DEPARTMENT OF ELECTROMECHANICAL ENGINEERING

INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
HAWASSA UNIVERSITY

Refrigeration and Air Conditioning - MEng 5202

By: Million M.

Mr. Million M., Thermal Engineer, Hawassa

2/3/2024 1
University
PART II – AIR CONDITIONING

CHAPTER ONE
FUNDAMENTALS OF AIR CONDITIONING

Psychrometry and Psychometric Processes

2
INTRODUCTION

Air conditioning is a way to keep your home comfortable by

controlling :-

The temperature
Air movement
Cleanliness
Humidity, for our comfort.
Psychrometry
• Psychrometry is the branch of science which deals with the study of the mixture of dry
air and water vapour or humidity.

• The subject is important in air-conditioning practice because atmospheric air is not

completely dry but a mixture of air and water vapor.

• In some air-conditioning processes water is removed from the air-water vapor mixture,
and in others water is added.
Air
• Atmospheric air - contains nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide, water vapor, other
gases, and miscellaneous contaminants such as dust.

• This is the air we breathe and use for ventilation.

• Dry air - exists when all of the contaminants and water vapor have been removed
from atmospheric air.

• By volume, dry air contains about 78% N2, 21% O2, and 1% other gases.

• Moist air - is a mixture of dry air and water vapor.

• Mass of dry air always remain constant

Gibbs-Dalton law
For a mixture of perfect gases, the total pressure exerted by the mixture is equal to the sum
of partial pressures of the constituent gases.

• The temperature of air in air-conditioning applications ranges from about -10 to about
50°C.

• Then the atmospheric air can be treated as an ideal-gas mixture whose pressure is the sum
of the partial pressure of dry air Pa and that of water vapor Pv

Partial pressure of dry air, Pa PaV = ma RaT, Ra = 0.2870kJ/kgK

Partial pressure of water vapor, Pv PvV = mv RvT, Rv = 0.4615kJ/kgK

Total pressure, P P = Pa + Pv
Psychrometric properties

Dry bulb temperature (T, Tdb, DBT): is the temperature of the moist air
as measured by a standard thermometer or other temperature
measuring instruments.

Specific volume ν: The specific volume is defined as the number of cubic meters of moist air
per kilogram of dry air.
Humidity of air

• The amount of water vapor in the air can be specified in various ways.

Absolute humidity (specific humidity or humidity ratio) ω is the mass of water vapor
present in a unit mass of dry air .

(mass of water vapor)

( )
humidity ratio =
(mass of dry air)

mv P V / RvT Pv / Rv P Pv
w= = v = = 0.622 v = 0.622
ma PaV / RaT Pa / Ra Pa P - Pv

• Dry air contains no water vapor, and thus its specific humidity is zero.
• As water vapor or moisture is added, the specific humidity will increase until the air can
hold no more moisture.

• At this point, the air is said to be saturated with moisture, and it is called saturated air.

• Any moisture introduced into saturated air will condense.

• For saturated air, the vapor pressure is equal to the saturation pressure of water and the
humidity ratio given by

Where

• Degree of saturation μ: The degree of saturation is the ratio of the humidity ratio ω to the
humidity ratio of a saturated mixture ωsat the same temperature and pressure
Relative humidity ϕ is the amount of moisture the air holds (mv) relative to the maximum
amount of moisture the air can hold at the same temperature (mg).

• The relative humidity ranges from 0 for dry air to 1 for saturated air.

• The amount of moisture in the air has a definite effect on how comfortable we feel in
an environment.

• However, the comfort level depends more on Relative humidity.

So combining

Note that:

 The amount of moisture air can hold depends on its temperature. The relative humidity and
temperature are inversely proportional.

