UNIT 1- PRINCIPLES OF ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

Electromagnetic current
Induced emf
Whenever there is a change in the magnetic flux linked with a closed circuit an emf is produced.
This emf is known as the induced emf and the current that flows in the closed circuit is called
induced current. The phenomenon of producing an induced emf due to the changes in the
magnetic flux associated with a closed circuit is known as electromagnetic induction.
Direction of induced current
Lenz’s law
The Russian scientist H.F. Lenz in 1835 discovered a simple law giving the direction of the
induced current produced in a circuit. Lenz’s law states that the induced current produced in a
circuit always flows in such a direction that it opposes the change or cause that produces it.
Fleming’s right hand rule
The forefinger, the middle finger and the thumb of the right hand are held in the three mutually
perpendicular directions. If the forefinger point along the direction of the magnetic field and the
thumb is along the direction of motion of the conductor, then the middle finger points in the
direction of the induced current.
This rule is also called generator rule.
Faraday’s experiment
Faraday discovered the electromagnetic induction by conducting several experiments. consists of
a
Cylindrical coil C made up of several turns of insulated copper wire connected in series to a
sensitive galvanometer G. A strong bar magnet NS with its North Pole pointing towards the coil
is moved up and down.
The following inferences were made by Faraday
Direction of induced emf & current
 Whenever there is a relative motion between the
coil and the magnet, the galvanometer shows
deflection indicating the flow of induced current.

 The deflection is momentary. It lasts so long as

there is relative motion between the coil and the
magnet.

 The direction of the flow of current changes if the

magnet is moved towards and withdrawn from it.

 The deflection is more when the magnet is moved faster, and less when the magnet is
moved slowly.

 However, on reversing the magnet (i.e) South Pole pointing towards the coil, same results
are obtained, but current flows in the opposite direction.

Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction

Based on his studies on the phenomenon of electromagnetic induction, Faraday proposed the
following two laws.
First law
Whenever the amount of magnetic flux linked with a closed circuit changes, an emf is induced in
the circuit. The induced emf lasts so long as the change in magnetic flux continues.
Second law
The magnitude of emf induced in a closed circuit is directly proportional to the rate of change of
magnetic flux linked with the circuit.
Let ϕ1 be the magnetic flux linked with the coil initially and ϕ2 be the magnetic flux linked with
the coil after a time t. Then Rate of change of magnetic flux =
According to Faraday’s second law, the magnitude of induced
emf is,
. If dϕ is the change in magnetic flux in a time dt,
then the above equation can be written as

Self Induction
The property of a coil which enables to produce an opposing induced emf in it when the current
in the coil changes is called self induction.
 A coil is connected in series with a battery
(BT) and a key (K). On pressing the key,
the current through the coil increases to a
maximum value and correspondingly the
magnetic flux linked with the coil also
increases.
 An induced current flows through the coil
which according to Lenz’s law opposes
the further growth of current in the coil.
On releasing the key, the current through
the coil decreases to a zero value and the
magnetic flux linked with the coil also
decreases.
 According to Lenz’s law, the induced current will oppose the decay of current in the coil.
Coefficient of self induction

When a current I flows through a coil, the magnetic flux (φ) linked with the coil is proportional
to the current.
φ α I or φ = LI

 Where L is a constant of proportionality and is called coefficient of self induction or self

inductance.
 If I = 1A, φ = L × 1, then L = φ Therefore, coefficient of self induction of a coil is
numerically equal to the magnetic flux linked with a coil when unit current flows through
it.
According to law of electromagnetic induction

e = – dφ =-d(LI) or e = – L dI
dt dt dt
IF dI = 1 A s–1, then L = −e
dt

 The coefficient of self induction of a coil is numerically equal to the

opposing emf induced in the coil when the rate of change of current through the

coil is unity. The unit of self inductance is Henry (H).

 One Henry is defined as the self-inductance of a coil in which a change in

current of one ampere per second produces an opposing emf of one volt.

Mutual induction
Whenever there is a change in the magnetic flux linked with a coil, there is also a change of flux
linked with the neighboring coil, producing an induced emf in the second coil. This phenomenon
of producing an induced emf in a coil due to the change in current in the other coil is known as
mutual induction.

