ACCESSORIES e
m-b

The personnel of the Doble Client Committee on Cables and Accessories at the time this revision was
published consisted of:
W. E. Sjpe, Chairman
J. E. Skog, Vice Chainnan
Raka Levi, Secretary
R. W. Allison J. Lacroix
J. F. Barresi K . Marcks
D A. Basile R. M. Millikin
R. Bell W. 0. Momson
K. Buttke S. Mustaro
G. S. Dolchak L. Oms
B. J . Goodman E. Roussel
F. W. Hanley L. 1. Sauter
C. C. Heniey J. E. Stewart
G. L. Hubbard C. F. Todd
 REFEREXCE BOOK ON CABLES AND ACCESSORIES

SECTION 7.00
TEST VOLTAGES
1990 Revision

7.01 INTRODUCTION
This section deals with the selection of cable test voltages in the field. It will sen :: as a guide to personnel in
the development of their own cable test programs. While the manufacturer usually performs a comprehensive
set of tests on length; of the cable prior to shipment. the cable may have sustained damage or been improperly
handled or protected during shipment, installation. assembiy, and operauon. Consequently, a continuing test
program is desirable to prove that a cable system is suitable for service, or to determine its reliability and
quality.
When choosing a voltage level to test s cable, one must remember that some insulation defects ate extreme-
ly difficult to identify and consequently may not have been detected by prior factory or installation tests.
While there are several schools of thought as to a proper test voltage, it is generally agreed that the test voltage
must be related to the circuit Basic Impulse Insulation Level (BIL). This approach, to test the different
insulation thicknesses, types, and ages rn a practical manner. provides a consistent guideline for test person-
nel. and accommodates the common operating fact that users have a mixture of cable types in circuits,
It is understood that some users may apply different or established test programs according to their various
specific applicattons of cables. and that some may wish to retain the old Section 7.00 of 1956 for its technical
information and references with respect to older cable types.
7.02 DEFINITIONS AND TERhlINOLOCY
Absorption Current
Current resulting from charge absorbed In the dielectric as a result of polarization.
AC High-Potential Test (Hi-pot)
A test that places a high alternating voltage across cable insulation; condition is determined by the insula-
tion power factor, leakage current, and watt losses of the insulation. [See Section 6.03j.

Acceptance Test
~ e s t performed
s after installation but before the cable is placed in service to detect any shipping or installa-
tion damage, gross defect. or error In workmanship. [See Section 6.02).

Basic Impulse Insulation Level (BIL)

The impulse voltage which the cable and associated equipment is required to withstand without failure or
disruptive discharge. BIL is designated in terms of the crest voltage of a 1.2 x 50 microsecond full wave
impulse voltage test.

Capacitance Current
Current which charges the capacitor formed. by the capacitance of the cable under test.

Cable Accessories or Cornponenu

Those components of a cable system that cannot readily be disconnected from the cable and which will be
subjected to the full test voltage applied to the cable system.

9199 1 Doble Engineering Company

All rigbts reserved

Sec. 7-2 RBCA- 193

 REFERENCE BOOK ON CABLES AND ACCESSORIES
m
e
-
Direct Current
Unidirectional current, practically non-pulsating.

DC High-Potential Test (Hi-pot)

4 test that places a high dc voltage across cable insulation to determine its condition by the amount of
leakage current through the msulation. [see Section 6.04 for details].

Insulation Power-Factor Test

A test that places a sinusoidal voltage across cable insulation and measures the parameters of the current;
condition is indicated by the measured or calculated power factor of the insulation. [See Section 6.05 for
details].

Leakage Current
Current that flows through the cable insulation or over the surfaces of the terminators.

Maintenance or Periodic Test

Tests performed at any time during the operating life of a cable system to detect or evaluate degradation
and to check the entire workmanship, so that suitable maintenance procedures (including replacement) can
be initiated in order to avoid a service interruption. (See Section 6.02 for details].

Proof Test
A test performed at any time during installation or during the manufacturer's guarantee period, at reduced
voltage levels as defined by the appropriate AEIC specification or the tenns of the warranty. Also. a tea on
repaired cable or component to determine if they are ready to be placed back in service.

7.03 TESTING OVERVIEW

Primarily, the three practical types of high-voltage tests that can be performed on a cable system are the:
(1) DC High-Potential Test. the most common cable ten performed today. It is popular because a
very high voltage can be applied to the cable with a relatively small light-weight power supply.
While dc high-potential testing has been reported as possibly being desuuctive. experience has
not proved that the proper executign of a dc high-potcntial ten degrades a sound insulation
system.
(2) AC High-Potential Test, usually a factory t e a that requires specialized test equipment. Reso-
nant test sets have been developed to reduce the physical requirements of the power supply, but a
set must specifically be designed for the total capacitance of the cable system to be tested. The
required output rating of the set for a 60 Hz high-potential test, as discussed in more detail in
Section 6.03. IS:
kVA = 0.377 C E2
where C = capacitance in IF, and E = voltage applied in kV nns.
(3) Insulation Power-Factor Test, frequently performed as a high-voltage test for cable systems.
Power-factor test sets have been used effectively to perform non-destructive tests on shorter
lengths of shielded cable; use of these test sets is described in Section 6.05.

The set-up procedures for the above tests are similar. All established safety procedures mwt be followed,
including de-tnergizing and grounding of all components before testing. Where practical. cable accessories
should be isolated from the cable under t e a and tested separately. Accessories that are not isolated from the
cable should be cleaned with a dry cloth; application of silicone grease on some types of accessories help to
reduce leakage current and prevent flashover.
 REFERENCE BOOK ON CABLES AND ACCESSORIES
6-rn
During both ac and dc high-potential testing. breakdown or terminal flashover may generate abnormal
surges; therefore, installation of suitable spark gaps at each cable-end or termmation must be considered.
These gaps should include a 50 ohm non-inductive series resistor to dissipate the energy of the discharge and
limit overvoltages.
7.04 TEST DURATION
For either a 60 hertz ac or a dc high-potential test, the maximum test voltage should be maintained for at
least one minute. with duration up to fifteen minutes being acceptable. For longer duration tests, the current
magnitudes should be recorded at both the one-minute mark and just prior to shutdown. At the end of the
period the current should be stable or decreasing in value for a cable in good condition.
For a power-factor test. the test duration is not important. since the voltage should be relatively low and
non-destructive.
7.05 TYPICAL TEST VOLTAGES
A test voltage is determined by the system voltage or the BIL rating of the cable system. and is independent
of the cable designs and insulation materials. It may be desirable to select other test voltages for specific
situations, but routine voltages applied by some clients are tabulated as a guide in Table I.

TABLE I
Typical Test Voltages
Nominal System Cable System Acceptance Test Periodic Test
Voltage kV kV kV
Phase-to-Phase BIL kV DC A~RMS DC ACMS
60 35 21 25 15
8 95 40 24 30 18
15 110 55 33 40 24
25 150 80 48 60 36
35 200 100 60 75 45
46 250 120 72 90 54
69 350 170 102 125 75
115 550 325 195 270 162
138 650 380 228 285 171

[Refer to Section 6.05 for insulation power-factor test voltages.]

7.06 AGE CONSIDERATIONS
As a cable system ages and degrades, higher leakage current is expected along with higher insulation power
factor. Test voltage levels should not be reduced due to age because a low-level test may not detect an
incipient problem.

7.07 CABLE ACCESSORIES

It is desirable to ten the cable and its accessories separately. If possible, all accessories should be isolated
from the cable under ten, but if all accessories can not be isolated. test voltages shall not exceed the rating of
the lowest-rated device connected to the cable.

7.08 ACCEPTABLE TEST RESULTS

A dc high-potential t e a current should increase momentarily with each step increase in applied voltage due
to charging of the capacitance and the dielectric absorption characteristic of the cable insulation. The effect of

Sec. 7-4 RBCA- 193

 REFERESCE BOOK ON CABLES A N D ACCESSORIES d-c m

both of these should decay during a period of time leaving a leakage current component only. The time
required to reach a final steady-state current value can be a number of hours for oil-impregnated lamlnated
insulation.

For both ac and dc high-potential tests. the final test current should be stable or decreasing for cable
insulation in good condition. If the current value begins to increase for a constant voltage, dielectric break-
down is indicated to be in progress. Insulation failure is indicated by trip-off of the test set, and is confirmed
by an inability to reach final test voltage during a second test.

Acceptable results for tests performed at the voltages suggested in Section 6.05 and Section 7.05 are given
in Table 11.
TABLE 11
Acceptable Test Results
Class of Test DC Current A C Hi-pot A C Power Factor
' XLPE . . . . 0.2%
Acceptance 10 pA EPR . . . . . . 1.0%
All other .. 2.0%

Periodic/Maintenance 50 gA Same as above

'An acceptable ac test should have an insignificant increase in corona level during the test period, or above
the level measured in a previous test at the same' voltage.

7.09 TYPICAL TEST SCHEDULES

Facilities Periodic Test Intervals

69 kV and Above . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Years

Substation Getaways ....................... 8 Years
Station Cross-Yard Ties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Years
Primary Feeders .......................... 12 Years
Ponable Cables ........................... 2 Years

RBCA- 193 See. 7-5

 e-q REFERESCE BOOK ON CABLES AND ACCESSORIES

7.10 REFERENCE STANDARDS

1. AEIC So. 1-68 (10th Edition, April 1968)

"Solid Type Impregnated-Paper-Insulated Lead Covered Cable"

2. AEIC No. CS2-87 (4th Edition. October 1987)

" Impregnated-Paper-Insulated High Pressure Type Cable"

3. AEIC No. 369-69 (2nd Edition, March 1969)

"Impregnated-Paper-Insulated. Lead Covered Low Pressure Gas Filled Cable"

4. AEIC No. CS4-79 (7th Edition. August 1979)

" Impregnated-Paper-Insulated Low and .Medium Pressure Self-Contained Liquid Filled Cable"

5. AEIC No. CSS-87 (9th Edition, October 1987)

"Thermoplastic and Cross-Linked Polyethylene Insulated Shielded Power Cables Rated 5
through 35 kV"

6. AEIC S o . CS6-87 (5th Edition. October 1987)

"Ethylene Propylene Rubber Insulated Shielded Power Cables Rated 5 through 69 kVn

7. AEIC No. CS7-87 (2nd Edition, October 1987)

"Cross-Linked Polyethylene Insulated Shielded Power Cables Rated 46 through 138 kVW

8. NEMA WC7-1982 (Latest Revision 1988)lICEA S-68-524

"Crossed-Linked Thermoplastic-Polyethylene-Insulated Wire and Cable for Transmission and 1
Distribution of Electrical Energy"

9. S E M A WC8-1976 (Latest Revision 1988)lICEA S-68-5 16

"Ethylene-Propylene-Rubber-Insulated Wire and Cable for Transmission and Distribution of
Electrical Energy"

10. ANSIIIEEE Std 400-1980 (Reaffirmed 1987)

"Guide for Making High-Direct-Voltage Tests on Power Cable Systems in the Field"

11. ANSIIIEEE Std 100- 1988

"Standard Dictionary of Electrical and Electronics Termsw

Sec. 7-6 RBCA-193

REFERENCE BOOK ON CABLES AND ACCESSORIES

SECTION 8.00

CABLE-FAULT LOCATION
 SECTION 8.00

CABLE-FAULT LOCATION

8 . 0 1 GENERAL

Where cable is used f o r conducting e l e c t r i c a l energy t h e r e i s a problem of quickly

and accurately locating faults and defects. P a p e r s on cable-fault location, in technical
publications dating back to 1874, c l e a r l y show that this is not a new problem. OE the
basic methods in general u s e today f o r locating cable f a u l t s , a l l except the Reflection
Method were developed over 50 y e a r s ago. Since this e a r l y w o r k , the complexity of
t h i s problem has increased rapidly due to f a r m o r e extensive use of raceways, conduits
and ducts f o r concealing c a b l e s , the g r e a t e r concentration of c a b l e s in many a r e a s ,
the application of f a s t e r r e l a y s and c i r c u i t b r e a k e r s and the u s e of oil-filled power cable
and a c c e s s o r i e s .

The intent of this section i s t o present a r e s u m e of e a c h of the eight g e n e r a l

types of cable-fault location methods and the m o s t useful t e s t s of e a c h method. Since
the amounts. s i z e s and t y p e s of cable vary widely f r o m utility to utility the justifiable
investment in fault location equipment will a l s o v a r y widely. F o r t h i s reason, t e s t s that
will indicate the approximate location of faults, with v e r y little fault location equipment,
have been included. It i s obviously impractical to include d e t a i l s of a l l t e s t s that have
been o r that may be used in cable fault location. Information on m o s t practical and many
impractical t e s t s that have been used for cable fault location c a n be found in the v a r i o u s
papers listed in Bibliography.

