MODULE 2: HYDRAULIC PUMPS

2.1. INTRODUCTION TO HYDRAULIC PUMPS

The function of a pump is to convert mechanical energy into hydraulic energy. It is the heart of any hydraulic
system because it generates the force necessary to move the load. Mechanical energy is delivered to the pump
using a prime mover such as an electric motor. Partial vacuum is created at the inlet due to the mechanical rotation
of pump shaft. Vacuum permits atmospheric pressure to force the fluid through the inlet line and into the pump.
The pump then pushes the fluid mechanically into the fluid power actuated devices such as a motor or a cylinder.

Classification of pumps
Pumps are classified into three different ways and must be considered in any discussion of fluid power equipment.

1. Classification based on displacement:

 Non-positive displacement pumps (hydrodynamic pumps).
 Positive displacement pumps (hydrostatic pumps).
2. Classification based on delivery:
 Constant delivery pumps.
 Variable delivery pumps.
3. Classification based on motion:
 Rotary pump.
 Reciprocating pump.

1. Classification Based on Displacement

(i) Non-positive displacement pumps
Non-positive displacement pumps are primarily velocity-type units that have a great deal of clearance between
rotating and stationary parts. Non-displacement pumps are characterized by a high slip that increases as the back
pressure increases, so that the outlet may be completely closed without damage to the pump or system. Non-
positive pumps do not develop a high pressure but move a large volume of fluid at low pressures. They have
essentially no suction lift. Because of large clearance space, these pumps are not self-priming. In other words, the
pumping action has too much clearance space to seal against atmospheric pressure. The displacement between the
inlet and the outlet is not positive. Therefore, the volume of fluid delivered by a pump depends on the speed at
which the pump is operated and the resistance at the discharge side. As the resistance builds up at the discharge
side, the fluid slips back into the clearance spaces, or in other words, follows the path of least resistance. When
the resistance gets to a certain value, no fluid gets delivered to the system and the volumetric efficiency of the
pump drops to zero for a given speed. These pumps are not used in fluid power industry as they are not capable
of withstanding high pressure. Their maximum capacity is limited to 17–20 bar. These types of pumps are
primarily used for transporting fluids such as water, petroleum, etc. from one location to another considerable
apart location. Performance curves for positive and non-positive displacement pumps are shown in Fig.1.

The two most common types of hydrodynamic pumps are the centrifugal and the axial flow propeller pumps.

Advantages and disadvantages of non-positive displacement pumps.

The advantages are as follows:

1. Non-displacement pumps have fewer moving parts.

2. Initial and maintenance cost is low.
3. They give smooth continuous flow.
4. They are suitable for handling almost all types of fluids including slurries and sledges.
5. Their operation is simple and reliable.

The disadvantages are as follows:

1. Non-displacement pumps are not self-priming and hence they must be positioned below the fluid level.
2. Discharge is a function of output resistance.
3. Low volumetric efficiency.
(ii) Positive displacement pumps
Positive displacement pumps, in contrast, have very little slips, are self-priming and pump against very high
pressures, but their volumetric capacity is low. Positive displacement pumps have a very close clearance between
rotating and stationary parts and hence are self-priming. Positive displacement pumps eject a fixed amount of
fluid into the hydraulic system per revolution of the pump shaft. Such pumps are capable of overcoming the
pressure resulting from mechanical loads on the system as well as the resistance of flow due to friction. This
equipment must always be protected by relief valves to prevent damage to the pump or system. By far, a majority
of fluid power pumps fall in this category, including gear, vane and piston pumps. Performance curves for positive
and non-positive displacement pumps are shown in Fig. 1.

Positive displacement pumps are classified based on the following characteristics:

1. Type of motion of pumping element: Based on the type of motion of pumping element, positive displacement
pumps are classified as follows:
 Rotary pumps, for example, gear pumps and vane pumps.
 Reciprocating pumps, for example, piston pumps.
2. Displacement characteristics: Based on displacement characteristics, positive displacement pumps are
classified as follows:
 Fixed displacement pumps.
 Variable displacement pumps.
3. Type of pumping element.

The advantages of positive displacement pumps over non-positive displacement pumps are as follows:

1. They can operate at very high pressures of up to 800 bar (used for lifting oils from very deep oil wells).
2. They can achieve a high volumetric efficiency of up to 98%.
3. They are highly efficient and almost constant throughout the designed pressure range.
4. They are a compact unit, having a high power-to-weight ratio.
5. They can obtain a smooth and precisely controlled motion.
6. By proper application and control, they produce only the amount of flow required to move the load at the
desired velocity.
7. They have a great flexibility of performance. They can be made to operate over a wide range of pressures and
speeds.

Figure 1: Performance curves for positive and non-positive displacement pumps

 Table 1 : Comparison of positive displacement and non-positive displacement pumps

2. Classification Based on Delivery

(i) Constant Delivery Pumps
Constant volume pumps always deliver the same quantity of fluid in a given time at the operating speed and
temperature. These pumps are generally used with relatively simple machines, such as saws or drill presses or
where a group of machines is operated with no specific relationship among their relative speeds. Power for
reciprocating actuators is most often provided by constant volume pumps.

(ii) Variable Delivery Pumps

The output of variable volume pumps may be varied either manually or automatically with no change in the input
speed to the pump. Variable volume pumps are frequently used for rewinds, constant tension devices or where a
group of separate drives has an integrated speed relationship such as a conveyor system or continuous processing
equipment.

3. Classification Based on Motion

This classification concerns the motion that may be either rotary or reciprocating. It was of greater importance
when reciprocating pumps consisted only of a single or a few relatively large cylinders and the discharge had a
large undesirable pulsation. Present-day reciprocating pumps differ very little from rotary pumps in either external
appearance or the flow characteristics.

2.2. PUMPING THEORY

A positive displacement hydraulic pump is a device used for converting mechanical energy into hydraulic energy.
It is driven by a prime mover such as an electric motor. It basically performs two functions. First, it creates a
partial vacuum at the pump inlet port. This vacuum enables atmospheric pressure to force the fluid from the
reservoir into the pump. Second, the mechanical action of the pump traps this fluid within the pumping cavities,
transports it through the pump and forces it into the hydraulic system. It is important to note that pumps create
flow not pressure. Pressure is created by the resistance to flow.

All pumps operate by creating a partial vacuum at the intake, and a mechanical force at the outlet that induces
flow. This action can be best described by reference to a simple piston pump shown in Fig.2.