P and S are two coils placed close to each other. P is connected to a battery through a key K. S is
connected to a galvanometer G. On pressing K, current in P starts increasing from zero to a
maximum value. As the flow of current increases, the
magnetic flux linked with P increases. Therefore, magnetic
flux linked with S also increases producing an induced emf
in S. Now, the galvanometer shows the deflection. According
to Lenz’s law the induced current in S would oppose the
increase in current in P by flowing in a direction opposite to
the current in P, thus delaying the growth of current to the
maximum value.
When the key ‘K’ is released, current starts decreasing from
maximum to zero value, consequently magnetic flux linked
with P decreases. Therefore magnetic flux linked with S also
decreases and hence, an emf is induced in S.
According to Lenz’s law, the induced current in S flows in
such a direction so as to oppose the decrease in current in P thus prolonging the decay of current.
Coefficient of mutual induction
IP is the current in coil P and φs is the magnetic flux linked with coil S due to the current
in coil P.
∴ φs α IP or φs = M IP
 Where M is a constant of proportionality and is called the coefficient of mutual induction
or mutual inductance between the two coils.
If IP = 1A, then, M = φs
Thus, coefficient of mutual induction of two coils is numerically equal to the magnetic
flux linked with one coil when unit current flows through the neighbouring coil. If es is the
induced emf in the coil (S) at any instant of time, then from the laws of electromagnetic
induction,

Thus, the coefficient of mutual induction of two coils is numerically equal to the emf induced in
one coil when the rate of change of current through the other coil is unity. The unit of coefficient
of mutual induction is henry.
One Henry is defined as the coefficient of mutual induction between a pair of coils when a
change of current of one ampere per second in one coil produces an induced emf of one volt in
the other coil.

The coefficient of mutual induction between a pair of coils depends on the following factors
 Size and shape of the coils, number of turns and permeability of material on which the
coils are wound.
 proximity of the coils

AC generator (Dynamo)
The ac generator is a device used for converting mechanical energy into electrical energy. The
generator was originally designed by a Yugoslav scientist Nikola Tesla.
Principle
It is based on the principle of electromagnetic induction,according to which an emf is induced
in a coil when it is rotated in a uniform magnetic field.
Essential parts of an AC generator
(i) Armature
Armature is a rectangular coil consisting of a
large number of loops or turns of insulated
copper wire wound over a laminated soft iron
core or ring. The soft iron core not only increases
the magnetic flux but also serves as a support for
the coil
(ii) Field magnets
The necessary magnetic field is provided by
permanent magnets in the case of low power
dynamos. For high power dynamos, field is
provided by electro magnet. Armature rotates between the magnetic poles such that the axis of
rotation is perpendicular to the magnetic field.
(iii) Slip rings
The ends of the armature coil are connected to two hollow metallic rings R1 and R2 called slip
rings. These rings are fixed to a shaft, to which the armature is also fixed. When the shaft rotates,
the slip rings along with the armature also rotate.
(iv) Brushes
B1 and B2 are two flexible metallic plates or carbon brushes. They provide contact with the slip
rings by keeping themselves pressed against the ring. They are used to pass on the current from
the armature to the external power line through the slip rings.
Working
Whenever, there is a change in orientation of the coil, the magnetic flux linked with the coil
changes, producing an induced emf in the coil. The direction of the induced current is given by
Fleming’s right hand rule. Suppose the armature ABCD is initially in the vertical position. It is
rotated in the anticlockwise direction. The side AB of the coil moves downwards and the side
DC moves upwards (Fig. 1). Then according to Flemings
right hand rule the current induced in arm AB flows from B
to A and in CD it flows from D to C. Thus the current flows
along DCBA in the coil. In the external circuit the current
flows from B1 to B2. On further rotation, the arm AB of the
coil moves upwards and DC moves downwards. Now the
current in the coil flows along ABCD. In the external circuit
the current flows from B2 to B1. As the rotation of the coil
continues, the induced current in the external circuit keeps
changing its direction for every half a rotation of the coil.
Hence the induced current is alternating in nature (Fig 2). As the armature completes ν rotations
in one second, alternating current of frequency ν cycles per
second is produced. The induced emf at any instant is given by e= Eosin ωt
The peak value of the emf, Eo = NBAω
where N is the number of turns of the coil, A is the area enclosed by the coil, B is the magnetic
field and ω is the angular velocity of the coil

DC generator
DC generator–The dc generator is a device used for converting mechanical energy into electrical
energy.

