Module 5-Power system Security

Introduction
• Modern power system are very complex and highly integrated
• Blackouts cause massive losses to the economy

• To reduce probability of occurrence of such events and to reduce frequency and

duration of grid failures, need to invest in planning, design, and operating phases

• System adequacy: Refers to existence of sufficient generation, transmission, and

distribution facilities to meet consumer demand at all points of time

• System security: Relates to ability of the system to meet demand under dynamic
disturbances in the system
FACTORS AFFECTING POWER SYSTEM SECURITY
As a consequence of many widespread blackouts in interconnected power systems, the
priorities for operation of modern power systems have evolved to the following.
✓ Operate the system in such a way that power is delivered reliably.
✓ Within the constraints placed on the system operation by reliability considerations, the
system will be operated most economically.
The greater part of this book is devoted to developing methods to operate a power system to
gain maximum economy. But what factors affect its operation from a reliability standpoint?
We will assume that the engineering groups who have designed the power system’s
transmission and generation systems have done so with reliability in mind. This means that
adequate generation has been installed to meet the load and that adequate transmission has been
installed to deliver the generated power to the load. If the operation of the system went on
without sudden failures or without experiencing unanticipated operating states, we would
probably have no reliability problems. However, any piece of equipment in the system can fail,
either due to internal causes or due to external
causes such as lightning strikes, objects hitting transmission towers, or human errors in setting
relays. It is highly uneconomical, if not impossible, to build a power system with so much
redundancy (i.e., extra transmission lines, reserve generation, etc.) that failures never cause
load to be dropped on a system.
Rather, systems are designed so that the probability of dropping load is acceptably small. Thus,
most power systems are designed to have sufficient redundancy to withstand all major failure
events, but this does not guarantee that the system will be 100% reliable. Within the design and
economic limitations, it is the job of the operators to try to maximize the reliability of the

Dept of EEE/PDIT PSOC module 5 Vinaykumar K

system they have at any given time. Usually, a power system is never operated with all
equipment ‘‘in” (i-e., connected) since failures occur or maintenance may require taking
equipment out of service. Thus, the operators play a considerable role in seeing that the system
is reliable.
In this chapter, we will not be concerned with all the events that can cause trouble on a power
system. Instead, we will concentrate on the possible consequences and remedial actions
required by two major types of failure events-transmission-line outages and generation-unit
failures.
Transmission-line failures cause changes in the flows and voltages on the transmission
equipment remaining connected to the system. Therefore, the analysis of transmission failures
requires methods to predict these flows and voltages so as to be sure they are within their
respective limits. Generation failures can also cause flows and voltages to change in the
transmission system, with the addition of dynamic problems involving system frequency and
generator output

Contingency analysis
• Contingency analysis is used to predict steady state conditions following branch or
generation outages
• Analysis consists of simulating the outages and checking the results for possible
violation of voltage magnitude limits, line power flow
• Contingency selection selects a subset of the exhaustive contingency set which is severe
for detailed analysis
• Contingency are ranked for relative severity based on a performance index(PI) measure
stress on the system
• Major considerations for an online security assessment are speed and accuracy of the
contingency selection algorithm
• Changes in bus voltages and line flows depend on how lost generation is picked up by
remaining units
• It is important to know which contingencies will cause line flow or voltage violation
• Contingency analysis procedures model all events one after other until all possible and
probable outages have been covered
• For each outage , all voltages and line flows are tested for limit violations
• Search space can be reduced if we select only credible outages
• One way to speed up matters is to use approximate load flow model

Dept of EEE/PDIT PSOC module 5 Vinaykumar K

 • DC load flow models provide adequate accuracy for analysis
• AC power flow models can be used where voltage magnitude is concerned and for
selected set of critical contingencies.