1. As the piston moves to the left, a partial vacuum is created in the pump chamber that holds the outlet valve
in place against its seat and induces flow from the reservoir that is at a higher (atmospheric) pressure. As this
flow is produced, the inlet valve is temporarily displaced by the force of fluid, permitting the flow into the
pump chamber (suction stroke).
2. When the piston moves to the right, the resistance at the valves causes an immediate increase in the pressure
that forces the inlet valve against its seat and opens the outlet valve thereby permitting the fluid to flow into
the system. If the outlet port opens directly to the atmosphere, the only pressure developed is the one required
to open the outlet valve (delivery stroke).
 Figure 2 : Illustration of pumping theory

2.3. GEAR PUMP

Gear pumps are less expensive but limited to pressures below 140 bar. It is noisy in operation than either vane or
piston pumps. Gear pumps are invariably of fixed displacement type, which means that the amount of fluid
displaced for each revolution of the drive shaft is theoretically constant.

1. External Gear Pump

External gear pumps are the most popular hydraulic pumps in low-pressure ranges due to their long operating life,
high efficiency and low cost. They are generally used in a simple machine. The most common form of external
gear pump is shown in Figs. 3 and 4. It consist of a pump housing in which a pair of precisely machined meshing
gears runs with minimal radial and axial clearance. One of the gears, called a driver, is driven by a prime mover.
The driver drives another gear called a follower. As the teeth of the two gears separate, the fluid from the pump
inlet gets trapped between the rotating gear cavities and pump housing. The trapped fluid is then carried around
the periphery of the pump casing and delivered to outlet port. The teeth of precisely meshed gears provide almost
a perfect seal between the pump inlet and the pump outlet. When the outlet flow is resisted, pressure in the pump
outlet chamber builds up rapidly and forces the gear diagonally outward against the pump inlet. When the system
pressure increases, imbalance occurs. This imbalance increases mechanical friction and the bearing load of the
two gears. Hence, the gear pumps are operated to the maximum pressure rating stated by the manufacturer. It is
important to note that the inlet is at the point of separation and the outlet at the point of mesh. These units are not
reversible if the internal bleeds for the bearings are to be drilled to both the inlet and outlet sides. So that the
manufacturer’s literature should be checked before attempting a reversed installation. If they are not drilled in this
manner, the bearing may be permanently damaged as a result of inadequate lubrications.

Advantages and disadvantages of gear pumps

The advantages are as follows:

1. They are self-priming.

2. They give constant delivery for a given speed.
3. They are compact and light in weight.
4. Volumetric efficiency is high.

The disadvantages are as follows:

1. The liquid to be pumped must be clean, otherwise it will damage pump.

2. Variable speed drives are required to change the delivery.
3. If they run dry, parts can be damaged because the fluid to be pumped is used as lubricant.
 Figure 3: Operation of an external gear pump

Expression for the theoretical flow rate of an external gear pump

Let,

 Do = the outside diameter of gear teeth

 Di = the inside diameter of gear teeth
 L = the width of gear teeth
 N = the speed of pump in RPM
 VD = the displacement of pump in m/rev
 M = module of gear
 z = number of gear teeth
 α = pressure angle

Volume displacement is,

𝜋
𝑉𝐷 = (𝐷 2 − 𝐷𝑖 2 )𝐿
4 𝑜
𝐷𝑖  𝐷𝑜  2(𝐴𝑑𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑚 + 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑚)

Theoretical discharge is,

𝑄𝑇 (𝑚3 ⁄𝑚𝑖𝑛) = 𝑉𝐷 (𝑚3 ⁄𝑟𝑒𝑣 ) × 𝑁 (𝑟𝑒𝑣/𝑚𝑖𝑛)

If the gear is specified by its module and number of teeth, then the theoretical discharge can be found by:

𝜋 2 cos 2 20
𝑄𝑇 = 2𝜋𝐿𝑚2 𝑁 [𝑧 + (1 + )] (𝑚3 /𝑚𝑖𝑛)
12

2. Internal Gear Pump

Another form of gear pump is the internal gear pump, which is illustrated in Fig. 4. They consist of two gears: An
external gear and an internal gear. The crescent placed in between these acts as a seal between the suction and
discharge. When a pump operates, the external gear drives the internal gear and both gears rotate in the same
direction. The fluid fills the cavities formed by the rotating teeth and the stationary crescent. Both the gears
transport the fluid through the pump. The crescent seals the low-pressure pump inlet from the high-pressure pump
outlet. The fluid volume is directly proportional to the degree of separation and these units may be reversed
without difficulty. The major use for this type of pump occurs when a through shaft is necessary, as in an automatic
transmission. These pumps have a higher pressure capability than external gear pumps.

Figure 4 : Operation of internal gear pump

2.4. LOBE PUMP

Introduction
The operation of lobe pump shown in Fig.6 is similar to that of external gear pump, but they generally have a
higher volumetric capacity per revolution. The output may be slightly greater pulsation because of the smaller
number of meshing elements. Lobe pumps, unlike external gear pumps, have both elements externally driven and
neither element has any contact with the other. For this reason, they are quieter when compared to other types of
gear pumps. Lobe contact is prevented by external timing gears located in the gearbox. Pump shaft support
bearings are located in the gearbox, and because the bearings are out of the pumped liquid, pressure is limited by
bearing location and shaft deflection. They do not lose efficiency with use. They are similar to external gear pumps
with respect to the feature of reversibility.

Figure 5: Construction of lobe pump

Stages of operation

Figure 6 : Stages of operation of a lobe pump

1. As the lobes come out of mesh, they create expanding volume on the inlet side of the pump. Liquid flows
into the cavity and is trapped by the lobes as they rotate.
2. Liquid travels around the interior of the casing in pockets between the lobes and the casing (it does not pass
between the lobes).
3. Finally, the meshing of the lobes forces the liquid through the outlet port under pressure.

Lobe pumps are frequently used in food applications because they are good at handling solids without
inflicting damage to the product. Solid particle size can be much larger in lobe pumps than in other positive
displacement types. Because lobes do not make contact, and clearances are not as close as in other positive
displacement pumps, this design handles low viscosity liquids with diminished performance. Loading
characteristics are not as good as other designs and suction ability is low. High-viscosity liquids require reduced
speeds to achieve satisfactory performance. Reductions of 25% of rated speed and lower are common with high-
viscosity liquids.

Advantages
The advantages of lobe pumps are as follows:

1. Lobe pumps can handle solids, slurries, pastes and many liquid.
2. No metal-to-metal contact.
3. Superior CIP (Cleaning in Place) /SIP (Sterilization in Place) capabilities.
4. Long-term dry run (with lubrication to seals).
5. Non-pulsating discharge.