This section i s intended t o c o v e r the location of defective insulation and insulation

f a i l u r e s between one o r m o r e conductors and ground, between two o r m o r e conductors
and a l s o open c i r c u i t s in a l l types and s i z e s of power, c o n t r o l and communication cable.
No consideration i s given h e r e i n to the location of other faults and d e f e c t s s u c h as split
p a i r s and unbalances often encountered in communication c i r c u i t s . The location of o i l
and g a s leaks in oil and g a s p r e s s u r e cables is not included.

8 . 0 2 TYPE OF FAULT

Obviously, the ::r s t s t e p in cable-fault location is to d e t e r m i n e which conductor

o r conductors a r e fa-:*ed and whether the fault 1s between two o r m o r e conductors or
between one o r m o r e conductors and ground. i t is often advantageous and under s o m e
conditions e s s e n t i a l * o d e t e r m i n e whether one o r m o r e conductors of the faulted c a b l e
a r e open, before proceeding with fault location. In c a s e of power-cable faults, r e l a y
t a r g e t s often give useful c l u e s and in some c a s e s interruption r e p o r t s may f u r n i s h
useful information. Trouble r e p o d s may be of value in c a s e of faults in c o n t r o l and
communication cable. a t e n a rough check of insulation r e s i s t a n c e at comparatively
low voltages will c l e a r l y indicate the type of fault, the conductors involved, a d

Sec. 8-1
 whether there is an open circuit. F o r this purpose a test lamp and source of d-c
potential, a battery and buzzer, o r an ohmmeter may be satisfactory. A "Megger" or
megohm bridge would be better. For power cable, a source of high d-c voltage is ideal.
since for some faults it i s necessary to use voltages ranging from the ope rating voltage
of the cable to the maximcim permissible test voltage for the cable, to determine the
type of fault and the conductors involved.

Generally, open conductors can be identified by continuity t e s t s on a loop consist-

-
ing of a good a.rd a faulty conouctor with a t e s t lamp anQ source of d-c potential. a
battery and bell, an ohmmeter o r other insensitive devices f o r continuity tests. A.c.is
usually unsuitable f o r this purpose since a.c. will flow through the capacitance of the
insulation and give false indications particularly in the c a s e of long cable circuits. Under
some conditions, the fault resistance at the point of the open in the conductor may be low
enough to indicate a continuous conductor when tested with m insensitive device. Under
some conditions, it will be n e c e s s a r y to t e s t conductor continuity with either a Wheatstone
or a Kelvin Bridge, depending on the conductor resistance.

8 . 0 3 INSULATION DEFECTS

Defective insulation i s often detected in cable c i r c u i t s by insulation-resistance,

dielectric-absorption, power-factor and other non-destructive tests. Defective insula-
tion may a l s o be indicated by one o r more flashovers during a high-voltage d-c test. In
r a r e c a s e s such defects c a n be located by inspection of the cable circuit. Generally, the
most practical method of locating such defective insulation i s to apply a high a-c o r d-c
voltage a c r o s s the defective insulation a s in fault reduction, until there i s a low resistance
fault a t the point where the insulation .is defective.

Where defective insulation can not be broken down with the maximum a-c or d-c
voltage that can safely be applied to thc cable circuit, and the fault can not be located by
inseection, it i s necessary to either r e s o r t to the Cut-and-Try method o r return the
circuit to the service until i t s insulation has deteriorated sufficiently s o that it can be
broken dowa with a reasonable a - c o r d-c voltage. The objection to this procedure i s
that t h e r e i s no practical method of determining o r even estimating the r a t e of
deterioration of defective insulation when the nature of a defect is unknown.

8.04 FAULT R ESISTANC E

No matter what method is used for locating faults in any type of cable, fault
resistance will be a consideration. Many engineers consider "fault resistance" a
misnomer. This i s no doubt due to the fact that any fault, which has very high r e s i s t a n c e
when measured with a low voltage, will have low resistance when measured with a high
voltage. There i s certainly no mystery about this. When f a u l t resistance is measured
with a very low voltage, the actual resistance of the insulation and other matter between
the faulted conductor and ground o r between the faulted conductors is obtained. When
fault resistance is r n t a s w e d with very high voltage, the r e s u l t obtained i s the r e s i s t a n c e
of the insulation and other m a t t e r between the faulted conductors in parallel with the
resistance of the a r c a c r o s s the fault. The value of fault r e s i s t a n c e c a n not be
determined with sufficient a c c u r a c y to be of any use in any procedure for the exact
location ot faults. Therefore, the T e s t Engineers' problem with fault resistance i s in
reducing i t t o a value at which available fault location device8 will function.
 8 . 0 5 FAULT R EDUCTION

In o r d e r t o locate a c a b l e fault between one o r m o r e c o n d u c t o r s and ground, or

between two o r more c o n d u c t o r s , by any means other than r e p o r t s of the disturbance
a t the time of failure o r inspection of the c i r c u i t , the fault r e s i s t a n c e m u s t be low
enough t o p e r m i t passing sufficient c u r r e n t through the f a u l t to o p e r a t e the fault
location o r detection device, o r to produce an audible d i s c h a r g e o r s m o k e , if the
Audible Discharge or Smoke method i s used. The maximum f a u l t r e s i s t a n c e at which
the many fault location and detection d e v i c e s function s a t i s f a c t o r i l y depends upon their
output voltage, which v a r i e s f r o m a fraction of a volt t o a hundred kilovolts o r m o r e .
In many c a s e s fault location and detection devices with output voltages above the
operating voltage of the cable c a n be used f o r reducing cable f a u l t r e s i s t a n c e in the
s a m e manner a s with the a-c and d - c equipment d e s c r i b e d below.

Closing c i r c u i t b r e a k e r s on faults t o r e d u c e t h e i r r e s i s t a n c e may r e s u l t in

s e r i o u s damage to adjacent m a t e r i a l and facilities and explosions in maaholes, and
t h e r e f o r e , i s not good p r a c t i c e .

Fault r e s i s t a n c e can be reduced by applying an a - c potential. The r e q u i r e d

potential will v a r y widely f r o m fault to fault and may be v e r y h i g h in c o m p a r i s o n with
the rated voltage of the cable. T h i s r e o u i r e s a s o u r c e of a - c potential that c a n b e
varied f r o m z e r o to the maximum r e q u i r e d t o f l a s h o v e r the f a u l t to be reduced. The
equipment m u s t have a c a p a c i t y sufficient to supply the c a b l e c h a r g i n g c u r r e n t and in
c a s e of power cable should a l s o p a s s a t l e a s t one q u a r t e r a m p e r e through the fault.
Due t o these r e q u i r e m e n t s , t h e reduction d cable f a u l t s with a.c. is p r a c t i c a l only in
c a s e of s h o r t , low-voltage c i r c u i t s .

The m o s t practical method of reducing c a b l e - f a u l t r e s i s t a n c e i s with d. c . T h i s

r e q u i r e s a s o u r c e of d . c. with an output voltage continuously v a r i a b l e f r o m z e r o t o
s e v e r a l t i m e s the rated voltage of the cable. A c u r r e n t output of f r o m one q u a r t e r t o
one a m p e r e i s quite s a t i s f a c t o r y for power cable.

F a u l t reduction d e v i c e s , &ether a. c. o r d. c . , should be designed and constructed

SO that when the f a u l t r e s i s t a n c e d r o p s rapidly t o a low'value, t h e output c u r r e n t will
not be e x c e s s i v e and the supply c i r c u l t t o the t e s t s e t will not t r i p out, except f o r the
w o r s t conditions.

The p r o c e s s of applying sufficient a - c o r d-c voltage t o a f a u l t to "flash it over"

and continuing the f l a s h o v e r s in rapid s u c c e s s i o n until a l o w - r e s i s t a n c e c a r b o n i z e d
path i s f o r m e d a c r o s s the f a u l t , sounds e a s y . However, in s o m e c a s e s it i s difficult
and occasionally i t i s i m p o s s i b l e to reduce the r e s i s t a n c e of a fault. The types of
faults that may be difficult o r e v e n impossible t o reduce a r e a s follows:

1. F a u l t s i n potheads and unshielded s p l i c e s , in power c a b l e c i r c u i t s ,

that a r e filled with a s p h a l t - b a s e compound o r petrolatum. .

2. F a u l t s in oil-filled power cable and a c c e s s o r i e s .

3. F a u l t s in any type of cable t h a t i s under w a t e r , with a c l e a r hole.

through the c o v e r i n g , sheath and insulation t o t h e c a b l e
conductor.

Sec. 8-3
 4. Faults in any type of cable where the conductor resistance from the
cable terminal to the fault i s so high that sufficient c u r r e n t to
carbonize the insulation at the fault cannot be circulated without the
application of excessive voltage o r exceeding the thermal limit of
the insulation.

When sufficient voltage i s applied to the f i r s t two types of faults listed above, the
fault will flash over, the applied voltage will drop and the compound, petrolatum or
oil quickly extinguishes the arc. If the applied voltage is raised t o and maintained at
a value that r e s u l t s in flashovers in rapid succession. sufficient m a t e r i a l adjacent to
the fault will in time be carbonized to result in a stable low-resistance fault. Under
some conditions this will take hours. F a u l t s under water behave i n a s i m i l a r manner,
except that water a f t e r extinguishing the a r c washes away carbonized cable insulation,
thus preventing the formation of a low-resistance carbonized path a c r o s s fault. It
has been suggested that adding salt to the water in which faults c a n not be reduced would
solve the problem. Possibly it would help in fault location. but it certainly would
result in serious lead-sheath corrosion.

In applying either a-c or d-c potential to reduce the resistance of a fault, o r

to locate a fault in a cable circuit, the voltage and time of application should be limited
to values that will not result in damage to any cable, splice. pothead o r other device
connected to the circuit. (See Section 7.00)

When the resistance of a fault can not be reduced t o a constant low value, i t may
be possible t o locate the fault by using one of the methods covered in Section 8.06 with
high-voltage equipment. Measurements will be difficult if the fault resistance i s
variable, because instruments seldom function properly with fluctuating voltage and
current. The Tracer-Current method i s generally the most satisfactory f o r this
purpose.

FAULT LOCATION METHODS

The theory underlyiag the methods of cable-fault location i s very rimple. However,
the actual selection of procedure and the execution af t e s t s required f o r quick. accurate
cable-fault location r e q u i r e s skill and judgment that c a n be obtained only by actual
experience.

In some c a s e s faults in power cable can be located from r e p o r t s of noise, f i r e

or smoke a t the time of failure. The approximate location of some electrical faults in
oil and gas p r e s s u r e cable may be indicated by p r e s s u r e alarms. Even if such r e p o r t s
do not indicate the exact fault location. they will gene rally indicate a comparatively
small a r e a in which the fault is located. NaturatIy, suCh information i s of most value
in the c a s e of long circuits.

Cable-fault location methods can be divided into eight general types, i:e. ,
1. Inspection (Section 8 . 0 7 )
2. Cut-and-Try (Gction 8 . 0 8 )
3. Smoke (Section 8 . 0 9 )
4. Audible Discharge (Section 8 . 1 0 )
5. T r a c e r Current (Section 8. 11)
a. Interrupted A-C (8. 1 12)
 b. Interrupted D-C (8. 11 3 )
C. Audio Frequency (8. 114)
d. Impulse(8.llS)
e . D-C Sheath Potential Drop (8. 116)
6. Reflection (Section 8 . 1 2 )
a . Pulse Echo (8. 121)
b. Quarter Wave Resonance (8. 122)
7. D-C Resistance M e a s u r e m e n t s (Section 8.13)
8. A-C Capacitance M e a s u r e m e n t s (Section 8. 14)

Of all of the various methods that have been used, the T r a c e r C u r r e n t method i s
the most a c c u r a t e and s a t i s f a c t o r y f o r pinpointing the majority of the f a u l t s encountered
on utility s y s t e m s . It i s often advantageous t o d e t e r m i n e the approximate fault location
with M u r r a y Loop t e s t s on power c a b l e c i r c u i t s and Varley Loop t e s t s on c o n t r o l and
communication c i r c u i t s p r i o r t o applying t r a c e r c u r r e n t . The Reflection method i s
a l s o useful f o r this purpose. The Reflection method and a-c capacitance m e a s u r e m e n t s
a r e useful in determining the approximate Location of open c i r c u i t s .

