Chemical Reactions and Equations

Definition: A chemical reaction is a process where substances

undergo a transformation to form new substances with different
properties through the breaking and formation of bonds between atoms.

Formation of hydrogen gas by the

action of dilute sulphuric acid on
zinc.
Burning of natural gas.
Burning of coal.
Formation of water from
hydrogen gas and oxygen gas.
Corrosion of iron leading to rust
formation, etc.

Evaluation of reaction
.0
Following are the 4 key parameters to evaluate the presence of a reaction:

2
Change in state

ng Change in colour Evolution of gas Change in temperature

ni
ar
L e
e →
Chemical Equations: A chemical equation is a symbolic
representation of a chemical reaction using chemical formulae A+B C+D

iv
instead of words.

t
Chemical equations symbolize reactions with formulas.

ea
Reactants change on the left (L.H.S.), products form on the right (R.H.S.).
Conditions like catalysts or temperature are noted above the arrow.

r
States like solid (s), liquid (l), and gas (g) can be added.
Unbalanced equations lack equal atoms; balanced ones have them.

C → 2Mg (s) + O₂ (g) 2MgO (s)

Balancing of Chemical equations:

Aim : Equal atoms on both sides.
Need : Law of Conservation of Mass; Mass can neither be created nor destroyed.
Unbalanced equation : Fe + H₂O → Fe₃O₄ + H₂
Subscript

Subscripts won't change (they are part of formulas)

1
 Make a table of atoms of RHS and LHS Since RHS ≠ LHS, it is an unbalanced equation.
Find a complex molecule like Fe₃O₄ ( Present on the
product side), Multiply ( 3 x Fe & 4 x O on L.H.S.)
Atoms Fe H O
You get : 3Fe + 4H₂O → Fe₃O₄ + H₂ ;
Balance rest of H atoms, Multiply H (R.H.S) by 4.
R.H.S (Product Side) 3 2 4 3Fe + 4H₂O → Fe₃O₄ + 4H₂ (Balanced Equation).
If you get fractional coefficient, multiply both sides
by denominator to get whole numbers
L.H.S (Reactant Side) 1 2 1 Recheck your balancing by making the table again.

Types of reactions

Combination Decomposition Displacement Double-displacement Redox

1. Combination reaction: Two or more substances combine to form a new single substance. {A + B → AB}
Examples;
→
0
CaO (s) + H₂O (l) Ca(OH)₂ (aq) + Heat

.
Calcium hydroxide in whitewash reacts with air's CO₂ to form calcium carbonate, giving walls a shiny finish (like
marble, CaCO₃).
Ca(OH)₂ (aq) + CO₂ (g) →CaCO₃ (s) + H₂O (l)

2
g
2Mg (s) + O₂ (g) ➔ 2MgO (s)
Burning of coal: C (s) + O₂ (g) ➔ CO₂ (g)

in
Formation of water: 2H₂ (g) + O₂ (g) →
→
Burning of natural gas: CH₄ (g) + 2O₂ (g)
→
2H₂O (l)
CO₂ (g) + 2H₂O (g)

n
Respiration: C₆H₁₂O₆ (aq) + 6O₂ (aq) 6CO₂ (aq) + 6H₂O (l) + energy

ar
2. Decomposition reaction: One compound decomposes to two or more compounds. {AB
used for decomposition, it is called as thermal decomposition.
→ A + B} If heat is
Examples:
2FeSO₄ (s)

Le Heat
Fe₂O₃ (s) + SO₂ (g) + SO₃ (g)
Heating ferrous sulfate crystals (FeSO₄ • 7H₂O) causes
loss of water molecules, changing it’s color. Further heating

ve
decomposes the remaining anhydrous FeSO₄ into ferric oxide,
sulfur dioxide and sulfur trioxide.

i
t
CaCO₃ (s) Heat CaO(s) + CO₂ (g)
Heating calcium carbonate decomposes it to lime (calcium oxide) and carbon dioxide. This reaction is important in

a
industries like cement manufacturing.

re
2AgCl(s) Sunlight 2Ag(s) + Cl₂ (g)
Sunlight turns Silver Chloride from white to grey as light decomposes it into metallic silver and chlorine gas. The

C
same is observed for Silver Bromide;
2AgBr(s) Sunlight 2Ag(s) + Br₂ (g)
Both these reactions are used in black and white photography.

3. Displacement reaction: More reactive element displaces less reactive element. {A + BC → AB + C}

Examples:
Pb(s) + CuCl₂ (aq) →PbCl₂ (aq) + Cu(s)
Fe(s) + CuSO₄ (aq) → FeSO₄ (aq) + Cu(s)
Zn(s) + CuSO₄ (aq) → ZnSO₄ (aq) + Cu(s)

Lead, Ferrous, and Zinc are more reactive than Copper. Thus, they displace copper from its compounds.

2
4. Double-displacement reaction: Exchange of ions between two reactants forming new compounds.
{AB + CD →
AC + BD}
Example:
Na₂SO₄ (aq) + BaCl₂ (aq) →BaSO₄ (s) + 2NaCl (aq)
Adding Ba²⁺ to SO₄²⁻ forms a white, insoluble precipitate (BaSO₄); such reactions can also be called precipitation
reaction. NaCl remains dissolved.

5. Redox reaction: Simultaneous oxidation and reduction is called a Redox reaction.

Example: Oxidation

CuO + H₂ Heat Cu + H₂O

Reduction

ZnO + C →+ Zn + CO
MnO₂ + 4HCl →
MnCl₂ + 2H₂O + Cl₂

Oxidation Reduction

Addition of oxygen Addition of Hydrogen

.0
Loss of Hydrogen
Loss of Electrons
Removal of Oxygen
Gain of Electrons
2 H₂

g
2Cu + O₂ Heat 2CuO CuO + H₂ Heat Cu + H₂O

in
Reactions can also be classified into:

rn Exothermic Endothermic

CaO + H₂O →
ea
The reaction produces heat energy.
Ca(OH)₂ (aq) + Energy
The reaction absorbs heat energy.
All decomposition reactions are endothermic since

L
Respiration: C₆H₁₂O₆ (aq) + 6O₂ (g)
6CO₂(g) + Energy

e
→
6H₂O (l) +

Conversion of vegetable matter into compost.

they require energy for breaking down the bonds.
CaCO₃(s) →
CaO (s) + CO₂ (g)

tiv Effects of oxidation in daily life:

ea
Corrosion: Attacks of surrounding moisture, gases, acids, etc. on the metal converts it into undesirable products.
This process is called corrosion.

r
black coating on silver
green coating on copper: 2Cu(s) + CO₂(g) + O₂(g) + H₂O (l)

C
Rusting of Iron
→
CuCO₃.Cu(OH)₂

4Fe(s) + 3O₂(g) + H₂O (l) →

2Fe₂O₃.xH₂O (s)
Protect Fe from rusting with Painting, Greasing, or Oiling, Galvanisation.

Rancidity: Food materials containing fats and oils become rancid (have unpleasant smell and taste) upon exposure
to air via oxidation.
Antioxidants are substances that prevent oxidation, and are often added to such foods.
Air-tight containers also slow down the rancidity process.

3
 Activity

Activity 1.1

Clean a magnesium ribbon about 3-4 cm long by rubbing it with sandpaper.

Hold it with a pair of tongs. Burn it using a spirit lamp or burner and collect the ash so formed in a watch-glass
as shown in Fig. Burn the magnesium ribbon keeping it away as far as possible from your eyes.
What do you observe?

.0
2
ng
Observation

ni
White ash from MgO is formed as Mg ribbon burns with bright white flame.

ar
Take lead nitrate solution in a test tube.
Activity 1.2

Le
Add potassium iodide solution to this.
What do you observe?

ive
at
re Pb(NO₂)₂ solution

C
Yellow ppt. of PbI₂

Observation
KNO₃ dissolves in water and PbI₂ precipitates out as yellow solid.
4
 Activity 1.3

Take a few zinc granules in a conical flask or a test tube.

Add dilute hydrochloric acid or sulphuric acid to this fig
Do you observe anything happening around the zinc granules?
Touch the conical flask or test tube. Is there any change in its temperature?