Disadvantages
The disadvantages of lobe pumps are as follows:

1. Require timing gears.

2. Require two seals.
3. Reduced lift with thin liquids.

Applications
Common rotary lobe pump applications include, but are not limited to, the following:

1. Polymers.
2. Paper coatings.
3. Soaps and surfactants.
4. Paints and dyes.
5. Rubber and adhesives.
6. Pharmaceuticals.
7. Food applications
2.5. GEROTOR PUMP
Gerotor pumps operate in the same manner as internal gear pumps. The inner gear rotor is called a gerotor element.
The gerotor element is driven by a prime mover and during the operation drives outer gear rotor around as they
mesh together. The gerotor has one tooth less than the outer internal idler gear. Each tooth of the gerotor is always
in sliding contact with the surface of the outer element. The teeth of the two elements engage at just one place to
seal the pumping chambers from each other. On the right-hand side of the pump, shown in Fig.7, pockets of
increasing size are formed, while on the opposite side, pockets decrease in size. The pockets of increasing size are
suction pockets and those of decreasing size are discharge pockets. Therefore, the intake side of the pump is on
the right and discharge side on the left. Pumping chambers are formed by the adjacent pair of teeth, which are
constantly in contact with the outer element, except for clearance. Refer to Fig 7, as the rotor is turned, its gear
tips are accurately machined so that they precisely follow the inner surface of the outer element. The expanding
chambers are created as the gear teeth withdraw. The chamber reaches its maximum size when the female tooth
of the outer rotor reaches the top dead center. During the second half of the revolution, the spaces collapse,
displacing the fluid to the outlet port formed at the side plate. The geometric volume of the gerotor pump is given
as

𝑉𝐷 = 𝑏 𝑍 (𝐴𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝐴𝑚𝑖𝑛 )

, where b is the tooth height, Z is the number of rotor teeth, A max is the maximum area between male and female
gears (unmeshed – occurs at inlet) and Amin is the minimum area between male and female gears (meshed – occurs
at outlet).

Figure 7 : Gerotor pump

2.6. SCREW PUMP

These pumps have two or more gear-driven helical meshing screws in a closefitting case to develop the desired
pressure. These screws mesh to form a fluid-type seal between the screws and casing. A schematic diagram of a
screw pump is shown in Fig 8. A two-screw pump consists of two parallel rotors with inter-meshing threads
rotating in a closely machined casing. The driving screw and driven screw are connected by means of timing
gears. When the screws turn, the space between the threads is divided into compartments. As the screws rotate,
the inlet side of the pump is flooded with hydraulic fluid because of partial vacuum. When the screws turn in
normal rotation, the fluid contained in these compartments is pushed uniformly along the axis toward the center
of the pump, where the compartments discharge the fluid. Here the fluid does not rotate but moves linearly as a
nut on threads. Thus, there are no pulsations at a higher speed; it is a very quiet operating pump.

Ina screw pump, a chamber is formed between thread and housing as shown in Fig.9. The following expression
gives the volumetric displacement
𝜋 2 𝛼 sin 2𝛼
𝑉𝐷 = (𝐷 − 𝑑 2 )𝑠 − 𝐷2 { − }𝑠
4 2 2
Here, s is the stroke length and:
𝐷+𝑑
cos 𝛼 =
2𝐷
 Figure 8 : Screw pump operation

Figure 9 : Volumetric displacement of a screw pump

Advantages and disadvantages of screw pump

The advantages are as follows:

1. They are self-priming and more reliable.

2. They are quiet due to rolling action of screw spindles.
3. They can handle liquids containing gases and vapor.
4. They have long service life.

The disadvantages are as follows:

1. They are bulky and heavy.

2. They are sensitive to viscosity changes of the fluid.
3. They have low volumetric and mechanical efficiencies.
4. Manufacturing cost of precision screw is high.

2.7. VANE PUMP

Construction and working
Fig. 10 illustrates the operation of a vane pump. The rotor, which contains radial slots, is splined to the drive shaft
and rotates inside a cam ring. Each slot contains a vane designed to mate with the surface of the cam ring as the
rotor turns. Centrifugal force keeps the vanes out against the surface of the cam ring. During one-half revolution
of rotor rotation, the volume increases between the rotor and cam ring. The resulting volume expansion causes a
reduction of pressure. This is the suction process, which causes fluid to flow through the inlet port and fill the
void. As the rotor rotates through the second half revolution, the surface of the cam ring pushes the vanes back
into their slots, and the trapped volume is reduced. This positively ejects the trapped fluid through the discharge
port.
 Figure 10 : Vane pump operation

Analysis of Volumetric Displacement

Careful observation of Figure 10 will reveal that there is an eccentricity between the center line of the rotor and
the center line of the cam ring. If the eccentricity is zero, there will be no flow. The following analysis and
nomenclature is applicable to the vane pump:

 DC = diameter of cam ring (in, m)

 DR = diameter of rotor (in, m)

 L = width of rotor (in, m)

 VD = pump volumetric displacement (in3, m3)

 e = eccentricity (in, m)

 emax = maximum possible eccentricity (in, m)

 VDmax = maximum possible volumetric displacement (in3, m3)

From geometry, we can find the maximum possible eccentricity

𝐷𝐶 − 𝐷𝑅
𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
2
This maximum value of eccentricity produces a maximum volumetric displacement:
𝜋 2
𝑉𝐷𝑚𝑎𝑥 = (𝐷 − 𝐷𝑅2 )𝐿
4 𝐶
Noting that we have the difference between two squared terms yields
𝜋
𝑉𝐷𝑚𝑎𝑥 = (𝐷 + 𝐷𝑅 )(𝐷𝐶 − 𝐷𝑅 )𝐿
4 𝐶
Substituting the expression for emax yields
𝜋
𝑉𝐷𝑚𝑎𝑥 = (𝐷 + 𝐷𝑅 )(2𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑥 )𝐿
4 𝐶
The actual volumetric displacement occurs when e max = e:
𝜋
𝑉𝐷𝑚𝑎𝑥 = (𝐷 + 𝐷𝑅 )𝑒𝐿
2 𝐶
Thus, discharge can be written as:

𝑄𝑇 = 𝑉𝐷 × 𝑁

Advantages and disadvantages of Vane pump

The advantages of vane pumps are as follows:

1. Vane pumps are self-priming, robust and supply constant delivery at a given speed.
2. They provide uniform discharge with negligible pulsations.
3. Their vanes are self-compensating for wear and vanes can be replaced easily.
4. These pumps do not require check valves.
5. They are light in weight and compact.
6. They can handle liquids containing vapors and gases.
7. Volumetric and overall efficiencies are high.
8. Discharge is less sensitive to changes in viscosity and pressure variations.