8 . 0 7 INSPECTION METHODS

Upon the failure of a c i r c u i t of o i l o r g a s - p r e s s u r e type c a b l e , all p r e s s u r e

i n d ~ c a t o r sand r e c o r d e r s on the c i r c u i t should be checked promptly and t h e n e c e s s a r y
s t e p s should be taken to minimize the l o s s of oil o r g a s and t o add o i l o r g a s a s
n e c e s s a r y t o prevent f u r t h e r damage t o the c a b l e c i r c u i t . T h e s e p r e s s u r e r e a d i n g s
may indicate the approximate fault lot ation. When t h e r e is an indication of t h e l o s s
of oil o r g a s in c i r c u i t s with stop o r s e m i - s t o p s p l i c e s , i t may be advantageous t o check
the p r e s s u r e a t each splice and t e r m i n a l , and valve off the s e c t i o n in whi;h t h e r e is a
leak.

In c i r c u i t s with other types of c a b l e v e r y few cable f a u l t s c a n be located by

patrolling and carefully inspecting the c i r c u i t . A paper, "Localization of F a u l t s in
E l e c t r i c L i n e s by Means of Telephone" by E r i c G e r a r d , which appeared i n the
E l e c t r i c a l World on May 27, 1886, shows t h a t even a t that time many c a b l e f a u l t s could
not be located by r e p o r t s of d i s t u r b a n c e r e s u l t i n g f r o m the f a i l u r e , o r by i n s p e c t i n g
the c a b l e . T h i s paper d e s c r i b e s a v e r y ingenious method of locating f a u l t s with t r a c e r
current.

The p r a c t i c e of stationing men along the cable t o watch f o r a d i s t u r b a n c e , when

the c i r c u i t b r e a k e r i s closed in on the fault, i s c e r t a i n l y not r e c o m m e n d e d . B e s u i t s
the w e a r and t e a r on the b r e a k e r , s u c h p r a c t i c e may r e s u l t in s e r i o u s d a m a g e t o
a d j a c e n t m a t e r i a l and f a c i l i t i e s o r c a u s e manhole explosions. F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e r e
a r e many faults that c a n not be located in this m a n n e r .

8 . 0 8 CUT-AND-TRY METHOD

T h e C u t - a n d - T r y method c o n s i s t s of cutting the cable o r opening a s p l i c e in t h e

c e n t e r of the faulted c a b l e c i r c u i t , then d e t e r m i n i n g which section the f a u l t is in. The
faulted section i s then c u t o r a splice is opened a t its c e n t e r and e a c h r e s u l t i n g s e c t i o n
i s checked t o d e t e r m i n e which c o n t a i n s t h e fault. This p r o c e d u r e is continued u n t i l t h e .
'

fault is located.. Needless t o say, t h i s method is wasteful of l a b o r and m a t e r i a l , and

t i m e consuming. p a r t i c u l a r l y on long c i r c u i t s . T h i s method c a n not be u s e d until the
r e s i s t a n c e of t h e fault h a s been r e d u c e d t o a value that will p e r m i t t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n
 of the faulted section a f t e r each cut, with available devices. The m a s t c o m m o n
devices used f o r t h i s purpose a r e a b a t t e r y and bell, a s o u r c e of d-c potential and a
t e s t lamp, o r a "Megger" o r other device f o r m e a s u r i n g insulation r e s i s t a n c e .

8.09 SMOKE METHOD

The so-called Smoke method, which m n s i s t s of circulating a r e l a t i v e l y high
c u r r e n t through the fault, then patrolling and inspecting the c i r c u i t f o r s m o k e , h a s been
used where d e v i c e s f o r m o r e suitable cable f a u l t location m e t h M s a r e not available.
While t h i s method certainly is not a s wasteful a s the C u t - a n d - T r y method. t h e r e i s
always d a n g e r of seriously damaging a d j a c e n t m a t e r i a l and facilities o r c a u s i n g manhole
explosions. In c a s e of phase-to-ground f a u l t s t h e r e is always a possibility of damaging
the lead sheath of the faulted cable and a l s o grounded lead sheaths of a d j a c e n t cable
due to excessive c u r r e n t circulated through the ground r e t u r n circuit. T h e u s e of this
method often r e s u l t s in the destruction of a l l evidence of the c a u s e of t h e f a i l u r e . Many
cable faults c a n not be located by the Smoke method, a s illustrated by the following
conditions under which visible smoke will seldom be produced when c u r r e n t i s circulated
through a fault:

a. Cable in sealed ducts o r conduits.

b. Cable in ducts filled with d i r t , mud o r water.

c. F a u l t s in lead sheath o r pipe-type c a b l e that d o not

puncture the lead sheath o r pipe.

d. Buried cable.

e. Where the lead cable sheath i s melted during a f a i l u r e and

flows a c r o s s the insulation to the conductor, thus f o r m i n g a
low-resistance path a c r o s s the fault that will conduct r e l a t i v e l y
high c u r r e n t s without producing smoke.

f. C a b l e s having s m a l l c o n d u c t o r s through which sufficient

c u r r e n t t o produce visible smoke c a n not be passed without
d a m a g e to the cable insulation.

In the e a r l y d a y s of the industry t h e B r u s h A r c G e n e r a t o r was popular f o r

smoking out faults. In l a t e r y e a r s c o n a t a n t - c u r r e n t street-lighting t r a n s f o r m e r s have
been used f o r this purpose. In fact. the only r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r devices for this
purpose i s that they shall be suitable f o r applying an a-c o r d-c voltage and c u r r e n t
of sufficient magnitude to produce s m o k e under n o r m a l fault conditions.

8 . 1 0 AUDIBLE DISCHARGE

T h e Audible D i s c h a r g e method c o n b i s t s of applying repetitive i m p u l s e s t o the

faulted conductor. as with the Impulse method (Section 8. 115). patrolling t h e c i r c u i t
and lirtening f o r a n audible d i s c h a r g e . Repetitive i m p u s l e s f o r this method a r e
usually obtained by charging a c o n d e n s e r from.a d - c s o u r c e until a g a p i n s e r i e a with
a r e s i s t o r , the faulted conductor, the f a u l t and t h e r e t u r n path d i s c h a r g e r , or i l l u s -
t r a t e d in Figure 8- 1. The frequency is r e g u l a t e d by adjusting the c h a r g i n g r a t e of the
condenser. C r e s t voltage of the i m p u l s e will b e d e t e r m i n e d by t h e voltage t o which the
 c o n d e a s e r i s c h a r g e d , the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and spacing of the gap and the f l a s h o v e r
voltage of the fault. C r e s t impulse c u r r e n t will be d e t e r m i n e d by the capacity of t h e
condenser and the r e s i s t a n c e of the d i s c h a r g e c i r c u i t . The c o r r e c t value of r e s i s t a n c e
between the gap and the faulted conductor is e s s e n t i a l t o prevent oscillation, which
could r e s u l t in damage to cable insulation. With the impulse method, a s with any o t h e r
high-voltage cable t e s t and fault location method, voltage and c u r r e n t should be limited
to values that will i n s u r e against damage t o the cable. T h e r e a r e only limited d a t a
available on the maximum repetitive impulse voltage that may be s a f e l y applied to a
cable. I t i s , the,refore, e s s e n t i a l t o d e t e r m i n e the maximum safe repetitive i m p u l s e
voltage t h a t c a n be safely applied to a cable before using t h i s method.

The limitations given above f o r the Smoke method a l s o apply t o the Audible
Discharge method. F o r such conditions d e v i c e s b a r e d on t h e stethoscope p r i n c i p l e , and
using a contact microphone, a m p l i f i e r , phones o r o t h e r indicator, have been used to
advantage.

The u s e of relatively inexpensive e l e c t r i c a1 pickup d e v i c e s (Figure 8-2).

converts t h i s method to a t r a c e r c u r r e n t method (Section 8. l l ) , which i s far m o r e
satisfactory.

8 . 1 1 TRACER-CURRENT METHOD

The T r a c e r - C u r r e n t method.of cable-fault location i s one of the m o s t u s e f u l and

i s widely used. I t c o n s i s t s of circulating a t r a c e r c u r r e n t through the faulted conductor
to and through'the fault, thence back t o the s o u r c e through another conductor, t h e
metallic c a b l e sheath o r covering, o r the m e t a l l i c 'conduit, pipe, raceway, m e s s e n g e r ,
e a r t h o r w a t e r in e l e c t r i c a l contact with the c a b l e insulation o r the metallic c o v e r i n g
or shielding of the c a b l e , F i g u r e 8 - 3 , and following the t r a c e r c u r r e n t t o the f a u l t with
a suitable d e t e c t o r , F i g u r e 8-2.

P r i o r t o the application of t h i s method, the fault r e s i s t a n c e m u s t be r e d u c e d t o

a value t h a t will p e r m i t the c i r c u l a t i o n of adequate t r a c e r c u r r e n t (Section 8.05).

The u s e f u l n e s s of the Interrupted A-C and D-C, and the Impulse T r a c e r C u r r e n t

methods f o r t h e e x a c t location of conductor-to-ground f a u l t s in any type o r s i z e of
cable i s limited only by the accessibility of t h e o u t e r s u r f a c e of the cable, o r the
metallic conduit, pipe, raceway, m e s s e n g e r , e a r t h o r water in continuous e l e c t r i c a l
contact with the insulation, metallic covering o r shieldine of the cable. Conductor -to-
conductor f a u l t s c a n be located only when the outer s u r f a c e of the cable i s a c c e s s i b l e .
T h i s limitation c a n be removed by reducing t h i s type of fault t o a conductor -to-ground
fault (Section 8. 05). T h i s method i s a l s o applicable f o r the location of f a u l t s in b u r i e d
insulated c o n d u c t o r s , such as pipe coated with S o m a s t i c , c o a l - t a r , e n a m e l , etc.

Conductor-to-ground faults in cable in underground d u c t s , concealed conduit, o r

raceways, b u r i e d o r s u b m a r i n e cable with i t s m e t a l l i c s h e a t h o r covering i n s u l a t e d
f r o m ground o r water, o r cable in pipe that is insulated f r o m ground c a n b e located only
between the n e a r e s t two points a t which t h e c a b l e or pipe is accessible. T h i s ia
generally s a t i s f a c t o r y f o r cable in underground ducts, concealed conduits o r r a c e w a y s
since under t h e s e conditions a faulted cable is usually removed. The e x a c t location of
a fault in a n a c c e s s i b l e metallic conduit, pipe o r r a c e w a y c a n be d e t e r m i n e d i f t h e
insulatioo, m e t a l l i c sheath or covering of t h e c a b l e is in continuous e l e c t r i c a l c o n t a c t
with the conduit, pipe o r r a c e w a y , and an a p p r e c i a b l e portion of the t r a c e r c u r r e n t
 flows in the conduit, pipe o r raceway. When the metallic sheath or covering of a c a b l e
i s in e l e c t r i c a l contact with a n a c c e s s i b l e metallic conduit, pipe or raceway a t random
points only, it i s impossible t o pinpoint the fault between the points of contact n e a r e s t
the fault.

In c a s e s where it i s n e c e s s a r y t o pinpoint a fault in cable in underground d u c t s ,

concealed conduit o r raceways, buried o r s u b m a r i n e cable with i t s metallic sheath
o r covering insulated f r o m ground o r w a t e r , or cable in pipe insulated f r o m ground, the
usual procedure i s t o f i r s t d e t e r m i n e the approximate location by m e a s u r e m e n t f r o m
one o r preferably both t e r m i n a l s , then expose the c a b l e o r pipe a t the approximate fault
location and d e t e r m i n e the direction to the fault with t r a c e r c u r r e n t . Again expose the
cable o r pipe 50 f e e t f r o m the f i r s t location and in the direction of the f a u l t and d e t e r m i n e
the direction of the fault. This i s continued until the fault i s pinpointed.

F a u l t s in buried cable c a n be pinpointed f r o m the s u r f a c e of the e a r t h o r c o n c r e t e ,

not asphalt, pavement over the cable only if the insulation, metallic sheath o r covering
of the cable is in contact with the e a r t h , and if a n appreciable portion of the t r a c e r
c u r r e n t flows in the earth.