Linear Sensitivity Factors

• One of the quickest way to solve numerous way for a contingency analysis is to use
linear model for the system
• Quick way to calculate possible overloads is to use linear sensitivity factors.
1. DC load flow
• Power flow equations are solved by NR method for accurate results
• Decoupled power flow neglect interaction between P and magnitude of V and
between Q and 𝛿
• Angle difference between any two buses is assumed to be small so that
cos(𝛿𝑖 − 𝛿𝑗) = 1

Dept of EEE/PDIT PSOC module 5 Vinaykumar K

Dept of EEE/PDIT PSOC module 5 Vinaykumar K
AC power flow methods
• Voltage magnitudes are critical factors in assessing the system reliability and are also
necessary to plan reactive power support required
• AC power flow gives detailed solutions of voltage magnitudes , MW, and MVAr flows
• NR method and FDLF methods used for AC power flow solution
• They are fast and have reliable convergence properties
• In the FDLF method matrices B’ and B” need to be computed when network topology
changes
• Major drawback is , contingencies runs for thousands of entries and computation time
would be large
• Two situations are found; one is fast approximate method for contingency analysis
using a and d factors , which are not accurate
• Second is slow but very accurate analysis using AC power flow

Dept of EEE/PDIT PSOC module 5 Vinaykumar K

Contingency Selection and Ranking
• We need to screen contingencies to select critical ones
• We can perform offline simulation and select critical contingencies
• In real time conditions keep changing and contingencies which cause insecure
operation also changes
• A contingency , non critical in a particular operating state may become critical for
another operating state
• Common method used to decide severity of a contingency is based on defining
performance index
1. System PI for line power flows

Dept of EEE/PDIT PSOC module 5 Vinaykumar K

 • System PI (Performance Index) is meant to indicate overload which may occur on
various lines, due to an outage(either of generator or transmission line)
• This can be determined by using approximate method of distribution factors
𝐿 𝐿
𝑊 𝑃𝑙 2𝑛 𝑃𝑙 2𝑛
𝑷𝑰𝑴𝑾 = ∑ 𝑙 ( 𝐿𝐼𝑀 ) or 𝑷𝑰𝑴𝑾 = ∑ ( 𝐿𝐼𝑀 )
2𝑛 𝑃𝑙 𝑃𝑙
𝑙=1 𝑙=1

L= number of lines
Wl=real non negative weighting factor, which may be used to reflect important lines in the
system
Pl=MW flow in line l for a particular contingency
Pllim=MW limit or capacity of line l
n= a positive integer
• PI contains all the line flows normalized by their limits.
• When all the line flows are within their limits PIMW has a small value and has a high
value when lines are overloaded
• This provides a good indication of the severity of overloads in the system following a
contingency
• Under base case operation ,all lines are not equally loaded, hence can rank lines based
on their base case loading
𝑷𝒍𝟎
𝑷𝒍𝑳𝒊𝒎
𝑃𝑙0 is the base case power flow in line l , rank them based on this and pick up only those lines
which have a value above a threshold and compute PIMW index only for these line outages
• Outage of more heavily loaded lines is more of a threat to system security than the
outage of a lightly loaded line
• We can use base case loading directly to rank priority list of lines to be outaged
• To rank contingencies we obtain PIMW for different line outages
• The one with largest value of PIMW is the most severe contingency
• Value of n>1 give better indication of the severity of the outages. But to calculate
quickly for higher powers n>1 is not very easy

Dept of EEE/PDIT PSOC module 5 Vinaykumar K

3.1P1Q method for selection
• One iteration of FDLF is enough to give a good PI , which indicate the severity of
contingency
• A PI indicates both line flow deviations and voltage magnitude deviations is defined as

𝐿 𝑃𝑙 2𝑛 ∆|𝑉 |
2𝑚
PI =∑𝑖=1 ( 𝑚𝑎𝑥 ) + ∑𝑁 𝑖
𝑖=1 (∆|𝑉 |𝑚𝑎𝑥 )
PV 𝑃𝑙 𝑖

• ∆𝑉𝑖 is the difference between voltage magnitude obtained at the end of first iteration
and base case voltage magnitude
• Since one iteration is carried out , method is called 1P and 1Q
• AC power flow analysis can be done starting from first and continued till some level or
stopped when we have first case without violation

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Dept of EEE/PDIT PSOC module 5 Vinaykumar K
 State Estimation of Power System
Roles of state estimation

Functional Diagram of Modern Energy Management System

(State estimation in EMS)

Dept of EEE/PDIT PSOC module 5 Vinaykumar K

Dept of EEE/PDIT PSOC module 5 Vinaykumar K
Dept of EEE/PDIT PSOC module 5 Vinaykumar K