EE466/EE966 Part 2: Power Electronics

Topic 6: Isolated-output DC-DC power converters

 Main topics

1. Introduction
2. Power semiconductor devices
3. Thermal management
4. Passive components for power electronics
5. Non-isolated DC-DC power converters
6. Isolated-output DC-DC power converters
7. DC-AC power conversion
8. AC-DC power conversion
9. Control of DC machines
 Isolated-output power converters

Recall the basic non-isolated power converter classification from Topic 5:

buck buck/boost boost

 Isolated-output power converters

Isolated-output variants of these converters are:

buck buck/boost boost

Forward Flyback None at all

Dual-switch forward Dual-switch flyback
Half-bridge
Full-bridge
Push-pull
 Isolated-output power converters

It may seem surprising that the boost converter does not have an isolated-output
analogue, when the others do.

However, let’s take another look at it:

L1 D1

Vin Vout
TR1

0V

If δ = 0, or, in other words, TR1 is not turned on at all, the voltage gain is simply one: Vout
tracks Vin by means of D1.

But we can intuitively see that no flux change and reset action can be applied to a wound
component required for isolation.
 Isolated-output power converters

This leaves the isolated output variants of the buck and buck-boost converters which we
will now consider.

buck buck/boost boost

Forward Flyback None at all

Dual-switch forward Dual-switch flyback
Half-bridge
Full-bridge
Push-pull Nb.: Although based on the buck-boost
δ converter, the minus sign is not applicable
nδ n here as the output polarity is defined by
1- δ the winding directions.
 Isolated-output power converters
Forward converter

Dr L1 Principal properties:
Vin

DZ1 • Input current is always discontinuous

Df Vout
D1
T1 • Voltage rating of rectifier diode (Dr) = nVreset

TR1 • Voltage rating of freewheel diode (Df) = nVs

0V • Voltage rating of switch (TR1) = Vin + Vreset

(Vreset = VDZ1)
 Isolated-output power converters

Before moving on, we’ll pause at this stage and consider the issue of the flux
excursions in a magnetic component and the need to reset it.

Hint: Understanding of the flux excursions can invariably be achieved by applying

one very simple and very useful equation, namely Faraday’s Law:

𝑑Φ
𝑣=𝑁
𝑑𝑡

The crux of the matter is to enter the correct terms for v, N, dϕ and dt for each
phase of the converter’s switching cycle1.

1As is the case with using another very simple equation, v = Ldi/dt.
 Isolated-output power converters

Forward converter

Core material must be reset between L1

Vin
TR1’s on-periods.

This is because, in addition to the Vout

perfect transformer:
Lm
we have to account for the
TR1
transformer’s magnetizing inductance,
Lm.
0V
 Isolated-output power converters

1: Dissipative circuit for reset

Vin Zener diode or “dump” resistor can be

used at low power levels.
DZ1

Ds
As the name suggests, energy stored in
transformer core is simply dissipated in
DZ1 during TR1’s off-time.
TR1

0V

Note that the magnetising inductance is normally omitted in the schematic symbol for
the transformer in power electronic applications; however it is inevitably there and
cannot be ignored.
 Isolated-output power converters

2: Auxiliary (“tertiary”) reset winding (Nr)

Vin Energy returned to rail. However:

Ds more complicated transformer construction: three

windings.

1:n power device TR1 must sustain an overvoltage

TR1 during its off-time.

Imperfect coupling between Nr and N1 means

energy in the resultant leakage inductance
0V exacerbates this overvoltage and this has to be
addressed normally with additional dissipative
snubber circuitry.
 Isolated-output power converters

Exercise: sketch the following

waveforms for the circuit shown here.
Vin Dr L1
Assume CCM operation.
Ds
• Gate-emitter voltage controlling TR1
Df Vout

• Collector-emitter voltage across TR1 1:n

TR1
• Choke current (current through L1)

• Transformer magnetising current

0V
Isolated-output power converters
 Isolated-output power converters

3: Dual-switch arrangement (or other topology which inherently resets core)