In s u b m a r i n e cable, conductor-to-ground f a u l t s have been located by circulating

t r a c e r c u r r e n t and measuring the potential d r o p on the s u r f a c e of the w a t e r o v e r the
cable,

T h e Audio F r e q u e n c y and D-C Sheath Potential Drop methods a r e suitable only

f o r locating'faults e i t h e r a t points a t which t h e c a b l e i s a c c e s s i b l e o r between points
a t which the cable is a c c e s s i b l e . The D-C Sheath Potential Drop method is not
suitable f o r locating conductor-to-c onductor faults.

The g e n e r a l procedure in locating f a u l t s with t r a c e r c u r r e n t i s to apply the t r a c e r

c u r r e n t a t one of the cable t e r m i n a l s then check f o r t r a c e r c u r r e n t a t approximately
the c e n t e r of the c i r c u i t to d e t e r m i n e the half of the c i r c u i t in which the fault is located.
This i s r e p e a t e d until the f a u l t i s located. It is often advantageous to modify t h i s
o r d e r l y p r o c e d u r e when obstructions such as w a t e r i n manholes, traffic conditions,
etc. , i n t e r f e r e .

T h e r e a r e five t r a c e r c u r r e n t methods f o r c a b l e fault location, i.e. :

1 Interrupted A-C (Section 8. 112)

2. Interrupted D-C (Section 8 . 113)
3. Audio F r e q u e n c y (Section 8.114)
4. Impulse (Section 5 . 115)
5. D-C Sheath Potentla1 Drop (Section 8.116)

Of t h e s e methods the Interrupted D-C and Impulse methods a r e usually used

for power c a b l e , the Audio F r e q u e n c y method i s usually used f o r control and
communication cable, the Interrupted A-C method is seldom u s e d , and the D-C
Sheath P o t e n t i a l D r o p method i s used only w h e r e d e v i c e s a r e not available f o r m o r e
suitable t r a c e r c u r r e n t methods.
8.11 1 DETECTORS
T h e r e a r e f o u r types of d e t e c t o r s that a r e generally used f o r t r a c e r
c u r r e n t s , i. e . :
1. Devices for detecting potentla1 d r o p along the cable c i r c u l t .
2. Llapnetic pickup coils.
3. Split c o r e c u r r e n t t r a n s f o r m e r s .
4. Devices for detecting potential d r o p f r o m the t e r m i n a l of a faulted
conductor to the metallic s h e a t h o r c o v e r i n g of the cable.

Devices for detecting potential d r o p along the c a b l e c i r c u i t a r e the m o s t

s a t i s f a c t o r y and may be used with'all t r a c e r c u r r e n t methods except the Audio
F r e q u e n c y and D-C Sheath Potential D r o p methods. They have the advantage
that they a r e polarized and the t r a c e r c u r r e n t i s produced by impulses
o r by d . L . mterrupted a t the proper r a t e they will indicate the direction f r o m
the d e t e c t o r to the fault. They c o n s i s t of two potential p r o b e s and an indicat-
ing i n s t r u m e n t with o r without an a m p l i f i e r , F i g u r e 8 - 2 . It is often advanta-
geous to match the ~ m p e d a n c eof the potential p r o b e s t o the d e t e c t o r . A
simple d e t e c t o r of this type c o n s i s t s of two t e s t p r o b e s connected t o a 25-0-25
m ~ l l i v o l t m e t e rhaving a r e s i s t a n c e of 5 0 0 0 ohms. M o r e sensitive d e v i c e s a r e
often n e c e s s a r y .

When using a d e t e c t o r such a s a z e r o c e n t e r millivoltmeter with t e s t prods

and a polarized t r a c e r c u r r e n t t h e r e will e i t h e r b e a r e v e r s a l of polarity o r
z e r o potential on the line side of the fault. Thus a f a u l t c a n be pinpointed even
i n the c a s e of a buried o r submarine c a b l e ten f e e t o r possibly m o r e below the
s u r f a c e of the e a r t h o r w a t e r .
F o r m e a s u r i n g the potential d r o p of t r a c e r c u r r e n t in metallic c o n d u c t o r s
o r o v e r the s u r f a c e of the e a r t h o r w a t e r two p r o b e s of identical m e t a l with
insulating handles a r e suitable. Any convenient s h a p e and s i z e is s a t i s f a c t o r y .
F o r m e a s u r i n g potential d r o p on the s u r f a c e of c o n c r e t e pavement two c o p p e r
s u l f a t e e l e c t r o d e s of the type used f o r potential m t a s u r e m e n t s in e l e c t r o l y s i s
s u r v e y s a r e suitable. When locating f a u l t s under a s p h a l t o r o t h e r pavement
that i s a r e l a t i v e l y good i n s u l a t o r , it i s n e c e s s a r y t o puncture the p a v e m e n t
and c o n t a c t the m a t e r i a l under the a s p h a l t e i t h e r with a metallic probe having
a s m a l l d i a m e t e r in the c a s e of e a r t h or in the c a s e of c o n c r e t e , filling the
puncture with a conducting aqueous solution and contacting i t with a m e t a l l i c
probe o r filling the puncture with an aqueous c o p p e r sulfate solution and
contacting i t with a copper sulfate e l e c t r o d e .

T h e magnetic pickup coil type of d e t e c t o r , which i s not a s s a t i s f a c t o r y a s

the potential d r o p type, may be used with any t r a c e r c u r r e n t method, e x c e p t
the D-C Sheath Patential D r o p Method, and is i n v a r i a b l y used with t h e Audio
F r e q u e n c y method.. T h i s type of d e t e c t o r c o n s i s t s of a coil on a "U" shaped
c o r e and headphones, o r a n indicating i n s t r u m e n t with o r without a m p l i f i e r .
F i g u r e 8-2. It i s suitable only f o r d e t e r m i n i n g t h e p r e s e n c e o r a b s e n c e ' of
t r a c e r c u r r e n t and the approximate magnitude of t h e magnetic field r e s u l t i n g
f r o m the flow of t r a c e * c u r r e c t at v a r i o u s points along a cable when t h e pic k-
up c o i l is on o r in c l o s e proximity of the outer s u r f a c e of the cable. It w i l l
not indicate t h e d i r e c t i o n of the fault f r o m the pickup coil. T h i s is d u e to t h e
fact t h a t a pickup c o i l placed on the s u r f a c e of a c a b l e will pick up t h e m a g n e t i c
 field r e s u l t i n g from the flow of t r a c e r c u r r e n t to and f r o m :he f a u l t and
t h e r e i s no way of determining the invidivual components of the magnetic
field.

T h i s type of d e t e c t o r a l s o h a s the disadvantage that u n l e s s the fault

r e s i s t a n c e i s v e r y low with r e s p e c t t o t h e impedance beyond the f a u l t f r o m
the faulted conductor to ground o r other conductor in the c a s e of a conductor-
to-conductor f a u l t an appreciable portion of the t r a c e r c u r r e n t will flow i n
the faulted canductor beyond the fault and the fault location will be indefinite.

T h e s p l i t - c u r r e n t t r a n s f o r m e r type of d e t e c t o r c o n s i s t s of a s p l i t - c o r e
c u r r e n t t r a n s f o r m e r that can be clamped around the c a b l e and a n indicating
i n s t r u m e n t with o r without an amplifier. T h i s type of d e t e c t o r i s used only
with Interrupted A-C t r a c e r c u r r e n t s . I t h a s the s a m e disadvantagrs and
limitations a s the magnetic pickup coil type of d e t e c t o r .

A d-c vacuum tube voltmeter having an input r e s i s t a n c e of a megohm D r

m a t i s usually used a s a detector f o r t h e D-C Sheath Potential D r o p method.
F o r low r e s i s t a n c e . f a u l t s a high r e s i s t a n c e , indicating, d - c voltmeter i s
satisfactory.

8.112 INTERRUPTED A-C METHOD

T h e I n t e r r u p t e d A-C method of c a b l e fault location c o n s i s t s of applying

a n i n t e r r u p t e d 60-cycle c u r r e n t t o the faulted conductor and t r a c i n g i t with
a suitable d e t e c t o r (Section 8.11 1).

T h i s method h a s the disadvantage that the equipment and power supply

m u s t have sufficient kva capacity to supply the charging c u r r e n t of the
faulted conductor a t the voltage n e c e s s a r y t o c i r c u l a t e the t r a c e r c u r r e n t .
The KVA r e q u i r e d a t 60 c y c l e s i s :

KVA = 0 . 3 7 7 ~ ~ ~

Where: C = Capacitance i n m i c r o f a r a d s

E = Kilovolts
T h i s r e s u l t s in heavy, bulky equipment t h a t r e q u i r e s a r a t h e r high kva power
s o u r c e . I t h a s no advantage over the Interrupted D-C method and i s used only
when equipment i s not available f o r m o r e suitable methods.

T e s t s e t s f o r applying a - c t r a c e r c u r r e n t a r e not c o m m e r c i a l l y a v a i l a b l e ,
but have been a s s e m b l e d by utilities. T h e s e s e t s v a r y f r o m 5 t o 500 kva i n
capacity at output voltages u p t o 7200 volts. One type c o n s i s t s of a n i n t e r r u p t e r ,
a d i s t z i b u t b n t r a n s f o r m e r , a c u r r e n t limiting r e s i s t o r , o r r e a c t o r , and
i n s t r u m e n t s t o indicate the output voltage and c u r r e n t . T h i s a r r a n g e m e n t
c a n be improved by adding a variable a u t o t r a a s f o r m e r o r voltage r e g u l a t o r
t o c o n t r o l the output voltage. Another type c o n s i s t s of a constant c u r r e n t
s t r e e t lighting t r a n s f o r m e r , a shorting s w i t c h and i n s t r u m e n t s t o indicate the
output voltage.

Sec. 8-10
 8.11 3 IXTERRUPTED D-C METHOD

The Interrupted D-C method of cable-fault location c o n s i s t s of applying

an interrupted d-c o r rectified a-c c u r r e n t t o the faulted conductor and
tracing it with a suitable d e t e c t o r (Section 8.11 1). If the d-c t r a c e r c u r r e n t
i s interrupted with an "on" time from 2 to 5 s e c o n d s and the "off" time 3 o r
4 t i m e s the "on*' t i m e , the direction f r o m a polarized i n s t r u m e n t t o a fault
can be determined, F i g u r e 8-3.

This i s one of the m o s t satisfactory t r a c e r c u r r e n t methods f o r power

cable fault location and . i s widely used. The weight and bulk of the equipment
1s dependent on the output voltage and c u r r e n t of the t e s t s e t and i s f a r l e s s
than f o r a-c t e s t s e t s . Devices for t h i s method a r e c o m m e r c i a l l y available
(Section 8. 15).

T e s t s e t s of this type c o n s i s t of a variable a u t o t r a n s f o r m e r or

reguiator for controlling the output voltage, a s t e p - u p o r isolating t r a n s f o r m e r ,
r e c t i f i e r , c u r r e n t limiting r e s i s t o r s and the n e c e s s a r y i n s t r u m e n t s f o r
determining the output voltage and c u r r e n t . T h e r e i s no advantage in
filtering the rectified a . c . The output of such t e s t s e t s v a r i e s f r o m 2. 5 t o
10 a m p e r e s a t 100 to 20, 000 volts.

8.1 14 AUDIO FREQUENCY METHOD

The Audio F r e q u e n c y method of cable fault location c o n s i s t s of applying

a low voltage, l o w power t r a c e r c u r r e n t of 100 t o 1000 c y c l e s o r m o r e t o the
faulted conductor, and t r a c i n g it with a suitable d e t e c t o r (Section 8.11 1).

This mtthod i s generally used f o r communication c a b l e s where the u s e

of the lnterrupted D-C method i s impractical. I t i s r a t h e r i m p r a c t i c a l f o r
power cable. D e v i c e s f o r t h i s method a r e c o m m e r c i a ~ l yavailable
(Section 8. 13).

The s o u r c e of Audio F r e q u e n c y t r a c e r c u r r e n t m a y be any type of

audio frequency o s c i l l a t o r o r a vibrator -actuated network.

8.115 IMPULSE METHOD

The Impulse method of cable-fault location c o n s i s t s of applying a t r a c e r

c u r r e n t c o n s ~ s t i n gof a s e r i e s of repetitive i m p u l s e s to the faulted conductor
and tracing :r with a suitable detector (Section 8. 11 1).