.0
2
Observation

ng
i
An odourless, colorless gas (H₂) is evolved and flask gets hot.

n
Activity 1.4

ar
Take a small amount of calcium oxide or quick lime in a beaker.
Slowly add water to this.
Touch the beaker as shown in Fig. n

e
Do you feel any change in temperature?

L
ive
at
re
C
Observation
Beaker gets hot and reaction is highly vigorous in nature

CaO(s) + H₂O(l) → Ca(OH)₂(aq) + HEAT

slaked lime
5
 Activity 1.5

Take about 2 g ferrous sulphate crystals in a dry boiling tube.

Note the colour of the ferrous sulphate crystals.
Heat the boiling tube over the flame of a burner or spirit lamp as shown in Fig.
Observe the colour of the crystals after heating.

.0
2
Observation

ng
i
Colourless gases are released from the test tube, green color is changed with characteristic odour of burning
sulphur

rn Activity 1.6

a
Take about 2 g lead nitrate powder in a boiling tube.
Hold the boiling tube with a pair of tongs and heat it over a flame, as shown in Fig.

e
What do you observe? Note down the change, if any.

e L
tiv
ea
Cr
Observation
Red brown fumes (NO₂) are emitted during heating and some yellow residue (PbO) remains in the test tube

2Pb(NO₃ )₂ (s) → 2PbO(s) + 4NO₂ (g) + O₂ (g)

6
 Activity 1.7

Take a plastic mug. Drill two holes at its base and fit rubber stoppers in these holes. Insert carbon electrodes
in these rubber stoppers as shown in Fig.
Connect these electrodes to a 6 volt battery.
Fill the mug with water such that the electrodes are immersed. Add a few drops of dilute sulphuric acid to the
water.
Take two test tubes filled with water and invert them over the two carbon electrodes.
Switch on the current and leave the apparatus undisturbed for some time.
You will observe the formation of bubbles at both the electrodes. These bubbles displace water in the test
tubes.
Is the volume of the gas collected the same in both the test tubes?
Once the test tubes are filled with the respective gases, remove them carefully. Test these gases one by one
by bringing a burning candle close to the mouth of the test tubes.
What happens in each case? Which gas is present in each test tube?

.0
2
ng
ni
Observation

ar
Bubbles are observed in both the test tubes, burning matchstick produces a pop sound, when in contact with H₂

e
gas. ( at Cathode ) and volume of gas collected in right test tube is twice than left test tube.

e L
Take about 2 g silver chloride in a china dish.
Activity 1.8

What is its colour? n Place this china dish in sunlight for some time

tiv
Observe the colour of the silver chloride after some time.

ea
Cr
Observation
Cl₂ gas escapes and (White) silver Chloride turns grey.

2AgCl(s) + Sunlight → 2Ag(s) + Cl₂ (g)

7
 Activity 1.9

Take three iron nails and clean them by rubbing with sand paper.
Take two test tubes marked as (A) and (B). In each test tube, take about 10 mL copper sulphate solution.
Tie two iron nails with a thread and immerse them carefully in the copper sulphate solution in test tube B for
about 20 minutes. Keep one iron nail aside for comparison.
After 20 minutes, take out the iron nails from the copper sulphate solution.
Compare the intensity of the blue colour of copper sulphate solutions in test tubes (A) and (B).
Also, compare the colour of the iron nails dipped in the copper sulphate solution with the one kept aside.

.0
2
Observation

g
The blue colour of copper sulphate solution fades and the iron nails taken out from CuSO₄ solution turns brown

n
i
& (green colour) FeSO₄ is formed
Fe(s) + CuSO₄ (aq) →FeSO₄ (aq) + Cu(s)

rn Activity 1.10

a
Take about 3 mL of sodium sulphate solution in a test tube.
In another test tube, take about 3 mL of barium chloride solution.

e
Mix the two solutions

L
What do you observe?

ive
at
re
C
Observation
White insoluble precipitate of BaSO₄ is formed.

Na₂SO₄ (aq) + BaCl₂ (aq) → BaSO₄ (s) + 2NaCl(aq)

8
 Activity 1.11

Heat a china dish containing about 1 g copper powder

What do you observe?

0
Observation
A Black Substance of Copper oxide is formed over Copper
2Cu + O₂ →
2CuO

2.
ng
ni
ar
Le
ive
at
re
C

9
 Acids, Bases, and Salts
ACIDS BASES

Sour in taste. Bitter in taste and soapy in touch .

Release H+ ions in water. Release OH- ions in water.
Change the color of blue litmus to red. Change the color of red litmus to blue.

Indicators are substances that indicate the acidic or basic nature. They can either be:

Natural Olfactory Synthetic

obtained via natural sources, their odour/smell changes in they are synthesized in labs.
eg- turmeric, litmus, red acidic and basic media. Eg.- Eg.- Methyl orange,
cabbage, flower petals of Vanilla, clove, onion, etc. Phenolphthalein, etc.
Hydrangea, Petunia, and
Geraniumetc.

Indicator Acid Base

Red Litmus No change Blue
Blue Litmus
Turmeric
Red
No change

.0
No Change
Red- brown
Red cabbage
Onion
Red-Pink
No Change
2
Green- yellow
No smell
Vanilla
Phenolpthalein

ng No Change
Colorless
No smell
Pink
Methly orange

ni Red Yellow

Litmus solution is a purple dye (in neutral state) derived from lichens and is used as an acid-base indicator.

ar CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF ACIDS AND BASES

Le 1. Reaction Of Acids With Metals

Upon reaction with metals, the hydrogen atoms of acids get displaced by the metal in the form of H₂ gas and for a

Examples:

ive
compound called salt.

→
Acid + Metal →Salt + Hydrogen gas

t
2NaOH(aq) + Zn(s) Na₂ZnO₂(s) + H₂ (g)
Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) → ZnCl₂ (aq) + H₂ (g)

a
Mg(s) + H₂SO₄(aq)

e
→ MgSO₄(aq) + H₂ (g)

r
2. Reaction Of Acids With Metal Carbonates and Metal Hydrogencarbonates

C
On reacting with metal carbonates and metal hydrogencarbonates, acids produce salt, carbon dioxide, and water.
Metal carbonate/Metal hydrogencarbonate + Acid →
Salt + CO₂ + H₂O
Examples:
2NaHCO₃(aq) + H₂SO₄(aq) →
NaCl(aq) + CO₂ + Water
2Na₂CO₃(aq) + 2HCl(aq) →
2NaCl(aq) + CO₂ + Water SALT

3. Reaction Between Acids And Bases (Neutralisation reaction)

An acid nullifies the effect of base and vice-versa. Hence, it is referred to as neutralisation reaction.
They react to give salt and water, i.e., Acid + Base →Salt + Water.
Example:
NaOH (aq) + HCl (aq) →NaCl (aq) + H₂O (l)
HCl (aq) + Ca(OH)₂ (aq) →
CaCl₂ (aq) + H₂O (l)
10
 4. Reaction Of Acids With Metal Oxides (Metal Oxide + Acid → Salt + Water)
CuO (s) + 2HCl (aq) →CuCl₂ (aq) + H₂O (l)
The produced copper chloride solution turns blue-green in color. This coloration is due to the formation of
copper(II) chloride.

5. Reaction of Bases With Non-metallic Oxides (Non-Metal Oxide + Base → Salt + Water)
CO₂ (g) + Ca(OH)₂ (aq) →
CaCO₃ (aq) + H₂O (l)
CO₂ (g) + 2NaOH (aq) →
Na₂CO₃ (aq) + H₂O (l)
Non-metal oxides are acidic in nature.

What is common in all acids and bases?

All acids have positively charged H⁺ ions called cations and negatively charged anions like Cl⁻ (HCl), No₃⁻ (HNO₃),
SO₄²⁻ (H₂SO₄), etc.
Since H⁺ is the common ion in all acids, it imparts the acidic character.
Similarly, OH⁻ ions are common in all bases, i.e., they impart the basic character.

What happens to acids/bases in water solution?