The disadvantages of vane pumps are as follows:

1. Relief valves are required to protect the pump in case of sudden closure of delivery.
2. They are not suitable for abrasive liquids.
3. They require good seals.
4. They require good filtration systems and foreign particle can severely damage pump.

Variable displacement vane pump

Some vane pumps have provisions for mechanically varying the eccentricity. Such a design is called a variable
displacement pump and is illustrated in Figure 11. A hand wheel or a pressure compensator can be used to move
the cam ring to change the eccentricity. The direction of flow through the pump can be reversed by movement of
the cam ring on either side of center.

Figure 11 : Variable displacement, pressure-compensated vane pump

Pressure compensated vane pump
The design we see in Figure 11 is a pressure-compensated one in which system pressure acts directly on the cam
ring via a hydraulic piston on the right side (not shown). This forces the cam ring against the compensator spring-
loaded piston on the left side of the cam ring. If the discharge pressure is large enough, it overcomes the
compensator spring force and shifts the cam ring to the left. This reduces the eccentricity, which is maximum
when discharge pressure is zero. As the discharge pressure continues to increase, zero eccentricity is finally
achieved, and the pump flow becomes zero. Such a pump basically has its own protection against excessive
pressure build-up, as shown in Figure 12. When the pressure reaches a value called pcutoff, the compensator spring
force equals the hydraulic piston force. As the pressure continues to increase, the compensator spring is
compressed until zero eccentricity is achieved. The maximum pressure achieved is called p deadhead, at which point
the pump is protected because it produces no more flow. As a result, there is no power wasted and fluid heating
is reduced. Figure 13 shows the internal configuration of an actual pressure-compensated vane pump. This design
contains a cam ring that rotates slightly during use, thereby distributing wear over the entire inner circumference
of the ring. Note in Figures 10 and 11 that a side load is exerted on the bearings of the vane pump because of
pressure unbalance. This same undesirable side load exists for the gear pump of Figure 3. Such pumps are
hydraulically unbalanced.

Figure 12 : Pressure versus flow for pressure compensated vane pump

Figure 13 : Cutaway photo graph of pressure-compensated vane pump.

Balanced Vane pump

A balanced vane pump is one that has two intake and two outlet ports diametrically opposite each other. Thus,
pressure ports are opposite each other, and a complete hydraulic balance is achieved. One disadvantage of a
balanced vane pump is that it cannot be designed as a variable displacement unit. Instead of having a circular cam
ring, a balanced design vane pump has an elliptical housing, which forms two separate pumping chambers on
opposite sides of the rotor. This eliminates the bearing side loads and thus permits higher operating pressures.
Figure 14 shows the balanced vane pump principle of operation. Figure 15 is a cutaway view of a balanced vane
pump containing 12 vanes and a spring-loaded end plate. The inlet port is in the body, and the outlet port is in the
cover, which may be assembled in any of four positions for convenience in piping

Figure 14 : Balanced vane pump principles

Figure 15 : Cutaway view of balanced vane pump

Advantages and disadvantages of balanced vane pumps

The advantages of balanced vane pumps are as follows:

1. The balanced pump eliminates the bearing side loads and therefore high operating pressure can be used.
2. The service life is high compared to unbalanced type due to less wear and tear.

The disadvantages of balanced vane pumps are as follows:

1. They are fixed displacement pumps.

2. Design is more complicated.
3. Manufacturing cost is high compared to unbalanced type

2.8 PISTON PUMP

A piston pump works on the principle that a reciprocating piston can draw in fluid when it retracts in a cylinder
bore and discharge it when it extends. The basic question is how to mechanize a series of reciprocating pistons.
There are two basic types of piston pumps. One is the axial design, having pistons that are parallel to the axis of
the cylinder block. Axial piston pumps can be either of the bent axis configuration or of the swash plate design.
The second type of piston pump is the radial design, which has pistons arranged radially in a cylinder block.

Axial Piston Pump (Bent-Axis Design)

Figure 16 shows an axial piston pump (bent-axis type) that contains a cylinder block rotating with the drive shaft.
However, the centerline of the cylinder block is set at an offset angle relative to the centerline of the drive shaft.
The cylinder block contains a number of pistons arranged along a circle. The piston rods are connected to the
drive shaft flange by ball-and-socket joints. The pistons are forced in and out of their bores as the distance between
the drive shaft flange and cylinder block changes. A universal link connects the block to the drive shaft to provide
alignment and positive drive.

The volumetric displacement of the pump varies with the offset angle q, as shown in Figure 17. No flow
is produced when the cylinder block centerline is parallel to the drive shaft centerline. θ can vary from 0° to a
maximum of about 30°. Fixed displacement units are usually provided with 23° or 30° offset angles. Variable
displacement units are available with a yoke and some external control to change the offset angle such as a stroking
cylinder. Some designs have controls that move the yoke over the center position to reverse the direction of flow
through the pump. Figure 18 is a cutaway of a variable displacement piston pump in which an external handwheel
can be turned to establish the desired offset angle. Also shown is the hydraulic symbol used to represent variable
displacement pumps in hydraulic circuits

Figure 16 : Axial piston pump (bent-axis type).

Figure 17 : Volumetric displacement changes with offset angle

 Figure 18 : Variable displacement piston pump with handwheel

Volumetric Displacement and Theoretical Flow Rate

The following nomenclature and analysis are applicable to an axial piston pump:

 q = offset angle (°)

 S = piston stroke (in, m)
 D = piston circle diameter (in, m)
 Y = number of pistons
 A = piston area (in2, m2)
 N = pump speed (rpm)
 QT = theoretical flow rate (gpm, m3/min)

From trigonometry we have,

𝑆
tan 𝜃 =
𝐷
i.e.