T h i s . - iJne of the m o s t satisfactory t r a c e r c u r r e n t methods f o r power

cable faui: $ ; c a t i o n and i s widely used. It i s not used on communication
cable c i r c u : r s . T h e weight and bulk of the equipment i s dependent on t h e
output voltage. It i s f a r l e s s than a - c t r a c e r c u r r e n t equipment and l e s s
than d - c t r a c e r c u r r e n t equipment, the difference becoming g r e a t e r a s t h e
output voltage is i n c r e a s e d . Devices f o r t h i s method a r e c o m m e r c i a l l y
available (Section 8. 15).

T e s t s e t s of t h i s type c o n s i s t of a variable a u t o t r a n s f o r m e r or
regulator, s t e p - u p t r a n s f o r m e r , r e c t i f i e r , c o n d e n s e r d i s c h a r g e gap, and in
 some c a s e s a n instrument t o indicate the output voltage, F i g u r e 8 - 1.
In operation the rectifier c h a r g e s the condenser t o a voltage a t which the gap
will f i r e and d i s c h a r g e the condenser sufficiently to reduce the voltage to a
level at which the gap will no longer f i r e , whereupon the condenser s t a r t s
charging again and the cycle repeats. This continues a t a constant rate that
i s dependent on the output voltage of the r e c t i f i e r , the regulation of the
rectifier and the gap spacing. The output voltage is controlled by the gap
setting. F o r low voltage cable the discharge gap i s replaced with a
contactor since discharge gaps a r e not practical a t low voltages.

8.116 D-C SHEATH POTENTIAL D R O P METHOD

The D-C Sheath Potentiai Drop method of c a b l e fault location c o n s i s t s
of applying a d - c potential t o a short section of t h e metallic sheath o r covering
of the faulted cable and checking f o r potential d r o p between a t e r m i n a l of
the faulted conductor and the metallic sheath o r c o v e r i n g of the cable a s shown
in Figure 8-4. When the potential is applied between the fault and the
terminal a t which the potential detector is located a potential d r o p will be
indicated and when the potential i s applied on the other side 6f the fault e i t h e r
a z e r o o r a reverseci potential d r o p will be indicated.

This method is useful only for locating f a u l t s f r o m a conductor to the

metallic sheath o r covering of a cable and faults c a n only be located a t o r
between points where the metallic sheath o r c o v e r i n g of the cable i s
accessible.

The one' advantage of t h i s method i s that the n e c e s s a r y voltmeter and

battery a r e usually available and if not they may be procured a t a very low
cost compared with the c o s t of devices f o r o t h e r t r a c e r c u r r e n t methods.

T h i s method h a s the disadvantage that continuous communication is

required between the personnel applying potential t o the metallic sheath o r
shield of the c a b l e and personnel reading the voltmeter. Another disadvantage
i s that s t r a y d i r e c t c u r r e n t s may interfere. T h e effects of s t r a y d i r e c t
c u r r e n t s may be mitigated by increasing the voltage o r interrupting it as with
the Interrupted D-C method (Section 8.11 3).

F o r the s a t i s f a c t o r y application of this method, the r e s i s t a n c e of the

voltmeter (Section 8. 111) should be a t l e a s t 1000 t i m e s the s u m of the
r e s i s t a n c e of the faulted conductor, from the t e r m i n a l a t which m e a s u r e m e n t s
a r e made t o t h e fault, the fault and the return conductor o r conductors.

8.12 REFLECTION METHOD

T h e Reflection method of cable fault location is a c o m p a r a t i v e l y r e c e n t develop-

ment f o r locating faults in a l l types and s i z e s of cable, and is not in g e n e r a l use. T h i s
method h a s the advantage that i t i s not n e c e s s a r y to have a good conductor in the
faulted c a b l e o r t o i n s t a l l t e m p o r a r y j u m p e r s at the far end of the c i r c u i t t o complete
the n e c e s s a r y loop f o r d-c m e a s u r e m e n t s . It i s debatable whether it is equal to d-c
m e a s u r e m e n t s of the M u r r a y o r Varley Loop type in any o t h e r r e s p e c t . T h i s -method
is preferable t o a-c capacitance type m e a s u r e m e n t s f o r locating open c i r c u i t s . T h e
principle u s e of t h i s method i s f o r d e t e r m i n i n g the approximate f a u l t location prior t o
 the application of t r a c e r c u r r e n t to pinpoint the fault.

This method is applicable only when the conductor-to-ground o r conductor-to-

conductor fault resistance is low enough o r the resistance between open conductors is
high enough to produce a reflected pulse o r standing wave reflection which can be
distinguished from those c a u s e d by other discontinuities in the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the
cable circuit. With the p r e s e n t l y available devices, the conductor-to-ground o r
conductor -to-conductor fault r e s i s t a n c e m u s t be l e s s than 5 t i m e s the surge impedance
of the cable o r approximately 250 o h m s f o r power cable. Likewise, the r e s i s t a n c e of
an open c i r c u i t must exceed 5 t i m e s the surge impedance of t h e c a b l e (section 8.05).

Branches in a cable c i r c u i t and changes in the d i e l e c t r i c constant (SIC) of the

insulation r e s u l t in reflections which c a u s e confusion. T h i s m a y be mitigated by
"mapping"' the normal r e f l e c t i o n s of the c i r c u i t prior t o a c a b l e f a i l u r e . F u r t h e r m o r e ,
in the c a s e of branches f r o m the main cable, this method will indicate the distance f r o m
the cable terminal to the fault, but will not indicate whether the fault is in the main
cable o r in the branch cable.

The accuracy of this method i s dependent upon the a c c u r a c y t o which the length
of the circuit i s known and o t h e r f a c t o r s (Section 8. 121 and 8. 122).

T h e r e a r e two Reflection methods f o r cable fault Location, i. e . :

1. Pulse Echo (Section 8.121)

2. Quarter Wave Resonance (Section 8.122)

Of these the Pulse Echo method h a s been used with all types and s i z e s of cable. The
Quarter Wave Resonance method h a s not been used a s wisely as the other method: how-
e v e r , i t h a s the advantage t h a t variations in conductor s i z e a r e l e s s troublesome.

8.121 PULSE ECHO METHOD

The Pulse E c h o o r Radar method of locating f a u l t s in cable. although

quite satisfactory f o r faults on t r a n s m i s s i o n lines f r o m a few m i l e s t o o v e r
250 miles in length, h a s not proven t o be a s s a t i s f a c t o r y f o r c a b l e c i r c u i t s .
I t c o n s i s t s of applying repetitive p u l s e s to the faulted c a b l e and m e a s u r i n g
the time from the f r o n t of the transmitted pulse t o t h e f r o n t of the reflected
pulse.

The velocity of propagation of a pulse in a c a b l e i s 9 8 3 . 5 2 / W f e e t p e r '

microsecond, w h e r e 983. 52 i s the velocity of light and k i s the d i e l e c t r i c
constant (SIC)of t h e cable insulation. F o r oil-impregnated paper insulated
cable of the solid type, k i s approximately 3.2 and t h e velocity of propagation
is approximately 550 f e e t per microsecond. In o t h e r w o r d s , f o r a fault in
t h i s type of cable 5 5 0 f e e t f r o m the cable t e r m i n a l , it would r e q u i r e approxi-
mately 2 microsecond^ f o r a pulse to travel f r o m the t e r m i n a l t o the fault
and back. T h e r e f o r e , the pulse should have a r i s e t i m e of 0 . 0 2 m i c r o s e c o n d s
o r l e s s and a d u r a t i o n of 0 . 5 m.icrosecoads o r l e s r . P u l r e s with a *lower
r i s e time and with d u r a t i o n s up to 5 microseconds h a v e b e e n found s a t i s f a c t o r y
f o r longer cable c i r c u i t s . Since t h e capacitance of a c a b l e i n c r e a s e s t h e
length of the front of the reflected pulse, the a c c u r a c y of t h i s method d e c r e a s e s
appreciably f o r power cable c i r c u i t s in e x c e s s of f i v e m i l e s i n length d u e t o
 the impossiblity of determining the t r u e f r o n t of the reflected wave. Another
limitation i s the a c c u r a c y of measurement of time f r o m the t r u e f r o n t of
the transmitted wave t o the t r u e f r o n t of the r e f l e c t e d wave.

If a c i r c u i t c o n s i s t s of cable with two o r m o r e s i z e s of conductors, two

o r m o r e types of insulation with different d i e l e c t r i c c o n s t a n t s (SIC), two
o r m o r e insulation thicknesses o r any other v a r i a b l e which affects the surge
impedance of the cable, t h e r e will be reflections which may c a u s e confusion
f t o m each point a t which the surge impedance changes. B r a n c h e s a l s o
r e s u l t in confusing reflections. Confusion resulting f r o m such reflections
may be mitigated by "mapping" the c i r c u i t p r i o r t o a f a i l u r e .

Complete t e s t s e t s f o r t h i s method a r e comrnerc ially available (Section

8.15). These t e s t s e t s c o n s i s t of a relatively high power pulse generator
with pulse r i s e t i m e s and durations, in the range indicated above, for applying
the pulse, a cathode r a y oscillograph designed f o r "ranging" and having a
" r i s e time" of 0.02 microseconds o r l e s s and a suitable "TRw switch,
F i g u r e 8 - 5 . When t h e s e components a r e available f o r o t h e r purposes they
may also be used for cable fault location.

QUARTER WAVE LENGTHS

The O u a r t e r Wave Resonance method h a s not had the attention that it

d e s e r v e s . It h a s the advantage over the P u l s e E c h o method that the distance
f r o m the cable t e r m i n a l t o the fault i s a function of the d i e I e c t r i c constant
(SIC) of the cable insulation and the resonant frequency. T h i s is a disad-
vantage when the c i r c u i t contains cable with two o r m o r e t y p e s of insulation
having different d i e l e c t r i c constants (SIC) unless the length of c a b l e with
each type of insulation and t h e dielectric constant (SIC)of the insulation
a r e accurately known. Changes in conductor s i z e s along the c i r c u i t have
no effect on the m e a s u r e m e n t s .

This method consists of applying a sine wave of 50 t o 1000 kilocycler

and adjusting the frequency f o r maximum voltage V2, F i g u r e 8 - 6 , a t the c a b l e
terminal. F o r s h o r t c i r c u i t s maximum voltage at V2 will be obtained when
V2 i s an odd n u m 5 e r of q u a r t e r wave lengths f r o m t h e fault, i. 6 . 1, 3. 5, 7,
e t c . , F i g u r e 8-7, and f o r open c i r c u i t s an even n u m b e r of q u a r t e r wave lengths,
i . e . 2 , 4, 6, 8, e t c . , f r o m the fault, F i g u r e 8-8. F r e q u e n c i e s that a r e neither
an odd nor even n u m b e r of q u a r t e r wave lengths f r o m the f a u l t r e s u l t f r o m
e i t h e r the n o r m a l r e f l e c t i o n s of the circuit o r f r o m h a r m o n i c s in the high
frequency source. In the c a s e of harmonics the magnitude of V2 i s generally
much l e s s than f o r even o r odd q u a r t e r wave lengths. In o t h e r words, the
c a b l e behaves a s a high f requency t r a n s m i s s i o n line.

Complete t e s t s e t s a r e not c o m m e r c i a l l y available f o r t h i s method; how-

e v e r , the v a r i o u s component devices a r e c o m m e r c i a l l y available (Section
8. 15) and a r e e a s i l y connected as shown in F i g u r e 8 - 6 . They c o n s i s t of:

C = Condenser, coatinuously v a r i a b l e ,
50 to 1000 m i c r o f a r a d s
 C = Oscillator, continuously v a r i a b l e ,
50 t o 1000 kilocycles with maximum output
of 10 to 50 volts into a n impedance of 25
ohms or more

V1 = Voltmeter, Vacuum tube, 0-1, 0-10, and 0-100

volts

V2 = V o l t m e t e r , Vacuum tube, 0-0. 1 , 0-1, 0-10

and 0- 100 volts

All instruments should be shielded and connected with c o - a x i a l cable. If

V 2 i s connected d i r e c t l y f r o m the t e r m i n a l of the faulted conductor: t o ground
o r the other faulted conductor, the c o - a x i a l cable connection f r o m the con-
d e n s e r will not be included in the m e a s u r e m e n t . T h i s a r r a n g e m e n t of
i n s t r u m e n t s will cover a r a n g e of about 500 f e e t t o 5 m i l e s . F o r s h o r t e r
c i r c u i t s higher f r e q u e n c i e s a t lower voltages a r e required and f o r longer
c i r c u i t s lower f r e q u e n c i e s and higher voltages a r e r e q u i r e d .