.0
Acids produce H⁺ ions only in water solution and cannot exist alone. Thus, it is always written as either H⁺(aq.) or
H₃O⁺ (hydronium ion).
HCl + H₂O → H₃O⁺ + Cl⁻
2
g
Likewise, bases produce OH⁻ ions in water.
NaOH(s) + H₂O → Na⁺ + OH⁻

in
All bases are not soluble in water; the soluble ones are called alkali.
Always the acid or base is added to the water and never the other way round.

n
The addition should always be slow and with constant stirring to avoid corrosion and heat generated from the
highly exothermic reaction.

ar Strength of Acids and Bases

Le
pH scale is used to measure the strength of the acid/base.
The “p” in pH is German and stands for potenz, which means power.
For neutral solutions, like distilled water, the pH = 7

e
For acidic solutions, the pH < 7.
For basic medium, the pH > 7.

v
The higher the hydronium ion concentration, lower is the pH value.

i
The strengths of acids and bases are directly proportional to the number of H⁺ and OH⁻ ions respectively.

t
Universal Indicator: It is a mixture of several indicators which shows different colors at different H⁺ ion

a
concentration.

re
C
pH of some common susbstances:

pH
1.2
Substance
Gastric juices

2.2 Lemon juice

7.4 Water, Blood

10 Milk of Magnesia

14 Sodium Hydroxide Solution

11
 pH in Everyday Life
t
Antacids - Given to neutralise acidity in stomach.
pH Phenomena [Mg(OH)₂] - Milk of Magnesia, NaHCO₃ - baking
soda, etc.
Bacteria present in mouth causes tooth decay by
7.0 to 7.8 Working range of human body producing acid via breaking down leftover sugars
and food particles.
It corrodes the enamel (Calcium
1.5 to 3.5 pH of stomach hydroxyapatire) Ca₃(PO4)₂.
Toothpastes are basic and help in preventing
this decay.
5.6 Acid rain’s pH Self-defense in plants and animals:
Nettle leaf sting is painful because of
methanoic acid secretion. It can be relieved
5.5 Tooth decay by rubbing leaves of dock plant.
Bee sting: Bee sting leaves an acid, causing
Soil’s pH for healthy plant pain. Baking soda is used for relieving this
6.1 to 7
growth pain.

Salts
.0
Salts may be defined as ionic compounds produced by neuralization reactions.
They are electrically neutral crystalline in nature.
2
ng
Most salts are soluble in water.
Salt solutions and their molten state conduct electricity.

Examples:

ni
Family of salts: Salts having common acidic and basic radicals belong to the same family.

ar
Chloride family - NaCl, CaCl₂
Sodium family - NaCl , Na₂SO₄
Sulphate family - K₂SO₄, CuSO₄, MgSO₄, Na₂SO₄

pH of Salts:

Le
SALT COMPOSITION pH NATURE

ive
Strong acid + strong base

Strong acid + weak base

7

less than 7
Neutral

Acidic

at
Weak acid + strong base more than 7 Basic

re
Chemicals from common salt:
Seawater contains a variety of salts, with sodium chloride (common salt) being a primary component.

C
Sodium chloride is extracted from the mixture of dissolved salts present in seawater.
Across the globe, there are deposits of solid salt known as rock salt, which typically appears brown due to
impurities.
Rock salt beds were created from the evaporation of ancient seas and are mined using methods similar to
coal extraction.
The common salt (NaCl) thus obtained is a crucial raw material for various other important chemicals like
sodium hydroxide, baking soda, washing soda, bleaching powder, etc.

12
 Sodium hydroxide (NaOH)

When electricity is passed via brine (NaCl), NaCl decomposes to form NaOH (Caustic soda).

2NaCl(aq) + 2H₂O(l) → 2NaOH(aq) + Cl₂(g) + H₂(g)

Anode: Cl₂ Cathode: H₂

Gas Released Anode: Cl₂ Cathode: H₂

NaOH is formed near the cathode.
All the three products formed in this are useful:

Uses of Cl₂: Uses of H₂: Uses of NaOH:

Water treatment Fuels Degreasing metals
Swimming pools Margarine Soaps and detergents
PVCs Ammonia for fertilisers Paper-making
Disinfectants Artificial fibers
CFCs
Pesticides

.0
2
ng
ni
ar Bleaching Powder (CaOCl₂)

Action of Chlorine gas on dry slaked lime produces bleaching powder

Uses

Le Ca(OH)₂ + Cl₂ →
In textile industry: for bleaching cotton and linen.
In paper factories: for bleaching wood pulp.
CaOCl₂ + H₂O

e
In laundry: for bleaching washed clothes.

v
As an oxidising agent in various chemical industries.

i
To produce germ-free drinking water.

at Baking Soda

e
Its common name is Sodium Hydrogencarbonate and is produced via the following reaction:

r NaCl + H₂O + CO₂ + NH₃

It is a basic salt and non-corrosive in nature.
→ NH₄Cl + NaHCO₃

C
It is frequently used in cooking and the following reaction occurs during the process:

Uses
2NaHCO₃ → Na₂CO₃ + H₂O + CO₂ (On Heating)

The CO₂ produced on heating is used to make bread and cake.

It is an ingredient of antacid.
Used in soda-acid fire extinguisher.
It is mixed with a mild edible acid like tartaric acid to form baking powder.
NaHCO₃ + H+ → CO₂ + H₂O + Sodium salt of acid

13
 Washing Soda (Na₂CO₃.10H₂O)

It is also a basic salt and is obtained via recrystallisation of Sodium Carbonate

Na₂CO₃ + 10H₂O → Na₂CO₃.10H₂O
Uses:
In glass, soap, and paper industry.
In the manufacture of borax.
For removing permanent hardness of water.
As a cleaning agent for domestic purposes.

Water of Crystallisation

It is the fixed number of water molecules present in one formula unit of a salt. For eg. CuSO₄.5H₂O (five water
of crystallisation).
Though CuSO₄.5H₂O appears dry, it contains water of crystallisation due to which the crystal appears blue.
Upon heating, the crystal loses these water of crystallisation and becomes white.
Another crystal having this property is gypsum; CaSO₄.2H₂O

Plaster of Paris (CaSO₄.1/2H₂O) Calcium Sulphate Hemihydrate

On heating gypsum at 373 K, it loses water and becomes calcium sulphate hemihydrate.
On mixing with water, it changes to gypsum.
.0
CaSO₄. 1/2 H₂O + 1.5 H₂O
(Plaster of Paris)
→
CaSO₄.2H₂O
(Gypsum)
2
g
Two formula units of CaSO₄ share one molecule of water.

n
i
Uses:
for making toys.

rn
for making decoration materials.
for making surfaces smooth.

ea
e L
tiv
ea
Cr

14
 Activity

Activity 2.3

Set the apparatus as shown in fig

Take about 5 mL of dilute sulphuric acid in a test tube and add a few pieces of zinc granules to it.
What do you observe on the surface of zinc granules?
Pass the gas being evolved through the soap solution.
Why are bubbles formed in the soap solution? n Take a burning candle near a gas filled bubble.
What do you observe?

.0
Observation
2
g
H₂ gas is produced producing pop sound with burning matchstick and bubbles of H₂ is formed on Zn surface
Zn+ H₂SO₄ →
ZnSO₄ +H₂ ↑

in Activity 2.5

rn
Take two test tubes, label them as A and B.
Take about 0.5 g of sodium carbonate (Na2CO3 ) in test tube A and about 0.5 g of sodium hydrogencarbonate

a
(NaHCO3 ) in test tube B.
Add about 2 mL of dilute HCl to both the test tubes.

Le
What do you observe?
Pass the gas produced in each case through lime water (calcium hydroxide solution) as shown in Fig and record
your observations.

ive
at
re
C
Observation
brisk effervescence is seen in both test tube and gas (CO₂) produced in each test tube that converts lime water
milky.
2NaHCO₃(aq) + H₂SO₄(aq) → NaCl(aq) + CO₂ + Water
2Na₂CO₃(aq) + 2HCl(aq) → 2NaCl(aq) + CO₂ + H₂O

15
 Activity 2.6

Take about 2 mL of dilute NaOH solution in a test tube and add two drops of phenolphthalein solution.
What is the colour of the solution?
Add dilute HCl solution to the above solution drop by drop.
Is there any colour change for the reaction mixture?
Why did the colour of phenolphthalein change after the addition of an acid?
Now add a few drops of NaOH to the above mixture.
Does the pink colour of phenolphthalein reappear? n Why do you think this has happened?