𝑆 = 𝐷 tan 𝜃

The total displacement volume equals the number of pistons multiplied by the displacement volume per piston:

𝑉𝐷 = 𝑌𝐴𝑆

Substituting, we have:

𝑉𝐷 = 𝑌𝐴𝐷 tan 𝜃

We have theoretical flow rate as:

𝑄𝑇 = 𝑉𝐷 × 𝑁

Hence,

𝑄𝑇 = 𝐷𝐴𝑁𝑌 tan 𝜃

In-Line Piston Pump (Swash Plate Design)

Figure 519 provides a photograph and sketch illustrating the swash plate design in-line piston pump. In this type,
the cylinder block and drive shaft are located on the same centerline. The pistons are connected to a shoe plate,
which bears against an angled swash plate. As the cylinder rotates (see Figure 20), the pistons reciprocate because
the piston shoes follow the angled surface of the swash plate. The outlet and inlet ports are located in the valve
plate so that the pistons pass the inlet as they are being pulled out and pass the outlet as they are being forced back
in. This type of pump can also be designed to have variable displacement capability. In such a design, the swash
plate is mounted in a movable yoke, as depicted in Figure 21.The swash plate angle can be changed by pivoting
the yoke on pintles (see Figure 22 for the effect of swash plate angle on piston stroke). Positioning of the yoke
can be accomplished by manual operation, servo control, or a compensator control, as shown in Figure 21. The
maximum swash plate angle is limited to 17.5 ° by construction.

Figure 19 : In-line piston pump design

Figure 20 : Swash plate causes pistons to reciprocate

 Figure 21 : Variable displacement version of in-line piston pump.

Figure 22 : Variation in pump displacement

Radial Piston Pump

The operation and construction of a radial piston pump is illustrated in Figure 23. This design consists of a pintle
to direct fluid in and out of the cylinders, a cylinder barrel with pistons, and a rotor containing a reaction ring. The
pistons remain in constant contact with the reaction ring due to centrifugal force and back pressure on the pistons.
For pumping action, the reaction ring is moved eccentrically with respect to the pintle or shaft axis. As the cylinder
barrel rotates, the pistons on one side travel outward. This draws in fluid as each cylinder passes the suction ports
of the pintle. When a piston passes the point of maximum eccentricity, it is forced inward by the reaction ring.
This forces the fluid to enter the discharge port of the pintle. In some models, the displacement can be varied by
moving the reaction ring to change the piston stroke. Figure 24 provides a cutaway view of an actual radial piston
pump that has variable displacement, pressure-compensated discharge. This pump is available in three sizes (2.40-
, 3.00-, and 4.00-in3 volumetric displacements) and weighs approximately 60 lb. Variable displacement is
accomplished by hydraulic rather than mechanical means and is responsive to discharge line pressure.

Figure 23 : Operation of a radial piston pump

 Figure 24 : Cutaway view of a radial piston pump

Comparison of Pumps
Pump design with a wide range of operating characteristics are available. A designer must select carefully to
achieve a circuit design that meets the functional objective while minimizing total cost which includes both
ownership cost and operating cost over the life of component. Pump selection is important decision in circuit
design. Designer must compare the various options available and then choose the optimum pump.

The major factor in adopting a pump to a particular system is the system’s overall needs. It would be wrong
to use a pump with high delivery in a system that requires only a low delivery rate. On the contrary, using a pump
that must produce at its peak continuously just to meet the minimum requirements of the system is equally wrong.
Making either of these mistakes produces a poor system due to excessive initial pump costs or maintenance cost.
One should use a pump that is suited to the system, whether a gear pump which has fewer moving precision parts
or a piston pump which has many parts fitted to close tolerance and is therefore more expensive.
Table 2 : Comparison of hydraulic pumps

Table. 2 compares various performance factors for hydraulic pumps. In general, gear pumps are the least expensive
but also provide the lowest level of performance. In addition, gear pump efficiency is rapidly reduced by wear,
which contributes to high maintenance costs. The volumetric efficiency of gear pumps is greatly affected by the
following leakage losses, which can rapidly accelerate due to wear:

1. Leakage around the outer periphery of the gears

2. Leakage across the faces of the gears
3. Leakage at the points where the gear teeth make contact
Gear pumps are simple in design and compact in size. Therefore, they are the most common type of pump used
in fluid power systems. The greatest number of applications of gear pumps are in the mobile equipment and
machine tool fields.

Vane pump efficiencies and costs fall between those of gear and piston pumps. Vane pumps have good
efficiencies and last for a reasonably long time. However, continued satisfactory performance necessitates clean
oil with good lubricity. Excessive shaft speeds can cause operating problems. Leakage losses in vane pumps occur
across the faces of the rotor and between the bronze wear plates and the pressure ring.

Piston pumps are the most expensive and provide the highest level of overall performance. They can be
driven at high speeds (up to 5000 rpm) to provide a high horsepower-to-weight ratio. They produce essentially a
non-pulsating flow and can operate at the highest pressure levels. Due to very close-fitting pistons, they have the
highest efficiencies. Since no side loads occur to the pistons, the pump life expectancy is at least several years.
However, because of their complex design, piston pumps cannot normally be repaired in the field.

2.9 PUMP PERFORMANCE

Pump Efficiencies
Pump manufacturers run tests to determine performance data for their various types of pumps. The overall
efficiency of a pump can be computed by comparing the hydraulic power output of the pump to the mechanical
input power supplied by the prime mover. Overall efficiency can be broken into two distinct components called
volumetric efficiency and mechanical efficiency. These three efficiencies are discussed below

1. Volumetric efficiency (ηv):. Volumetric efficiency indicates the amount of leakage that takes place within the
pump. This involves considerations such as manufacturing tolerances and flexing of the pump casing under design
pressure operating conditions:
𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 − 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝 𝑄𝐴
η𝑣 = =
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 − 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝 𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑑 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒 𝑄𝑇

Volumetric efficiencies typically run from 80% to 90% for gear pumps, 82% to 92% for vane pumps, and 90% to
98% for piston pumps. Note that when substituting efficiency values into equations, decimal fraction values
should be used instead of percentage values. For example, an efficiency value of 90% would be represented by a
value of 0.90.

