APJ Abdul Kalam Technological University, Kerala

Module - I
Topic: Introduction to Mechatronics

Part - 1 By,
Aswin P
 Syllabus – Module 1
• Introduction to Mechatronics: Structure of
Mechatronics system.
• Sensors - Characteristics
• Temperature, flow, pressure sensors.
• Displacement, position and proximity sensing by
magnetic, optical, ultrasonic, inductive, capacitive and
eddy current methods.
• Encoders: incremental and absolute, gray coded
encoder.
• Resolvers and synchros.
• Piezoelectric sensors.
• Acoustic Emission sensors.
• Principle and types of vibration sensors.
 Introduction to Mechatronics
• Mechatronics is a japanese word which denotes
the combination of “mecha” from mechanism
and “tronics” from electronics.

• Mechatronics is defined as a multi-disciplinary

field of study that implies the synergistic
integration of electronic engineering,
electrical engineering , control engineering
and intelligent computer control with
mechanical engineering for the design and
manufacture of products and processes
 Classification based on Levels
• Level-1: Two major engineering technologies
are fused hence level would comprise of:
Electromechanical Engineering (Electrical &
Mechanical)
Digital Circuits (Electrical & Computer)
Digital Controls (Computer & Control)
Sensors and Actuators (Control & Mechanical)
 Classification based on Levels
• Level-2: Three major engineering technologies
are fused hence level would comprise of:
Micro-control (Digital Circuits & Digital Controls)
Simulation (Digital Controls & Sensors and Actuators)
System models (Sensors and Actuators &
Electromechanical Engineering)
Analog Circuits (Electromechanical Engineering &
Digital Circuits)

• Level-3: Mechatronics
Elements of a Mechatronic system
 Objectives of Mechatronics

• To improve products and processes.

• To develop novel mechanisms
• To design new products
• To creative new technology using novel
concepts
 Advantages of Mechatronics
• Comparatively low cost without compromising
quality
• Perform complicated and precise movements of
high quality
• High reliability, durability, and noise immunity
• Constructive compactness of modules
• Systems can be controlled and monitored
remotely
• Flexibility in the design
• Increasing the optimal production limits by
increasing the machine utility to the highest
extent
 Disadvantages of Mechatronics

• Different expertise required

• More complex safety issues
• Increased power requirement
 Applications of Mechatronics
• Medical --- Implant devices, assisted surgery.
• Defence --- Under water vehicles, jet engines.
• Automotive ---Climate control, antilock brake,
cruise control, air bags, speedometer display.
• Manufacturing --- Robotics , Machines
• Smart consumer products ---
• Electronic home appliances --- Home security,
microwave oven, washing machine, cameras,
sewing machines etc.
 APJ Abdul Kalam Technological University, Kerala

Module - I
Topic: Sensors and Characteristics

Part - 2 By,
Aswin P
 Sensors
• Sensors are electronic devices that measure the physical
quantity or produces a signal relating to the quantity
being measured.

• A sensor acquires a physical quantity and converts it into

a signal suitable for processing (e.g. optical, electrical,
mechanical)
• Physical quantities can be temperature, pressure, light….
• Nowadays common sensors convert measurement of
physical phenomena into an electrical signal
• When input is a physical quantity and output
electrical → Sensor

• When input is electrical and output a physical

quantity → Actuator
 Commonly Measured Quantities
Stimulus Quantity
Wave (amplitude, phase, polarization), Spectrum,
Acoustic
Wave Velocity
Biological & Chemical Fluid Concentrations (Gas or Liquid)

Charge, Voltage, Current, Electric Field (amplitude,

Electric
phase, polarization), Conductivity, Permittivity
Magnetic Field (amplitude, phase, polarization), Flux,
Magnetic
Permeability
Optical Refractive Index, Reflectivity, Absorption
Temperature, Flux, Specific Heat, Thermal
Thermal
Conductivity
Position, Velocity, Acceleration, Force, Strain, Stress,
Mechanical
Pressure, Torque
Choosing a Sensor
 Static and Dynamic Characteristics
of Sensor
• A system basically exist in two stages. A sensor
should work well in both these states.
– Transient State
– Steady State
• Transient state is a state where the system
is subjected to a sudden change. The
characteristics of sensor in this state is
known as dynamic characteristics

• Steady state is a state when the system

reaches equilibrium. The characteristics of
sensor in this state is known as static
characteristics
 Static Characteristics
• Range and Span: The region between the limits
within which an input can vary is called the
range of a sensor.
The algebraic difference between the
maximum and minimum limits of an input value is
known as span of a sensor .
For example, the temperature,
 Accuracy : Accuracy may be defined as the
degree of closeness to the true value of the
quantity being measured.
 Precision: Precision is the degree of repeatability.
Precision refers to the degree of closeness of
agreement within which a group of measurements are
repeatedly made under the prescribed conditions.