.0
Observation

2
Initially pink color is formed , which disappears after adding HCl as effect of a base is nullified by an acid and
vice versa

ng NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H₂O(l)

ni Activity 2.7

r
Take a small amount of copper oxide in a beaker and add dilute hydrochloric acid slowly while stirring.
Note the colour of the solution. What has happened to the copper oxide?

Observation

ea
Solution becomes blue-green due to formation of Copper Chloride and the copper oxide dissolves.
→
L
CuO(aq) + HCl(aq) CuCl₂(aq) + H₂O(l)

Activity 2.8

ve
Take solutions of glucose, alcohol, hydrochloric acid, sulphuric acid, etc.

i
Fix two nails on a cork, and place the cork in a 100 mL beaker.

t
Connect the nails to the two terminals of a 6 volt battery through a bulb and a switch, as shown in Fig.
Now pour some dilute HCl in the beaker and switch on the current. Repeat with dilute sulphuric acid.

ea
What do you observe? n Repeat the experiment separately with glucose and alcohol solutions. What do you
observe now? n Does the bulb glow in all cases?

Cr
Observation
Bulb Glows in presence of acids but not in case of glucose and alcohol solutions as acidic solutions have ions
which helps to conduct electricity & basic solution also have ions which helps to conduct electricity

16
 Activity 2.9

Take about 1g solid NaCl in a clean and dry test tube and set up the apparatus as shown in Fig.
Add some concentrated sulphuric acid to the test tube.
What do you observe? Is there a gas coming out of the delivery tube?
Test the gas evolved successively with dry and wet blue litmus paper.
In which case does the litmus paper change colour? n On the basis of the above Activity, what do you infer
about the acidic character of: (i) dry HCl gas (ii) HCl solution?

.0
2
ng
i
Observation
HCl gas is released which turns wet blue litmus red and HCl gas does not change color of dry blue litmus paper.
→

rn 2NaCl + H₂SO₄ Na₂SO₄ + 2HCl

Activity 2.10

ea
Take 10 mL water in a beaker. Add a few drops of concentrated H₂SO₄ to it and swirl the beaker slowly.
Touch the base of the beaker. Is there a change in temperature?

L
Is this an exothermic or endothermic process? Repeat the above activity with sodium hydroxide pellets and
record your observations.

ive
at
re
C
Observation
Base of the beaker becomes hot as the reaction is exothermic in nature.

17
 Activity 2.11

Test the pH values of solutions given in Table

Record your observations.
What is the nature of each substance on the basis of your observations?

SOLUTION pH Color pH value Nature

Saliva before meal green color 7.4 slightly basic
Saliva after meal yellow 5.8 acidic
lemon juice pink 2.5 acidic
colorless aerated drinks lime green 6 slightly acidic
carrot juice yellow/green 5.6 acidic
coffee yellow 5 acidic
Tomato juice beige color 4.1 acidic
tap water green/ lime green 7 neutral
1M NaOH Purple 13 basic
1M HCl red
Activity 2.12
0-1

0
Highly acidic

.
Put about 2 g soil in a test tube and add 5 mL water to it.
2
Shake the contents of the test tube. Filter the contents and collect the filtrate in a test tube.

ng
Check the pH of this filtrate with the help of universal indicator paper.
What can you conclude about the ideal soil pH for the growth of plants in your region?

Observation

ni
pH shows a color change when tested with Universal indicator.

ar Activity 2.14

e
Collect the following salt samples – sodium chloride, potassium nitrate, aluminium chloride, zinc sulphate, copper
sulphate, sodium acetate, sodium carbonate and sodium hydrogencarbonate (some other salts available can also
be taken).

L
Check their solubility in water (use distilled water only). Check the action of these solutions on litmus and find

e
the pH using a pH paper.

v
Which of the salts are acidic, basic or neutral? Identify the acid or base used to form the salt.

i
Report your observations in Table

SALT
Formula

at Sodium Chloride Potassium Nitrate Zinc Sulphate Copper Sulphate Sodium Carbonate Sodium Acetate
NaCl KNO₃ ZnSO₄ CuSO₄ Na₂CO₃ CH₃COONa

re
Conclusion Neutral Neutral Acidic

Activity 2.15
Slightly Acidic Basic Basic

C
Heat a few crystals of copper sulphate in a dry boiling tube.
What is the colour of the copper sulphate after heating? n Do you notice water droplets in the boiling tube?
Where have these come from?
Add 2-3 drops of water on the sample of copper sulphate obtained after heating.
What do you observe? Is the blue colour of copper sulphate restored?

Observation
Water of Crystallisation evaporates changing blue CuSO₄ crystals to white.
CuSO₄.5H₂O →
CuSO₄ + 5H₂O

18
 CH-3 Metals and non metals
Physical Properties

Properties Metals Non-Metals

Luster lustrous Non- not lustrous.

Malleability rolled into thin sheets without breaking. brittle and break into pieces under pressure

Ductility drawn into wires without breaking not ductile except graphite and carbon fiber

poor conductors of heat and electricity,

Conductivity good conductors of heat and electricity.

.0
except for graphite.

2
g
Most metals are solids at room temperature,
State can exist as solids, liquids, or gases
except for mercury which is a liquid.

in
Density

rn dense materials. lower densities compared to metals.

Melting and
Boiling Points
ea high melting and boiling points. lower melting and boiling points

e L
tiv
ea
Cr

19
Exceptions for metals
Mercury (Hg): Mercury is a metal that is liquid at room temperature, unlike other metals which are solid.
Sodium (Na) and Potassium (K): These alkali metals are so soft that they can be cut with a knife, contrary to
the usual hardness of metals.
Alloys: Alloys are mixtures of metals that may exhibit different properties than their individual components.
For example, steel (iron and carbon) is harder than pure iron.
Exceptions for non-metals
Iodine (I): Iodine is a non-metal that is lustrous, unlike the typical non-lustrous nature of non-metals.
Carbon (C): Carbon can exist in different forms called allotropes. For instance, diamond is a non-metal that is
extremely hard and does not conduct electricity, while graphite, another allotrope of carbon, is a good
conductor of electricity.
Bromine (Br): Bromine is a non-metal that exists as a liquid at room temperature, unlike most non-metals which
are solids or gases.

Chemical Properties of Metal

Reaction with air

Almost all metals combine with oxygen to form metal oxides.

Metal + Oxygen → Metal Oxide
e.g.
When copper is heated in the presence of air, it reacts with oxygen to create copper(II) oxide, which is a black
oxide.
2Cu + O₂→ CuO (Copper Oxide)
Aluminum reacts to form aluminum oxide.
→
4Al + 3O₂ 2Al₂O₃ (Aluminium Oxide)
Properties of metal oxide
Generally metal oxides are basic in nature, but some metal oxides such as aluminium oxide, zinc oxide show both
acidic as well as basic behaviour i.e. react with both acid and bases to form salt and are called amphoteric oxides.
Al₂O₃ + 6HCl→ 2AlCl₃ + 3H₂O
Al₂O₃ + 2NaOH → 2NaAlO₂ + 3H₂O
Majority of metal oxides are water-insoluble, yet certain ones can dissolve in water to create alkaline solutions.
Na₂O (s) + H₂O (l) → 2NaOH (aq)
K₂O (s) + H₂O (l) → 2KOH (aq)

20
Anodising - Anodising creates a thick oxide layer on aluminum surfaces by electrolyzing with dilute sulfuric acid
This layer improves corrosion resistance and can be dyed for aesthetics.