2. Mechanical efficiency (ηm): Mechanical efficiency indicates the amount of energy losses that occur for reasons
other than leakage. This includes friction in bearings and between other mating parts. It also includes energy losses
due to fluid turbulence. Mechanical efficiencies typically run from 90% to 95%.
𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑛𝑜 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑘𝑎𝑔𝑒
η𝑚 =
𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝

In metric units, using watts for power,

𝑝𝑄𝑇
η𝑚 =
𝑇𝐴 𝑁

where,

 p = pump discharge pressure (Pa)

 QT = pump theoretical flow rate (m3/s)
 TA = actual torque delivered to pump (N.m)
 N = pump speed (rad/s)

Mechanical efficiency can also be computed in terms of torques:

𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝 𝑇𝑇
η𝑚 = =
𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝 𝑇𝐴

Note that the theoretical torque required to operate a pump (TT) is the torque that would be required if there
were no leakage.
Equations for evaluating the theoretical torque and the actual torque are as follows:

𝑉𝐷 (𝑚3 /𝑠) × 𝑝 (𝑃𝑎)

𝑇𝑇 =
2𝜋
𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝
𝑇𝐴 =
𝑁 (𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠)

where,
2𝜋
𝑁(𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠) = 𝑁 (𝑟𝑝𝑚)
60
3. Overall efficiency (ηo): The overall efficiency considers all energy losses and hence is defined as follows:
𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝
η𝑜 =
𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝

Overall efficiency can also be mathematically represented as:

η𝑜 = η𝑣 × η𝑚

substituting the formula for volumetric and mechanical efficiencies, we have:

𝑄𝐴 𝑝𝑄𝑇
η𝑜 = ×
𝑄𝑇 𝑇𝐴 𝑁

Thus,
𝑝𝑄𝐴
η𝑜 =
𝑇𝐴 𝑁

Note that the actual power delivered to a pump from a prime mover via a rotating shaft is called brake power
and the actual power delivered by a pump to the fluid is called hydraulic power.

Pump Performance Curve

Pump manufacturers specify pump performance characteristics in the form of graphs. Test data are obtained
initially in tabular form and then put in graphical form for better visual interpretation. Figure 25 represents typical
performance curves obtained for a 6-in3 variable displacement pump operating at full displacement. The upper
graph gives curves of overall and volumetric efficiencies as a function of pump speed (rpm) for pressure levels of
3000 and 5000 psi. The lower graph gives curves of pump input horsepower (hp) and pump output flow (gpm) as
a function of pump speed for the same two pressure levels.
 Figure 25 : Performance curves for 6-in3 variable displacement piston pump.

Performance curves for the radial piston pump of Figure 24 are presented in Figure 26. This pump comes in three
different sizes:

 PR24: 2.40-in3 displacement

 PR30: 3.00-in3 displacement
 PR40: 4.00-in3 displacement

Figure 26 : Performance curves of radial piston pumps

Thus, there are three curves on two of the graphs. Observe the linear relationship between discharge flow (gpm)
and pump speed (rpm).Also note that the discharge flow of these pumps is nearly constant over a broad pressure
range. Discharge flow is infinitely variable between the point of inflection on the constant-discharge portion of
the curve and zero flow. The volumetric and overall efficiency curves are based on a 2000-psi pump pressure.

Pump Noise
Noise is a significant parameter used to determine the performance of a pump. Any increase in the noise level
normally indicates increased wear and imminent pump failure. Pumps are good generators but poor radiators of
noise. As such, pumps are one of the main contributors to noise in a fluid power system. However, the noise we
hear is not just the sound coming directly from the pump. It includes the vibration and fluid pulsations produced
by the pump as well. Pumps are compact, and because of their relatively small size, they are poor radiators of
noise, especially at lower frequencies. Reservoirs, electric motors, and piping, being large, are better radiators.
Therefore, pump-induced vibrations or pulsations can cause them to radiate audible noise greater than that coming
from the pump. In general, fixed displacement pumps are less noisy than variable displacement units because they
have a more rigid construction. As illustrated in Figure 27, pump speed has a strong effect on noise, whereas
pressure and pump size have about equal but smaller effects. Since these three factors determine horsepower, they
provide a trade-off for noise. To achieve the lowest noise levels, use the lowest practical speed (1000 or 2000 rpm
where electric motors are used, a reducer gear for engine prime movers) and select the most advantageous
combination of size and pressure to provide the needed horsepower.

Figure 27 : Data showing effect of changing size, pressure, and speed on noise.

Pump Cavitation
Still another noise problem, called pump cavitation, can occur due to entrained air bubbles in the hydraulic fluid
or vaporization of the hydraulic fluid. This occurs when pump suction lift is excessive and the pump inlet pressure
falls below the vapor pressure of the fluid (usually about 5-psi suction).As a result, air or vapor bubbles, which
form in the low-pressure inlet region of the pump, are collapsed when they reach the high-pressure discharge
region. This produces high fluid velocity and impact forces, which can erode the metallic components and shorten
pump life.

Cavitation is caused by the following factors:

1. Undersized plumbing.
2. Clogged lines or suction filters.
3. High fluid viscosity.
4. Too much elevation head between the reservoir and the pump inlet

The following rules will control or eliminate cavitation of a pump by keeping the suction pressure above the
saturation pressure of the fluid:
1. Keep suction line velocities below 4 ft/s (1.2 m/s).
2. Keep pump inlet lines as short as possible.
3. Minimize the number of fittings in the inlet line.
4. Mount the pump as close as possible to the reservoir.
5. Use low-pressure drop inlet filters or strainers. Use indicating-type filters and strainers so that they can be
replaced at proper intervals as they become dirty.
6. Use the proper oil as recommended by the pump manufacturer. The importance of temperature control lies in
the fact that increased temperatures tend to accelerate the liberation of air or vapor bubbles. Therefore,
operating oil temperatures should be kept in the range of 120°F to 150°F (50°C to 65°C) to provide an
optimum viscosity range and maximum resistance to liberation of air or vapor bubbles to reduce the
possibility of cavitation.

Pump noise is created as the internal rotating components abruptly increase the fluid pressure from inlet to outlet.
The abruptness of the pressure increases plays a big role in the intensity of the pump noise. Thus, the noise level
at which a pump operates depends greatly on the design of the pump. Gear and vane pumps generate a much
higher noise level than do screw pumps. Table.3 provides the approximate noise levels associated with various
pump designs
Table 3 : Noise levels for various pump designs

Pump Selection
Pumps are selected by taking into account a number of considerations for a complete hydraulic system involving
a particular application. Among these considerations are flow-rate requirements (gpm), operating speed (rpm),
pressure rating (psi), performance, reliability, maintenance, cost, and noise. The selection of a pump typically
entails the following sequence of operations:

1. Select the actuator (hydraulic cylinder or motor) that is appropriate based on the loads encountered.
2. Determine the flow-rate requirements. This involves the calculation of the flow rate necessary to drive the
actuator to move the load through a specified distance within a given time limit.
3. Select the system pressure. This ties in with the actuator size and the magnitude of the resistive force produced
by the external load on the system. Also involved here is the total amount of power to be delivered by the
pump.
4. Determine the pump speed and select the prime mover. This, together with the flow-rate calculation,
determines the pump size (volumetric displacement).
5. Select the pump type based on the application (gear, vane, or piston pump and fixed or variable displacement).
6. Select the reservoir and associated plumbing, including piping, valving, filters and strainers, and other
miscellaneous components such as accumulators.
7. Consider factors such as noise levels, horsepower loss, need for a heat exchanger due to generated heat, pump
wear, and scheduled maintenance service to provide a desired life of the total system.
8. Calculate the overall cost of the system.