 Resolution: Resolution or Discrimination is the

smallest change in the input value that is required to
cause an appreciable change in the output.

 Sensitivity : It is defined as the ratio of the change in

output signal to change in the input quantity. If the
sensitivity is constant , then the sensor is said to be
linear one. If the sensitivity is variable, then the sensor
is said to be non-linear one.
 Noise: A signal generated by internal circuitry or external
interference that is superimposed or added to the output
signal.

 Drift: The term drift is an undesirable change or gradual

departure in output over a period of time that is unrelated
to change in input, operating conditions or load. Zero drift
is used when there is a change in output at zero input

 Non-linearity Error: The maximum deviation of the

output curve from the best-fit straight line curve during a
calibration cycle is known as non-linearity error.
 Hysteresis Error : When input increases, output also
increases and a calibration curve can be drawn. If input
is decreased from maximum value and if output does
not follow the same curve, then there will be a residual
output when input is zero. This phenomenon is called
hysteresis. The algebraic difference in output for
increasing and decreasing values is known as
Hysteresis Error.
 Threshold is the minimum value of the input required
to cause the pointer to move from zero position.

 Dead band or Dead zone is the largest range of input

values for which there is no output. It is caused by
factors such as friction, backlash and hysteresis.

 Backlash may be defined as the maximum distance or

angle through which part of a mechanical system can
be moved without causing any motion of next part of
the system.
 Dynamic Characteristics
 Speed of response: Indicates how fast the sensor
(measurement system) reacts to changes in the input
variable. (Step input)
 Rise time: Rise time is the time required for the output
to rise from 10% to 95% of the steady state value.
 Time constant: The time constant is the measure of
the inertia of the sensor and so how fast it will react to
changes in its input. The time for the output to change
by 63.2% of its maximum possible change.
 Settling time: Settling time is the time taken by a
system to be within a close range of its steady-slate
value.
 APJ Abdul Kalam Technological University, Kerala

Module - I
Topic: Temperature sensors

Part - 3 By,
Aswin P
 Temperature sensors
• Temperature can be measured by using any one
of the following principle
1. Material change in the length, volume (or)
pressure of the system as a result of change in
temperature
2. By measuring change in electrical resistance as a
result of change in temperature
3. By measuring voltage between two dissimilar
metal as a result difference in temperature
4. By measuring change in radiated energy as a
result of change in temperature
Bimetallic Thermometer
 Bimetallic Thermometer
• If two strips of metals (with different thermal expansion
co-efficients) at the same temperature are firmly bonded
together, a temperature change causes a differential
expansion. Hence, any change in temperature around the
bimetal strip can be measured in terms of the free end
deflection.
• bimetallic strip is fixed at one end in form of cantilever
beam, while its other end is free to move. The metal
having high coefficient of thermal expansion expands
more in length than the metal having relatively low co-
efficient of thermal expansion.
• Since these two metals are bonded in cantilever form, as
temperature around the strip increases, the strip bends
towards the metal having low thermal expansion co-
efficient. Thus free end of the strip gets deflected and this
free end deflection is nearly proportional to the change in
temperature.
Liquid in thermometer
 Liquid in thermometer
• Liquid in glass thermometer works based on the
principle that liquid expands as the temperature of liquid
rises. The expansion causes the liquid to rise in the tube
and the rise in height of liquid is used as a measure
• For temperature measurement the bulb of thermometer
is immersed in the system (fluid) whose temperature is
to be measured.
• The heat from the system is transferred to mercury. Due
to heating of mercury, it expands. Since the volumetric
capacity of capillary smaller than that of bulb, hence
expansion of mercury causes rise in mercury level inside
capillary.
• The level of mercury in the capillary indicates the
temperature of calibrated scale glass stem of the
temperature
Resistance Temperature Detector
Resistance Temperature Detector
 Thermistors
• Thermistor is a contraction of term “Thermal
Resistor”. They are essentially semiconductors
which behave as registers with a high negative
temperature coefficient. As the temperature
increases, the resistance goes up. This is just
opposite to the effect of temperature changes on
metals.
• A high sensitivity to temperature changes
(decrease in resistance as much as 6% for each
10C rise in temperature in some cases) makes the
thermistors extremely useful for precision
temperature measurement.
Thermistors
Thermistors with wheatstone bridge
circuit
Thermocouples
Thermocouples
Optical pyrometer
 APJ Abdul Kalam Technological University, Kerala

Module - I
Topic: Displacement, Velocity sensors

Part - 4 By,
Aswin P
 Displacement sensor
Displacement sensors are concerned with the measurement of
amount by which some object has moved in continuous
processes, the displacement sensors are used to measure the
thickness of a sheet, the diameter of a rod.