• No over-voltage across power devices during

Vin reset period: voltage rating of switches is Vin

TR1 • However, two devices needed

D1
• One of the devices (TR1) has a “floating”
reference electrode (ie., its emitter or source
potential)
D2
TR2 • Energy in magnetizing inductance is
returned to rail during switches’ off-time
0V

• Note that the voltage used to reset the core material is the same voltage that drives the
primary winding during Ton: Ton therefore must be restricted to a maximum of 50%
 Isolated-output power converters

Dual-switch forward converter

Vin • Unidirectional core flux excursion

Dr L1
TR1
D1

Vout
Df

D2
TR2

0V
 Isolated-output power converters
In summary, several approaches may be used for core reset:

1. Dissipative

2. Reset winding

3. Dual-switch topology

Note that the fundamental concepts (dissipative, reset winding, certain circuit topologies)
for core reset in transformers in SMPS applications are applicable to many other magnetic
devices (machines and passive components) encountered in energy conversion
applications:

examples are:

• Drives for the switched reluctance machine

• Turn-on snubber inductors
• Current transformers
 Isolated-output power converters

Example

Let’s consider a problem where we have to calculate the number of turns on a

reset winding, Nr, on the transformer in a forward converter.

Circuit data are:

Vin = 358V Vin

δmax = 40% Ds
N1 = 75 turns

1:n
TR1

0V
 Isolated-output power converters
For the core flux to be restored to zero
during TR1’s off-time, the following dφ v × dt
v =N dφ =
must hold good under worst-case dt N
conditions:
Vin
dφ( on) = dφ( off )
Ds

Vin × δmaxT Vin × ( 1 - δmax )T

Expanding this gives: =
N1 Nr 1:n
TR1
1
Cancelling Vin and T, and re-arranging: 𝑁𝑟 = − 1 𝑁1
δ𝑚𝑎𝑥

0V
Finally, putting in the values, Nr must have no more than 112
turns if core reset is to be guaranteed at the worst-case duty factor.

Nb: note that the same voltage (Vin) is used for fluxing and de-fluxing the transformer and it cancels out here.
 Isolated-output power converters

In power electronics, a useful way of considering the issue of magnetic component

reset is to think of it as “what goes up (dΦ(on)) must go down (dΦ(off))”: if this doesn’t
happen, there’s generally going to be severe trouble!

dφ( on) = dφ( off )

Von × Ton Voff × Toff

=
N on N off

As mentioned, the important point is to identify what Von, Ton, and so on, are.
 Isolated-output power converters
Full-bridge converter
Vin
Diagonally-opposite switch
pairs (TR1,4 and TR2,3) are
turned on alternately. TR1 TR3 L1
D1
vGE1 vGE3

T1 Vout

TR2 TR4
vGE2 vGE4
D2

0V
 Isolated-output power converters

Full-bridge converter
Vin
NB.: The output circuitry
is usually configured with
two half-wave rectifiers in TR1 TR3 D1 L1
vGE1 vGE3
conjunction with a centre-
tapped transformer T1 Vout
secondary winding.

TR2 TR4
vGE2 vGE4
D2

0V
 Isolated-output power converters

Full-bridge converter
Vin • No over-voltage across power devices
during reset period

TR1 TR3 • “Reset” period occurs when diagonally

vGE1 vGE3
opposite switch pair is turned on

• However, four devices needed

• Two (TR1 and TR3) have floating reference

TR2 TR4 electrodes (ie., the source potential in the
vGE2 vGE4 case of a MOSFET).

0V
 Isolated-output power converters

Full-bridge converter
Vin

• Energy in magnetizing and leakage inductances

TR1 TR3
vGE1 vGE3
is returned to rail

• Duty factors applied to TR1,4 and TR2,3 switch

pairs must be identical in the steady-state

• Bidirectional core material excitation

TR2 TR4
vGE2 vGE4

0V
 Isolated-output power converters

Full-bridge converter
Vin

In its simplest control scheme, described here,

TR1 TR3 diagonally-opposite switch pairs (TR1,4 and
vGE1 vGE3 TR2,3) are turned on alternately.