Reaction with water

When metals react with water, they can form metal oxides and release hydrogen gas and some oxides are
soluble in water to form metal hydroxide.
Metal + Water → Metal Oxide + Hydrogen
Metal Oxide + Water → Metal Hydroxide
Metals like potassium and sodium react violently with cold water, producing metal hydroxides and hydrogen gas.
2K(s) + 2H₂O(l)→ 2KOH(aq) + H₂(g) + heat
2Na(s) + 2H₂O(l) → 2NaOH(aq) + H₂(g) + heat
Calcium reacts with water less violently compared to potassium and sodium, forming calcium hydroxide and
hydrogen gas.
Ca(s) + 2H₂O(l) → Ca(OH)₂(aq) + H₂(g)
Magnesium reacts with hot water to form magnesium hydroxide and hydrogen gas.
Metals such as aluminum, iron, and zinc do not react with water but can react with steam to form metal oxides
and hydrogen gas.
2Al(s) + 3H₂O(g) → Al₂O₃(s) + 3H₂(g)
→
0
3Fe(s) + 4H₂O(g) Fe₃O₄(s) + 4H₂(g)

.
Metals like lead, copper, silver, and gold do not react with water at all.

2
ng
ni
ar
Le
ive Reaction with acids

at
Metals react with acids to produce a salt and hydrogen gas.
Metal + dil. Acid → Salt + H₂ gas

re
Metals react with acids to form of a salt specific to the metal and hydrogen gas as a byproduct.
2Al + 6HCl
2Mg + HCl
→
→
2AlCl₃ + 3H₂
MgCl₂ + H₂

C Zn + 2HCl→ ZnCl₂ + H₂
When a metal reacts with nitric acid, hydrogen gas is not produced
due to HNO₃'s strong oxidizing properties. Instead, HNO₃ oxidizes
H₂ to water and is itself reduced to nitrogen oxides.
Exception: Magnesium and manganese can react with diluted
HNO₃ to release hydrogen gas.
Aqua regia is a mixture of concentrated hydrochloric acid and
concentrated nitric acid in a 3:1 ratio. This highly corrosive liquid
can dissolve gold and platinum, making it a powerful reagent in
chemical processes.

21
 Reaction with solutions of other metal salts

Reactive metal displaces less reactive metal from solution of their salts.
Metal A + Salt Sol. of B → Salt Sol. of A + Metal B

Reactivity Series

The reactivity series is a list of metals organized based on their decreasing levels of activity.

K Na Ca Mg Al Zn Fe Pb [H] Cu Hg Ag Au

Most Reactivity Least

reactive decreases reactive

.0
2
n g
ni Reaction of Metals and Non-metals

ar
Reactivity of elements is a tendency to attain a completely filled valence shell
Ionic compounds are formed as

Le
Metals forms +ve charged ions by losing electrons
Non Metals forms -ve ions by gaining electrons.
e.g. when a sodium atom loses an electron, it becomes a sodium cation (Na+) with a net positive charge. Chlorine
gains an electron to become a chloride anion (Cl-) with a negative charge. Sodium and chloride ions form sodium

ve
chloride (NaCl) through strong electrostatic forces, existing as ion aggregates rather than molecules.
Similarly magnesium chloride formation takes place

→ti
→ Na →
Na⁺ + e⁻ Mg Mg²⁺ + e⁻
→
e a Cl + e⁻ Cl⁻ Cl + e⁻ Cl⁻

Cr Formation of Sodium Chloride Formation of Magnesium Chloride

22
 Properties of Ionic Compound
Ionic compounds exhibit several key properties:
Physical nature: Ionic compounds are solids that are hard and brittle due to strong inter-ionic attractions.
They break into pieces when pressure is applied.
Melting and boiling points: Ionic compounds have high melting and boiling points, as a significant amount of
energy is required to break the strong inter-ionic bonds.
LiCl < MgCl2 < CaCl2 < NaCl < CaO
Solubility: Ionic compounds are generally soluble in water, forming conductive solutions that can conduct
electricity.
Conductivity: Ionic compounds can conduct electricity when dissolved in water, as the ions are free to move and
carry charge.

Occurrence of Metals

.0
The earth's crust is a key source of metals, while
seawater contains soluble salts. Minerals found ↓ Concentration
↓ 2 ↓

g
naturally in the earth's crust are known as minerals, Metals Metals
High Metals Low
and when they have a high percentage of a metal

n reactivity Medium reactivity reactivity

↓
i
that can be extracted profitably, they are called ores.
↓ ↓ ↓ Sulphides ore

n
Electrolysis
Enrichment of Ores
(Molten Ore)
Carbonate Sulphide ↓

r
ore ore
Ores often contain impurities, known as gangue,
which must be separated before metal extraction.
↓ ↓ Roasting↓ Roasting
↓
a
Pure Metal Calcination
Various separation techniques exploit differences
↓ Metal
↓
e
↓
in the physical or chemical properties of gangue and Metal Oxide
ore for this purpose. ↓ Refining

e L Reduction
↓
Purification of metal

tiv Extraction of Metals

ea
Extracting metals with low reactivity

r
Metals low in the activity series, like mercury, can be reduced to metals by heating their oxides.
e.g.

C
Cinnabar (HgS) is converted to mercuric oxide (HgO) when heated in air, which is then further reduced to
mercury.
2HgS + 3O₂ → 2HgO + 2SO₂
2HgO → 2Hg + O₂
Copper (Cu₂S) in nature can be obtained by heating its ore in air.
2Cu₂S + 3O₂ → 2Cu₂O (s) + 2SO₂
Cu₂S + 2Cu₂O → 6Cu (s) + SO₂

23
Extracting metals with medium reactivity
Metals like iron, zinc, lead, and copper are moderately reactive and commonly found as sulphides or carbonates.
Converting sulphide and carbonate ores into oxides is necessary before metal extraction.
Roasting: Sulphide ores are roasted in excess air to convert them
2Zn (s) + 3O₂ (g) →2ZnO (s) + 2SO₂ (g)
Calcination: Carbonate ores are heated in limited air
ZnCO₃ (s) → ZnO (s) + CO₂(g)
ZnO (s) + C(s) →Zn (s) + CO (g)

.0
Highly reactive metal can be used as reducing agent as they can displace lower reactive elements from its
compounds
Reaction of manganese dioxide with aluminium powder
3MnO₂(s) + 4Al (s) →3Mn(l) + 2Al₂O₃(s) + heat
2
g
Iron oxide’s reaction with aluminium is highly exothermic reaction and is called thermite reaction
Fe₂O₃ (s) + 2Al (s)

n
→ 2Fe (l) + Al₂O₃ (l) + Heat (Thermite Reaction)

ni
Extracting metals with high reactivity
Metals high up in the reactivity series are very reactive and cannot be extracted by heating with carbon due to

r
their high affinity for oxygen.
They are obtained through electrolytic reduction, like sodium, magnesium, and calcium from their molten
chlorides.

a
e
In electrolysis, metals are deposited at the cathode while chlorine is released at the anode.
At cathode Na⁺ + e⁻ →
Na

e L
At anode 2Cl⁻ →Cl₂ + 2e⁻

Refining of Metals

tiv
Removal of impurities from Metal to obtain pure metals is refining.
Electrolytic Refining
Metals like copper, zinc, tin, etc., are refined electrolytically where

a
impure metal is the anode, pure metal is the cathode, and a metal
salt solution serves as the electrolyte.

e
Passing current dissolves pure metal from the anode into the

r
electrolyte and deposits it on the cathode.

C
Soluble impurities go into the solution, while insoluble impurities
settle as anode mud.

Corrosion

Corrosion of various elements

Silver reacts with sulphur in the air to form silver sulphide, causing it to turn black.
Copper reacts with moist carbon dioxide to form basic copper carbonate, resulting in a
green coating.
Iron exposed to moist air forms rust, a brown flaky substance.
Iron + Air ➝ Iron Oxide (Red-Brown Rust)
(Fe + O2 ➝ Fe2O3)

24
 Prevention of Corrosion
Painting Oiling Greasing Galvanising Chrome plating Anodising Making Alloys

Galvanisation: Galvanisation involves protecting steel and iron from rust by coating them with zinc, providing
protection even if the coating is damaged.
Alloying: Alloying improves metal properties by mixing with other substances. For example, iron mixed with
carbon becomes hard, while iron with nickel and chromium forms stainless steel. Any metal's properties can
change when mixed with another substance, whether metal or non-metal. Alloys are homogeneous mixtures
prepared by melting the primary metal, dissolving other elements in specific proportions, then cooling. An alloy
containing mercury is called an amalgam. Alloys have lower electrical conductivity and melting points than pure
metals. Brass (copper and zinc) and bronze (copper and tin) are poor conductors compared to copper used in
electrical circuits. Solder (lead and tin) with a low melting point is used for welding wires.