Displacement and position sensors can be grouped into

Contact sensor and Non-contact sensor

In contact sensors, the object to be measured comes into

mechanical contact with the sensor. The movement of the
sensor element’s is used to cause a change in electrical voltage,
resistance, capacitance or mutual inductance

In Non-contact sensor, there is no physical contact between

the measured object and the sensor. The presence in the vicinity
of the measured object cause change in air pressure or change
in inductance or capacitance
 Types of Displacement sensor
Potentiometer displacement sensor

Inductive displacement sensor (LVDT, RVDT)

Strain gauge displacement sensor

Capacitive displacement sensor

 Potentiometer
• Potentiometers are mainly used to measure
displacement, pressure, position.
• It is a primary sensor which converts the linear
motion or the angular motion of a shaft into
changes in resistance.
• It is a type of resistive displacement sensor.
Principle
• Linear or Rotary potentiometer is a variable
resistance displacement transducer which uses the
variable resistance transduction principle in which
the displacement or rotation is converted into a
potential difference due to the movement of sliding
contact over a resistive element.
Potentiometer
 Potentiometer
Advantages
• Less expensive
• High output
• High electrical efficiency
• Operation is simple
• Rugged construction
Disadvantages
• Slow dynamic response
• Low resolution
• Early wear of the wiper is possible
Linear variable differential
transformer (LVDT)
Linear variable differential
transformer (LVDT)
 Capacitance Sensors
• These are variable capacitor. It is used for
measuring displacement, pressure, etc.
• The capacitive sensor consist of two parallel metal
plates separated by substance like air called
dielectric.
• In normal capacitor the distance between the plates
are fixed and this makes the capacitance of the
capacitor constant.
• In a capacitance sensor the distance between plates
is variable and there will be change in the
capacitance which can be measured easily.
Capacitance Sensors

1. Changing dielectric constant type

2. Changing area of the plates
3. Changing distance between plates
 Strain gauge
• Strain gauge is a metal wire, metal foil or a strip of
semiconductor material, these elements can be
stuck onto surfaces like a postage stamp. When
subjected to strain, its resistance R changes, the
fractional change in resistance being proportional to
the strain, ε i.e ΔR/R = Gε
• G is the gauge factor typical values are 2 for metal
foil or wires +100 for P-type, -100 for N-type
semiconductor
For R=100, G=2, the change in resistance due to
0.001 strain is ΔR=RG ε =0.2 ohm
Strain is the ratio of change in length / orignal length
Strain gauge
 Applications of strain gauges
• Strain gauges are widely used in experimental
stress analysis and diagnosis on machines and
failure analysis. They are basically used for multi-
axial stress fatigue testing, proof testing, residual
stress and vibration measurement, torque
measurement, bending and deflection measurement,
compression and tension measurement and strain
measurement.
• Strain gauges are primarily used as sensors for
machine tools and safety in automotives. In
particular, they are employed for force
measurement in machine tools, hydraulic or
pneumatic press and as impact sensors in aerospace
vehicles
Eddy Current Sensor
 Eddy Current Sensor
• Eddy current sensors are used to determine the
presence or absence of non – magnetic conductive
material. It is a non contact sensor
• When supply given to the sensing coil, it produces a
magnetic field. When this magnetic field magnetic
field cuts the work piece, it generate a eddy current in
it. Eddy current generates a magnetic field opposite to
the sensing coil’s magnetic field.
• When two magnetic fields clashes, it produces a
small distortion which is detected by signal
processing unit and then signal is modified.
• This sensor is very accurate and cost of construction
is low
Hall effect sensor
• Hall effect sensors work on the principle that when a beam of charge
particles passes through a magnetic field, forces act on the particles and
the current beam is deflected from its straight line path. Thus one side of
the disc will become negatively charged and the other side will be of
positive charge. This charge separation generates a potential difference
which is the measure of distance of magnetic field from the disc carrying
current.
• The typical application of Hall effect sensor is the measurement of fluid
level in a container. The container comprises of a float with a permanent
magnet attached at its top. An electric circuit with a current carrying disc
is mounted in the casing. When the fluid level increases, the magnet will
come close to the disc and a potential difference generates. This voltage
triggers a switch to top the fluid to come inside the container.
• These sensors are used for the measurement of displacement and the
detection of position of an object. Hall effect sensors need necessary
signal conditioning circuitry. They can be operated at 100 kHz. Their
non-contact nature of operation, good immunity to environment
contaminants and ability to sustain in severe conditions make them quite
popular in industrial automation.
Tachometer
• Tachometers is directly used to find the velocity at any instant of
time, and without much of computational load.
• This measures the speed of rotation of an element.
• There are various types of tachometers in use but a simple design is
based on the Fleming’s rule, which states “the voltage produced is
proportional to the rate of flux linkage”.
• A conductor( basically a coil) is attached to the rotating element
which rotates in a magnetic field(stator).
• As the speed of the shaft increases, the voltage produced at the coil
terminals also increases.
• Magnet is placed on the rotating shaft and a coil on the stator.
• The voltage produced is proportional to the speed of rotation of the
shaft.
• This information is digitised using an analog to digital convertor
and passed onto the computer
 APJ Abdul Kalam Technological University, Kerala