However, it should be noted that more

sophisticated schemes are sometimes
implemented to reduce switching losses.
TR2 TR4
vGE2 vGE4

0V
 Isolated-output power converters

Full-bridge converter
Vin A small DC-decoupling capacitor is
sometimes included in series with
the transformer primary winding.
TR1 TR3
vGE1 vGE3
This prevents a flux build-up in the
transformer and eventual core
saturation in the event of a slight
voltage imbalance being
inadvertently applied (ie., a DC
TR2 TR4 component)
vGE2 vGE4

0V
 Isolated-output power converters

Full-bridge converter L2

Vin
Vout(2)

TR1 TR3
Like the forward converter,
vGE1 vGE3
additional secondary windings
and chokes can be added to T1
provide multiple output rails: L1

Therefore: number of magnetic Vout(1)

TR2 TR4
components = 1+N: one
transformer and N chokes where vGE2 vGE4
N is the number of output rails

0V
 Isolated-output power converters

Full-bridge converter
Vin

TR1 TR3 L1
D1
vGE1 vGE3

Vout

TR2 TR4
vGE2 vGE4
D2

0V
 Isolated-output power converters

Half-bridge converter
• Very similar in principle to the full-bridge
Vin converter, but note that the rail is split by
the two capacitors, C1 and C2:

TR1 + • No over-voltage across power devices

vGE1 during reset period
C1

• Only two power devices needed

• Identical output stage (secondary- side

TR2 +
circuitry) to the full-bridge converter
vGE2
C2

OV
 Isolated-output power converters

Half-bridge converter
• Transformer design also identical, but with
Vin
half the number of primary turns

+ • One device has a floating reference electrode

TR1
vGE1 (ie., the source potential in the case of a
C1 MOSFET)

• Energy in magnetizing inductance is returned

to rail
TR2 + • Bipolar core material excitation
vGE2
C2
• Duty factors must be identical

OV
 Isolated-output power converters

Half-bridge converter
• Power drawn during each half-cycle must be
Vin identical to retain capacitor voltage balance:
resistors usually added in parallel1 to correct
+ for any minor imbalances. These also address
TR1
vGE1
imbalances de to differences in capacitor
C1 parallel leakage currents.
• Again, like the full-bridge converter, a DC
decoupling capacitor is sometimes used

TR2 +
vGE2
C2

OV
1Regulatory standards normally require that capacitors charged to hazardous voltages are shunted with resistors
in any case. This is to ensure their discharge to a safe voltage within a prescribed maximum time period after
circuit de-energisation.
 Isolated-output power converters

Push-pull converter
Main properties:

Vin • Input current is always

discontinuous
Vout
• Voltage rating of diode = Vin

• Voltage rating of switches = 2Vin

TR1 TR2
• Magnetic components = N + 1
vGE1 vGE2

0V
 Isolated-output power converters
Push-pull converter

The push-pull converter has the advantage that both the power devices are
referenced to 0V.

However, it is very infrequently encountered in practice due to a major drawback:

this is the need for the power switches to support twice the input voltage.

Also, copper utilisation in the transformer is poor.

 Isolated-output power converters

Finally, a word of caution when designing any of the isolated-output

circuits based on the buck converter:

The secondary turns numbers

for each output are arranged etc.
so that the required voltages
are derived.
Vout(2)
However, a problem arises if
one output goes into the DCM
mode whilst the others stay in
the CCM mode: the voltage gains
Vout(1)
can diverge considerably.
 Isolated-output power converters

We’ll now look at the second family of isolated-output converters, those derived
from the buck-boost converter, namely, the

• single-switch flyback and

• dual-switch flyback
 Isolated-output power converters

Single-switch flyback converter

Looks similar to single-switch forward

Vin converter, but:

Note the winding polarities:

Vout
Dout effectively disconnects N2 during Ton and
N2 “disappears” from the circuitry during this
period.
TR1
Also, no output choke or freewheel diode.
0V
Isolated-output power converters

Single-switch flyback converter

Vin
When TR1 is on, all the primary current is driven
into the magnetizing branch.
Vout
Again, note the winding polarities: Dout effectively
disconnects N2 during ton and N2 “disappears”
TR1 from the circuitry during this period.