Principle
It is based on the principle of electromagnetic induction,according to which an emf is induced
in a coil when it is rotated in a uniform magnetic field.
Essential parts of an AC generator
(i) Armature
Armature is a rectangular coil consisting of a large number of loops or turns of insulated copper
wire wound over a laminated soft iron core or ring. The soft iron core not only increases the
magnetic flux but also serves as a support for the coil
(ii) Field magnets
The necessary magnetic field is provided by permanent magnets in the case of low power
dynamos. For high power dynamos, field is provided by electro magnet. Armature rotates
between the magnetic poles such that the axis of rotation is perpendicular to the magnetic field.
(iii) Split rings
The ends of the armature coil are connected to two metallic rings R1 and R2 called split rings.
These rings are fixed to a shaft, to which the armature is also fixed. When the shaft rotates, the
split rings along with the armature also rotate.
(iv) Brushes
B1 and B2 are two flexible metallic plates or carbon brushes. They provide contact with the slip
rings by keeping themselves pressed against the ring. They are used to pass on the current from
the armature to the external power line through the slip rings.
Working
Whenever, there is a change in orientation of the coil, the magnetic flux linked with the coil
changes, producing an induced emf in the coil. The direction of the induced current is given by
Fleming’s right hand rule. Suppose the armature ABCD is initially in the vertical position. It is
rotated in the anticlockwise direction. The side AB of the coil moves downwards and the side
DC moves upwards (Fig. 1). Then according to Flemings right hand rule the current induced in
arm AB flows from B to A and in CD it flows from D to C. Thus the current flows along DCBA
in the coil. In the external circuit the current flows from B1 to B2. On further rotation, the arm
AB of the coil moves upwards and DC moves downwards. Now the current in the coil flows
along ABCD. In the external circuit the current flows from B1 to B2. As the rotation of the coil
continues, the induced current in the external circuit keeps changing its direction for every half a
rotation of the coil since Split rings are used so that the direction of current will be same B1 to
B2. Hence the induced current is alternating in nature (Fig 2). As the armature completes ν
rotations in one second, alternating current of frequency ν cycles per
second is produced. The induced emf at any instant is given by e= Eosin ωt
The peak value of the emf, Eo = NBAω
where N is the number of turns of the coil, A is the area enclosed by the coil, B is the magnetic
field and ω is the angular velocity of the coil

Transformer
Transformer is an electrical device used for
converting low alternating voltage into high
alternating voltage and
vice versa. It transfers electric power from
one circuit to another. The transformer is
based on the principle of electromagnetic
induction.
A transformer consists of primary and
secondary coils insulated from each other,
wound on a soft iron core (Fig 1). To
minimise eddy currents a laminated iron core
is used. The a.c. input is applied across the primary coil. The continuously varying current in the
primary coil produces a varying magnetic flux in the primary coil, which in turn produces a
varying magnetic flux in the secondary. Hence, an induced emf is produced across the
secondary. Let EP and ES be the induced emf in the primary and secondary coils and NP and NS
be the number of turns in the primary and secondary coils respectively. Since same flux links
with the primary and secondary, the emf induced per turn of the two coils must be the
Same

…..1
For an ideal transformer, input power = output power
Ep Ip = Es Is
where Ip and Is are currents in the primary and secondary coils
…… 2
From equations (1) and (2)
=K
where k is called transformer ratio.
(for step up transformer k > 1 and for step down transformer k < 1) In a step up transformer Es >
Ep implying that Is < Ip. Thus a step up transformer increases the voltage by decreasing the
current, which is in accordance with the law of conservation of energy. Similarly a step down
transformer decreases the voltage by increasing the current.
step up transformer increases the voltage by decreasing the current, which is in accordance with
the law of conservation of energy. Similarly a step down transformer decreases the voltage by
increasing the current.
Efficiency of a transformer
Efficiency of a transformer is defined as the ratio of output power

The efficiency η = 1 (ie. 100%), only for an ideal transformer where there is no power loss. But
practically there are numerous factors leading to energy loss in a transformer and hence the
efficiency is always less than one.
Energy losses in a transformer
(1) Hysteresis loss
The repeated magnetisation and demagnetisation of the iron core caused by the alternating input
current, produces loss in energy called hysterisis loss. This loss can be minimised by using a core
with a material having the least hysterisis loss. Alloys like mumetal and silicon steel are used to
reduce hysterisis loss.
(2) Copper loss
The current flowing through the primary and secondary windings lead to Joule heating effect.
Hence some energy is lost in the form of heat. Thick wires with considerably low resistance are
used to minimise this loss.
(3) Eddy current loss (Iron loss)
The varying magnetic flux produces eddy current in the core. This leads to the wastage of energy
in the form of heat. This loss is minimised by using a laminated core made of stelloy, an alloy of
steel.
(4) Flux loss
The flux produced in the primary coil is not completely linked with the secondary coil due to
leakage. This results in the loss of energy. This loss can be minimised by using a shell type core.
In addition to the above losses, due to the vibration of the core, sound is produced, which causes
a loss in the energy.
Galvanometer: A galvanometer is a device used to find
direction of current and its magnitude. It has small resistance
and is connected in series. A galvanometer can detect only small
currents. Thus, to measure large currents it is converted into an
ammeter. It can be converted into an ammeter by connecting a
low resistance called shunt resistance in parallel to the
galvanometer. A galvanometer is a device used to detect feeble
electric currents in a circuit. It has a coil pivoted (or suspended)
between concave pole faces of a strong laminated horse shoe
magnet. When an electric current passes through the coil, it
deflects. The deflection is proportional to the current passed.
The galvanometer coil has a moderate resistance (about 100
ohms) and the galvanometer itself has a small current carrying
capacity (1 mA).