Module - I
Topic: Light sensors, Encoders,
Resolvers, Synchro, Vibration sensor

Part - 5 By,
Aswin P
 Light sensor
• These are passive devices which convert light
energy to electrical signal. Light sensors are
also known as “photo electric sensors”

• Photo-voltaic cell or Photo-emissive cell and

Photo-resistors or Photo-conductors are two
types of light sensors
 Photo-emissive sensor
• These photo devices are light sensitive
materials like cesium that releases free electron
when struck by a photon of sufficient energy.
• The energy of the depends on the frequency of
the light
• Higher the frequency, greater is the energy of
the photons which converts light energy into
electrical energy.
 Photo-conductive sensor
• These photo devices when exposed to light, their electrical
resistance varies. When a semiconductor material is exposed
to light, current flows through it and this phenomenon is
referred to as photoconductivity.
• When exposure to light increases the current for the given
applied voltage in the circuit connected with these devices.
• This change can be measured to sense the intensity of light.
The most common photo conductive material is cadmium
sulphide used in LDR photocells.
• The equation to show the relation between resistance and the
illumination can be written as
 Photo-voltaic sensor
• Photo voltaic is the direct conversion of light into electricity at
the atomic level. Some materials exhibit a property known as
the photoelectric effect that causes them to absorb photons of
light and release electrons.
• When these free electrons are captured, an electric current
results that can be used as electricity.
• Solar cells are made of the same kinds of semiconductor
materials, such as silicon, used in the microelectronics
industry.
• For solar cells, a thin semiconductor wafer is specially treated
to form an electric field, positive on one side and negative on
the other. When light energy strikes the solar cell, electrons are
knocked loose from the atoms in the semiconductor material.
• If electrical conductors are attached to the positive and
negative sides, forming an electrical circuit, the electrons can
be captured in the form of an electric current -- that is,
electricity
Photo-voltaic sensor
 Encoders
• An encoder is a device, circuit, transducer,
software program, algorithm or person that
converts information from one format or code
to another, for the purposes of standardization,
speed, secrecy, security, or saving space
• A rotary or linear encoder concerts rotary or
linear motion to an electronic signal.
Linear Encoders
Rotary Encoders
 Synchros
• the synchro is an electromechanical transducer.
• A mechanical input such as a shaft rotation is
converted to a unique set of output voltages, or a
set of input voltages is used to turn a synchro rotor
to a desired position.
• A synchro is, in effect, a transformer whose
primary-to-secondary coupling may be varied by
physically changing the relative orientation of the
two windings. Synchros are often used for
measuring the angle of a rotating machine such as
an antenna platform. In its general physical
construction, it is much like an electric motor.
• The primary winding of the transformer, fixed to
the rotor, is excited by an alternating current, which
by electromagnetic induction, causes currents to flow in
three Y-connected secondary windings fixed at 120
degrees to each other on the stator.
• The relative magnitudes of secondary currents are
measured and used to determine the angle of the rotor
relative to the stator, or the currents can be used to
directly drive a receiver synchro that will rotate in
unison with the synchro transmitter.
 Acoustic emission sensor
• Acoustic emission (AE) is the phenomenon of
radiation of acoustic (elastic) waves in solids that
occurs when a material undergoes irreversible
changes in its internal structure, for example as a
result of crack formation or plastic deformation
due to aging, temperature gradients or external
mechanical forces.
• In particular, AE is occurring during the processes
of mechanical loading of materials and structures
accompanied by structural changes that generate
local sources of elastic waves.
• The term vibration relates with the displacement,
velocity and acceleration. So vibrations can be
measured by using the transducers which are sensitive
to displacement, velocity and acceleration.
• A vibration is measured by its frequency and amplitude.
• Every vibrating body/element has mass and frequency
of vibration is a function of this mass.
• The amplitude of vibration is a function of this mass.
APJ Abdul Kalam Technological University, Kerala

Module - I
Topic: Hydraulic and pneumatic
actuators

By,
Aswin P
Rotary Actuators
Contact: [email protected]