To locate a fault with t h i s method, a f t e r t e s t d e v i c e s a r e s e t up and

connected a s shown in F i g u r e 8-6, C i s adjusted for 10 t o 50 volts on Vl.
The oscillator i s then v a r i e d upward f r o m 50 kilocycles, o r p r e f e r a b l y the
f i r s t odd o r even harmonic of the c i r c u i t if known, t o r e s o n a n c e , a t t h e
f i r s t odd o r even h a r m o n i c , a s indicated by a maximum r e a d i n g on V2. C
should then be adjusted s o that V2 is approximately equal t o one tenth V1.
The oscillator should be r e a d j u s t e d t o resonance. The f r e q u e n c y of'the
o s c i l l a t o r should then be adjusted t o the next odd o r even harmonic. This should
be continued until the maximum reading on V2 i s c l e a r and distinct. The
d i s t a n c e t o the fatilt in f e e t i s then:

Where: Fl = Resonant frequency, in m e g a c y c l e s , of t h e

c a b l e c i r c u i t (deter mined p r i o r t o the fault).

F r = Resonant f r e q u e n c y , in m e g a c y c l e s , of the
faulted cable c i r c u i t .

k = D i e l e c t r i c constant (SIC) of t h e c a b l e insulation.

L = D i s t a n c e t o the f a u l t in feet.
Ll = Length of t h e c a b l r c i r c u i t in feet.
 N = Number of odd q u a r t e r wave lengths
1 , 3, 5, 7, e t c . , o r even q u a r t e r
wave lengths 2 , 4, 6, 8, e t c , , t o the
fault.

The accuracy of t h i s method is dependent upon the a c z u r a c y t o which the

oscillator frequency i s d e t e r m i n e d and the accuracy to which the d i e l e c t r i c
constant and cable length i s known. Under ideal conditions, with an oscillator
frequency calibrated t o one tenth percent, and for a cable c i r c u i t with a
uniform known dielectric constant, the accuracy should be one q u a r t e r percent
plus o r minus 25 feet.

8 . 1 3 D-C RESISTANCE MEASUREMENTS

D-C Resistance Measurements a r e widely used for determining t h e approximate

location of a fault in any type o r s i z e of cable. Although m e a s u r e m e n t s r a r e l y indicate
the exact location of a cable fault, they a r e valuable for limiting the length of cable
upon which o t h e r fault location methods m u s t be used to a s m a l l percentage of the
faulted c i r c u i t .

If reasonably accurate r e s u l t s a r e d e s i r e d , the fault r e s i s t a n c e m u s t not be

included in r e s i s t a n c e m e a s u r e m e n t s because fault r e s i s t a n c e s v a r y widely and can
not be a c c u r a t e l y determined. F a u l t r e s i s t a n c e s c a n be eliminated f r o m m e a s u r e m e n t s
by making all m e a s u r e m e n t s on a loop consisting of a good conductor and the faulted
conductor. In setting up a loop f o r r e s i s t a n c e m e a s u r e m e n t s , a good conductor in
the s a m e cable a s the faulted conductor should be used if possible. W h e r e t h i s i s
impossible, a good conductor in another cable may be used. Where t h e r e is no existing
conductor available a temporary conductor may be installed. F o r a c c u r a t e r e s u l t s ,
the faulted and the good conductors m u s t be approximately the s a m e s i z e . In c a s e
of a loop made up of conductors of two o r m o r e s i z e s , r e s i s t a n c e m e a s u r e m e n t s a r e
of no value u n l e s s the length and s i z e of e a c h different conductor is a c c u r a t e l y known.
In c a s e of two faults on one conductor, r e s i s t a n c e m e a s u r e m e n t s a r e of little, if any,
value.

In c a s e s where the faulted conductor and the good conductor making up the loop
under t e s t a r e neither in the s a m e c a b l e , conduit n o r duct, it may be difficult, and in
some c a s e s impossible, to make d-c r e s i s t a n c e measuremmits because of induced
voltages in the loop under t e s t due t o n o r m a l and s t r a y c u r r e n t s in adjacent e l e c t r i c a l
conductors. T h i s difficulty i n c r e a s e s with i n c r e a s e d spacing of the two conductors in
the loop and with increasing cable concentration. The difficulties due to induced
voltage c a n in some c a s e s b e m a t e r i a l l y reduced by adding a condenser o r r e a c t o r a t
the proper point in the measuring c i r c u i t .

Where a c i r c u i t i s made up of two o r m o r e s i z e s of conductors, the r e s i s t a n c e

f r o m the test s e t to the fault can be m e a s u r e d in the s a m e manner a s i n c a s e s where
a c i r c u i t i s m a d e up of only one s i z e of-conductor. However, t o d e t e r m i n e the fault
location it is n e c e s s a r y t o convert t h e actual s i z e aad length of e a c h conductor t o
feet,of a n equivalent conductor then compute the length of equivalent conductor f r o m
the t e s t s e t t o the fault. This length of equivalent conductor can be c o n v e r t e d back
t o feet of a c t u a l conductor, e. g. :
 Where: L~~ = Total length of equivalent conductor.
Leq = Actual length of conductor in c i r c u i t having
the same size a s the desired equivalent conductor.

L,, L2, L3 = Lengths of actual conductors having r e s i s t a n c e s

R l , R2, R 3 per unit of length respectively.

L ~
Leg, L l ,L 2 , L 3 may be in any units of length,
~ l
provided the s a m e units a r e used
throughout.

Req = Resistance per unit length of equivalent conductor.

R e q , R 1 , R t , R j may be in any convenient units o r

r e s i s t a n c e per unit of conductor length
provided the s a m e units are used
throughout.

The accuracy of fault location with d-c m e a s u r e m e n t s depends on the following

i t e m s providing that the fault r e s i s t a n c e is not included in t h e measurements:

1. Accuracy of the measuring device.

2. The accuracy to which the length of the c i r c u i t is known.

3. Where two o r more conductor s i z e s a r e involved, the a c c u r a c y t o

which each conductor s i z e and length is known.

4. The accuracy of the determination of the t e m p e r a t u r e of a11

conductors involved in the m e a s u r e m e n t s .

5. The indeterminate r e s i s t a n c e of splices especially in v e r y l a r g e

conductors.

6. The unknown resistance of t e s t connections.

7. The variation of r e s i s t a n c e of conductors of the s a m e s i z e .

Bridges having a consistent a c c u r a c y better than plus o r minus one tenth of one
percent, a r e seldom used in cable fault location. The many o t h e r e r r o r s in fault .
location prevent the utilization of g r e a t e r accuracy t o a n advantage. Other r e s i s t a n c e
measuring devices used for cable fault location d o not have the a c c u r a c y of bridges.

Obviously, the accuracy of fault location by r e s i s t a n c e m e a s u r e m e n t # can

not be m o r e a c c u r a t e than the known length of the faulted conductor. In p r a c t i c e , lengths
of conductors a r e seldom known t o plus o r m i n u s one p e r c t a t , i. e., plus or m i a u r 52
feet p e r mile. T h i s a l s o applies t o the lengths of s e v e r a l s i z e s of conductors making up

Sac. 8-17
 a circuit. Under some conditions, the effects of e r r o r s in conductor Lengths can be
reduced and the a c c u r a c y of fault location can be improved by making m e a s u r e m e n t s
from both ends of the circuit.

E r r o r s in fault location, due to inability t o a c c u r a t e l y d e t e r m i n e conductor

t e m p e r a t u r e s a t the time of r e s i s t a n c e m e a s u r e m e n t s , can be eliminated in the c a s e
of conductors at a uniform t e m p e r a t u r e o r minimized in c a s e of varying t e m p e r a t u r e s
by determining the percentage of the c i r c u i t length f r o m the measuring d e v i c e to the
fault and then converting this percentage t o actual length. T h i s c a n be accomplished
by m e a s u r i n g the r e s i s t a n c e t o the fault, and the r e s i s t a n c e of a loop consisting of the
faulted conductor and a good conductor, then converting to percentage of conductor
length to the fault, then t o the length in feet.

In general, splice r e s i s t a n c e is s o low compared with conductor r e s i s t a n c e that

it will have little effect on the a c c u r a c y of fault location with r e s i s t a n c e m e a s u r e m e n t s .
However, in c a s e of large conductors of power c a b l e s , an appreciable indeterminate
e r r o r may be introduced by good conductor splices, i. e . , if a splice in a 500 mcm.
conductor had a r e s i s t a n c e of 21 m i c r o b m s m o r e than an equivalent lengtn of conductor,
it would introduce an e r r o r of one foot. With s p l i c e s spaced 200 f e e t t h i s would r e s u l t
in an e r r o r of one half of one percent.

T h e r e s i s t a n c e of t e s t leads c a n be d e t e r m i n e d and eliminated in a l l c a s e s . In

c a s e of m e a s u r e m e n t s on c i r c u i t s having l a r g e conductors, the contact r e s i s t a n c e of
test c onnections will introduce a n appreciable e r r o r . Where Murray-Loop t e s t s a r e
used s i x t e s t connections a r e required. T h e contact r e s i s t a n c e of t h e s e t e s t connec-
tions, even when v e r y carefully made, m a y v a r y a s much a s 40 m i c r o h m s each. F o r
six connections this means a variation of 240 m i c r o h m s o r the equivalent of 12 feet of
500 mcm. conductor.

Considering all of these v a r i a b l e s , i t would s e e m that fault location by r e s i s t a n c e

m e a s u r e m e n t s is v e r y inaccurate. However, by selecting the m ~ s suitable t method
f o r a p a r t i c u l a r fault, using the m o s t a c c u r a t e c o m m e r c i a l l y available portable bridge,
the proper technique and the proper c a r e , a c c u r a c i e s of plus o r minus one tenth of
one p e r c e n t plus o r m i n u s 50 feet, may b e r e a l i z e d f o r faults to which t h i s method is
applicable.

Only conductor-to-ground f a u l t s a r e used t o i l l u s t r a t e fault location with

r e s i s t a n c e m e a s u r e m e n t s . However, conductor-to -conductor faults can b e located
in the s a m e manner with the s a m e a c c u r a c y if a good conductor i s used in place of
the ground r e t u r n circuit.

T h e Wheatstone Bridge o r s o m e modification of it i s generally used f o r a c c u r a t e

d-c r e s i s t a n c e m e a s u r e m e n t s . One type of Wheatstone Bridge i s shown in F i g u r e 8 - 9 .
In t h i s bridge the r a t i o a r m s R A and R B a r e a r r a n g e d s o that the r a t i o RA/RB c a n be
adjusted i n convenient multiples. T h i s bridge is balanced with the r a t i o a r m s and the
decade r e s i s t o r R . Another type of Wheatstone bridge is shown in F i g u r e 8-10. T h e
r a t i o a r m a of t h i s bridge c o n s i s t of a slide w i r e which is usually marked with equal
divisions. In t h i s c a r e , R i s usually a fixed r e s i s t o r and the bridge is balanced by ,

adjusting t h e slide wire. When Wheatstone bridgeb a r e designed f o r f a u l t location

on communication c i r c u i t s , switcher are usually provided f o r changing f r o m Wheatstone
bridges to M u r r a y and Varley Loop c i r c u i t s . Likewise, b r i d g e s designed f o r power
 cable fault location usually have switches f o r changing f r o m Wheatstone bridges t o
Murray Loop c i r c u i t s . It should be noted that the r e s i s t a n c e of the battery and galva-
nometer c i r c u i t s controls the input c u r r e n t into the bridge and a l s o galvanometer
sensitivity and damping. They d o not affect the condition of bridge balance. This i s a l s o
true in Variey Loop and Murray Loop connections.

Of the many possible methods of locating cable faults with d-c resrstance m e a s u r e -
ments, the M u r r a y Loop and the Varley Loop methods a r e the m o s t practical and most
used. The Varley Loop method i s most suitable for communication and other c i r c u i t s
where small conductors having relatively high conductor r e s i s t a n c e are used. The
Murray Loop method i s ideal for power and other c i r c u i t s where l a r g e conductors
having comparatively low r e s i s t a n c e a r e used. While not a s satisfactory a s the Varley
Loop, the M u r r a y Loop t e s t s may be used f o r communication and other c i r c u i t s where
small conductors having relatively high conductor r esistance a r e used. E i t h e r of these
loop methods completely eliminates fault r e s i s t a n c e f r o m the m e a s u r e m e n t s . The M u r r a y
-
Loop t e s t is shown in F i g u r e 8- 1 1 and the Varley Loop t e s t in F i g u r e 8 12. In calculating
a fault location f r o m M u r r a y Loop test. c o r r e c t i o n s must be made f o r the t e s t leads if
the total r e s i s t a n c e of the leads i s equal to the r e s i s t a n c e of a n appreciable leagth of cable.
Such corrections can be made by the use of the f o r m u l a for loop r e s i s t a n c e aad the f o r m u l a
for equivalent r e s i s t a n c e of conductor of various s i z e s . T h i s i s not n e c e s s a r y with the
type of Varley Loop t e s t shown in F i g u r e 6-12.