0V
 Isolated-output power converters

Single-switch flyback converter

When TR1 is turned off, the core flux ϕ in T1
Vin
decays and current flows in N2:

dϕ/dt reverses, and consequently the voltages

Vout across N1 and N2 must also reverse (recall
Faraday’s law).

TR1 Debatable whether T1 is a “Transformer” in the

commonly- accepted sense.
0V

Exercise: sketch the principal circuit waveforms.

Isolated-output power converters
 Isolated-output power converters

Single-switch flyback converter

Main properties:
Vin
• Both input and output currents are always
discontinuous: this is expected as we have said
previously that it is derived from the buck-boost
Vout
converter.
δ
• Voltage gain is: 𝑛
1−δ
TR1
Again, this is expected.

0V
Isolated-output power converters
Single-switch flyback converter

Main properties:
etc.
• Number of magnetic components is only one,
regardless of the number of outputs
Vout(2)
Vin
• Very good output cross-regulation when used with
multiple secondary windings
Vout(1)
• No problem with one output being in discontinuous
operation whilst others are in continuous mode: this
situation does not arise.
TR1

0V
 Isolated-output power converters

Single-switch flyback converter

Main properties:
Vin
• Unidirectional core flux excursion

Vout • Duty factors above 50% possible

• Ideally the off-state voltage across the TR1 is

given by Vin + Vout/n.

TR1 • However, the effects of leakage inductances

at TR1 turn-off normally have to be taken into
account.
0V
 Isolated-output power converters

Single-switch flyback converter

Vin For this reason, an over-voltage clamp is often

needed.

Vreset Vout
Vreset is selected such that:

• Vreset + Vs is less than TR1’s breakdown voltage

• but Vreset is greater than Vout/n where n is the

transformer’s turns ratio
TR1

0V
 Isolated-output power converters

Dual-switch flyback converter

Vin At first sight, this looks similar to the dual switch

D1
forward converter. However, as with the single-
Dr switch flyback converter:
TR1

• Note the winding polarities: Dout effectively

Vout disconnects N2 during Ton and N2 “disappears”
from the circuitry during this period.
D2 TR2 T1

• Also, no output choke or freewheel diode.

0V
 Isolated-output power converters

Dual-switch flyback converter

Vin
Unlike the dual-switch forward converter,
D1 D1 and D2 are not there to return magnetising
Dr
TR1 current to the supply rail - ideally this is absorbed
by the output voltage sink.
Vout
Instead they are there to clamp over-voltages
D2 TR2 T1 across TR1 and TR2 attributable to stray and
leakage Inductances.

0V
 Isolated-output power converters

Dual-switch flyback converter

Main properties: similar to the single-

switch type, but:
Vin
• Duty factor is limited to 50%
D1
Dr
TR1 • No need for voltage clamp other
than the diodes shown
Vout
• Voltage rating of output diode = Vout+nVin
D2 TR2 T1
• Voltage rating of switches = Vin

0V
 Isolated-output power converters

Further reading

B. W. Williams, “Power Electronics: Devices, Drivers, Applications and Passive

Components”, 2nd Edn., Macmillan, London, 1992

N. Mohan, T. Undeland and W. P. Robbins, 2nd Edn., “Power Electronics: Converters,

Applications and Design”, John Wiley and Sons Inc., 1995

R. W. Erickson and D. Maksimovic, “Fundamentals of Power Electronics”, 2nd Edn.,

Springer, 2001

Commercial websites

Power Integrations Inc.: www.powerint.com (Useful application notes on design of off-

line (mains) flyback converters and forward converters.)