.0
2
ng
ni
ar
Le
ive
at
re
C

25
 Activity

Activity 3.1

Take samples of iron, copper, aluminium and magnesium. Note the appearance of each sample.
Clean the surface of each sample by rubbing them with sand paper and note their appearance again.

I Observation
Surface of the metal was dull, Shiny surface appears after rubbing due to removal of layers of oxides,
hydroxides, carbonates etc.

Activity 3.2

Take small pieces of iron, copper, aluminium, and magnesium. Try to cut these metals with a sharp knife and note
your observations.
Hold a piece of sodium metal with a pair of tongs.

.0
2
Observation
The case of cutting is found to be in the order Mg > AI > Cu >Fe and Sodium can be cut easily

ng Activity 3.3

i
Take pieces of iron, zinc, lead and copper.
Place any one metal on a block of iron and strike it four or five times with a hammer. What do you observe?

n
Repeat with other metals. Record the change in the shape of these metals.

r
ea
e L
t
Observation
iv
Metals can be beaten into thin sheets i.e. metals are malleable

ea Activity 3.4

r
List the metals whose wires you have seen in daily life.

C
Observation
Wires of iron, copper and aluminium are easily available, this shows that metals can be drawn into wires i.e. they
are ductile.
26
 Activity 3.5

Take an aluminium or copper wire. Clamp this wire on a stand, as shown in Fig.
Fix a pin to the free end of the wire using wax.
Heat the wire with a spirit lamp, candle or a burner near the place where it is clamped.
What do you observe after some time? Note your observations. Does the metal wire melt?

.0
I Observation
2
g
Metals wire become hot after sometime as metals are good conductor of heat and electricity.

n
i
Activity 3.6

n
Set up an electric circuit as shown in Fig.

r
Place the metal to be tested in the circuit between terminals A and B as shown.
Does the bulb glow? What does this indicate?

ea
e L
tiv
ea
r
Observation
The case of cutting is found to be in the order Mg > AI > Cu >Fe and Sodium can be cut easily

C Activity 3.7

Collect samples of carbon (coal or graphite), sulphur and iodine.

Carry out the Activities 3.1 to 3.4 and 3.6 with these non-metals and record your observations.
Observation
Metals can be beaten into thin sheets i.e. metals are malleable

Elements Surface Hardness Malleability Ductility Heat Conduction Electric Conduction Sonority
Carbon, Iodine Non Soft &
NO NO NO NO NO
& Sulphur Lustrous Brittle

27
 Activity 3.8

Take a magnesium ribbon and some sulphur powder.

Burn the magnesium ribbon. Collect the ashes formed and dissolve them in water.
Test the resultant solution with both red and blue litmus paper. n Is the product formed on burning magnesium
acidic or basic?
Now burn sulphur powder. Place a test tube over the burning sulphur to collect the fumes produced.
Add some water to the above test tube and shake. n Test this solution with blue and red litmus paper.
Is the product formed on burning sulphur acidic or basic? n Can you write equations for these reactions?

.0
2
ng
i
I Observation
When a substance is burnt in the air, it reacts with the oxygen present in the air.

rn Activity 3.9

metal samples.

ea
Hold any of the samples taken above with a pair of tongs and try burning over a flame. Repeat with the other

Collect the product if formed. n Let the products and the metal surface cool down. Which metals burn easily?

L
What flame colour did you observe when the metal burnt? n How does the metal surface appear after burning?
Arrange the metals in the decreasing order of their reactivity towards oxygen. Are the products soluble in

e
water?

tiv
ea
Cr
Observation
Metals wire become hot after sometime and it burns with different color
Products dissolve at different rate in water as surface of metals appear different.

28
 Activity 3.10

Collect the samples of the same metals as in Activity 3.9.

Put small pieces of the samples separately in beakers half-filled with cold water.
Which metals reacted with cold water? Arrange them in the increasing order of reactivity with cold water.
Did any metal produce fire on water? n Does any metal start floating after some time?
Put the metals that did not react with cold water in beakers half-filled with hot water.
For the metals that did not react with hot water, arrange the apparatus as shown in Which metals did not react
even with steam? Arrange the metals in decreasing order of reactivity with water.

.0
Observation

2
K, Na react Violently with cold water producing fire, Ca reacts less violently with cold water, Mg reacts with hot

unreactive.

ng
water only, Ca and Mg start floating sometimes, Al, Fe, and Zn react with steam only, Cu ,Pb, Ag and Au remain

ni Activity 3.11

r
Collect all the metal samples except sodium and potassium again. If the samples are tarnished, rub them clean
with sand paper.

a
Put the samples separately in test tubes containing dilute hydrochloric acid. Suspend thermometers in the test
tubes, so that their bulbs are dipped in the acid.

e
Observe the rate of formation of bubbles carefully. Which metals reacted vigorously with dilute hydrochloric

L
acid?
With which metal did you record the highest temperature? Arrange the metals in the decreasing order of

e
reactivity with dilute acids.
Observation

v
Mg reacts most vigorously followed by Al, Zn, and then Fe. Copper did not react so no bubbles temp. remained

i
unchanged. Temp increases in cases of all the metals

t Activity 3.12

ea
Take a clean wire of copper and an iron nail. Put the copper wire in a solution of iron sulphate and the iron nail in

r
a solution of copper sulphate taken in test tubes
Record your observations after 20 minutes. In which test tube did you find that a reaction has occurred?

C
On what basis can you say that a reaction has actually taken place? Can you correlate your observations for the
Activities 3.9, 3.10 and 3.11?
Write a balanced chemical equation for the reaction that has taken place. n Name the type of reaction.

Observation
Reaction occurs in the test tube with iron nail dipped in a copper sulphate solution & color of CuSO₄ solution
fades due to the formation of FeSO₄ appears
29
 Activity 3.13

Take samples of sodium chloride, potassium iodide, barium chloride or any other salt from the science
laboratory.
What is the physical state of these salts? Take a small amount of a sample on a metal spatula and heat directly
on the flame Repeat with other samples.
What did you observe? Did the samples impart any colour to the flame? Do these compounds melt?
Try to dissolve the samples in water, petrol and kerosene. Are they soluble?
Make a circuit as shown in Fig and insert the electrodes into a solution of one salt. What did you observe? Test
the other salt samples too in this manner. n What is your inference about the nature of these compounds?

.0
2
ng
i
Observation
All the salts taken were solid and each salt imparted a colour to the flame

rn
The compounds did not melt on heating and were soluble in water but not in kerosene
The electric bulb glows on passing electric current

ea Activity 3.14

Take three test tubes and place clean iron nails in each of them.

L
Label these test tubes A, B and C. Pour some water in test tube A and cork it.
Pour boiled distilled water in test tube B, add about 1 mL of oil and cork it. The oil will float on water and

e
prevent the air from dissolving in the water.
Put some anhydrous calcium chloride in test tube C and cork it. Anhydrous calcium chloride will absorb the

tiv
moisture, if any, from the air. Leave these test tubes for a few days and then observe

ea
Cr
Observation
Nails rust in test tube A due to exposure to air and water while they remain rust-free in test tubes B (water
only) and C (dry, water-free air).
30
 Carbon & its Compounds
Living structures are carbon-based, with the Earth's crust containing only 0.02% carbon in minerals like
carbonates, coal, and petroleum, while the atmosphere has 0.03% carbon dioxide.

Bonding in Carbon - The Covalent Bond

The atomic number of carbon is 6 with electronic configuration is 2, 4.