 Therefore, the relative humidity of air changes with temperature even when its specific humidity
remains constant.
Dew point temperature, Tdp (DPT):

• If unsaturated moist air is cooled at constant pressure, then the temperature at which
the moisture in the air begins to condense is known as dew-point temperature (DPT) of
air.
• An approximate equation for dew-point temperature is given by:

where Φ is the relative humidity (in fraction). DBT & DPT are in oC.
Enthalpy

• Dry air can be also treated as an ideal gas. Hence, the enthalpy and enthalpy change of
dry air can be determined from

• The water vapor in the air treated as an ideal gas, that is, h=h(T).

• The enthalpy of water vapor in air (below 50°C) can be taken to be equal to the enthalpy of
saturated vapor at the same temperature. That is,

≡ hfg + CpwT
• Atmospheric air is a mixture of dry air and water vapor, and thus the enthalpy of air is
expressed in terms of the enthalpies of the dry air and the water vapor.

H = Ha + Hv = maha + mvhv

h = H/ma = ha + (mv/ma)hv

= ha + ωhv

= CpT + ω(hfg + CpwT)

= 1.005T + ω(2500.9+1.82T)

• For all practical purposes, the humid specific heat of moist air can be taken as 1.0216
kJ/kg dry air. K

Cpm = Cp + ω.Cpw
Adiabatic saturation / wet bulb temperature

• Adiabatic saturation temperature temperature at which water will saturate air by

evaporating adiabatically into it..

• An adiabatic saturator is a device (infinitely long duct containing water) using which one
can measure theoretically the adiabatic saturation temperature of air.

• The system consists of a long insulated channel that contains a pool of water.

• A steady stream of unsaturated air that has a specific humidity of ω1 (unknown) and a
temperature ofT1 is passed through this channel.

• As the air flows over the water, some water evaporates and mixes with the airstream.
• The moisture content of air increases during this process, and its temperature decreases,
since part of the latent heat of vaporization of the water that evaporates comes from the air.

• If the channel is long enough, the airstream exits as saturated air (Φ=100 percent) at
temperature T2, which is called the adiabatic saturation temperature/ thermodynamic wet-
bulb temperature.

• If makeup water is supplied to the channel at the rate of evaporation at temperatureT2,

The conservation of mass and conservation of energy relations for this steady-flow system

Conservation of dry air:

Conservation of water:

Conservation of energy:

saturated air at outlet:

• The specific humidity (and relative humidity) of air can be determined by measuring the pressure and
temperature of air at the inlet and the exit of an adiabatic saturator.
Wet-bulb temperature

• In practice, it is not convenient to measure the wet-bulb temperature using an adiabatic

saturator.

• In stead, a more practical approach is to use a thermometer whose bulb is covered with a
cotton wick saturated with water and to blow air over the wick.

• For air–water vapor mixtures at atmospheric pressure, the wet-bulb temperature happens
to be approximately equal to the adiabatic saturation temperature.
• When unsaturated air passes over the wet wick, some of the water in the wick evaporates.

• As a result, the temperature of the water drops, creating temperature difference (which is
the driving force for heat transfer) between the air and the water.

• After a while, the heat loss from the water by evaporation equals the heat gain from the
air, and the water temperature stabilizes

• Wet bulb temperature essentially measures how much water vapor the atmosphere can
hold at current weather conditions.

• A lower wet bulb temperature means the air is drier and can hold more water vapor than it
can at a higher wet bulb temperature.
• The sling psychrometer is widely used for measurements
involving room air or other applications where the air velocity
inside the room is small.

• In the aspirated psychrometer, the thermometers remain

stationary, and a small fan, or blower moves the air across the
thermometer bulbs.

• When the air becomes saturated, all three temperatures are

the same and the relative humidity is 100 percent.

sling psychrometer
The Psychrometric chart
Reading Psychrometric chart

• The thermodynamic state of moist air is uniquely fixed if the barometric pressure and two other
independent properties are known.

Dry bulb Wet bulb

temperature temperature

Relative Humidity Humidity Ratio

Specific volume Enthalpy
• Consider a room that contains air at 1 atm, 35°C, and 40 percent relative
humidity.