Normally the sequence of operation is repeated several times with different sizes and types of components.
After the procedure is repeated for several alternative systems, the best overall system is selected for the given
application. This process is called optimization. It means determining the ultimate selection of a combination of
system components to produce the most efficient overall system at minimum cost commensurate with the
requirements of a particular application.
2.10 PRESSURE INTENSIFIERS
Introduction
Although a pump is the primary power source for a hydraulic system, auxiliary units are frequently employed for
special purposes. One such auxiliary unit is the pressure intensifier or booster.

A pressure intensifier is used to increase the pressure in a hydraulic system to a value above the pump discharge
pressure. It accepts a high-volume flow at relatively low pump pressure and converts a portion of this flow to high
pressure. Figure 28 shows a cutaway view of a Racine pressure intensifier. The internal construction consists of
an automatically reciprocating large piston that has two small rod ends (also see Figure 28).This piston has its
large area (total area of piston) exposed to pressure from a low-pressure pump. The force of the low-pressure oil
moves the piston and causes the small area of the piston rod to force the oil out at intensified high pressure. This
device is symmetrical about a vertical centerline. Thus, as the large piston reciprocates, the left- and right-hand
halves of the unit duplicate each other during each stroke of the large piston. The increase in pressure is in direct
proportion to the ratio of the large piston area and the rod area. The volume output is inversely proportional to
this same ratio.
ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑛 ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ 𝑖𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒
= =
𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑖𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑜𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒

Figure 28 : Cutaway view of pressure intensifier

Figure 29 : Oil flow paths of pressure intensifier

Racine pressure intensifiers are available with area ratios of 3:1, 5:1, and 7:1, developing pressures to 5000 psi
and flows to 7 gpm. There are many applications for pressure intensifiers, such as the elimination of a high-
pressure/low-flow pump used in conjunction with a low-pressure/high-flow pump. In an application such as a
punch press, it is necessary to extend a hydraulic cylinder rapidly using little pressure to get the ram near the sheet
metal strip as quickly as possible. Then the cylinder must exert a large force using only a small flow rate. The
large force is needed to punch the workpiece from the sheet metal strip. Since the strip is thin, only a small flow
rate is required to perform the punching operation in a short time. The use of the pressure intensifier results in a
significant cost savings in this application, because it replaces the expensive high-pressure pump that would
normally be required.

Single-acting piston type intensifier

A single-acting intensifier is shown in the figure below.

Figure 30 : Single-acting piston type intensifier

Single Acting Intensifier consists of a low-pressure chamber of a comparatively bigger area and a high-pressure
chamber of a smaller cross-sectional area. It has a piston with two active areas. The larger end of the on is in the
low-pressure chamber and the smaller end of the piston is in the high-pressure area.

The low-pressure fluid exerts a force on the piston equal to P p × A i.e. pump pressure into a bigger piston area.
The same force is transmitted to the smaller side piston. However, since the area in the high-pressure side is
smaller, higher pressure is developed in this chamber by the same force.

Double-acting piston type intensifier

A double-acting intensifier is shown in the figure below.

Figure 31 : Double-acting piston type intensifier

The double-acting intensifier consists of a large piston with a piston rod extending to both sides of the piston.
The larger area of the piston is exposed to the low-pressure fluid, and the piston rod is connected to the high-
pressure side, on both sides of the piston.

When low-pressure fluid enters either side of the big piston, it causes the movement of the piston. The
movement of the piston results in the movement of the piston rod, forcing the fluid out at intensified high
pressure. A double-acting intensifier is symmetrical, about the vertical center line. Thus, the movement of the on
in either direction results in an intensified fluid output from any of the two outlet ends.

Thus, a double-acting intensifier simulates the operation of the two single-acting intensifiers.

Pressure Intensifier Circuit

Figure 32 gives the circuit for a punch press application where a pressure intensifier is used to eliminate the need
for a high-pressure/low-flow pump. This circuit also includes a pilot check valve and sequence valve. The
operation is as follows: When the pressure in the cylinder reaches the sequence valve pressure setting, the
intensifier starts to operate. The high-pressure output of the intensifier closes the pilot check valve and pressurizes
the blank end of the cylinder to perform the punching operation. A pilot check valve is used instead of a regular
check valve to permit retraction of the cylinder. Very high pressures can be supplied by a pressure intensifier
operating on a low-pressure pump. The intensifier should be installed near the cylinder to keep the high-pressure
lines as short as possible.

Figure 32 : Pressure intensifier circuit

Air-over-Oil Intensifier System

In Figure 33 we see an air-over-oil intensifier circuit, which drives a cylinder over a large distance at low pressure
and then over a small distance at high pressure. Shop air can be used to extend and retract the cylinder during the
low-pressure portion of the cycle. The system operates as follows: Valve 1 extends and retracts the cylinder using
shop air at approximately 80 psi. Valve 2 applies air pressure to the top end of the hydraulic intensifier. This
produces high hydraulic pressure at the bottom end of the intensifier. Actuation of valve 1 directs air to the
approach tank. This forces oil at 80 psi through the bottom of the intensifier to the blank end of the cylinder. When
the cylinder experiences its load (such as the punching operation in a punch press), valve 2 is actuated, which
sends shop air to the top end of the intensifier. The high-pressure oil cannot return to the approach tank because
this port is blocked off by the downward motion of the intensifier piston. Thus, the cylinder receives high-pressure
oil at the blank end to overcome the load. When valve 2 is released, the shop air is blocked, and the top end of the
intensifier is vented to the atmosphere. This terminates the high-pressure portion of the cycle. When valve 1 is
released, the air in the approach tank is vented, and shop air is directed to the return tank. This delivers oil at shop
pressure to the rod end of the cylinder, causing it to retract. Oil enters the bottom end of the intensifier and flows
back to the approach tank. This completes the entire cycle. Figure 34 shows an air-oil intensifier and its graphic
symbol. This type of intensifier is capable of producing output hydraulic pressures up to 3000 psi.
 Figure 33 : Air-over-oil intensifier circuit.

Figure 34 : Cutaway view of an air-oil pressure

2.11 ACCUMULATORS
Definition of Accumulator
An accumulator is a device that stores potential energy by means of either gravity, mechanical springs, or
compressed gases. The stored potential energy in the accumulator is a quick secondary source of fluid power
capable of doing useful work as required by the system.