Although t h e r e i s no type of d-c measurement that even a p p r o a c h e s the loop

methods in accuracy, other types of d-c t e s t s have m e r i t under some conditions, e . g . ,
for locating a fault in a cable c i r c u i t in which t h e r e i s a fault on a l l conductors, and w h e r e
the t e r m i n a l s a t only one end of the circuit a r e accessible.

The only m e a n s of approximately locating a c o n d u c t o r t o conductor o r a conductor-

to-ground fault with d-c r e s i s t a n c e measurements f r o m one end is the Blavier T e s t
shown in F i g u r e 8-13. A Wheatstone bridge, voltmeter and a m m e t e r , o r ohmmeter m a y
be used f o r this test. The a c c u r a c y of this t e s t depends upon the constancy of the fault
resistance a s well a s a l l other f a c t o r s resulting in e r r o r s of fault location by r e s i s t a n c e
measurements.. Where m e a s u r e m e n t s can be made f r o m both e n d s of the faulted
conductor, the E a r t h - O v e r l a p T e a t ahown in F i g u r e 8-14 may b e used. Comments on
the Blavier T e s t a l s o apply t o t h i s test.

Where only a d-c voltmeter and a m m e t e r a r e available, the Volt- A m m e t e r T e s t

shown in F i g u r e 8- 15 m a y be used t o obtain the approximate fault location. If only two
d-c a m m e t e r s a r e available, a two-ammeter method shown in F i g u r e 8-16 m a y be used.

8.14 A-C CAPACITANCE MEASUREMENTS

A-C Capacitance M e a s u r e m e n t s a r e often used when it is d e s i r a b l e t o m e a s u r e

the approximate location of a n open c i r c u i t type of f a u l t in any type o r s i z e of c a b l e when
it i s impractical to r e d u c e the open c i r c u i t fault to a conductor t o coaductor o r a conductor-
to-ground fault (Section 8.05). When the n e c e s s a r y devices a r e available the Reflection
Method (Section 8. 12) is probably m o r e satisfactory. This m e a s u r e m e n t can be, m a d e only
when the insulation r e s i s t a n c e and dielectric d r e n g t h a c r o s s the open and t o o t h e r
conductors and ground a r e high enough to permit the m e a s u r e m e n t of a-c capacitance
of the faulted conductor between a t e r m i n a l and the fault with available devices.

Sec. 8-19
I This method c o n s i s t s of measuring the a-c capacitance f r o m the faulted conductor
to ground o r t o another conductor and c o m p a r i n g i t with the capacitance of a good con-
ductor. The capacitance of the conductor may be calculated o r preferably obtained by
measuring the capacitance of a good conductor in the c i r c u i t using the s a m e techniques
a s used in m e a s u r i n g the capacitance of the faulted conductor. When t h e r e a r e c a b l e s
In the c i r c u i t , of different types o r having different conductor s i z e s , different t y p e s
of insulation o r different thicknesses of insulation, the length and capacitance of e a c h
different type of c a b l e m u s t be known. B r a n c h e s in the c i r c u i t complicate the d e t e r m i a -
ation ox the approximate location of f a u l t s with this method even when the length and
capacitance of e a c h cable in the circuit a r e a c c u r a t e l y known. This is due t o the f a c t
that a m e a s u r e m e n t may indicate that the fault is either i n the m a i n cable o r in a branch.

Any capacitance bridge, with one of the m e a s u r i n g terminal. grounded, suitable

range of capacitance and dissipation f a c t o r , and of sufficient a c c u r a c y is suitable f o r
determining the approximate location of open c i r c u i t s . A t h r e e - t e r m i n a l bridge is m o r e
satisfactory than a two-terminal bridge. A Wheatstone Bridge with a n a-c supply and
modified as shown in F i g u r e s 8-17 end 8-18, although inferior to a good capacitaace
bridge, may be used. Components may a l s o be assembled a s shown in F i g u r e s 8-17
and 8-18.

The f r e q u e n c i e s generally used f o r a-c capacitance m e a s u r e m e n t s f o r cable

fault location with a l l types of bridges a r e 400 t o 1000 cycles. A frequency of 60 c y c l e s
o r any harmonic of 60 c y c l e s is unsatisfactory u n l e s s the c i r c u i t is isolated f r o m induced
and s t r a y 60 c y c l e c u r r e n t s . F r e q u e n c i e s above 1000 c y c l e s a r e r a r e l y ured. The
power supply m J s t have sufficient capacity t o supply the charging c u r r e n t of the c a b l e
a t the voltage used f o r the measurement.

The d e t e c t o r may be headphones, a n a-c galvanometer o r p r e f e r a b l y a v a c u u m

tube voltmeter. A f i l t e r t o eliminate the e f f e c t s of s t r a y c u r r e n t s and h a r m o n i c s is
advantageous.

The a c c u r a c y of f a u l t location will depend upon the a c c u r a c y of the bridge, e r r o r s

due to the c a p a c i t a n c e of the t e s t l e a d s f r o m the bridge t o the cable, e r r o r s in b a l l a t r a g '
the bridge due t o induced voltages and h a r m o n i c s , non-uniformity of the c a b l e insulation,
e r r o r s in the length of the c i r c u i t , etc. The b e s t a c c u r a c y that could be hoped f o r under
ideal c anditions with a bridge a c c u r a t e t o one 'tenth percent would be about a q u a r t e r of
one percent o r m i n u s 25 feet. The a c c u r a c y may be improved by averaging the
r e s u l t s of m e a s u r e m e n t s from each t e r m i n a l of t h e faulted conductor.

Additional information on capacitance m e a s u r e m e n t s will be found in the A m e r i c a n

Society for Testing M a t e r i a l s "Tentative Method f o r A-C Capacitaace, Dielectric
Constant, and L o s s C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of E l e c t r i c a l Insulating M a t e r i a l s , " ( A S T M Designa-
tion D-150).

A rough approximation of the location of a n open c i r c u i t may be obtained by

measuring the 60 cycle c h a r g i n g c u r r e n t of the faulted conductor and then the charging
c u r r e n t of a good conductor. If these m e a s u r e m e n t s a r e made at the s a m e voltage, the
distance t o the f a u l t will be:
 Where: L l = Distance to the fault in feet.

t2 = Length of the c i r c u i t in feet.

I1 = Charging c u r r e n t of the faulted conductor

i n amperes.

I2 = Charging c u r r e n t of the good conductor

in amperes.

The e f f e c t s of s t r a y c u r r e n t may be mitigated by using a voltage high enough to result

i n charging c u r r e n t s that a r e high with respect t o the s t r a y c u r r e n t s .

Devices for t h i s method a r e commercially available (Section 8.15).

8.15 COMMERCIALLY AVAILABLE DEVICES

There a r e innumerable commercially available d e v i c e s for the various cable-

fault location methods described above. The following is a l i s t of one of these
devices that has proven satisfactory for each of s e v e r a l methods covered in Sections 8.11,
8. 12, 8. 13, and 8. 14. Devices in general use in power s y s t e m s for other purposes
that a r e also useful in cable fault location a r e not included.

This list is neither the recommendation of the Doble Client Committee on C a b l e s

and Accessorie s nor the Doble Engineering Company and they may not be the only
satisfactory devices available o r necessarily the most satisfactory available devices.

F o r the Interrupted D-C T r a c e r C u r r e n t method, Section 8.113, the General Electric

Company's D-C Cable F a u l t Locating (Thyratron) Sets have been widely used and have
proven quite satisfactory. The t r a c e r signal t r a n s m i t t e r c o n s i s t s of a step-up t r a n s f o r m e r ,
Thyraton tubes for rectification of the a-c input and interrupting the output, c u r r e n t
limiting reactor, grounding switch and the n e c e s s a r y c o n t r o l d e v i c e s a d instruments.
The fault locatiag d e v i c e s c o n s i s t of an exploring coil, a s e t of t e s t prods and a d e t e c t o r
with the necessary impedance matching t r a n s f o r m e r . T h e s e fault locating s e t s a r e
available with outputs of 500 volt8 aad 5 a m p e r e s t o 10,000/20,000 volts a t 10/5 a m p e r e s .
These te s t s e t s a r e useful f o r fault reduction and d-c t e s t s within range of the output
voltage.

The Western E l e c t r i c Company's No. lO2OC and ll2OC T e s t Sets, available thrnugh
the Graybar Eiectric Company, a r e quite satisfactory for the Audio Frequency T r a c e r
C u r r e n t method. Sectlon 8.114. These small, light, inexpensive, battery operated t e s t
s e t s consist of a v i b r a t o r , electro-magnetic interrupter and a c a e s s o r i e s for generating
a continuous o r an inter rupted audio frequency. An electro-magnetic pickup c o i l and
headphones a r e suppl;ed with the t e s t set. A No. 107A a m p l i f i e r is available f o r u s e where
g r e a t e r sensitivity is desired. T h i s s e t is suitable f o r locating c r o s s e s , grounds, opens,
shorts, w e t rpots and split p a i r s in communication cable. It is a l s o useful f o r locating
faults in control cable, but it is not recommended for power cable.

The Biddle Impulse Cable Fault Locator is available f r o m the J a m e s G. Biddle

Comparfy, 1216 Arch S t r e e t , Philadelphia 7, P e ~ n s y l v a n i a ,f o r the Impulse method of
cable fault location, Section 8. 115. T h e r e t e s t s e t # have been widely used and are q u i t e
 popular. They have the advantage of relatively small s i z e , light weight, and require
l e s s than 1 kw input power. The signal g e n e r a t o r c o n s i s t s of a variable auto-trans-
f o r m e r , step-up t r a n s f o r m e r , r e c t i f i e r , condenser, d i s c h a r g e gap, grounding switch
and the necessary c o n t r o l s and instruments. They a r e available with output voltages of
0 t o 1 to 0 to 25 kv. An exploring c o i l and detector is supplied f o r following the t r a c e r
c u r r e n t . A high-voltage bridge of the Murray-Loop type is available f o r use at voltages
up to 25 kv with t h i s f a u l t locator. The t e s t s e t s a r e a l s o useful for d-c t e s t s up to
2 5 kv.

The Model 124 L i n e F a u l t Analyzer, manufactured by the S i e r r a Electronic

Corporation, San C a r loo, California, i s satisfactory f o r locating faults by the Pulst
Echo method, Section 8.121.

Complete t e s t s e t s for the Quarter Wave Resonance method of cable f a u l t location,

Section 8. 122, a r e not c o m m e r c i a l l y available. However, a s a t i s f a c t o r y t e s t s e t c a n
be assembled with the following o r s i m i l a r devices of o t h e r m a n u f a c t u r e r s and connected
with co-axial cable a s shown in F i g u r e 8-6:

C = T y p e 722-D P r e c i s i o n Capacitor. G e n e r a l Radio Company,

275 Massachusetts Avenue, C a m b r i d g e 39, M a s s a c h u s e t t s .

0 = No. hp-650A Oscillator, Hewlctt-Packard Company, 27SA

P a g e Mill Road, Palo Alto, California and a Type 1233-A
P o w e r Amplifier, G e n e r a l Radio Company.

Vl dl V2 = No. hp-400H Vacuum Tube Voltmeter, Hewlett-Packard

Company.

F o r the D-C Resistance method, Section 8.13, t h e L e e d s and-Northrup Company,

4901 Stenton Avenue, Philadelphia. Pennsylvania, Type U T e s t S e t is widely used. it
c o n s i s t s of a self-contained #heatstone Bridge, with d e c a d e r e s i s t o r s adjusted t o a
tenth percent and r a t i o r e s i s t o r s adjusted to five hundredths of a percent. Switches a r e
provided for switching f r o m a Wheatstone bridge c i r c u i t t o Varley and Murray-Loop
c i r c u i t s . It a l s o h a s switches and t e r m i n a l s that p e r m i t t h e u s e of a n e x t e r n a l a-c o r
d-c power supply and a n e x t e r n a l a-c o r d-c detector. T h i s t e s t s e t is particularly
useful f o r d-c m e a s u r e m e n t s on communication and c o n t r o l c i r c u i t s . It is not intended
for power cable c i r c u i t s with conductors t h a t a r e l a r g e with r e s p e c t t o those in
communication c i r c u i t s .