 Using the psychrometric chart, determine

a) the specific humidity

b) the enthalpy
c) the wet-bulb temperature
d) the dew-point temperature, and
e) the specific volume of the air.

 Also using the equations determine the specific humidity and enthalpy
Take Cp= 1.005 kJ/kg·K.
For water at 35°C, Psat= 5.6291 kPa and
hg= 2564.6 kJ/kg.
The Psychrometric chart
Air-conditioning / Psychometric processes

• Maintaining a living space or an industrial facility at the desired temperature and

humidity requires some processes called air-conditioning processes.

• These processes include

 Simple heating(raising the temperature),

 Simple cooling(lowering the temperature)
 Humidifying (adding moisture),
 Dehumidifying (removing moisture).
 Cooling and dehumidification
 Heating and humidification
 Cooling and humidification
 Heating and dehumidification
 Mixing two fluids which are at dissimilar states.
Applying Mass and Energy Balances to Air-conditioning Systems

• Most air-conditioning processes can be modeled as steady-flow processes, and thus

• Disregarding the kinetic and potential energy changes, the steady-flow energy balance
Simple (Sensible) Heating and Cooling

• The amount of moisture in the air remains constant during this process since no moisture is
added to or removed from the air.

• That is, the specific humidity of the air remains constant ( = constant) during a heating
(or cooling) process with no humidification or dehumidification.

• During Simple heating process, the dry-bulb temperature

increases and the relative humidity of air decreases. (1-2)

Conservation of energy: ( ) ( )
Q + ma1h T1 = ma2h T2

Conservation of dry air: ma1 = ma2

Conservation of water: w1 = w2
• During Simple cooling process, the dry-bulb
temperature decreases and the relative humidity
of air increases. (2-1)

Conservation of energy:
Heating with Humidification

• This is accomplished by passing the air first through a

heating section (process 1-2) and then through a
humidifying section (process 2-3)

• If steam is introduced in the humidification section, this will result in humidification with
additional heating (T3 >T2)

• If humidification is accomplished by spraying water into the airstream instead, part of the
latent heat of vaporization comes from the air, which results in the cooling of the heated
airstream (T3 <T2).

Conservation of dry air: ma1 = ma2 = ma3

Conservation of water: w1 = w2 , ma2w2 + mw = ma3w3

Conservation of energy: ( ) ( )
Q + ma1h T1 = ma2h T2
Cooling with Dehumidification
• When moist air is cooled below its dew-point by bringing it in
contact with a cold surface.

• When moist air is cooled below its dew point, vapour is

condensed and leaves the air stream as liquid,

• As a result both the temperature and humidity ratio of air decreases while the final relative
humidity is generally becomes higher than that at the start

• The actual process path will vary depending upon the type of cold surface, the surface
temperature, and flow conditions.
The 2nd term on the RHS of the above equation is normally small compared to the other terms, so it can
be neglected. Hence,

QT = Qout = ma ( h1 – h2)

• The cooling and de-humidification process involves both latent and sensible heat transfer
processes

QT = Ql + Qs

Ql = ma ( h1 - h3) = ma hfg (ω1 – ω3)

Qs = ma ( h2 - h3) = ma Cpm (T2 –T3)

Cooling & humidification

• Involves the cooling of air without heat loss or gain.

• Sensible heat lost by the air is converted to latent heat in the

added water vapor

• The air temperature drops and its humidity increases. This can be achieved by spraying cool
water in the air stream.

• The temperature of water should be lower than the dry-bulb

temperature of air but higher than its dew-point temperature to
avoid condensation.

• It is encountered in a wide variety of devices such as evaporative

coolers, cooling towers
Heating and Dehumidification (chemical dehumidification process)

• This process can be achieved by using a hygroscopic

material, which absorbs the water vapor from the
moisture.