It requires, 4 electrons to achieve inert gas electronic configuration but cannot form an
ionic bond as it can potentially gain four electrons to form a C4- anion, or lose four
electrons to form a C4+ cation. However, due to its nucleus with six protons, it is
challenging to hold onto ten electrons or remove four electrons without requiring
significant energy.
Carbon overcomes this problem by sharing of its valence electrons with other carbon atoms
or with atoms of other elements.
Covalent Bond: bond formed by mutual sharing of electron pairs between two atoms in a molecule

Types of Covalent Bond

Single Covalent Bond Double Covalent Bond Triple Covalent Bond

When a single pair of electrons are

shared between two atoms in a
When two pairs of electrons are
shared between two atoms in a
.0
When three pairs of electrons are
shared between two atoms in a
molecule. For example; F₂, Cl₂, H₂ etc molecule. For example; O₂, CO₂ etc

2
molecule. For example; N₂ etc

ng Electron Dot Structure

i
It provides a picture of bonding in molecules in terms of the shared pairs of electrons and octet rule.

n
ar
Formation of H₂ Molecule Formation of O₂ Molecule Formation of N₂ Molecule Formation of CH₄ Molecule
Atomic no. of Hydrogen = 1 Atomic no. of Oxygen = 8 Atomic no. of Nitrogen = 7 Atomic no. of Carbon = 6
No. of valence electrons = 1 No. of valence electrons = 6 No. of valence electrons = 5 No. of valence electrons = 4

Le
ive
Diamond
Allotropes of Carbon

Graphite Buckminster Fullerenes

at
Carbon atoms are bonded in three-
dimensional structures, creating a
Carbon atom is bonded to three
other carbon atoms. It is a good
This allotrope of carbon-containing
cluster of 60 carbon atoms joined

e
hard, insulating material used for conductor of electricity and used as together to form spherical molecules.

r
drilling, cutting, and making jewelry. a lubricant. It is dark solid at room temperature.

C
Versatile Nature of Carbon

Carbon can form large number of compounds with itself and other elements also.
The two characteristic properties of carbon element which lead to the formation of large number of
compounds :
31
Catenations: Carbon can link with carbon atoms by means of covalent bonds to form long chains, branched
chains and closed ring.
Carbon atoms may be linked by single, double or triple bonds.
Tetravalency: Carbon has 4 valence electrons. Carbon can bond with four carbon atoms, monovalent atoms,
oxygen, nitrogen and sulphur.

Hydrocarbons

Compounds made up of hydrogen and carbon are called hydrocarbon.

There are two types of Hydrocarbons.
Saturated Hydrocarbons
Unsaturated Hydrocarbons

Saturated Hydrocarbons

Saturated hydrocarbons are those in which carbon is bounded to another carbon with a single bond

The remaining valency of carbon is fulfilled by bonding with hydrogen atoms.

Alkanes are the saturated hydrocarbons with a general formula of C n H 2n+2
Electron Dot Structure of Ethane

.0
2
ng
ni
Formulae and structures of saturated compounds of carbon and hydrogen

No. of C atoms

ar Name Formula Structure

Le Methane CH₄

ive Ethane C₂H₆

at
re3 Propane C₃H₈

C 4 Butane C₄H₁₀

5 Pentane C₅H₁₂

32
 Unsaturated Hydrocarbons
Unsaturated hydrocarbons are those in which carbon is bounded to another carbon with a double or triple bond

Alkenes and Alkynes are the unsaturated hydrocarbons

General formula of alkenes - C n H 2n
General formula of alkynes - C n H 2n-2
Electron Dot Structure of Ethene Electron Dot Structure of Ethyne

Isomerism

.0
Isomerism is the phenomenon in which more than one compounds have the same chemical formula but different
chemical structures.

2
Structural Isomerism: molecules that have the same molecular formula, but have a different arrangement of the
atoms. Example - butane

g
Unbranched Hydrocarbon Branched Hydrocarbon

in
rn
ea
e L
Cyclic Hydrocarbon

tiv
ea
Cr Cyclohexane Benzene

Bonding in Carbon - The Covalent Bond

In hydrocarbon chain, one or more hydrogen atom is replaced by other atoms in accordance with their valencies.
These are heteroatom.
These heteroatom or group of atoms which make carbon compound reactive and decides its properties are called
functional groups.
Various Functional groups are -

33
Hetero atom Class of compound Formula of functional group

—Cl, —Br
Cl/Br Halo- (Chloro/bromo)
(substituting for hydrogen atom)

Alcohol

Aldehyde

Oxygen
Ketone

.0
Carboxylic acid

2
ng
i
Homologous Series

n
It is series of compounds in which the some functional group substitutes for the hydrogen in a carbon chain.

r
Example: Alcohols – CH₃OH, C₂H₅OH, C₃H₇OH
They have same general formula.

ea
Any two homologues differ by – CH2 group and difference in molecular mass is 14µ.
They have same chemical properties as it is dependent on the functional group
But show gradual change in physical properties as melting and boiling points increase

e L
with molecular mass, and solubility in a specific solvent follows a similar pattern.

Nomenclature of Carbon Compounds

v
To identify the number of carbon atoms in a compound, the name indicates the carbon chain length and any

i
functional groups present.

t
Functional groups can be prefixes or suffixes, with modifications based on vowels.

a
Unsaturated chains replace 'ane' with 'ene' or 'yne'.
Example: Propane with a ketone group becomes propanone, while a three-carbon chain with a double bond is

e
propene and with a triple bond is propyne.

r
Functional Group Prefix/Suffix Example

C Halogen

Alcohol

Aldehyde
Prefix - Chloro, Bromo

Suffix - ol

Suffix - al
Chloropropane, Bromopropane

Propanol

Propanal

Ketone Suffix - one Propanone

Carboxylic Acid Suffix - oic acid Propanoic acid

Double Bond Suffix - ene Propene

Triple Bond Suffix - yne Propyne

34
 Chemical Properties of Carbon Compounds

Combustion Oxidation Addition Substitution

Combustion

Carbon burns in oxygen to produce carbon dioxide, heat, and light.

C + O₂ → CO₂ + heat and light
CH₄ + O₂ → CO₂ + H₂O + heat and light
CH₃CH₂OH + O₂ → CO₂ + H₂O + heat and light
Carbon and its compounds are used as fuels because they burn in air releasing lot of heat energy.
Saturated hydrocarbon generally burn in air with blue and non-sooty flame.
Unsaturated hydrocarbon burns in air with yellow sooty flame because percentage of carbon is higher than
saturated hydrocarbon which does not get completely oxidized in air.
Note
When wood or charcoal burns, volatile substances vaporize and initially burn with a flame due to gaseous
substances burning.
A luminous flame is produced when heated atoms of the gaseous substance start to glow, and the color of
the flame is characteristic of the element burning.

Oxidation

.0
2
Carbon compounds can be oxidised in the presence of oxygen in the presence of oxidising agent.
Alcohols can be converted to carboxylic acid in presence of oxidising agent alkaline KMnO4 (potassium
permangnate) or acidic potassium dichromate.

ng CH₃-CH₂-OH Alk. KMnO₄ + Heat or CH₃COOH

i
Acidified K₂Cr₂O₇ + heat

rn
ea
The pink color of KMnO₄ fades as it oxidizes the alcohol.

e L Addition

v
Unsaturated hydrocarbons react with hydrogen using catalysts like palladium or nickel to form saturated

i
hydrocarbons.

t
This process, such as in hydrogenating vegetable oils with a nickel catalyst, converts long unsaturated carbon
chains in oils to saturated ones.

ea
Cr
Saturated fatty acids in animal fats are considered less healthy than unsaturated fats in vegetable oils.

Substitution

Saturated hydrocarbons are typically unreactive but react quickly with chlorine in sunlight, undergoing
substitution reactions where chlorine atoms replace hydrogen atoms.
This process forms various products with higher alkane homologues.

CH₄ + Cl₂ CH₃Cl + HCl

35
 Some Important Carbon Compounds

Ethanol

Physical Properties
Ethanol is characterized by a colorless appearance, a mild aroma, and a burning flavor.
It exhibits solubility in water.
As a volatile liquid, it possesses a low boiling point of 351 Kelvin.
Drinking diluted ethanol causes intoxication, a common but condemned practice. However, consuming even a small
amount of pure ethanol (absolute alcohol) can be lethal.