There are three basic types of accumulators used in hydraulic systems. They are identified as follows:

1. Weight-loaded, or gravity type

2. Spring-loaded type
3. Gas-loaded type
Weight-Loaded Accumulator
The weight-loaded accumulator is historically the oldest. This type consists of a vertical, heavy-wall steel cylinder,
which incorporates a piston with packings to prevent leakage. A deadweight is attached to the top of the piston
(see Figure 35). The force of gravity of the deadweight provides the potential energy in the accumulator. This
type of accumulator creates a constant fluid pressure throughout the full volume output of the unit regardless of
the rate and quantity of output. In the other types of accumulators, the fluid output pressure decreases as a function
of the volume output of the accumulator. The main disadvantage of this type of accumulator is its extremely large
size and heavy weight, which makes it unsuitable for mobile equipment.

Figure 35 : Weight-loaded accumulator

Spring-Loaded Accumulator
A spring-loaded accumulator is similar to the weight-loaded type except that the piston is preloaded with a spring,
as illustrated in Figure 36.The compressed spring is the source of energy that acts against the piston, forcing the
fluid into the hydraulic system to drive an actuator. The pressure generated by this type of accumulator depends
on the size and preloading of the spring. In addition, the pressure exerted on the fluid is not a constant. The spring-
loaded accumulator typically delivers a relatively small volume of oil at low pressures. Thus, they tend to be heavy
and large for high-pressure, large-volume systems. This type of accumulator should not be used for applications
requiring high cycle rates because the spring will fatigue, resulting in an inoperative accumulator.

Figure 36 : Spring-loaded accumulator

Gas-Loaded Accumulators
Gas-loaded accumulators (frequently called hydropneumatic accumulators) have been found to be more practical
than the weight- and spring-loaded types. The gas-loaded type operates in accordance with Boyle’s law of gases,
which states that for a constant temperature process, the pressure of a gas varies inversely with its volume. Thus,
for example, the gas volume of the accumulator would be cut in half if the pressure were doubled. The
compressibility of gases accounts for the storage of potential energy. This energy forces the oil out of the
accumulator when the gas expands due to the reduction of system pressure when, for example, an actuator rapidly
moves a load. Nitrogen is the gas used in accumulators because (unlike air) it contains no moisture. In addition,
nitrogen is an inert gas and thus will not support combustion.

Gas-loaded accumulators fall into two main categories:

1. Non-separator type
2. Separator type

Non-separator Type Accumulator.

The non-separator type of accumulator consists of a fully enclosed shell containing an oil port on the bottom and
a gas charging valve on the top (see Figure 37). The gas is confined in the top and the oil at the bottom of the
shell. There is no physical separator between the gas and oil, and thus the gas pushes directly on the oil. The main
advantage of this type is its ability to handle large volumes of oil. The main disadvantage is absorption of the gas
in the oil due to the lack of a separator. This type must be installed vertically to keep the gas confined at the top
of the shell. This type is not recommended for use with high-speed pumps because the entrapped gas in the oil
could cause cavitation and damage to the pump. Absorption of gas in the oil also makes the oil compressible,
resulting in spongy operation of the hydraulic actuators.

Figure 37 : Non separator type accumulator

Separator Type Accumulator.

The commonly accepted design of gas-loaded accumulators is the separator type. In this type there is a physical
barrier between the gas and the oil. This barrier effectively uses the compressibility of the gas. The three major
classifications of the separator accumulator are

1. Piston type
2. Diaphragm type
3. Bladder type

Piston Accumulator: The piston type of accumulator consists of a cylinder containing a freely floating piston
with proper seals, as illustrated in Figure 38. The piston serves as the barrier between the gas and oil. A threaded
lock ring provides a safety feature, which prevents the operator from disassembling the unit while it is precharged.
The main disadvantages of the piston types of accumulator are that they are expensive to manufacture and have
practical size limitations. Piston and seal friction may also be a problem in low-pressure systems. Also, appreciable
leakage tends to occur over a long period, requiring frequent precharging. Piston accumulators should not be used
as pressure pulsation dampeners or shock absorbers because of the inertia of the piston and the friction of the
seals. The principal advantage of the piston accumulator is its ability to handle very high or low temperature
system fluids through the use of compatible O-ring seals.
 Figure 38 : Piston-type gas-loaded accumulator

Diaphragm Accumulator: The diaphragm-type accumulator consists of a diaphragm, secured in the shell, which
serves as an elastic barrier between the oil and gas (see Figure 39). A shutoff button, which is secured at the base
of the diaphragm, covers the inlet of the line connection when the diaphragm is fully stretched. This prevents the
diaphragm from being pressed into the opening during the precharge period. On the gas side, the screw plug allows
control of the charge pressure and charging of the accumulator by means of a charging device. Figure 40 illustrates
the operation of a diaphragm-type accumulator. The hydraulic pump delivers oil into the accumulator and deforms
the diaphragm. As the pressure increases, the volume of gas decreases, thus storing energy. In the reverse case,
where additional oil is required in the circuit, it comes from the accumulator as the pressure drops in the system
by a corresponding amount. The primary advantage of this type of accumulator is its small weight-to-volume
ratio, which makes it suitable almost exclusively for airborne applications.

Figure 39 : Diaphragm-type accumulator

 Figure 40 : Operation of a diaphragm-type accumulator

Bladder Accumulator: A bladder-type accumulator contains an elastic barrier (bladder) between the oil and gas,
as illustrated in Figure 41. The bladder is fitted in the accumulator by means of a vulcanized gas-valve element
and can be installed or removed through the shell opening at the poppet valve. The poppet valve closes the inlet
when the accumulator bladder is fully expanded. This prevents the bladder from being pressed into the opening.
The greatest advantage of this type of accumulator is the positive sealing between the gas and oil chambers. The
lightweight bladder provides quick response for pressure regulating, pump pulsation, and shock-dampening
applications. Figure 42 illustrates the operation of a bladder-type accumulator. The hydraulic pump delivers oil
into the accumulator and deforms the bladder. As the pressure increases, the volume of gas decreases, thus storing
energy. In the reverse case, where additional oil is required in the circuit, it comes from the accumulator as pressure
drops in the system by a corresponding amount.

Figure 41 : Bladder-type accumulator

 Figure 42 : Operation of bladder-type accumulator

Applications of Accumulator
Basic Applications
There are four basic applications where accumulators are used in hydraulic systems.

1. An auxiliary power source

2. A leakage compensator
3. An emergency power source
4. Hydraulic shock absorber

(The aforementioned applications of accumulators will be discussed in detail in Module 5)