Galvanometer
Ammeter: An ammeter is a measuring device used to
measure the electric current in a circuit. At the heart of most
analog meters is a galvanometer, an instrument that measures
current flow using the movement, or deflection, of a needle. The
needle deflection is produced by magnetic force acting on a
current-carrying wire. It is a low resistance galvanometer, used
to measure current in a circuit. The current to be measured must
pass through it, hence it is connected in series combination. An
ideal ammeter should have zero resistance. But practically the
ammeter has small internal resistance. The measuring range of
the ammeter depends on the value of resistance. The ammeter is
connected in series with the circuit so that the whole electrons of
measured current pass through the ammeter. The power loss
occurs in ammeter because of the measured current and their
internal resistance. The ammeter circuit has low resistance so
that the small voltage drop occurs in the circuit.

Ammeter
Voltmeter: - A voltmeter is an instrument that measures
the difference in electrical potential between two points in an
electric circuit. It is a high resistance galvanometer, used to
measure potential difference between two points. It is
connected across the component’s ends potential difference
across which is to be measured. It is in parallel to that
component. An ideal voltmeter must have infinite resistance.
An analog voltmeter moves a pointer across a scale in
proportion to the circuit’s voltage, a digital voltmeter provides
a numerical display. Any measurement that can be converted
to voltage can be displayed on a meter that is properly
calibrated, such measurements include pressure, temperature,
and flow. In order for a voltmeter to measure a device’s
voltage, it must be connected in parallel to that device. This is
necessary because objects in parallel experience the same
potential difference. The instrument which measures the
voltage or potential difference in volts is known as the
voltmeter. It works on the principle that the torque is
generated by the current which induces because of measured
voltage and this torque deflects the pointer of the instrument.
The deflection of the pointer is directly proportional to the
potential difference between the points. The voltmeter is
always connected in parallel with the circuit.

Voltmeter
 Conversion of Galvanometer into Ammeter
A galvanometer is very sensitive instrument to detect the current. It can
be easily converted into ammeter and voltmeter.
Galvanometer to an Ammeter:-

Ammeter is an instrument used to measure current flowing in the electrical circuit.

The ammeter must offer low resistance such that it will not change the current
passing through it. So ammeter is connected in series to measure the circuit
current. A galvanometer is converted into an ammeter by connecting a low
resistance in parallel with the galvanometer. This low resistance is called shunt
resistance S. The scale is now calibrated in ampere and the range of ammeter
depends on the values of the shunt resistance.

Let I be the current passing through the circuit as shown in Figure. When current I
reach the junction A, it divides into two components. Let I g be the current passing
through the galvanometer of resistance R g through a path AGE and the remaining
current (I – Ig) passes along the path ACDE through shunt resistance S. The value
of shunt resistance is so adjusted that current I g produces full scale deflection in the
galvanometer. The potential difference galvanometer is same as the potential
difference across shunt resistance.

Since, the deflection in the galvanometer is proportional to the current passing

through it.

So, the deflection in the galvanometer measures the current I passing through the
circuit (ammeter). Shunt resistance is connected in parallel to galvanometer.
Therefore, resistance of ammeter can be determined by computing the effective
resistance, which is

Since, the shunt resistance is a very low resistance and the ratio S/ Rg is also small.
This means, Rg is also small, i.e., the resistance offered by the ammeter is small.
So, when ammeter connects in series, the ammeter will not change the resistance
appreciably and also the current in the circuit. For an ideal ammeter, the resistance
must be equal to zero. Hence, the reading in ammeter is always lesser than the
actual current in the circuit. Let Iideal be current measured from ideal ammeter and
Iactual be the actual current measured in the circuit by the ammeter.

Then, the percentage error in measuring a current through an ammeter is

Key points:

1. An ammeter is a low resistance instrument and it is always connected in series to

the circuit.

2. An ideal ammeter has zero resistance.

3. In order to increase the range of an ammeter n times, the value of shunt

resistance to be connected in parallel is S =G/n-1
 Conversion of Galvanometer to Ammeter
Galvanometer can be converted into ammeter by shunting it with a very
small resistance. Potential differences across the galvanometer and shunt
resistance are equal.

i  i S  i
g gG
i ig G

ig G S
S 
i  i  g
iS = i-ig

Conversion of Galvanometer to Voltmeter

Galvanometer can be converted into voltmeter by connecting with it with a very
high resistance. Potential difference across the given load resistance is the sum of
potential difference across galvanometer and potential difference across the high
resistance.

V  i g G  R 
V
R G
ig
ig G R

Moving Coil Galvanometer

A moving coil galvanometer is an instrument which is used to measure electric currents. It is a sensitive
electromagnetic device which can measure low currents even of the order of a few microamperes.