• If this process is adiabatic, then the enthalpy of air remains constant, as a result the
temperature of air increases as its moisture content decreases (1-2)

• In some cases, Absorption of water by the hygroscopic

material is an exothermic reaction, as a result additional
heat is transferred to air and the enthalpy increases. (1-3)
Mixing of air streams

• The mixing is accomplished by simply merging the two

airstreams.

• The heat transfer with the surroundings is usually small,

and thus the mixing processes can be assumed to be
adiabatic.
Wet Cooling Towers

• A wet cooling tower is essentially a semi enclosed evaporative cooler.

• Air is drawn into the tower from the bottom and leaves through the top.

• Warm water from the condenser is pumped to the top of the tower and is sprayed
into this airstream.
• The temperature and the moisture content of the air increase during this process.

• Based on the air circulation in the cooling tower

• Forced draft cooling tower : is provided by a fan cooling tower.

• Natural draft cooling tower: natural flow of air

Psychrometric Processes Related To Airconditioning Equipment
• The complete air-conditioning system may involve two or more of the same processes
depending on specific cases.

• In the context of analyzing such processes, some related terminologies need to be defined
and explained. particularly the cooling coil.
• The cooling and de-humidification process involves both latent and sensible heat transfer
processes

QT = Ql + Qs
Ql = ma ( h1 - h3) = ma hfg (ω1 – ω3)
Qs = ma ( h2 - h3) = ma Cpm (T2 –T3)

• The sensible heat factor (SHF), also called the sensible heat ratio (SHR), is the ratio of
the sensible heat transfer for a process to the summation of the sensible and latent heats
for the process, i.e.,

• From the above equation, one can deduce that a

 SHF = 1.0 corresponds to no latent heat transfer
 SHF = 0 corresponds to no sensible heat transfer.
 SHF = 0.75 - 0.80 is quite common in air conditioning systems in a normal dry-climate.
 SHF = 0.6 or less, implies a high latent heat load such as that occurs in a humid climate.
• The line 12 is called the sensible heat ratio line, condition line or process line .

• It can be seen that the slope of the process

line 1-2 is given by:

• On the ASHRAE psychrometric chart, the values of SHR are given on the protractor as ∆Hs/∆Hw
and they may be used to establish the condition line.

• In some psychrometric charts, a scale is provided for SHR. There is also a reference point
provided which is joined to the specific SHR on the scale.

• Hence, we can draw the cooling and dehumidification line on psychrometric chart if the
initial state and the SHF are known.
• A line from the initial state point can be drawn parallel to the line which will give the required
SHR line.
Apparatus dew point, contact and bypass factors
• The effective surface temperature of the cooling coil, and is known as Apparatus Dew-point
Temperature (Coil ADP,TADP,TS) -lower than the dew-point temperature of the air)

• In an ideal situation, when all the air comes in perfect contact with the cooling coil surface, then
the exit temperature of air will be same as ADP of the coil.

 Some of the air that passes through the coils without contacting the coil surface. The result is
the same as if that portion of the air had bypassed the coil.

 Some of the air passes nearer the coil surface than the other parts of the flow and thus is cooled
to a greater degree.

• The air that leaves the coil is thus at a temperature between the entering air temperature and
the coil surface temperature

• Bypass factor or BPF is the fraction of the air that does not touch the coil and consequently is
not cooled at all.

• The contact factor CF, on the other hand, is defined as the fraction of air which is assumed to
be cooled to the surface temperature of the coil.
• It can be easily seen that,

 Higher BPF implies larger will be the difference between air outlet temperature and the
cooling coil temperature.

 BPF is 1.0, all the air by-passes the coil and there will not be any cooling or de-
humidification.

• In practice, the by-pass factor can be increased by increasing the number of rows in a
cooling coil or by decreasing the air velocity or by reducing the fin pitch.

• A line is drawn from point 1, that represents the room condition, parallel to the SHR line.
This line intersects the saturation line at point 4, which represents theTADP.