If the Type U T e s t Set (above) o r the M a r r e - N e w h a l l T e s t Set (below) is adjusted

for Murray-Loop measuremernts and i s connected a s shown in F i g u r e 8-18, with an
audio frequency s o u r c e and d e t e c t o r o r a s shown in F i g u r e 8-17 with an audio frequency
source and d e t e c t o r , and a v a r i a b l e capacitor it will be useful f o r approximate a - c
a-c capacitance m e a s u r e m e n t s , (Section 8. IS).

T h e Morse-Newhall Bridge, available f r o m the L e e d r and Northrup Cornpmy, is

quite satisfactory for Murray-Loop t e s t s on power c a b l e c i r c u i t s , but not f o r c o n t r o l
and communication c i r c u i t s , s i n c e it is designed f o r c i r c u i t s with low d-c r e s i s t a n c e .
T h i s bridge r e q u i r e s a n e x t e r n a l power supply with a n output c u r r e n t of 25 to 150
m i l l i a m p e r e s and is suitable f o r voltages t o 100 kv.

T h e Type 740-BG Capacitance Bridge, General R a d i o Company, h a s been used f o r

locating opens where a n a c c u r a c y of one t o t w o p e r c e n t w a s ratiafactory. More a c c u r a t e
capacitance b r i d g e s a r e unwieldy i n the field.
FIGURE 8- 1

FIGURE 8-2
FIGURE 8 - 3
 0 - C POTENTIAL DROP
METHOD OF FAULT LOCATION

--I---- -------- FAULT

-------------0- -------
?ROILS SPACED

6 VOLT
aATTLW

FIGURE 8-4

PULSE ECHO METHOD

OF CABLE FAULT LOCATION

FIGURE 8-5
 QUARTER WIWE RESONANCE METHOD
OF C4BLE FAULT LOCATION

NOTES
I. V t nust 8K C O ~ C n t ODIIICCTU TO TNC
TERYUIAL w me r r u L t g o COIDUCTOR.
t. ALL IUST1UUKlltS WOULD @L ¶ W I L D L O AND
CWWCCTSO WITH CO&XlAL C A 8 U .

FIGURE 8-6

STANDING WAVES IN A CONDUCTOR

WITH A SHORT CIRCUIT

FIGURE 8-7
 STANDING WAVES IN A CABLE
WITH AN OPEN CIRCUIT

FIGURE 8-8

Wn€mmwEU R f O e
mTn WOE WIW RAW Am8

PORYUL.:
rG
R*r%R

FIGURE 8 - 9

FIGURE 8- 10
 MURRAY TEST LuOO VARLBY LOOP

.* R d w ) -Ra
*wm
tnlb FOmULI IO N L I1
' 10 ~
mw€sWCTn A aLl# WIRE GALJIRATLD
In 1000 aau rnvmma

FIGURE 8-11

FIGURE 8- 12
 FIGURE 8-14
FIGURE 8- 13

FIGURE 8- 16

FIGURE 8-15
FIGURE 8- 17

FIGURE 8-18
8 . 1 6 BIBLIOGRAPHY

8.1601 " T h e P r a c t i c a l Working of E l e c t r i c a l Subways in New York City,

William M a v e r , J r . , AIEE T r a n s a c t i o n s , 1890.

8 . 1602 " L o c a t i n g F a u l t s in Underground D i s t r i b u t i o n S y s t e m s . " H. G. Stott,

AIEE T r a n s a c t i o n s , Vol. 18, pp. 8 2 9 , 1901

8. 1603 " T h e Voltage T e s t i n g of C a b l e s , W. I. Middleton and C. L Dawns,

AIEE T r a n s a c t i o n s , Vol. 33, P a r t 2, pp. 1185, 1914.

8 . 1604 " F a u l t L o c a t i n g Methods Used on U n d e r g r o u n d C a b l e S y s t e m s ,

E d i s o n E l e c t r i c Institute Publication No. A-12, J u l y , 1933.

8. 160 j " S u b m a r i n e C a b l e s Located by A m p l i f i e r , " G. A. D r e w e t t , E l e c t r i c a l

World, Vol. 102, pp. 692, Nov. 25, 1933.

8.1606 " A c c u r a t e Line F a u l t Locations, " J. E. Allen a n d G. J. G r o s s ,

ELectrical World, Vol. 105, pp. 1785, 1935.

8. 1607 "New C a b l e F a u l t L o c a t o r , F a s t , C o n v e n i e n t , and A c c u r a t e , lt

T. B. M o r s e and C. W. Newhall, j r . , E l e c t r i c a l World, August 27, 1938,

8,1608 " L o c a t i n g P o t e n t i a l F a u l t s on the U n d e r g r o u n d S y s t e m , * ' M. W. Ghen,

, E l e c t r i c Light & P o w e r , Vol. 16, pp. 46, Sept. 1938.

8. 1609 " T r a c e r lmpulses Locate Cable Faults, P. L. W e i r , E l e c t r i c a l

W o r l d , Vol. 144, pp. 81, J u l y 13, 1940.

8. 1610 " L o c a t i n g F a u l t s on Buried C a b l e , " R . W. Woodson, E l e c t r i c . a l W o r l d ,

Vol. 114, pp. 1608, Nov. 30, 1940.

8.161 1 " U s e C a p a c i t a n c e D i s c h a r g e t o L o c a t e C a b l e F a u l t s , " W. D. S e a l ,

E l e c t r i c a l World, Vol. 117, pp. 1006, M a r c h 21, 1942.

8 . 1612 " C h a r g i n g L o c a t e s Open C a b l e F a u l t s , ' I F. E. R e e v e s , E l e c t r i c a l

World, Vol. 118, pp. 785, Scpt. 5, 1942.

8. 16 1 3 "D. C . G r a d i e n t F i x e s Cable F a u l t L o c a t i o n , " L. T. F r a n t z , E l e c t r i c a l

W o r l d . Vol. 119, pp. 1.156, A p r i l 3, 1943.

8 . 1614 "Faa:: L o c a t i o n on Non-Metallic S h e a t h C a b l e G r o u p I -

Electric Pic k-Up
M e t h o d s , , ' H. M. Ekvall, E l e c t r i c a l W o r l d , Vol. 121, pp. 1246,
Apr:i 1 , 1944.

8. 1615 " I n t e r r u p t o r L o c a t e s S u b m a r i n e Cable F a u l t s , " D. F. Tullock, E l e c t r i c a l

W o r l d , Vol. 122, pp. 108, A p r i l 5. 1944.

8. 1616 -
" F a u l t L o c a t i o n o n Non-Metallic S h e a t h C a b l e G r o u p IU M i s c e l l a n e o u s
M e t h o d s , " H. M. Ekvall, E l e c t r i c a l q o r l d , Vol. 121, pp. 1990,
May 27, 1944.
 8. 1617 "Cable Field Testing and F a u l t Location. " W. D. Fenn and L. A. Gray.
E l e c t r i c a l World, Vol. 122, pp. 97, Aug. 19, 1944.

8. 1618 " P o r t a b l e Cable Testing Equipment, " W. D. Fenn and L . A. Gray,

E l e c t r i c a l World, Vol. 122, pp. 113, Aug. 19, 1944.

8.1619 "Nomograph Aids in Locating Cable F a u l t s , " R. Hoeller. E l e c t r i c a l

World, Vol. 122, pp. 130, Dec. 9, 1944.

8. 1620 "R. F. Oscillator Aids Locating Cable fault^,^' G. L. Danner,

E l e c t r i c a l World, Vol. 123, pp. 132, Jan. 20, 1945.

8.1621 " P r a c t i c a l Methods f o r Locating F a u l t s i n Non-Metallic C a b l e s , "

M. S. Gilbert, E l e c t r i c a l World, Vol. 123, pp. 90, May 26, 1945.

8. 1622 "Raised Voltage Improves Fault-Locating Set, *' M. W. Ghen, E l e c t r i c a l

World, Vol. 123, pp. 95, June 23, 1945.

8.1623 "Portable Bridge for High R Cable F a u l t s , " T. G. Hieronymus,

E l e c t r i c a l World, Vol. 124, pp. 107, Sept. 15, 1945.

8. 1624 "Inductive Pickup f o r Fault Location, " G . L . Danner, E l e c t r i c a l

World, Vol. 125, pp. 130, Feb. 16, 1946.

8.1625 "Condenser Pop A e r i a l Cable Faults. mr F. W. Buck. E l e c t r i c a l World,

Vol. 125, pp. 111, May 25. 1946.

8.1626 "Buried Cable F a u l t s Located by Sonic D e t e c t o r , " F. S. Benson, and

G. L. Hill and C. R. Machhen, E l e c t r i c a l World, Vol. 125, pp. 82,
J u n e 22. 1946.

8.1627 "Locates F a u l t s in S t r e e t Light C i r c u i t s , C. E. White, E l e c t r i c a l

World, Vol. 126, pp. 87, Aug. 7, 1946.

8.1628 "Locating F a u l t s in Underground Cables, D. F. Tulloch, E l e c t r i c a l

World, Vol. 128, pp. 109, NOV. 8 , 1947.

8. 1629 "Impulse Cable F a u l t L o c a t o r , " F. W. Buck, E l e c t r i c a l World, Vol. 128,

pp. 82, D e c . 20, 1947.

8.1630 -
"The tLinascope' An Echo-Ranging Type Fault Locator for High-Voltage
L i n e s , " G. R . L e s l i e , K. H. Kidd, AIEE Transactions, Vol. 67, Part 2,
pp. 1162, 1948.

8.1631 "A T r a n s m i s s i o n Line F a u l t Locator Using F a u l t Generated Surges, It

R. F. S t e v e n s and T. W . Stringfield, AIEE Transactions, Vol. 67,

P a r t 2, pp. 1168, 1948.

8.1632 "Improved Surge-Reflection System L o c a t e s c a b l e F a u l t s , '' J. P. t o z e s ,

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Sec. 8-32
 8.1633 "Cable F a u l t Location, J. C. P a r k e r , Minutes of the 1949 Doble Client
Conference, 1949.

8.1634 "Cable F a u l t Location, " J . C. P a r k e r and R . D. B a r r c t t , Minutes of

the 1949 Doble Client Conference, 1949.

8.1635 "Location of Holidays in Pipe Coatings, '' J . C . P a r k e r and R. D. B a r r e t t ,

Minutes of t h e 1950 Doble Client Conference, 1950.

8.1636 "Three Units Used t o Locate Cable Faulta, " E l e c t r i c a l World, Vol. 133,
pp. 114. J u n e 19, 1950.

8. 1637 "Fault Locator U s e s Discriminating Detector, " E l e c t r i c a l World, Val. 134,

pp. 110. Nov. 6 , 1950.

8.1638 "The Linascope T r a n s m i s s i o n Line Fault L o c a t o r , ** K. H. Kidd, AIEE

Transactions, Vol. 70, P a r t 1, pp. 1008, 1951.

8.1639 "Portable F a u l t Locator P r o v e s P r a c t i c a l , " T. J. Allen and C. C.

Brichmore, E l e c t r i c Light & Power, Vol. 29, pp. 106, Sept. 1951.

8.1640 "Cable F a u l t Locating P r a c t i c e s i n Philadelphia, R. S. Digga, E l e c t r i c

Light & P o w e r , Vol. 29, p p . 76, October 1951.

8.164 1 "Locating Ground F a u l t s in Buried Non-Metallic Cable, *' H. Thomas,

Electrical World, Voi. 137, pp. 124, May 5, 1952.

8.1642 "Fault Locator Weeds Out Incipient Cable F a u l t s , " J. L. Redmond,

Electrical World, Vol. 138, pp. 88, Dec. 29, 1952.

8.1643 "Versatility P r o v e d in Cable F a u l t Locating, E. J. Steeve, Electrical

World, Vol. 39, pp. 98, May 4, 1953.

8.1644 "Radar F a u l t Location, H. L. Garton, Minutes of the 1954 Doble

Client Conference. 1954.

8 . 1645 "Portable Equipment f o r Locating F a u l t s in E l e c t r i c Cable, "

F. W. Wakefield, Minutes of the 1955 Doble Client Conference, 1955.

8. 1646 "Underground S y s t e m s Reference Book Edison E l e c t r i c Institute. 1947.