.0
Chemical Properties
2
g
Reaction with Sodium: When alcohols react with sodium, hydrogen is produced. Ethanol reacts with sodium to
produce sodium ethoxide.

n →
i
2Na + 2C₂H₅OH 2CH₃CH₂O-Na+ + H₂
sodium ethoxide

rn
Reaction to give unsaturated hydrocarbon: Heating ethanol with concentrated sulphuric acid at 443 K results
in the dehydration to produce ethene.

ea CH₃-CH₂-OH conc. H₂SO₄

443K
H₂SO₄ is used as dehydrating agent for removal of water.
CH₂=CH₂ + H₂O

e L
Physical Properties
Ethanoic Acid

v
Ethanoic acid, also known as acetic acid, is a carboxylic acid found in vinegar as a preservative.

ti
Its melting point is 290 K, leading to the name "glacial acetic acid."
Carboxylic acids are weak acids, unlike mineral acids like HCl, and are known for their acidic nature.
Chemical Properties

ea
Esterification Reaction: Esters are commonly formed by combining acid and alcohol, like ethanoic acid with
ethanol, using an acid catalyst.

Cr
Esters are used in perfumes and flavorings.
When treated with sodium hydroxide, they turn into alcohol and sodium carboxylate, a process known as
saponification used in soap making.
CH₃COOC₂H₅ + NaOH →
C₂H₅OH + CH₃COONa

Reaction with a base: Ethanoic acid reacts with a base like sodium hydroxide to produce sodium ethanoate
(sodium acetate) and water.
NaOH + CH₃COOH → CH₃COONa + H₂O

36
Reaction with carbonates and hydrogencarbonates: Ethanoic acid reacts with carbonates and hydrogen
carbonates to produce sodium acetate, carbon dioxide, and water.
2CH₃COOH + Na₂CO₃ →2CH₃COONa + H₂O
CH₃COOH + NaHCO₃ → CH₃COONa + H₂O + CO₂

Soaps and Detergents

Soap is sodium or potassium salt of long chain carboxylic acid. Example: C17H35COONa+
Soaps are effective only in soft water.
Detergents are ammonium or sulphonate salt of long chain of carboxylic acid.
Detergents are effective in both hard and soft water.
Soap molecule has:
Ionic (hydrophilic) part
Long hydrocarbon chain (hydrophobic) part

Cleansing Action of Soap

Most dirt is oily in nature and hydrophobic end attaches itself with dirt and the ionic end is surrounded with
molecule of water.
This result in formation of a radial structure called micelles.

0
Soap micelles helps to dissolve dirt and grease in water and cloth gets cleaned.
Soap is mixture of miscelles and

scum. This scum create difficulty in cleansing action.

2.
The magnesium and calcium salt present in hard water react with soap molecule to form insoluble product called

By use of detergent, insoluble scum is not formed with hard water and cloths get cleaned effectively.

ng
ni
ar
Le
ive
at
re
C

37
 Activity

Activity 4.2

Calculate the difference in the formulae and molecular masses for (a) CH₃OH and C₂H₅OH (b) C₂H₅OH and
C₃H₇OH, and (c) C₃H₅OH and C₄H₉OH.
Is there any similarity in these three?
Arrange these alcohols in the order of increasing carbon atoms to get a family. Can we call this family a
homologous series?

Observation
Formula differences: -CH₂ with molecular weight differences: -14u and all contains -OH group.
Ascending order CH₃OH, C₂H₅OH, C₃H₇OH, C₄H₉OH.

Activity 4.3

Take some carbon compounds (naphthalene, camphor, alcohol) one by one on a spatula and burn them.
Observe the nature of the flame and note whether smoke is produced.
Place a metal plate above the flame. Is there a deposition on the plate in case of any of the compounds?

.0
2
ng
i
Observation
Camphor and alcohol produce a clean blue luminous flame without soot,

rn
Naphthalene combustion results in a yellow flame with abundant black smoke.

Activity 4.4

ea
Light a bunsen burner and adjust the air hole at the base to get different types of flames/presence of smoke.
When do you get a yellow, sooty flame?

L
When do you get a blue flame?

ive
at
re
C
Observation
Closing the Bunsen burner's hole results in an incomplete, yellow sooty flame due to inadequate gas combustion.
Opening burners hole yields a blue, fully combusted flame

38
 Activity 4.5

Take about 3 mL of ethanol in a test tube and warm it gently in a water bath.
Add a 5% solution of alkaline potassium permanganate drop by drop to this solution.
Does the colour of potassium permanganate persist when it is added initially?
Why does the colour of potassium permanganate not disappear when excess is added?

Observation
Initially, KMnO₄ color vanishes as it oxidizes ethanol to ethanoic acid.
In excess, KMnO₄ retains color due to halted alcohol reaction.

Activity 4.6

Drop a small piece of sodium, about the size of a couple of grains of rice, into ethanol (absolute alcohol).
What do you observe? How will you test the gas evolved?

.0
Sodium
2
Observations

ng
Brisk effervescence due to the evolution of Hydrogen gas takes place and gas burns with a ‘pop’ sound

ni Activity 4.7

r
Compare the pH of dilute acetic acid and dilute hydrochloric acid using both litmus paper and universal indicator.
Are both acids indicated by the litmus test?

a
Does the universal indicator show them as equally strong acids?

Le
Observation

ive
t
Blue litmus paper turns red when exposed to both dilute acetic acid and dilute hydrochloric acid.
Universal indicator reveals a pH range of 3-6 for acetic acid and 2-3 for HCl.

ea Activity 4.8

Cr
Take 1 mL ethanol (absolute alcohol) and 1 mL glacial acetic acid along with a
few drops of concentrated sulphuric acid in a test tube.
Warm in a water-bath for at least five minutes as shown in Fig.
Pour into a beaker containing 20-50 mL of water and smell the resulting mix.

Water

Observation
Sweet-smelling ester,i.e. ethyl acetate is produced
conc. H₂SO₄ removes the water formed during the reaction and
thus shifts the equilibrium in the forward direction.

39
 Activity 4.9

Set up the apparatus as shown in Chapter 2, Activity 2.5.

Take a spatula full of sodium carbonate in a test tube and add 2 mL of dilute ethanoic acid. n What do you
observe?
Pass the gas produced through freshly prepared lime-water. What do you observe?
Can the gas produced by the reaction between ethanoic acid and sodium carbonate be identified by this test?
Repeat this Activity with sodium hydrogencarbonate instead of sodium carbonate.

.0
Observation
2
g
Brisk effervescence due to the evolution of carbon dioxide (CO₂) gas is produced
When CO₂ gas changes lime water milky due to the formation of insoluble calcium carbonate.

in Activity 4.10

rn
Take about 10 mL of water each in two test tubes.
Add a drop of oil (cooking oil) to both the test tubes and label them as A and B.

a
To test tube B, add a few drops of soap solution. n Now shake both the test tubes vigourously for the same
period of time.

Le
Can you see the oil and water layers separately in both the test tubes immediately after you stop shaking them?
Leave the test tubes undisturbed for some time and observe. Does the oil layer separate out? In which test
tube does this happen first?

A B

ive
at
re
C
Observations
In test-tube B only one layer was observed which shows oil dissolves in soap.
In test tube A , two separate layers-one of water and the other of oil were seen.

40
 Activity 4.11

Take about 10 mL of distilled water (or rain water) and 10 mL of hard water (from a tubewell or hand-pump) in
separate test tubes.
Add a couple of drops of soap solution to both.
Shake the test tubes vigorously for an equal period of time and observe the amount of foam formed.
In which test tube do you get more foam? n In which test tube do you observe a white curdy precipitate?

Observation
The test tube containing distilled water produces foam readily.
A test tube that contains hard water produces a curdy white precipitate due to the formation of insoluble Ca or

0
Mg salts.

Activity 4.12

Take two test tubes with about 10 mL of hard water in each.

Add five drops of soap solution to one and five drops of detergent solution to the other.
2.
ng
Shake both test tubes for the same period. Do both test tubes have the same amount of foam?
In which test tube is a curdy solid formed?

ni
ar
Le
ive
at
re
Observations
The test tube containing soap solution has little foam with ppt formation

C
The test tube containing detergent produced a large amount of foam

41